Mathematics

Lufthansa Resource
Technical Training
Training Manual
Fundamentals
Mathematics
IR Part 66 CAT B1 M1
Lufthansa Resource
Technical Training Ltd For Training Purposes Only
Book No: IR Part 66 CAT A M1 E Cwmbran S. Wales Lufthansa 1995
For training purposes and internal use only.
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Lufthansa Resource IR PART 66
Technical Training
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M1 MATHEMATICS
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For Training Purposes Only
CWM US PeR May 2003 1
MATHEMATICS Lufthansa Resource IR PART 66
M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
1. ARITHMETIC
1.1. General
Just as studying a new language begins with learning basic words, the study of to the tens column. Adding this we have 1 and 7 is 8 and 4 is 12 and 6 is 18. Place

mathematics begins with arithmetic, its most basic branch. Arithmetic uses real the 8 in the tens column of the answer and carry the 1 forward to the hundreds
and non--negative numbers, which are also known as counting numbers, and con- column which we now add. 1 and 2 is 3 and 4 is 7. Place the 7 in the hundreds
sist of only four operations, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. While column of the answer. We see that the answer (sum) to the addition is 783.
you have been using arithmetic since childhood, a review of its terms and oper- The process is identical if any of the numbers includes a decimal as long as the
ations will make learning the more difficult mathematical concepts much easier. decimal points are arranged in the same column. The number of digits after the
decimal point as no significance.
Numbers are represented by symbols which are called digits. There are nine digits
which are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, & 9. We also use the symbol 0 (ie zero) where no Example:
digits exists. Digits and zero may be combined together to represent any number.
hundreds tens ones
7 . 8
1.1.1. Addition 2 4 . 3
The process of finding the total of two or more numbers is called addition. This +4 6 . 0
operation is indicated by the plus (+) symbol. When numbers are combined by
7 8 . 3
addition, the resulting total is called the sum.
When adding whole numbers whose total is more than nine, it is necessary to ar-
range the numbers in columns so that the last digit of each number is in the same
column. The ones column contains the values zero through nine, the tens column
contains multiples of ten, up to ninety, and the hundreds column consists of mul-
tiples of one hundred.
Example:
hundreds tens ones

7 8
2 4 3
+ 4 6 2
7 8 3
To add the sum of the above, first add the ones column, 8 and 3 make 11 and 2
makes 13. Place the 3 in the ones column of the answer and carry the 1 forward

CWM US NbP July 2004 2
M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
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1.1.2. Subtraction
The process of finding the difference between two numbers is known as subtrac-
tion and is indicated by the minus (--) sign. Subtraction is accomplished by taking
the quantity of one number away from another number. The number which is being
subtracted is known as the subtrahend (smaller number), and the number from

which the quantity is taken is known as the minuend (larger number).
To find the difference of two numbers, arrange them in the same manner used for
addition. With the minuend on top and the subtrahend on the bottom, align the
vertical columns so the last digits are in the same column. Beginning at the right,
subtract the subtrahend from the minuend. Repeat this for each column.
Example:
hundreds tens ones
4 4 3 -- minuend
-- 2 6 2 -- subtrahend
1 8 1
Place 262 under 443. 2 from 3 leaves 1. write 1 in the ones column of the answer.
6 from 4 is clearly impossible, so the 4 is increased in value to 14 by taking 1 from
the hundreds column leaving 3. 14 from 6 leaves 8. Write 8 in the tens column.
finally, 3 from 2 in the hundreds columns leaves 1.
To check a subtraction problem, you can add the difference to the subtrahend
to find the minuend.
There are two methods by which subtraction can be performed. Consider
15 -- 8 = 7
1st method: take 8 from 15. We have 7 left.

2nd method: if to 7 we add 8 then we obtain 15. 7 is therefore the difference
between 15 and 8.
The process is identical if any of the numbers include a decimal as long as the
decimal points are arranged in the same column.

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1.1.3. Multiplication Example:

Multiplication is a special form of repetitive addition. When a given number is 532 -- Multiplicand
added to itself a specified number of times, the process is called multiplication. The x 24 -- Multiplier
sum of 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 is expressed by multiplication as 4 x 3 = 12. The numbers 10640 -- First partial product
4 and 3 are called factors and the answer, 12, represents the product. The 2128 -- Second partial product

number multiplied (4) is called the multiplicand, and the multiplier represents
the number of times the multiplicand is added to itself. Multiplication is typically
12,768 -- Product
indicated by an (x), (·), or in certain equations, by the lack of any other operation
sign.
One important factor to remember when multiplying is that the order in which
numbers are multiplied does not change the product.
Example:
3 or 4
x4 x3
12 12
Like addition and subtraction, when multiplying large numbers it is important they
be aligned vertically. Regardless of the number of digits in the multiplicand or the
multiplier, the multiplicand should be written on top, and the multiplier beneath it.
When multiplying numbers greater than nine, multiply each digit in the multiplicand
by each digit in the multiplier. Once all multiplicands are used as a multiplier, the
products of each multiplication operation are added to arrive at a total product.

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1.1.4. Division
Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of multiplica-
tion. Division is a means of finding out how many times a number is contained in
another number. The number divided is called dividend, the number you are divid-
ing by is the divisor, and the result is the quotient. With some division problems,

the quotient may include a remainder. A remainder represents that portion of the
dividend that cannot be divided by the divisor.
Division is indicated by the use of the division sign (÷) with the dividend to the left
and the divisor to the right of the sign, or with the dividend inside the sign and the
divisor to the left. Division also is indicated in fractional form.
For example, in the fraction 3 the 3 is the dividend and the 8 is the divisor. When
8
division is carried out, the quotient is 0.375.
The process of dividing large quantities is performed by breaking the problem
down into a series of operations, each resulting in a single digit quotient. This is
best illustrated by example.
Example:
dividend divisor
416 ÷ 8 = 52
or
52
8 ) 416
40
16
16
To check a divsion problem for accuracy, multiply the quotient by the the divisor
and add the remainder (if any). If the operation is carried out properly, the re-
sult equals the dividend.

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Calculate the sum of the following examples:
Addition Multiplication
i. 0.251 + 10.298 i. 5.05 x 13.8
ii. 18.098 + 210.099 ii. 1.27 x 0.871

iii. 0.025 + 10.995 iii. --1.01 x 0.89
iv. 1.09 x 104 + 1.2 x 102 iv. 27.3 x --9.31
v. 27.3 + 0.021 + 68.3 v. 1.09 x 104 x 1.2 x 102
Subtraction Division
i. 27.3 -- 4.36 i. 233.1 ÷ 18.5
ii. 21.76 -- 18.51 ii. 0.1254 ÷ 0.057
iii. 32.76 -- 20.086 iii. 0.6875 ÷ 22
iv. 10.75 -- 19.999 -- 21.100 iv. 24.024 ÷ 4.62
v. 1.09 x 104 -- 1.2 x 102 v. 1.09 x 104 ÷ 12

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1.1.5. Signed Numbers

Adding Signed Numbers Multiplying Signed Numbers
When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the sign and find Multiplication of signed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as multi-
the sum of the values and then place the common sign in front of the answer. In plication of any other number. However, after multiplying, the product must be
other words, adding two or more positive numbers always results in a positive sum, given a sign. There are three rules to follow when determining a products sign.

where as adding two or more negative numbers results in a negative sum. 1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive.
When adding a positive and negative number, find the difference between the two
2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive.
numbers and apply (+ or --) of the larger number. In other words, adding negative
number is the same as subtracting a positive number. The result of adding or sub- 3. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative.
tracting signed numbers is called algebraic sum of those numbers.
Example:
6 x 2 = 12 --6 x --2 = 12
Add 25 + (--15)
(--6) x (--2) = 12 (--6) x 2 = --12
25 25 Dividing Signed Numbers

+ (--15) or -- 15
10 10 Like multiplying signed numbers, division of signed numbers is accomplished in
the same manner as dividing any other number. The sign of the quotient is deter-
mined using the rules identical to those used in multiplication.
Subtracting Signed Numbers
When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to plus Example:
and change the sign of the subtrahend. Once this is done, proceed as you do in
addition. For example +3 -- --4 is the same as +3 + +4. There is no difference if the
subtrahend is larger than the minuend, since the operation is done as though the 12 ÷ 3 = 4 12 ÷ (--3) = --4
two quantities are added. (--12) ÷ (--)3 = 4 (--12) ÷ 3 = --4
Example:
Subtract 48 from --216
Step 1: Set up the subtraction problem --216 -- 48
Step 2: Change the operation sign to a plus sign and change the sign of the
subtrahend. Now add.
--216 + --48 = --264

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Calculate the sum of the following examples:
xvi. 11 -- 12 ÷ 4 + 3 x (6 -- 2)
i. --8 + 5
xvii. 15 ÷ (4 + 1) -- 9 x 3 + 7 (4 + 3)
ii. --7 -- 6-- 3

xviii. 10 -- 12 ÷ 6 + 3 (8 -- 3)
iii. 8 -- 7 -- 15
Question 1.
16 holes spaced 48mm apart are to be marked off on a sheet of metal. 17mm
iv. --3 + 5 + 7 -- 4 -- 2 is to be allowed between the centres of the holes and the edge of the metal.
Calculate the total length of metal required.
v. 6 + 4 -- 3 -- 5 -- 7 + 2
Question 2.
In the first 2 hours of a shift an operator makes 32 soldered joints per hour. In
vi. 8 x (--3) the next 3 hours the operator makes 29 joints per hour. In the final two hours
26 joints are made per hour. How many soldered joints are made in the 7
vii. (--2) x (--5) x (--6) hours.
Question 3.
viii. 4 x (--3) x (--2) A machinist makes 3 parts in 15 minutes. How many parts can he produce in
an 8 hour shift allowing 20 minutes for starting and 10 minutes for finishing the
ix. (--3) x (--4) x 5 shift.
Question 4.
x. --16 ÷ (--2) x (--4) The length of a metal plate is 891mm. Rivets are placed 45mm apart and the
distance between the centres of the end rivets and the edge of the plate is
xi. 15 x (--3) x 2 ÷ (--5) x (--6) 18mm. How many rivets are required.
Question 5.
xii. 3 + 5 x 2 32 pins each 61mm long are to be turned in a lathe. If 2mm is allowed on each
pin for parting off. what total length of material is required to make the pins.
xiii. 7 x 5 -- 2 + 4 x 6
xiv. 7 x 5 -- 12 ÷ 4 + 3
xv. 11 -- 9 ÷ 3 + 7

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1.1.6. Common Fractions

Introduction
Express 27 as a mixed number
A common fraction represents a portion or part of a quantity. For example, if a 4
number is divided into three equal parts, each part is one--third ( 1 ) of the number. 27 = 6 3 (since 27 ÷ 4 = 6 remainder 3)

3 4 4
A fraction consists of two numbers, one above and one below a line, or fraction
bar. The fraction bar indicates division of the top number, or numerator, by the
bottom number, or denominator. For example, the fraction 3 indicates that three
4
is divided by four to find the decimal equivalent of 0.75.
When a fractions numerator is smaller than the denominator, the fraction is called Lowest Terms
a proper fraction. A proper fraction is always less than 1. If the numerator is larger
than the denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. In this situation A fraction is said to be in its lowest terms when it is impossible to find a number
the fraction is greater than 1. If the numerator and the denominator are identical, which will divide exactly into both its numerator and denominator. The fractions
the fraction is equal to 1. 5 and 11 are both in their lowest terms but the fraction 6 is not in its lowest terms
7 19 10
A mixed number is the combination of a whole number and a proper fraction.
because it can be reduced to 3 by dividing top and bottom numbers by 2.
Mixed numbers are expressed as 1 5 and 29 9 and are typically used in place of 5
8 16
improper fractions. The numerator and denominator of a fraction can be changed
without changing the fractions value. A mixed number can be converted into an Example:
improper fraction and vice versa.
Example: Reduce 21 to its lowest terms

35
Convert 8 2 = (8 × 3)+2 = 26 21 is equivalent to 21 ÷ 7 and 35 ÷ 7 = 3
3 3 35 5
3

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Comparing the Size of Fractions Adding & Subtracting Fractions

When the values of two or more fractions are to be compared, express each of Two fractions which have the same denominator can be added together by adding
the fractions with the same denominator. This common denominator should be their numerators. Thus
the LCM of the denominator of the fractions to be compared. It is sometimes
called the lowest common denominator (LCM).

Example:
3 + 5 = (3 + 5) = 8
11 11 11 11
Arrange the fractions 5 , 8 and 7 in order of size beginning with the smallest.
6 9 8
When two fractions have different denominators they cannot be added together
The LCM of the denominators 6, 8, and 9 is 72, i.e. the lowest common de-
directly. However, if we express the fractions with the same denominator they can
nominator is 72.
be added.
5 is equivalent to (5 × 12) = 60
6 (6 × 12) 72
Example:
8 is equivalent to (8 × 8) = 64
9 (9 × 8) 72
Add 2 and 3
7 is equivalent to (7 × 9) = 63 5 7
8 (8 × 9) 72
Because all the fractions have been expressed with the same denominator all The lowest common denominator of 5 and 7 is 35
that we need to do is to compare the numerators. Therfore the order of size is
2 + 3 = 14 + 15
60 , 63 and 64 or 5 , 7 and 8 5 7 35 35
72 72 72 6 8 9
(14 + 15)
=
35
= 29
35

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When mixed numbers are to be added together, the whole numbers and the frac- When mixed numbers are involved first subtract the whole numbers and then deal
tions are added separately. with the fractional parts.
Example:
Example: Subtract 4 1 6 3
3 4

Add 4 2 and 2 3 3 1 3 1
3 5 6 4 = 2+
4 3 4 3
(9 4)
42+23 = 6 +2+3 = 2+
3 5 3 5 12
= 2+ 5
12
= 6 + 10 + 9
15 15 =2 5
12
= 6 + 19
15
= 6+1+ 4
15
= 7 4
15
Two fractions to be subtracted which do not do have the same denominator, a

method similar to that for addition is used.
Example:
Subtract 3 from 5
4 6
The lowest common denominator is 12
5 3 = 10 9
6 4 12 12
(10 9)
=
12
= 1
12

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Multiplication of Fractions
Multiplication of fractions is performed by multiplication the numerators of each Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.
fraction to form the product numerators, and multiplying the individual denomina-
tors to form the product denominator. The resulting fraction is then reduced to its Example:
lowest terms. Multiply 1 3 × 2 1

8 3
Example:
Multiply 3 by 5 1 3 × 2 1 = 11 × 7
8 7 8 3 8 3
(11 × 7)
=
3 × 5 = (3 × 5) (8 × 3)
8 7 (8 × 7)
= 77
= 15 24
56
= 3 5
24
If any factors are common to a numerator and a denominator they should be can-
celled before multiplying. In problems with fractions the word “of” is frequently used. It should always be
taken as meaning “multiply”.
Example:
Find the value of 2 × 5 × 21
3 7 32
2 × 5 × 21 = (1 × 5 × 1)
3 7 32 (1 × 1 × 16)
= 5
16

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Division of Fractions
Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, or turning over, the div-
isor and then multiplying. However, it is important that you invert the divisor only
and not the dividend. Once the divisor is inverted, multiply the numerators to obtain
a new numerator, multiply the denominators to obtain a new denominator, and re-

duce the quotient to its lowest terms.
Example:
Divide 3 by 7
5 8
3÷7 = 3×8
5 8 5 7
(3 × 8}
=
(5 × 7)
= 24
35
Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
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Solve the following equations:
Convert the following mixed numbers to improper fractions:

i. 2 6 ii. 3 4 iii. 21 3 iv. 5 21 v. 2 1
7 9 5 25 7

Convert the following improper fractions to mixed numbers:
i. 11 ii. 21 iii. 53 iv. 210 v. 99
3 5 7 4 8
Add the following fractions:

i. 3 + 3 ii. 1 + 2 + 5 iii. 7 2 + 6 3 iv. 3 3 + 5 2 + 4 3 v. 23 + 14
4 8 8 3 12 3 5 8 7 4 10 6
Subtract the following fractions:

i. 7 5 ii. 3 3 1 1 iii. 5 3 2 9 iv. 21 32 v. 1 3 22
8 6 8 4 8 10 5 5 4 5
Multiply and simplify the following fractions:

i. 3 × 5 ii. 2 × 1 2 iii. 7 × 3 1 iv. 3 3 × 1 3 × 1 1 v. 3 of 16
4 7 9 3 5 2 4 5 8 4
Divide and simplify the following fractions:
i. 4 ÷ 1 1 ii. 2 1 ÷ 3 3 iii. 5 ÷ 5 1 iv. 1 2 ÷ 3 ÷ 9 v. 2 8 ÷ 1 2 + 1

5 3 2 4 5 3 5 10 9 3 2
Arrange the following sets of fractions in order of size:

i. 1 5 2 7 ii. 3 5 9 17 iii. 3 5 2 5
2 6 3 12 4 8 16 32 8 9 6 18

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1.1.7. Decimals Adding Decimals

Working with fractions is typically time consuming and complex. One way you can
eliminate fractions in complex equations is by replacing them with decimal frac- The addition of decimals is done in the same manner as the addition of whole
tions or decimals. A common fraction is converted to a decimal fraction by dividing numbers. However, care must be taken to correctly align the decimal points verti-
the numerator by the denominator. For example, ¾ is converted to a decimal by cally.

dividing the 3 by the 4.
The decimal equivalent of ¾ is 0.75. Improper fractions are converted to decimals Example:
in the same manner. However, whole numbers appear to the left of the decimal
point.
In a decimal, each digit represents a multiple of ten. The first digit represents Add the following 25.78 + 5.4 + 0.237
tenths, the second hundredths, the third thousandths.
rewrite with the decimals aligned and add.
Example:
0.5 is read as five tenths
25.78
0.05 is read as five hundredths
5.4
0.005 is read as five thousandths
+ 0.237
when writing decimals, the number of zeros to the right of the decimal does not
affect the value as long as no other number except zero appears. In other words, 31.417
numerically, 2.5, 2.50 and 2.500 are the same.
The number of digits after the decimal point are called decimal places Once everything is added, the decimal point in the answer is placed directly below
the other decimal points.
Examples:
27.6 one decimal point

27.16 two decimal points
27.026 three decimal points and so on.

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Subtracting Decimals Dividing Decimals

Like adding, subtracting decimals is done in the same manner as with whole When dividing decimals, the operation is carried out in the same manner as divi-
numbers. Again, it is important that you keep the decimal points aligned. sion of whole numbers. However, to ensure accurate placement of decimal point
in the quotient, two rules apply:
Example:

If you have 325.25 pounds of ballast on board and remove 30.75 pounds, how
1. When the divisor is a whole number, the decimal point in the quotient aligns
much ballast remains?
vertically with the decimal in the dividend when doing long division.
325.25
2. When the divisor is a decimal fraction, it should first be converted to a whole
-- 30.75 number by moving the decimal point to the right. However, when the decimal in
294.50 the divisor is moved, the decimal in the dividend must also move in the same direc-
tion and the same number of spaces.
Multiplying Decimals
When multiplying decimals, ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting Example:
whole numbers. Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the
right of the decimal point in both the multiplier and multiplicand. This number repre- Divide 37.26 by 2.7
sents the number of places from the left the decimal point is placed in the product.
Move the decimal in the divisor to the right to convert it to a whole number.
Example:
27 ) 37.26
26.757 3 decimal
x 0.32 2 decimal Move the decimal in the dividend the same number of places to the right.
53514
80271 27 ) 372.6
856224 count 5 decimal places to the left of the digit 4
8.56224 13.8
Divide: 27 ) 372.6
27
102
81
216

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1.1.8. Conversions
Converting Decimals to Fractions Converting Fractions to Decimals
Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use
of a fraction is more practical. For example, when measuring something, most To convert a fraction into a decimal we divide the denominator into the numerator.
scales are fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know how

to convert a decimal number into a fraction. For example, 0.125 is read as 125
thousandths, which is written as 125/1000. This fraction is then reduced to its Convert 27 to decimals
lowest terms. 32
Examples:
27 = 27 ÷ 32
32
0.800 = 800 = 4
1000 5
= 0.84375
6.250 = 6+ 250 = 6 1
1000 4
0.037 = 37
1000
When we have mixed numbers to convert into decimals we need only deal with
the fractional part. Thus to convert 2 9 into decimals we only have to deal with 9
16 16
9 = 9 ÷ 16
16
= 0.5625
The division shows that 9 = 0.5625 and hence 2 9 = 2.5625.

16 16
Sometimes a fraction will not divide out exactly. If the number is recurring the
answer can be given to 1 or 2 decimal places or that specified by the equation.

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Converting Fractions to Percentages Converting Percentages to Decimals

To change a fraction to a percentage you must multiply by 100.
To convert a percentage to a decimal, firstly, convert the percentage to a fraction,
Example:
then the fraction to a decimal.
3 as a percentage = 3 × 100%= (3 × 100) = 60%

5 5 5
Examples:
65% as a fraction = 65 , as a decimal = 0.65
4 3 as a percentage = 19 × 100% = 1900 = 475% 100
4 4 1 4
Converting Percentages to Fractions 32½% as a fraction = 32.5, as a decimal = 0.325

100
To change a percentage to a fraction, divide by 100%.
Examples:
8% as a fraction = 8% = 8 = 2
100% 100 25
12½% (12.5) as a fraction = 12.5% = 25 × 1 = 25 = 1

100% 2 100 200 8

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Convert a Decimal to a Percentage Expressing one Quantity as a Percentage

To convert a decimal to a percentage, firstly, convert the decimal to a fraction, then
convert the fraction to a percentage. To express one quantity as a percentage of another, make a fraction of the two
quantities and multiply by 100.
Example:

0.021 as a fraction = 21 = 2.1 , as a decimal = 2.1% Example:
1000 100
12 as a percentage of 50 = 12 × 100 = 24%
50
0.037 as a fraction = 37 = 3.7 , as a decimal = 3.7%
1000 100
4 as a percentage of 60 = 4 × 100 = 6.67%
60
0.43 as a fraction = 4.3 = 43 , as a decimal = 43%
1000 100
3.2 as a percentage of 2.4 = 3.2 × 100 = 13.333% or 13 1%
2.4 3
Values of a Percentage of a Quantity
To find the value of a percentage of a quantity, firstly, express the percentage as
a fraction and multiply by the quantity.
Examples:
4% of 60 = 4 × 60 = 240 = 12 = 2 2
100 100 5 5
3½% of 1500 = 3.5 × 1500 = 5250 = 525 = 105 = 52 1

100 100 10 2 2

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Convert the following decimals to fractions in their lowest terms: Calculate:
i. 0.2 ii. 0.45 iii. 0.3125 iv. 2.55 v. 0.0075 vi. 2.125 i. 4% of 30
ii 0.8% of 360
iii. 1.5% of 60

Find the difference between i. 19 and 0.295 ii. 1 3 and 1.1632
64 16 iv. 120% of 75
v. 80% of 90
Convert the following fractions to decimals (3 decimal places)
i. 3 ii. 11 iii. 21 iv. 1 5 v. 2 7
8 16 32 8 16
Place the following in ascending order of size;

i. 1 0.167 3 ii. 2 0.44 7 iii. 11 0.3594 0.3125
6 20 5 16 32
Express the following as a percentage %:

i. 0.43 ii. 0.025 iii. 1.25 iv. 3 v. 3 vi. 1 vii. 7
8 7 12 20
Express the following as fractions:

i. 25% ii. 13% iii. 4.5% iv. 16 1% v. 33%
3
Express:
i. 30 as a percentage of 50
ii. 24 as a percentage of 16
iii. 0.5 as a percentage of 12.5
iv. 3.2 as a percentage of 2.4
v. 0.08 as a percentage of 0.72

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1.1.9. Ratio & Proportion

Ratio
A ratio is a comparison between two similar quantities. If the length of an aircraft A ratio provides a means of comparing one number to another. For example, if an
is 75m and a model of it is 1m long then the length of the model is 1 of the length engine turns at 4,000 rpm and the propeller turns at 2,400 rpm, the ratio of the two
75 speeds is 4,000 to 2,400, or 5 to 3, when reduced to lowest terms. This relationship

of the aircraft. In making the model all the dimensions of the aircraft are reduced can also be expressed as 5/3 or 5:3.
in the ratio of 1 to 75.
The use of ratios is common in aviation. One ratio you must be familiar with is com-
The ratio 1 to 75 is usually written 1 : 75. pression ratio, which is the ratio of cylinder displacement when the piston is at bot-
A ratio can also be written as a fraction, as indicated above, and a ratio of 1:75 tom centre to the cylinder displacement when the piston is at top centre. For
example, if the volume of a cylinder with the piston at bottom centre is 96 cubic
means the same as the fraction 1 .
75 inches and the volume with the piston at top centre is 12 cubic inches, the com-
Before we can state a ratio the units must be the same. we can state a ratio be- pression ratio is 96:12 or 8:1 when simplified.
tween 3mm and 2m provided we bring both lengths to the same units. Thus if we Another typical ratio is that of different gear sizes, for example, the gear ratio of
convert 2m to 2000mm the ratio between lengths is 3:2000. a drive gear with 15 teeth to a driven gear with 45 teeth is 15:45 or 1:3 when re-
duced. This means that for every one tooth on the drive gear there are three teeth
Example:
on the driven gear. However, when working with gears, the ratio of teeth is opposite
Express the following ratios as fractions reduced to their lowest terms: the ratio of revolutions. In other words, since the drive gear has one third as many
teeth as the driven gear, the drive gear must complete three revolutions to turn the
i. 40mm to 2.2m driven gear one revolution. This results in a revolution ratio of 3:1, which is opposite
the ratio of teeth.
2.2m = 2200
Before we can state a ratio the units must be the same. We state a ratio between
40 : 2200 = 40 = 1 3mm and 2m provided we bring both lengths to the same units. If convert 2m to
2200 55
2000mm the ratio between the two lengths is 3:2000.
ii. 800g to 1.66kg

1.6kg = 1600g
800 : 1600 = 800 = 1
1600 2

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Proportion Direct Proportion
A proportion is a statement of equality between two or more ratios and represents If 5 litres of oil has a mass of 4kg, then 10 litres of the same oil will have a mass
a convenient way to solve problems involving ratios. For example, if an an engine of 8kg. That is, if we double the quantity of oil its mass is also doubled. Now 2½
has a reduction gear ratio between the crankshaft and the propeller of 3:2 and the litres of oil will have a mass of 2kg. That is if we halve the quantity of oil we halve
engine is turning 2,700 rpm, what is the speed of the propeller? In this problem, its mass. This is an example of direct proportion. As the quantity of oil increases
let “X” represent the unknown value, which in this case is the speed of the pro- the mass increases in the same proportion. As the quantity of oil decreases the

peller. Next set up a proportional statement using the fractional form 3 = 2700 mass decreases in the same proportion.
2 x .
To solve this equatiuon, cross multiply to arrive at the equation 3x = 2 x 2,700, or Example:
5,400. to solve for (x), divide 5,400 by 3. The speed of the propeller is 1,800 rpm. The electrical resistance of a wire 150mm long is 2 ohms. Find the resistance of
a similar wire which is 1m long.
The lengths of the two wires are increased in the ratio of 1000:150. The resistance
3 = (engine---speed) will aslo increase in the ratio 1000:150.
2 (propeller---speed)
3 = 2700
2 x Thus resistance of wire 1m long = 2 × 1000 = 13.3 ohms
150
3x = 5, 400
x = 1, 800rpm
Inverse Proportion
A motor car will travel 30km in 1 hour if its speed is 30km per hour. If its speed is
This same proportion may also be expressed as 3:2 = 2,700 : X. The first and last increased to 60 km per hour the time taken to travel 30km will be ½ hour. That is
terms of the proportion are called extremes, and the second and third terms are when the speed is doubled the time taken is halved. This is an example of inverse
called the means. In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to the proportion. When we multiply the speed by 2 we divided the time taken by 2.
product of the means. In this example, multiply the extremes to get 3x, and multiply
the means to get 2 x 2,700 or 5,400. This results in the identical derived earlier; Example:
3x = 5,400. Two pulleys of 150mm and 50mm diameter are connected by a belt. If the larger
pulley revolves at 80 rev/min find the speed of the smaller pulley.
3:2 = engine speed : propeller speed The smaller pulley must revolve faster than the larger pulley and hence the quan-
3:2 = 2,700 : x tities, speed and diameter, are in inverse proportion. The pulley diameters are de-
3x = 2 : 2,700 creased in the 50 : 150, or 1:3. The speed will be increased in the ratio of 3:1.
3x = 5,400
x = 1,800 rpm. Therefore
Speed of smaller pulley = 80 × 3 = 240 rev/min.
1

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Proportional Parts Example:
The diagram below shows the line AB whose length represents 10m divided into A certain brass is made by alloying copper and zinc in the ratio of 7:3. How
two parts in the ratio 2:3. From the diagram the line has been divided into a total much copper must be mixed with 30g of zinc.
og 5 parts. The length AC contains 2 parts and the length BC contains 3 parts. 3 parts have a mass of 30g
Each part is 2m long, hence AC is 4m long and BC is 6m long.
1 part has a mass of 10g

7 parts have a mass of 70g
Therefore, Mass of copper needed = 70g.
We could tackle the problem as follows;

Total number of parts = 2 + 3 = 5
Length of each part = 10 = 2m
5
Length of AC = 2 x 2 = 4m
Length of BC = 3 x 2 = 6m

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Express the following ratios as fractions reduced to their lowest terms; Two shafts are to rotate at 150 and 250 rev/min respectively. A 120mm diameter
pulley is fitted to the slower shaft and by means of a belt it drives a pulley on the
faster shaft. What diameter pulley is required on the faster shaft.
i. 15g to 2 kg ii. 30p to £5 iii. 20cm to 100mm iv. 400m to 3km v.21ft to 9inches

Find the missing value; A bar of metal 10.5m long is to be cut into three parts in the ratio of 1 : 1 3 : 3. Find
2 4
i. 3:4 = 6:x ii. 20:1 = x:3.2 iii. 240:400 = x:1 iv. 1:2.6 = x:13 v. 18:x = 2:1 the length of each part.
Five men build a wall take 20 days to complete it. How long would it take 4 men
to complete it.
4 people can clean an office in 6 hours. How many people would be needed to
clean the office in 4 hours.
8 people take 5 hours to change an engine. How long would it take 4 people to do
this work.
An engineering company employ 12 men to fabricate a number of containers.

They take 9 days to complete the work. If the company had employed 8 men, how
long would it have taken.
A train travels 200km in 4 hours. If it travels at the same rate, how long will it take
to complete a journey of 350km.
A motor running at 400 rev/min has a pulley of 125mm diameter attached to its
shaft. It drives a parallel shaft which has a 1000mm diameter pulley attached to
it. Find the speed of this shaft.
A gear wheel having 40 teeth revolves at 120 rev/min. It meshes with a wheel hav-
ing 25 teeth. Find the speed of the 25tooth wheel.

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
1.1.10. Power and Roots Example:

When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be raised to a given power. 2--3 is read 2 to the negative third power. the inverse, or reciprocal of 2--3 with
For example, 6 x 6 = 36; therefore, 6 2 = 36. The number of times a base its exponent made positive is
number is multiplied by itself is expressed as an exponent and is written to
right and slightly above the base number. A positive exponent indicates how

1 = 1×1×1= 1
many times a number is multiplied by itself. 23 2 2 2 8
Example:
Any number, except zero, that is raised to the zero power equals 1. When a
3 2 is read 3 squared or 3 to the second power. its value is found by multiplying number is written without an exponent, the value of the exponent does not
3 by itself 2 times. have a SIGN (+ or --) preceding it, the exponent is assumed to be positive.
The root of a number is that value which, when multiplied by itself a certain
3x3=9 number of times, produces that number. For example, 4 is a root of 16 because
when multiplied by itself, the product is 16. However, 4 is also a root of 64 be-
2 3 is read 2 cubed or 2 to the third power. Its value is found by multiplying 2 by cause 4 x 4 x 4 = 64. The symbol used to indicate a root is the radical sign ( x )
itself 3 times. placed over the number. If only the radical sign appears over a number, it indi-
cates you are to extract the square root of the number under the sign. The
square root of a number is the root other than a square root, an index number
2x2x2 =8 is placed outside the radical sign. for example the cube root is expressed as
3
64
A negative exponent implies division or fraction of a number. It indicates the
inverse, or reciprocal of the number with its exponent made positive.

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
1.1.11. Indices
Base, Index & Power
The quantity 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 may be written as 2 4. Now 2 4 is called the fourth
power of the base 2.

The number 4, which gives the number of 2s to be multiplied together is called
the index (plural : Indices).
Similarly a × a × a = a3
Here a 3 is the third power of the base a, and the index is 3.
Thus in this expression
xn xn is called the nth power of x
x is called the base, and
n is called the index.Remember that, in algebra, letters such as a in the above
expression merely represent numbers.
Hence the laws of arithmetic apply strictly to algebraic terms as well as
numbers.The expression 1 is called the reciprocal of 2,
2
1
Similarly the expression p is called the reciprocal of p likewise the expression
1 2
x n is called the reciprocal of x

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Laws of Indices 2. Division of Powers

Now lets see what happens when we divide powers of the same base.
1. Multiplication
Let us see what happens when we multiply powers of the same base together.
3 5 = (3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3) = 3 × 3 × 3 = 33
32 (3 × 3)
5 2 × 5 4 = (5 × 5) × (5 × 5 × 5 × 5)
We see that the same result could have been obtained by subtracting the in-

= 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 56
or dices. 3 5 = 35 2 = 3 3
32
c 3 × c 5 = (c × c × c) × (c × c × c × c × c) The law is:
= c × c × c × c × c × c × c × c = c8 When dividing powers of the same base subtract the index of the
In both the examples above we see that we could have obtained the result by denominator from the index of the numerator.
adding the indices together.
5 2 × 5 4 = 52+4 = 5 6 3. Powers of Powers
3 5 3+5 8 2
c ×c = c =c How do we simplify 5 3 ? One way is to proceed as follows:
We may apply this idea when multiplying more than two powers of the same 2
5 3 =53+3 = 5 6
base together.
We that the same result would have been obtained if we multiply the two in-
Thus 7 2 × 7 5 × 7 9 = 72+5+9 = 716 dices together.
The law is: 2
5 3 =53x2 = 56
When multiplying powers of the same base together, add the in-
dices. The law is:
When raising the power of a base to a power, multiply the indices
together.

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
4. Zero Index Fractional Indices

Now 2 5 = (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) = 1 The cube root of 5 (written as 3 5 ) is the number which, when multiplied by itself
25 (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) three times, gives 5.
But using the laws of indices 3
5×35×35 =5
3+1 3+1 3

but we also know that 5 1 3 × 5 1 3 × 5 1 3 = 51 =5
2 5 = 25 5 = 2 0 Thus 20 = 1 Comparing these expressions
25
3 3
5 = 51
Also c 4 = (c × c × c × c) = 1 or c 4 = c 4 4 = c 0 = 1
c4 (c × c × c × c) c4 Similarly the fourth root of base d ( written as 4 d ) is the number which, when
The law is: multiplied by itself four times, gives d.
4
Any base raised to the index zero is equal to 1. d×4d×46×4d =d
4+1 4+1 4+1 4
But we also know that d1 4 × d1 4 × d1 4 × d1 4 = d1 =d
5. Negative Indices
4 4
(2 × 2 × 2) Comparing these expressions d = d1
Now 23 = = 1 = 14but
27 (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) 2 The law is:
2 3 A fractional index represents a root, the denominator of the index
using the laws of indices = 23 7 = 2 4
27 denotes the root to be taken.
it follows that 2 4 = 14
2
The law is:
The power of a base which has a negative index is the reciprocal
of the power of the base having the same, but positive, index.

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Find the values of the following

i. 8 2 ii. 2 4 iii. 3 3 iv. 2 5 v. 16 vi. 144 vii. 169

viii. 3 8 ix. 3 27 x. 3 216
Simplify the following, giving each answer as a power
i. 2 5 × 2 6 ii. a × a 2 × a5 iii. n 8 ÷ n 5 iv. 10 5 × 10 3 ÷ 10 4
4 2
3 3
v. z 4 × z 2 × z vi. 3 2 × 3 ÷ 33 vii. 9 3 viii. t × t 3
ix. 1
73
Find the value of the following

i. 811/4 ii. 82/3 iii. 16--3/4 iv. 92.5

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
1.1.12. Tranposition of Formulae iii. Transpose the formula V = 2R to make R the subject.
(R r)
The formula y = ax + b has y as its subject. By rearranging this formula we
could make x the subject. We are then said to have transposed the formula to Step 1. Since there are no roots get rid of the fraction by multiplying both sides
make x the subject. of the equation by (R r).
The rules for transforming a formula are: V(R r) = 2R

1. Remove square roots or other roots.
2. Get rid of fractions. Step 2. Clear the bracket.
3. Clear brackets. VR Vr = 2R
4. Collect together the terms containing the required subject.
5. Factorise if necessary. Step 3. Collect the terms containing R on the LHS.
6. Isolate the required subject. VR Vr = 2R
These steps should be performed in the order given.
Step 4. Factorise the LHS.
Examples:
R(V 2) = Vr
i. Transpose the formula F = ma to make a the subject.
Step 1. Divide both sides by m. then,
F ma Step 5. Isolate R by dividing both sides of the equation by (V 2).
m= m Vr
R=
or F F (V 2)
m = a or a = m
Although we used five steps to obtain the required subject, in very many cases
far fewer steps are needed. Nevertheless, you should work through the steps
y
ii. Transpose x = to make b the subject in the order given.
b
Step 1. Multiply both sides by b. then,
y iv. Tranpose d = 2hr to make h the subject.
x×b = ×b
b Step 1. Remove the square root by squaring both sides.
bx = y or y = bx
d 2 = 2hr
Step 2. Since there are no fractions or brackets and factorisation is not needed
we can now isolate h by dividing both sides of the equation by 2r.
d 2 = h or h = d 2
2r 2r
Since it is usual to position the subject on the LHS.

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Transpose the following:
C = d for d C= E for E
(R + r)
S = dn for d

(N n)
C= for N
I = PRT for R 2p
v 2 = 2gh for h a= 3 for t

(4t + 5)
x = ay for y
P = RT for T
V
S = ts for t
T
M=E for R
I R
GY = T for J
l J
v = u + at for t
n = p + cr for r
y = ax + b for x
y = x + 17 for x
5

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
1.1.13. Areas Parallelogram

The area of a plane figure is measured by seeing how many square units it con-
tains. 1 square metre is the area contained in a square metre is the area contained
in a square having a side of 1 metre; 1 square centimetre is the area contained
in a square having a side of 1 centimetre, etc. The standard abbreviations are

1 square metre 1m2
1 square centimetre 1cm2
1 square millimetre 1mm2
1 square inch 1in2
1 square foot 1ft2
1 square yard 1yd2 Area = b × h
Perimeter = Sum of all 4 sides.
The following provides the formulae for areas and perimeters of simple geo-
metrical shapes.
Triangle
Rectangle
Area = 1 × b × h or Area = s (s a)(s b)(s c),

Area = l × b 2
(a + b + c)
Perimeter = 2l × 2b where s =
2

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Trapezium
Sector of a Circle

Area = 1 × h × (a + b)
2 ( r )
Area = r2 × Perimeter = 2r +
360 180
Circle
Area = r2
Circumference = 2 r = d = 3.142 or 22
7

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
1.1.14. Volumes
The volume of a solid figure is found by seeing how many cubic units it contains.
1 cubic metre is the volume contained inside a cube having an edge 1 metre long; Cylinder
1 cubic centimetre is the volume contained inside a cube having an edge 1 centi-
metre long, etc. The standard abbreviations for units of volume are as follows:

1 square metre 1m3
1 square centimetre 1cm3
1 square millimetre 1mm3
1 square inch 1in3
1 square foot 1ft3
1 square yard 1yd3
Volume = r 2h
The following figures give the formulae for the volumes and surface areas of Surface Area = 2 r(h + r)
solid figures.
Any solid having a uniform cross--section;
Cone
Volume = Cross--sectional area x Length of solid
Surface Area = Lateral Surface + Ends i.e. (perimeter of cross--section x

Length of Solid) + (Total area of ends)
Volume = 1 r 2h (h is the vertical height)

3
Surface Area = rl (l is the slant height)

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Frustum of a Cone
Pyramid

Volume = 1 h R 2 + Rr + r2 (h is the vertical height)
3
Volume = 1 Ah
Curved Surface Area = l(R + r) 3
Total Surface Area = l(R + r) + R 2 + r 2 (l is the slant height) Surface Area = Sum of the areas of the triangles forming the
sides plus the area of the base
( A = Area of base)
Sphere
Volume = 4 r 3
3
Surface Area = 4 r 2

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Solve the following problems:
i. Find the area and perimeter of a rectangle whose length is 12inches and xi. A sphere has a diameter of 8in. Calculate its volume and surface area.
width is 7inches.
xii. Find the volume of a cone with a diameter of 7cm and vertical height of
ii. A rectangle lawn is 35m long and 18m wide. A path 1½m wide is made 4cm.

round the lawn. Calculate the area of the path.
xiii. A pyramid has a square base of side 12cm and an altitude of 15cm. Calcu-
iii. A carpet has an area of 36m2. If it is square what length of side has the late its volume.
carpet.
xiv. A rectangle tank is 2.7m long, 1.8mm wide and 3.2 high. How many litres
iv. A triangle has a base of 7cm amd an altitude of 3cm. Calculate its area. of water will it hold when full.
v. A triangle has sides which are 8cm , 12cm and 14cm long. Determine the
area ofthe triangle.
vi. The area of a triangle is 40ft2. Its base is 8ft long. Calculate its vertical
height.
vii. Find the area of a trapezium whose parallel sides are 45mm and 73mm
long if the distance between them is 42mm.
viii. An annulus has an outer diameter of 10cm and an inner diameter of 6cm.
calculate its area.
ix. Find the area and length of arc of the sector of a circle, with an angle of
150 and a radius of 21mm.
x.Calculate the volume of a metal pipe whose inside diameter is 6cm and
whose outside diameter is 8cm, if it 20cm long.

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
1.1.15. Conversions
Length Mass
1in. = 2.54cm 1 amu = 1.66 x 10--27kg
1m = 39.37in. or 3.281ft. 1000kg = 1 metric tonne = 0.984 tons

1ft. = 0.3048m
12in. = 1ft.
3ft. = 1yd.
1yd = 0.9144m 1000g = 1kg
1km = 0.621 miles 1 slug = 14.59kg
1 mile = 1.61Km = 5,280ft.
Area Force & Weight
1m2 = 10.76ft2 1N = 0.2248lb1lb =
1m2 = 10,000cm2 4.448N1lb = 16oz
1ft2 = 0.0929m2 = 144in2
1in2 = 6.452cm2 Velocity
1mph = 1.47ft/sec
Volume 1m/sec = 3.281ft/sec
1m3 = 1,000,000cm3 1 knot = 1.688ft/sec
1ft3 = 1728in3 = 0.0283m3 1 knot = 1.151mph
1 litre = 1000cm3 = 1.0576qt 1 knot = 1.852km/hr
1ft3 = 7.481gal 1mph = 1.61km/hr
1 gal = 8 pints
1 gal = 4,546 litres = (3.785 litres in American) Energy
1J = 0.738ft.lb
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 Btu = 252 cal

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Time
1 year = 365 days
1 day = 24hr = 1,440 min

Power
1 HP = 550 ft.lb/sec
1 HP = 746 W
1W = 1 J/sec
1W = 0.738 ft.lb/sec
1 Btu/hr = 0.293 W
Pressure
1 atm = 76.0 cmHg
1 atm = 760 mmHg
1 atm = 29.92 inHg
1 atm = 14.7 lb/in2
1 Pa = 0.000145 lb/in2
1 bar = 14.5 lb/in2
1 bar = 100,000 Pa
Fundamental Constant
g = 32 lb./slug
g = 9.8 N/kg
Other Useful Data

1 litre water = 1kg
1 pint water = 1lb

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
Convert the following weights and measures:
i. Convert 6m to feet.
ii. What is 4ft 6in to cm.

iii. Convert 25US gallons to litres.
iv. Convert 254 inches to cm.
v. Convert 4.5 litre to US gallons
vi. Convert 350 imperial gallons to litres.
vii. What is 220lbs in kilos.
viii. What is 220 kilos in litres.
ix. How many pounds in 1 metric tonne.
x. Convert the following to F

--20 C
--5 C
37 C
88 C
xi. Convert the following to C

--40 F
16 F
100 F
215 F

M 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Technical Training
M1
1.2. Test 13. Transpose the following formula to find (u)

v = u + at
Work out the value of the following:
1. 7 + 4 x 3 =
14. Remove the backets from the following

(2x + 5)(x + 3) =
2. 5 x 4 -- 3 x 6 + 5 =
3. 10 -- 12 ÷ 6 + 3 (8 -- 3) =
15. Solve the equation 7x + 3 = 5x + 17 for the value of x.
4. 53 =
5. 2 + 3 =
5 7
16. A triangle has length of sides 3cm and 4cm. Using pythagros theorem
calculate the missing length.
6. 5 3=
6 4
7. 3 × 5 =
8 7
8. 3 ÷ 7 =
5 8
9. divide 74.52 by 8.1 =
10. multiply 20.3 x 17.4 =
11. Convert 0.800 to a fraction =
12. convert 3 to a percentage =

5

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2. ALGEBRA
2.1. Introduction
The methods of algebra are an extension of those used in arithmetic. In algebra Knowing what the symbols A, l and b stand for, this statement conveys as much

we use letters and symbols as well as numbers to represent quantities. When we information as the first statement. To find the area of a particular rectangle we re-
write that a sum of money is £50 we are making a particular statement but if we place the symbols l and b by the actual dimensions of the rectangle, first making
write a sum of money is £P we are making a general statement. This general sure that l and b have the same units. To find the area of a rectangle whose length
statement will cover any number we care to substitute for P. is 50mm and whose breadth is 30mm we put l = 50 mm and b = 30mm.
A = l x b = 50 x 30 = 1500mm2
2.1.1. Use of Symbols
A technician often has to indicate that certain quantities or measusrements have Many verbal statements can be translated into symbols as the following state-
to be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided. Frequently this has to be done with- ments show:
out using actual numbers.
The statement: The difference of two numbers = x -- y
Two numbers multiplied together = a x b
Area of a rectangle = length x breadth One number divided by another = p ÷ q
is a perfectly general statement which applies to all rectangles. If we use symbols

we obtain a much shorter statement.
if A = the area of the rectangle

l = the length of the rectangle
and b = the breadth of the rectangle
then the statement becomes:
A=lxb

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.2. Substitution
The process of finding the numerical value of an algebraic expression for given
values of the symbols that appear in it is called substitution.
Example:

If x = 3, y = 4 and z = 5 find the value of:
(3y + 2z)
= (3 × 4) + (2 × 5)
(x + z)
3+5
(12 + 10)
= 22 = 2.75 or 2¾.
8 8
Solve the following substitution equations:
If a = 2, b = 3 and c = 5. Find the values of the following.
i. a +7 ii. 9c iii. 3bc iv. 4c + 6b v. a + 2b + 5c
vi. 8c -- 4b vii. abc viii. 5a + 9b + 8c

6
a + b+ c

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.3. Addition & Substraction of Algebraic Terms 2.1.4. Multiplication & Division Signs
When using symbols multiplication signs are nearly always omitted and l x b be-
Like terms are numerical multiples of the same algebraic quantity. comes lb. Of course the same scheme cannot apply to numbers and we cannot
write 9 x 6 as 96. The multiplication sign can, however, be omitted when a symbol
and a number are to be multiplied together. Thus 5 x m is written 5m. The system
7x, 5x and --3x

may be extended to three or more quantities and hence P x L x A x N is written
PLAN. The symbols need not be written in any special order because the order
are three like terms. in which numbers are multiplied together is unimportant. Thus PLAN is the same
as LANP or NAPL. It is usual, however, to write numbers before symbols, that is,
it is better to write 8xy than xy8 or x8y. In algebraic expressions the number in front
An expression consiting of like terms can be reduced to a single term by adding of the symbols is called the coefficient. Thus in the expression 8x the coefficient
or substracting the numerical coefficients. of x is 8.
7x -- 5x + 3x = (7 -- 5 + 3) x = 5x The division sign ÷ is seldom used in algebra and it is more convenient to write
p
P ÷ q in the fractional form q
3b2 + 7b2 = (3 + 7) b2 = 10b2
Example:
--3y -- 5y = (--3 --5) y = --8y
(lp)
= lp ÷ 2 R
(2 R)
q -- 3q = (1 -- 3) q = --2q
Only like terms can be added or subtracted. Thus 7a + 3b -- 2c is an expression

containing three unlike terms and it cannot be simplified any further. Similarly with
8a2b + 7ab3 -- 6a2b2 which are all unlike terms. It is possible to have several sets
of like terms in an expression and each set can then be simplified.
8x + 3y -- 4z -- 5x + 7z -- 2y + 2z
= (8 -- 5)x + (3 -- 2)y + (--4 +7 + 2)z
= 3x + y + 5z

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.5. Muliplication & Division of Algebraic Quantities 5m 2n × 3mn 3 = 5 × m × m × n × 3 × m × n × n × n = 15m3n 4

The rules are exactly the same as those used with directed numbers.
3mn × 2n 2 = 3 × m × n × ( 2) × n × n = 6mn3
(+ x)(+ y) = + (xy) = + xy = xy

When dividing algebraic expressions, cancellation between numerator and de-
5x × 3y = 5 × 3 × x × y = 15xy nominator is often possible, cancelling is equivalent to dividing both numerator and
denominator by the same quantity:
(x)( y) = (xy) = xy
pq (p × q)
p = p =q
(2x)( 3y) = (2x)(3y) = 6xy
(3p 2q) (3 × p × p × q) 3p p
2
= = =
( 4x)(2y) = (4x)(2y) = 8xy (6pq ) (6 × p × q × q) 6q 2q
( 3x)( 2y) = + (3x)(2y) = 6xy (18x 2y2z) (18 × x × x × y × y × z)

= = 3xy
(6xyz) (6 × x × y × z)
(+ x) ( 3x) 3x
= + xy = xy =
(+ y) 2y 2y Remember the word BODMAS which gives the initial letters of the correct se-
quence i.e. Brackets, Of, Division, Multiply, Add, Subtract.
( 5x)( 6y) = + 5x = 5x 4x = 4x
6y 6y ( 3y) 3y Thus
2x 2+ 12x4 3x 4 ÷ 3x 2 x 2 = 2x2 + 9x4 ÷ 3x2 x2
When multiplying expressions containing the same symbols, indices are used: = 2x 2+3x2 x2
2
m×m = m = 5x 2 x2
= 4x 2
2
3m × 5m = 3 × m × 5 × m = 15m
( m) × m 2 = ( m) × m × m = m3

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Simplify the following:
i. 7x + 11x ii. 7x -- 5x iii. 3x -- 6x iv. --2x --4x i. 12x ÷ 6 ii. 4a ÷ (--7b) iii. (--5a) ÷ 8b iv. 4a÷ 2b v. 4ab ÷ 2a
v.--8x + 3x vi. --2x + 7x vii. 5m + 13m -- 6m vi. 12x2yz2 ÷ 4xz2 vii. (--12a2b) ÷ 6a viii. 8a2bc2 ÷ 4ac2

viii. 6b2 -- 4b2 + 3b2 ix. 6ab -- 3ab -- 2ab ix 7a2b2 ÷ 3ab
x. 14xy + 5xy -- 7xy + 2xy xi. --5x + 7x -- 3x -- 2x
xii. 3x -- 2y + 4z -- 2x -- 3y + 5z + 6x + 2y -- 3z
xiii. 3a2b + 2ab3 + 4a2b2 -- 5ab3 + 11b4 + 6a2b
xiv. pq + 2.1qr -- 2.2rq + 8qp
...........................................................................................
i. 2z x 5y ii. 3a x 3b iii. 3 x 4m iv. ¼q x 16p v. z x (y)
vi. (--3a) x (--2b) vii. 8m x (--3n) viii. (--4a) x 3b ix. 8p x (--q) x (--3r)
x. 3a x (--4b) x (--c) x 5d xi. a x a xii. 3m x (--3m) xiii. 8mn x (--3m2n3)
xiv. 7ab x (--3a2) xv.m2n x (--mn) x 5m2n2 xvi. 5a2 x (--3b) x 5ab
............................................................................................

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.6. Brackets
Brackets are used for convenience in grouping terms together. When removing When simplifying expressions containing brackets first remove the brackets and
brackets each term within the bracket is multiplied by the quantity outside the then add the like terms together.
bracket:
3(x+y) = 3x+3y (3x+7y) (4x+3y) = 3x+7y 4x 3y = x+4y

5(2x+3y) = 5 × 2x+5 × 3y = 10x+15y 3(2x+3y) (x+5y) = 6x+9y x 5y = 5x+4y
4(a 2b) = 4 × a 4 × 2b = 4a 8b x(a+b) x(a+3b) = ax+bx ax 3bx = 2bx
m(a+b) = ma+mb 2(5a+3b)+3(a 2b) = 10a+6b+3a 6b = 13a
3x(2p+3q) = 3x × 2p+3x × 3q = 6px+9qx
4a(2a+b) = 4a × 2a+4a × b = 8a 2+4ab
When a bracket has a minus sign in front of it, the signs of all the terms inside the
bracket are changed when the bracket is removed. The reason for this rule may
be seen from the following examples:
3(2x 5y) = ( 3) × 2x+( 3) × 5y = 6x+15y
(m+n) = m n (p q) = p+q
2(p+3q) = 2p 6q

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Remove the brackets in the following: Find the products of the following:
i. 3(x + 4) ii. 2(a + b) iii. 3(3x -- 2y) iv. ½(x -- 1) v. 5(2p -- 3q) i. (x + 4) (x + 5) ii. (2x + 5) (x + 3) iii. (5x + 1) (2x + 3)
vi. 7(a -- 3m) vii. --(a + b) viii. --(a -- 2b) ix. --(3p -- 3q) x. --4(x + 3) iv. (7x + 2) (3x + 2) v. (x -- 4) (x -- 2) vi. (2x -- 1) (x -- 4)

xi. --2(2x -- 5) xii. --5(4 -- 3x) xiii. 2k(k -- 5) xiv. --3y(3x + 4) vii. (2x -- 4) (3x -- 2) viii. (x -- 2) (x + 7) ix. (2x + 5) (x -- 2)
xv. 4xy(ab -- ac + d) xvi. 3x2(x2 -- 2xy + y2) xvii. --7p(2p2 -- p + 1) x. (3x + 4y) (2x -- 3y) xi. (2x + 3)2
Remove the brackets and simplify:
i. 3( x + 1) + 2(x + 4) ii. 5(2a + 4) -- 3(4a + 2) iii. 3(x + 4) -- (2x + 5)
iv. 4(1 -- 2x) -- 3(3x -- 4) v. 5(2x -- y) -- 3(x + 2y) vi. ½(y -- 1) + ¾(2y -- 3)
vii. --(4a + 5b -- 3c) -- 2(2a -- 3b -- 4c)
viii. 2x(x -- 5) -- x(x -- 2) -- 3x(x -- 5)
ix. 3(a -- b) -- 2(2a -- 3b) + 4(a -- 3b)

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.7. Factorisation Factorising by Grouping

A factor is a common part of two or or more terms which make up an algebraic To factorise the expression ax + ay + bx + by first group the terms in pairs so
expression. Thus the expression 3x+3y has two terms which have the number 3 that each pair of terms has a common factor.
common to both of them. Thus 3x+3y = 3(x+y). We say that 3 and (x+y) are the Thus;
factors of 3x+3y. To factorise algebraic expressions of this kind, we first find the Example:

Highest Common Factor (HCF) of all the terms making up the expression. The
HCF then appears outside the bracket. To find the terms inside the bracket divide
ax + ay + bx + by = (ax + ay) + (bx + by)
each of the terms making up the expression by the HCF.
= a(x + y) + b(x + y)
Example: = (a + b) (x + y)
Find the factors of ax+bx Factorise mp + np -- mq -- nq

The HCF of ax and bx is x
mp + np -- mq -- nq = (mp + np) -- (mq -- nq)
ax+bx = x(a+b) = p(m + n) -- q(m + n)
= (p -- q) (m + n)
Find the factors of m 2n 2mn2
The HCF of m 2n and 2mn 2 is mn
m 2n 2mn2 = mn(m 2n)
Find the factors of 3x 4y+9x3y 2 6x2y 3

The HCF of 3x 4y, 9x 3y2 and 6x 2y3 is 3x 2y
3x 4y+9x3y 2 6x2y 3 = 3x 2y(x2+3xy 2y 2)
Find the factors of ac bc cd

x + x2 x3
The HCF of ac bc cd c
x , x 2 and x3 is x
ac + bc cd = c a + b d
x x2 x3 x x x2

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Factorise each of the following:
i. 5x + 5y ii. 5p -- 5q iii. 6x + 18y iv. ax -- y v. 4p -- 12q
vi. 4x -- 6xy vii. 8x2 -- 4x viii. ax2 -- bx ix. x(a -- b) + 2(a -- b)

x. m(p + q) -- n(p + q) xi. 5a -- 10b + 15c
xii. ab + ac -- bd -- cd) xiii. 2pr -- 4ps + qr -- 2qs
xiv. 4ax + 6ay -- 4bx -- 6by xv. 3mx + 2nx -- 3my -- 2yn
xvi. ab(p + q) -- cd(p + q) xvii. K2l2 -- mnl --k2l + mn

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.8. Factors of Quadratic Expressions

An expression of the type ax 2 + bx + c is called a quadratic expression.
x 2 5x + 1 and 3p 2 + 12p 5
are both quadratic expressions.

In an expression like x 2 + 7x + 12, the factors will be of the type
(x + m)(x + n) where m and n are two numbers whose sum is 7 and whose
product is 12. These two numbers must be 3 and 4. So
x 2 + 7x + 12 = (x + 3)(x + 4)
This techinque is also useful when factorising expressions such as

12x 2 + 23x + 10 in which a = 12, b = 23 and c = 10. We can factorise if we
can get two integers whose product is ac and whose sum is b.
Thus ac = 12 × 10 = 120 and b = 23.
Now 120 = 8 × 15. It can now be seen that the two integers are 8 and 15.
Since 23x = 15x + 8x
12x 2 + 23x + 10 = 12x 2 + 15x + 8x + 10= 3x(4x + 5) + 2(4x + 5)

= (4x + 5)(3x + 2)
Example:
Factorise 8x 2 34x + 21
Here a = 8, b = 34 and c = 21.
ac = 168 and b = 34
The two integers whose sum is --34 and whose product is 168 are --6 and --28.
8x 2 34x + 21 = 8x 2 6x 28x + 21
= 2x(4x 3) 7(4x 3)
= (4x 3)(2x 7)

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Factorise the following:
i. x2 + 5x + 6 ii. x2 -- 8x + 15 iii. x2 -- 5x -- 6 iv. x2 -- 5x + 6
v. 2x2 + 7x + 5 vi. 2x2 + 13x + 15 vii. 3x2 + x -- 6 viii. 3x2 -- 8x + 28

ix. 10x2 + 19x -- 15 x. 6x2 + x -- 35 xi. 5x2 -- 11x + 2 xii. 6x2 -- 7x -- 5

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.9. Algebraic Fractions Adding & Subtracting Algebraic Fractions

Since algebraic expressions contain symbols (or letters) which represent numbers
all the rule of operations with numbers also apply to algebraic terms, including frac- Consider the expression a + c which is the addition of two fractional terms. These
tions. b d
are called partial fractions.
Thus

1
1 1 a (1 × a)
a=1÷a= 1×1 = =a If we wish to express the sum of these partial fractions as one single fraction then
1 we proceed as follows (similar method used when adding or subtracting number
fractions)
and First find the lowest common denominator. This is the LCM of b and d which is bd.
a ÷ c = a × d = ad each fraction is then expressed with bd as the denominator.
b d b c bc
Example:
and
(x+y) a = (a × d) = ad and c = (c × b) = cb
1 1 (x y) b (b × d) bd d (d × b) bd
= (x + y) ÷ = (x + y) × = (x + y)(x y)
(x y) (x y) 1
and adding these new fractions we have:
You should note in the last example how we put brackets round x + y and x y
to remind us that they must be treated as single expressions, otherwise we may
have been tempted to handle the terms x and y on their own. a + c = ad + cb = (ad + cb)
b d bd bd bd

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Multiplication & Division of Algebraic Fractions
As with ordinary arithmetic fractions, numerators can be multiplied together, as

can denominators, in order to form a single fraction.

Example;
a × c = (a × c) or 3x × p × r 2 = (3x × p × r2)
s
b d (b × d) 2y 4q (2y × 4q × s)
Factors which are common to both numerator and denominator may be cancelled.
it is important to realise that this cancelling means dividing the numerator and de-
nominator by the same quantity.
Example:
8ab × 9mn 2 = (8 × a × b × 9 × n × n × m)
3mn 4ab 2 (3 × m × n × 4 × a × b × b)
= 6n
b
(5x 2y) 10xy (5x 2y) (4a 2b)

3
÷ 2
= ×
8ab (4a b) 8ab 3 10xy
(5 × x × x × y × 4a × a × b)
=
(8 × a × b × b × b × 10 × x × y)
= ax2
4b

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Simplify the following:
i. x + x + x ii. 5a 7a iii. 2q 3 iv. 3y 5 + 4 v. 3 2

3 4 5 12 18 2q 3y 5y 5p 3q

4y (2m + n) (a b)
vi. 3x vii. 1 2x + x viii. 1x + 1y ix. 3m x.
5z 5 8 7 ab
2 y 3
x. 6a2 × b 2 xii. 9x 2 × 3 xiii.
6pq 8s 2
× xiv. 6ab ad 8cd 2
b 3a 6y x 4rs 3p c × 2b × 4bc
2 2 3
xv. 2z 2 × 6a 2 × 10c3
3ac 5zy 3y
2 2 2 3pq p2
xvi. ab2 ÷ a 3 xvii. 6ab ÷ 4a xviii. ÷
bc bc 5cd 7bd 5rs 15s 2

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.10. Linear Equations Equations

A statement of the type x 3 = 5 is called an equation.
An arithmetical quantity has a definite value, such as 93, 3.73 or 3. An algebraic
4
quantity, however, given by algebraic expressions such as x ( 3) or x 2, repre-
This means that the quantity on the left--hand side of the equation is equal to the
sents many amounts depending on the value given to x.
quantity on the right--hand side. We can see that, unlike an identity, there is only

In algebra there are two methods we use to show that two quantities are equivalent one value of x that will satisfy the equation, or make the left--hand side equal to
to each other. One is called an identity and the other an equation. the right--hand side. The process of finding x = 8 is called solving the equation,
and the value 8 is known as the solution or root of the equation.
Identities
A statement of the type x 2 x × x is called an identity
Solving Linear Equations

The sign means “is identical to”. Any statement using this sign is true for all va-
lues of the variable, the variable in this case being x. Linear equations contain only the first power of the unkown quantity.
Thus when x = 2 we have 2 2 2×2 7t 5 = 4t + 7 and 5x = (2x + 5)

3 2
and when x = 3 we have 3 2 3 × 3 and so on.
are both examples of linear equations.

Another type of identity involves units as, for example, the relationship between
kilometres and metres. This may be stated as
In the process of solving an equation the appearances of the equation may be con-
siderable altered but the values on both sides must remain the same. We must
x km 1000x m maintain this equality, and hence whatever we do to one side of the equation we
Thus 7 km 7000m must do exactly the same to the other side.
and 9 km 9000m and so on.
After an equation is solved, the solution should be checked by substituting the re-
In practise the sign is often replaced by the = (equals) sign and the above ident- sult in each side of the equation separately. If each side of the equation then has
ities would be stated as the same value the solution is correct. In the detail which follows, LHS means left--
hand side and RHS means right--hand side.
x2 = x × x
and x km = 1000 x m

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Equation Requiring Multiplication & Division
Example:
Solve the equation x = 3
6

Multiply each side by 6, we get
x×6 = 3×6
6
x = 18
Check: when x = 18, LHS = 18 , RHS = 3

6
Equations Requiring Addition & Subtraction
Example:
Solve the equation x 4=8
If we add 4 to each side, we get

x 4+4= 8+4
x = 12
The operation of adding 4 to each side is the same as transferring --4 to the
RHS but in so doing the sign is changed from a minus to a plus.
x 4=8
x=8+4
x = 12
Check: when x = 12, LHS = 12 -- 4 = 8, RHS = 8

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Equations Containing the Unknown Quantity on Both Sides

In equations of this kind, group all the terms containing the unknown quantity
on one side of the equation and the remaining terms on the other side.
Example;

Solve the equation 7x + 3 = 5x + 17
Subtracting 5 x and 3 from both sides,
7x 5x = 17 3
2x = 14
x = 14
2
x=7
(4 x) (2x 1)
Solve the equation =4
3 2
In solving equations of this type remeber that the line separating the numerator
and denominator act as a bracket. The LCM of the denominators 3 and 2 is 6.
Multiplying each term of the equation by gives:
(4 x) (2x 1)
×6 ×6 =4×6
3 2
2(x 4) 3(2x 1) = 24
2x 8 6x + 3 = 24
4x 5 = 24
4x = 24 + 5
4x = 29
x = 29
4
x = 29 = 7.25
4

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
i. x + 3 = 8 ii. x -- 4 = 6 iii. 2x = 8 iv. 2x -- 7 = 9 v. 5x + 3 = 18

vi. 3x -- 7 = x -- 5 vii. 9 -- 2x = 3x + 7 viii. 4x -- 3 = 6x -- 9
ix. 5x -- 8 = 3x + 2 x. 2(x + 1) = 9 xi. 5(x -- 3) = 12
xii. 3(2x -- 1) + 4(2x + 5) = 40 xiii. 7(2 -- 3x) = 3(5x -- 1)
xiv. x + x = 10 xv. 3x + 3 = 2 + 2x xvi. 2x = x + 1

2 3 8 3 5 8 2
(x + 3) (x 3)
xvii. =
2 3

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Simultaneous Linear Equations

To find the value of x we substitute for y in either of the original equations. Sub-
Consider the equations stituting y = 3, in equation (1)
3x + 5y = 21
5x + 3 × 3 = 19

2x + 3y = 13
5x + 9 = 19
each equation contains the unknown quantities x and y which satisfy both equa- 5x = 10
tions simultaneously. Equations like these are called simultaneous equations. x=2
Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations

Therefore the solutions are y = 3 and x = 2. To check these values substitute
them in equation (2).
The method for solving simultaneous equations is illustrated by the following
example.
ii. Solve the equations 3x + 4y = 29 (1)
8x 2y = 14 (2)
Example:
i. Solve the equations 5x + 3y = 19 (1)
In these equations it is easier to eliminate y because the same coefficient of y
3x + 2y = 12 (2) can be obtained in both equations simply by multiplying equation (2) by 2.
16x 4y = 28 (3)
If we multiply equation (1) by 3 and equation (2) by 5 the coefficient of x will be
same in both equations.
Adding equations (1) and (3) gives
19x = 57
15x + 9y = 57 (3)
x=3
15x + 10y = 60 (4)
Substituting x = 3 in equation (1) gives

We now eliminate x by subtracting equation (3) from equation (4) which gives
3 × 3 + 4y = 29
y=3
9+4y = 29
4y = 29 9
4y = 20
y=5

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Solve the following equations for x and y and check the solutions:
i. 2x -- 3y = --8
x + 3y = 14

ii. 3x + 5y = 17
4x + 5y = 21
iii. 3x + 4y = 26
x +y =7
iv. 5x -- 7y = 1
2x + 5y = 16
y
v. x + = 5
2 5
2x + 3y = 19
3 2

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.11. Quadratic Equations Example:

2 i. Solve x2 = 9
An equation which can be written in the form ax + bx + c = 0 is called a
quadratic equation. The constants a, b and c can take any numerical value. Writing the equation as
The following are all examples of equadratic equations: x2 9=0

x2 9 = 0 and factorising the LHS
in which a = 1, b = 0 and c = 9 (x + 3)(x 3) = 0
3x 2 + 8x + 5 = 0 Either x + 3 = 0, giving x = 3 or x 3 = 0, giving x = 3

in which a = 3, b = 8 and c = 5
The roots are x = 3 and x = 3, often written as x = 3.
2
4x 7x = 0
in which a = 4, b = 7 and c = 0 ii. Solve x 2 + 7x + 12 = 0
A quadratic equation has two solutions (often called the roots of the equation). Factorising, (x + 4)(x + 3) = 0
It is possible for one of the roots to be zero or for the two solutions to be the
Either x + 4 = 0, giving x = 4 or x + 3 = 0, giving x = 3
same.
The roots are x = 4 and x = 3.
Solving Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation can be solved by factorisation. We make use of the fact iii. Solve x2 6x = 0
that if the product of two factors is zero, then one of those factors must be
zero. Thus if mn = 0 then either m = 0 or n = 0. To solve a quadratic equa-
tion by this method the expression ax 2 + bx + c is written as the product of two Factorising x(x 6) = 0
factors. Either x = 0 or x 6 = 0, giving x = 6.
The roots are x = 0 and x = 6
(Note that it is incorrect to say that the solution is x = 6. The solution x = 0
must also be stated).

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
iiii. Solve 4x 2 20x + 25 = 0 Equations which will not Factorise

Example:
Factorising (2x 5)(2x 5) = 0 i. Solve the equation 2x 2 12 = 0
2
or (2x 5) = 0 2x 2 = 12

For both factors, 2x 5 = 0, giving x = 2.5 x2 = 6
x= 6
With this equation both roots are the same and we say that the equation has and x= 2.45
equal roots. This always happens when the expression ax 2 + bx + c forms a
(by using a calculator to find 6)
perfect square.
ii. Solve the equation 2x 2 + 18 = 0

v. Solve x 10 + 9x = 0
2x 2 = 18
Multiply each term by x to clear the fraction, x2 = 18 = 9

2
x2 10x + 9 = 0 and x= 9
Factorising (x 9)(x 1) = 0 The square root of a negative quantity has no arithmetic meaning and it is
called an imaginary number. The reason is as follows:
Either (x 9) = 0, giving x = 9 or x 1 = 0, giving x = 1
2
The roots are x = 9 and x = 1. ( 3) = 9
2
(+ 3) = 9
9= 3
Hence it is not possible to give a meaning to 9. The equation 2x 2 + 18 = 0

is said, therefore, to having imaginary roots.

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Using the Formula to Solve Quadratic Equations

This equation is called the quadratic formula. Note that the whole of the numer-
ator, including b, is divided by 2a. The formula is used when factorisation is
not possible, although it may be used to solve any quadratic equation.
Example:

i. Solve the equation 3x 2 8x + 2 = 0
Comparing with ax 2 + bx + c = 0 we have a = 3, b = 8 and c = 2. Substi-

tuting these values in the formula gives:
b b2 4ac
x=
2a
2
( 8) ( 8) 4×3×2
x=
(2 × 3)
8 64 24
x=
6
8 40
x=
6
(8 + 6.325) (8 6.325)
x= or x=
6 6
x = 2.39 or 0.28

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
Solve each of the following quadratic equations using factorisation:
i. x2 -- 4 = 0 ii. x2 -- 16 = 0 iii. 3x2 -- 27 = 0 iv. 5x2 -- 125 = 0
v. (x -- 7) ( x + 3) = 0 vi. x(x + 5) = 0 vii. (3x -- 5) (2x + 9) = 0

viii. x2 -- 5x + 6 = 0 ix. x2 + 3x -- 10 = 0 x. 6x2 -- 11x -- 35 = 0
Solve the following equations by using the quadratic formula:
i. 4x2 -- 3x -- 2 = 0 ii. x2 -- x -- 1 = 0 iii. 3x2 + 7x -- 5 = 0
iv. 7x2 + 8x -- 2 = 0 v. 5x2 -- 4x -- 1 = 0 vi. 2x2 -- 7x = 3

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
Technical Training
M1
2.1.12. Logarithms What are Logs?

Continuing on the above reasoning, let us take our simple example again, what
Why do we use Logs? number raised to the power of 3 gives 1,000? if we invent an unknown variable,
In the discussion of indices it was noted that whenever a number is “raised” to a call it x and try to write out our question in terms of the notation of algebraic powers
power then we write that in exponential notation and the meaning of it is that the we have the following sistuation:
number appearing in the base is being multiplied by itself the number of times that

10 x = 1, 000
is indicated by the exponent. The notation used was such that if we write 5 3, what
we actually mean is 5 multiplied by itself 3 times.
The question is what is x in the above formula? How do we solve x? We invent
an operation called logarithm, abbreviated to Log and we apply this operation to
Logarithms are mathematical inventions in order to answer a slightly different, both sides of the above relation.
question ( notice the word “invention”, logarithms make certain operations easier
to handle and that is all they do, so you should think of them as a definition). In order
to motivate why logarithms are introduced in the first place, let us invent a scenario. Log 10x = Log 1000
Suppose someone asked you the following question:
We then define this new logarithm function to be such that when it applies to a
What number do I have to raise to the power of 3 in order to get 1,000? this might number that is “10 raised to some power” then it literally just gives us the power
seem pretty simple and obvious. If you multiply 10 x 10 you 100, and if you muliply and the base 10 “disappears”. To reiterate this, what we mean is the following:
100 x 10 you get 1,000. So, you would say that 10 multiplied by itself 3 times or, Log10 x = X
in our power notation, 10 3 is equal to 1,000.
So, what is the value of Log 1000? How do we know what the right hand side of
Now, this is easy to answer by thinking about powers because the above example the equation is? How does this help us at all? Well, this will probably seem magic
is simple powers and simple numbers, and one can reason it out relatively quickly. to you at this point, but one option is to find the (Log) button on your calculator and
However, things can get more complicated. Suppose now that you were asked take the Log 1000 and you get 3. So, x = 3, and it is what we expected.
“what number do I have to raise 10 to in order to get 735. All of a sudden the answer
is not very obvious. What is so different about this question? How does this help us with anything? It seems like we went in a big loop, and we
knew the answer to begin with anyway. But, now consider the slightly more compli-
There is actually nothing different about this question. You still can try doing the cated question that we had above. What number do I raise 10 to in order to get
same process, but now the number is not that pretty and it’s not exactly obvious 735? Let us apply the logarithm process to this situation:
how many times you should multiply 10 by itself to get 735. If you multiply it by itself
2 times you get 100, but 3 times gives 1,000 and you have already exceeded 735! Log10 x = Log735
how do we “get out” this power that we need.
x = Log735
Logarithms are at the most basic level -- invented to answer the general question
If you take the Log of 735 on your calculator you get 2.866. So, 10 raised to the
of how does one extract the base or exponent of an algebraic power when one of
these is an unknown. power of 2.866 gives you 735, and the question is answered. Recall that algebraic
powers need not be integers, and we have a clear example of a non--integer power.

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Common Logarithms Natural Logarithms

There are two basic types of logarithms that are important to know. In the previous There is another logarithm that is also useful (and in fact more common in natural
section, where logarithms were defined, you already saw the difinition of one kind processes). Many natural phenonenon are seen to exhibit changes that are either
of logarithms, that was the so called Log Base 10. exponentially decaying (radioactive decay for instance) or exponentially increas-
ing (population growth for example). These exponentially changing functions are

written as ex, where x represents the rate of the exponential.
The logarithmic operation that we have introduced serves the maoin purpose of
extracting the exponents in an algebraic power. This is true of the operation of “tak-
ing the logarithm”. In such cases where exponential changes are involved we usually use another
kind of logarithm called natural logarithm. The natural log can be thought of a logar-
ithm base--e. What this means is that it is a logarithmic operation that when carried
The logarithm of base 10 is most often useful when powers of 10 are involved, but
out on e raised to some power gives us the power itself. This logarithm is
not necessarily. It can be used in many other situations. For instance, suppose you
were asked the following question: 3 raised to what power gives 16.8? Again, ap- labelled with Ln (for “natural log”) and its definition is: Ln(e x) = x.
plying our definition of logarithm of base 10 ass defined in the previous section we
can answer the question but, in order to do this we need to define some rules of Logarithms having a base of e (where ’e’ is a mathematical constant approximately
operation for logarithms. equal to 2.7183) are called hyperbolic or natural logarithms, and loge is often ab-
breviated to “ln”.
You can think if Logarithm Base 10 as the logarithmic operation that when carried
out on 10 raised to some power ends up giving us the power. The log of base 10 The following values may be checked by using a calculator:
is written as : Log 10 . Thus, Log 10(10x) = x. This is the basic definition of base 10
logs. abbreviated to “lg”.
ln 4.73 = 1.5539, ln 278.4 = 5.6290 and ln 0.7642 = --0.2689
The following values may be checked using a calculator:
lg 15.4 = 1.1875, lg 378.2 = 2.577 and lg 0.0241 = --1.6179.

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
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Rules of Logarithms
There are three rules of logarithms, which apply to any base. Rule 3. To raise a number to a power
log A n = n log A
Rule 1. To multilply two numbers
The following may be checked using a calculator

log AB = LogA + log B
lg 5 2 = lg 25 = 1.39794
The following may be checked by using a calculator
lg10 = 1 Also 2 lg 5 = 2(0.69897) = 1.39794
Also lg 5 + lg 2 = 0.69897 + 0.301029
hence lg 5 2 = 2 lg 5.
Hence lg (5 x 2) = lg 10 = lg 5 + lg 2.
Rule 2. To divide two numbers

log A = log A log B
B
The following may be checked using a calculator

ln 5 = ln 2.5 = 0.91629
2
Also ln 5 -- ln 2 = ln 2.5 = 1.60943 -- 0.69314 = 0.91629
Hence ln 5 = ln 5 -- ln 2.
2

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2.1.13. Number Systems Binary to Decimal Conversions

Example:
Binary Convert 1001001 to a Decimal
Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another sys-
Write down the powers of 2, and the number to be converted below them, as
tem called Binary. Binary as the main number systems used by computer
follows:

scientists.
The binary number system is a base 2 number system which uses only the
digits 0 and 1. It is also a place value system which means that each place 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
represents a power of 2, just as the place represents a power of 10 in the deci- 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
mal system.
Then add all the numbers above the 1’s
Powers of 2: 25 24 23 22 21 20 . 2 1 2 2 ie. 64 + 8 + 1 = 73
Decimal No: 32 16 8 4 2 1 . 0.5 0.25
eg: 1010.01 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 . 0 1
The number 1010.01 2 therefore means:
1x8=8
+1 x 2 = 2
+1 X 0.25 = 0.25
So
1010.01 2 = 10.25 10

M 1.2 ALGEBRA
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Decimal to Binary Conversions Octal

Example: Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another sys-
Convert 271 to Binary tem called octal. Like binary, octal is one of the three main number systems
used by computer scientists.
Write down the powers of two up to the next higher number (256 in this case)
than the number to be converted:

The octal number system is base 8 number system which uses only the eight
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. It is also a place value system which means that
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
each place represents a power of 8, just as the place represents a power of 10
Next write in the first digit 1 under the highest number (256). Subtract the 256 in the decimal system.
from 271.
271 -- 256 = 15
Powers of 8; 84 83 82 81 80 . 8 1 8 2
Decimal No: 4096 512 64 8 1 . 0.125 0.015625
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
eg: 237 8 2 3 7 .
1 1 1 1 1
The decimal number 271 10 is therefore 100001111 2
Thus, an octal number such as:
237 8 = 2 × 8 2 + 3 × 8 1 + 7 × 80 = 128 + 24 + 7 = 159 10
Adding Binary Numbers
Add 1100010 to 1000111
Line up the numbers as shown, and add each column starting from the left (as
you would when adding decimal numbers). When two 1’s are added, this would
normally be 2. But 2 is not allowed in binary, so write 0 and carry 1 to the next
column to the left and include it in the addition of the next column.
1100010
+ 1000111
10101001

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Converting Binary to Octal & Octal to Binary

To convert a binary number to an octal number, construct a 3--bit binary / octal So, 11010010 2 = 3228
lookup table like the one below. Starting at the binary decimal point of the bi-
nary number, take the first 3 bits and find the corresponding octal value from
To convert from octal to binary, write down the binary representation of each
the table.
octal digit. Note that each octal digit should take up 3 bits.

Repeat with next 3 bits and so on. If less than 3 bits remain, pad them with 0’s
until there are 3 bits. Again use the table.
Example:
Convert 322 8 to binary
3--bit binary octal
3 = 011
000 0
2 = 010
001 1
2 = 010
010 2
So, 322 8 = 0110100102
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
3--bit binary / octal table
Example:
Convert 11010010 to octal.
1. Take the 3 most right bits, 010 and find the corresponding octal value in the
above lookup table. The octal value is 2.
2. Take the next 3 bits, 010. The corresponding octal value from the lookup
table is 2 again.
3. Now only 2 bits, 11 of the binary number remain. Pad the left hand side with
a 0 to get 011. The corresponding octal from the lookup table is 3.

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Hexadecimal
Every number that can be written in decimal can also be written in another sys- Hexadecimal is also a place value system which means that each place repre-
tem called hexadecimal. Hexadecimal is the last of the three main number sys- sents a power of 16, just as the place represents a power of 10 in the decimal
tems used by computer scientists. system:
The hexadecimal number system is a base 16 number system which uses the

sixteen digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, & F. Here, we need the Powers of 16: 16 3 16 2 16 1 16 0 . 16 1
extra didgits A, B, C, D, E and F to represent the numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
and 15, since there are no digits in the decimal numeral system to do this. Decimal No: 4096 256 16 1 . 0.0625
eg.: 3AF 16 3 A F .
Decimal Hexadecimal
0 0 Thus, a hexadecimal number such as:
1 1 3AF 16 = 3 × 16 2 + 10 × 16 1 + 15 × 160 = 768 + 160 + 15 = 943 10
2 2
3 3 Note: It is much more difficult to convert from decimal to hexadecimal than it is
to convert from hexadecimal to decimal. If you are asked in the exam to do the
4 4
latter, take each answer provided and convert to decimal, until you get the
5 5 number in the question.
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 A
11 B
12 C
13 D
14 E
15 F
Decimal / Hexadecimal Table

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Converting Hexadecimal to Binary & Binary to Hexadecimal

To convert a binary number to an hexadecimal number, construct a 4--bit bi- Example:
nary/hexadecimal lookup table like the one below. Starting at the binary deci- Convert 11010010 to Hexadecimal
mal point of the binary number, take the first 4 bits and find the corresponding
hexadecimal value from the table. Repeat with the next 4 bits and so on. If
1. Take the 4 most right bits, 0010 and find the corresponding hexadecimal

there is less than 4 bits remaining, pad them out to 4 bits.
value in the lookup table. The hexadecimal value is 2.
4--bit Binary Hexadecimal

2. The next 4 bits, 1101 and find the corresponding hexadecimal value in the
0000 0
lookup table. The hexadecimal value is D.
0001 1
0010 2
So, 11010010 2 = D216
0011 3
To convert from hexadecimal to binary, write down the binary representation of
0100 4 each hexadecimal digit. Note that each hexadecimal digit should take up 4 bits.
0101 5
0110 6 Example:
0111 7 Convert 2CF 16 to binary
1000 8
1001 9 2 = 0010
1010 A C = 1100
1011 B F = 1111
1100 C So, 2CF 16 = 0010110011112
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F
4--bit Binary / Hexadecimal Table

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Binary Coded Decimal

The BCD system is a 4--bit system representing a decimal character for use
with digital display readouts. It can also be used for addressing to make it more
convenient for humans to use.

BCD number 1001 0010 0011 0000
Decimal Equivalent 9 2 3 0
Thus, a BCD number such as 1001001000110000 is 4 sets of 4--bit binary

numbers 9, 2, 3 and 0, which when decoded means decimal 9230.

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2.1.14. Test
Solve the following examples:
Binary Hexadecimal
Convert the following Binary numbers to Decimals Convert the following Binary bits to Hexadecimal code
i. 1101.1 ii. 1001110.11 iii. 100100.1 i. 11100001 ii. 101110001111 iii. 11111100

Convert the following Decimal numbers to Binary Convert the following Hexadecimal codes to Binary bits
i. 62 ii. 1,204 iii. 42.25 iv. 51.125 i. 4F ii. 1AC iii. 67 iv. 2A8
Add the following Binary numbers Convert the folloing Hexadecimal codes to Decimal
i. 111 and 100 ii. 10010 and 1101 iii. 10110001 and 11100010 i. 2D ii. 1AF iii. 21A iv. 1AE
Octal
Convert the following Decimal numbers to Hexadecimal codes
Convert the following Binary numbers to Octal
i. 1632 ii. 494 iii. 5174 iv. 67
i. 101010100 ii. 011110100000 iii. 111101001
Convert the following Octal numbers to Binary Binary Code Decimal

i. 1263 ii. 65217 iii. 426 iv. 5625 Convert the following Decimal numbers to BCD
i. 94 ii. 429 iii. 2947 iv. 1736
Convert the following BCD numbers to Decimal

i. 10000101 ii. 011100001001 iii. 001101100100

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3. Geometry
3.1.
Example:

3.1.1. Triangles A right angled triangle has smaller sides of length 5cm and 12cm. What is the
length of the hypotenuse.
Pythagoras Theorem
“In a right angled triangle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides”.
5cm
c2
12cm
c By pythagoras c2 = 122 + 52
b b2
= 144 + 25
= 169
a
c = 169
= 13cm
a2
For the triangle shown:

c2 = a2 + b2
a2 = c2 -- b2
b2 = c2 -- a2
Pythagoras Theorem is particularly useful to you when dealing with vectors in air-
craft theory.

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Pythagoras Theorem can be used to find the height of equilateral and isosceles As an example, we could tip the triangle onto its side and take a new height for it.
triangles (an equilateral triangle has all its sides of equal length and an isosceles
triangle has 2 sides of equal length).
Example:
Find the height of an isosceles triangle which has sides of length 13cm and base

of length 10cm.
13cm 10cm
h2 = 132
-- 52
= 169 -- 25
h2 = 144
13cm 13cm
h = 12cm
13cm
Note now that the base is 13cm long, whereas before 10cm long. The height will
also be a different length, so there is not one height for one triangle, it all depends
on which side you use as your base.
5cm 5cm
10cm
Note: The height is always drawn at right angles to the base and goes to the oppo-
site apex. We can draw the height from any side providing it meets the above re-
quirement, i.e it cuts the chosen base at right angles and goes from the base to
the opposite apex.

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Area of a Triangle Area of a Right--Angled Triangle
To calculate the area of a triangle, we can use the following formula; The height of a right--angled triangle is just one of its sides.
Area = ½ x base x height
Any side can be chosen as base providing you use the corresponding height. Example:

Example:
Using our first example, we had height = 12cm and base = 10cm

= ½ x 10 x 12 Height
= 60cm2
In our second triangle, the lengths of all the sides are the same as our first triangle,
i.e it is the same triangle and therefore has the same area. We can use this fact
to calculate the new height that corresponds to have a base of 13cm. Base
Area = 60 = ½ x base x height = ½ x 3 x 4
60 = ½ x 13 x height = 6cm2
h = 60
6.5
h = 9.23cm Obviously, we could tip the triangle on its side. The 4cm side now becomes the
base and the 3cm side becomes the height. Note, no difference in size of area.

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Using Pythagoras Theorem find the length of the missing side:
i. In a right angled triangle, the length of the shorter sides are 8cm and 15cm.
Calculate the length of the hypotenuse.

ii. The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle has a length of 41mm. One of the other
sides is 9mm long. Calculate the length of the third side.
iii. A right angled triangle has sides of 30cm and 40cm. If the third side is the longest
what is the length.
iv. All the sides of a triangle are 6cm length. What is the vertical height of the
triangle.
v. A triangle has sides which are 12.5cm, 30cm and 32.5cm in length. Is it a right
angled triangle.

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3.1.2. Trigonometry
Trigonometrical ratios
By using pythagoras, you are now able to partially solve right--angled triangles, i.e
you can find the third side of a right--angled triangle when given its other 2 sides.
This chapter is concerned with establishing the basic trigonometrical concepts

which will later enable you to completely solve right--angled triangles, i.e to find all
their 6 elements (angles and sides).
Similar triangles, are triangles which are the same shape, one is simply an enlarge-
ment of the other. Two important properties of similar triangles are:
Now consider the following similar triangles, In both cases side ’c’ is the hypoten-
i. their corresponding angles are equal use.
ii. their corresponding sides are proportional
Taking angle A as the reference:
Consider the triangles:
i. side ’a’ is the side opposite
ii. Side ’b’ is the adjacent
Taking angle B as the reference:
i. Side ’b’ is the side opposite

ii. Side ’a’ is the adjacent side
Since the triangles are similar, the ratios of corresponding sides are constant,
i.e, the ratios ac , bc and a are the same for all similar right--angled triangles.
The above triangles are similar since they are equiangular and the ratios of their b
corresponding sides are constant, i.e.
i. BC = 3 = EF = 6 = 3
AB 5 DE 10 5
ii. AC = 4 = DF = 8 = 4 iii. BC = 3 = EF = 6 = 3
AB 5 DE 10 5 AC 4 DF 8 4

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In a right--angled triangle the ratio: For the triangle shown:
i. sine of angle B ii. cosine of angle B iii. tangent of angle B
i. Side opposite the angle is callled the Sine of the reference angle
hypotenuse

opposite
sin A = = ac
hypotenuse
ii. Side adjacent to the angle is called the Cosine of the reference angle
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos A = = bc
hypotenuse
opp
iii. Side opposite the angle is called the Tangent of the angle i. sin B = = 3 = 0.6
hyp 5
Side adjacent that angle
ajd
ii. cos B = = 4 = 0.8
opposite hyp 5
tan A = =a
adjacent b
opp
iii. tan B = = 3 = 0.75
The above are the fundamental trigonometrical ratios for right--angled triangles adj 4
and must be remembered. A convenient method to help you to remember them
is SOHCAHTOA, where S = sin, C = cos and T = tan.

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We will now calculate the values for 30 and 60 . Consider the equilateral triangle Thus in a right angled triangle ABD:
ABC of sides 2 units.
opp 3
i. sin 60 = = = 1.7321 = 0.8660
hyp 2 2
Line BD bisects ABC and is perpendicular to AC

adj
ii. cos 60 = = 1 = 0.5000
hyp 2
opp 3
iii. tan 60 = = = 1.732
adj 1
opp
iv. sin 30 = = 1 = 0.5000
hyp 2
In triangle ABD, A = 60 , B = 30 and D = 90

adj 3
v. cos 30 = = = 1.7321 = 0.8660
hyp 2 2
opp
vi. tan 30 = = 1 = 0.5774
adj 3
side d = 2 (given)
Side b = 1 (half of AC)
Side a2 = 22 -- 12
a2 = 3

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We can now collect all our information and show graphically how the basic trigono- The Tangent Curve
metrical ratios change as the angle increases from zero to 90 .
The functions all give graphs which are important. You should know how to sketch
them and know how to use them.

3.1.3. The Sine Curve
The Cosine Curve

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Example:
The following example involves the use of trigonometry, or combinations of trig-
onometry and pythagoras, to solve right--angled triangles.
In the right--angled triangle ABC, find angle A and side c.
Angle A

c a 12
b
5
opp
Since = tan, this is the ratio we use
adj
opp
tan A =
adj
tan A = 12
5
tan A = 2.4
A = 67 .23 (after using a calculator)
Side c
by pythagoras,
c2 = a2 + b2
c = 12 2 + 5 2
c = 169 = 13

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For triangle shown, find the sine, cosine and tangent of angles BAC and
ABC.

C
B

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3.1.4. Coordinates & Graphs Example:

The point (3, 2) may be plotted on the coordinate axes as follows
Coordinates
An equation involving two variables can be represented by a graph drawn on
“coordinate axes”. Coordinate axes (see below) consist of a horizontal line (re-
ferred to as the x axis) and a vertical line (referred to as the y axis). The point of

intersection of these two lines is called the origin ( denoted by the letter “O“).
Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the
same on both axes). The origin takes the value zero on both axes. The x axis takes
positive values to the right of th origin and negative values to the left of the origin.
The y axis takes positive values above the origin and negative values below the
origin.
Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two
numbers). The first, the x coordinate, is defined as the horizontal distance of the
point from the y axis, the second, the y coordinate, is defined as the vertical dis-
tance of the point from the x axis.
In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the
form (a, b).

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Graphs
An equation involving two variables can be represented, on coordinate axes, by
means of a graph. For a given range of values of x, the corresponding y values
can be calculated from the equation being considered. The points obtained can
then be plotted and joined together to form the graph.

Before ploting the points on a graph, the axes must be drawn in a way that takes
into account the range of the x--values and the range of the y--values. If graph is
used (which is desireable) you should use a scale that involes a sensible number
of units per square i.e you should use steps of, for example, 1, 2, 5 or 10 etc. units
per square depending on the question. You should avoid using steps along the
axes of, for example 7 or 9 units per square as this can complicate the graph un-
necessarily.
Example:
Draw the graph of y = 2x + 1 between x = 0 and x = 5
By taking the x values 0, 1, 2, ........5, we can calculate the corresponding y values,

as shown below, by first evaluating the component parts of the equation.
x: 0 1 2 3 4 5
2x 0 2 4 6 8 10
+1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y: 1 3 5 7 9 11
We then plot the points obtained, each point being defined by its x coordinate and
its corresponding y coordinate. The points are then joined together to the graph. The value of y therefore depends on the value allocated to x. We therefore call y
the dependent variable. Since we can give x any value, we call x the indepen-
dent variable. It is usual to mark the values of the independent variable along the
horizontal axis (x). The dependent variable values are marked off along the vertical
axis (y).
Equations of the type y = 2x + 1, where the highest powers of the variables, x and
y, are the first are called equations of the first degree. All equations of this type
give graphs which are straight lines and hence they are often called linear equa-
tions. In order to draw graphs of linear equations we need only take two points,
however three points are adviseable.

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Draw graphs of the following functions taking values of x between --3 and
4.
i. y = 2x + 5

ii. y = 3x -- 5
iii. y = x2 -- 6x + 5 (find the roots)
iv. y = 4x3 -- 16x2 -- 16x + 64 (find the roots)

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The Straight Line Graph

A straight line is defined as the shortest distance between two points. Example:
The equation of a straight line is given by:

y = mx + c

Where m represents the slope of the line and c is the point where the line crosses
the y axis (they intercept). The point where the line crosses the x axis is called the
x intercept.
m = Gradient of the line

c = Intercept on the y axis
In this example m = --3 and c = 6
As c = 6, we know that this line cuts the y axis at y = 6 (this can be verified by substi-
tuting x = 0 into the equation of the line, as x = 0 along the y axis)
Similarly, as y = 0 along the x axis, we can substitute y = 0 into the equation of the
line to find where the intersects with the axis (the intercept).
we have, when
y=0
6 -- 3x = 0
3x = 6
Note: in this example m = 2 and c = 0, whenever c = 0 the line will pass through x =2
the origin. Hence the line cuts the x axis at x = 2. We can now say that the y intercept = 6 and
the x intercept = 2.

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Example:
A striaght line parallel to the x axis takes the form y = constant. Similarly, a straight
line parallel to the y axis takes the form x = constant.
These case are illustrated below:

In this example, m = 4 and c = --2.
We know, immediately that the intercept is --2 (the value of c). To find the x inter-
cept, we substitute y = 0 into the equation of the line.
0 = --2 + 4
4x = 2
x = 0.5
Hence the x intercept is x = 0.5.

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Derivation of the Equation of a Straight Line Graph

Given the coordinates of two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) say, we can calculate the Now (1) and (2) give us equations in two unkowns, m and c, ( simultaneous equa-
equation of the straight line that passes through these points. tions) which we can solve.
We have
4=m+c (1)

10 = 3m + c (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2) to eliminate c we obtain 6 = 2m

m=3
Substituting this value of m back into (1) we obtain

4=m+c
4=3+c
c = 4 -- 3
c=1
There are two methods of calculating this equation.
If we now substitute these numerical values of m and c into the equation
Example: y = mx + c, we obtain the equation of the straight line passing through the points
The question is; Find the equation of the striaght line that passes through the (1, 4) and (3, 10).
points (1, 4) and 3, 10). That is:
Method 1: y = 3x + 1
The general equation of a straight line is given by y = mx + c and it is necessary
to find numerical values for m and c.
If the straight line in question passes through the two given points, then each of
these points must satisfy the equation of this straight line. That is, we can substi-
tute the coordinates of each point as follows:
y = mx + c
4=m+c (1)
Likewise, substituting (3, 10) we have

10 = 3m + c (2)

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Method 2:
In general, we can consider any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). The straight line
passing through these points can be written as:
y -- y1 = m (x -- x1)

where m = (y1 -- y2) (m is the gradient of the line)
(x2 -- x1)
Applying this points (1, 4) and (3, 10) we have x1 = 1, y1 = 4, x2 = 3, y2 = 10 and

we hence obtain:
m = 10 -- 4 = 6 = 3
3 -- 1 2
and our line becomes:

y -- 4 = 3(x -- 1)
y -- 4 = 3x -- 3
y = 3x + 1

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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3.1.5. Geometry -- Angles Degrees & Radians -- Measuring Angles

We can specify an angle by using a point on each ray and the vertex. The angle We measure the size of angle using degrees. We can also use radians to measure
below may be specified as angle ABC or as angle CBA; you may also see this angles.
written as ABC or as CBA how the vertex point is always given in the middle.
There are 2 radians in 360 .

The radius of a circle fits around the circumference 6.26 (or 2 ) times.
1 radian = 57.3 degrees. To convert from degrees to radians, use:
n x 2 , where n is the number of degrees.
360
Example:
Here are some examples of angles and their degree measurements. Convert them
to radians.
Many different names exist for the same angle. For the angle below, PBC,
PBW, CBP and WBA are all names for the same angle.

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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Acute Angles Obtuse Angles
An acute angle is an angle measuring between 0 and 90 . An obtuse angle is an angle measuring between 90 and 180 .
Example:
Example:
The following angles are all acute angles
The following angles are all obtuse

Reflex Angles
A reflex angle is an angle measuring between 180 and 360 degrees.
Right Angles
A right angle is an angle measuring 90 . Two lines or line segments that meet at
right angle are said to be perpendicular. Note that any two right angles are supple-
mentary angles (a right angle is its own angle supplement).

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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Complementry Angles Supplementary Angles
Two angles are called complementary angles if the sum of their degree measure- Two angles are called supplementary angles if the sum of their degree measure-
ments equal 90 . One of the complementary angles is said to be the complement ments equal 180 . One of the supplementry angles is said to be the supplemen-
of the other. tary of the other.
Example:

Example:
These two angles are complementary
These two angles are supplementry.
Note that these two angles can be “pasted” together to form a right angle.
Note that these two angles can be “pasted” together to form a straight line.

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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Vertical Angles Alternate Exterior Angles
For any two lines that meet, such as in the diagram below, angle AEB and angle For any pair of parallel lines 1 and 2, that are both intersected by a third line, such
DEC are called vertical angles. Vertical angles have the same degree measure- as line 3 in the diagram below, angle A and angle D are called alternate angles.
ment. Angle BEC and angle AED are also vertical angles. Alternate angles have the same degree measurement. Angle B and angle C are
also alternate exterior angles.

Alternate Interior Angles
For any pair of parallel lines 1 and 2, that are both intersected by a third line, such Corresponding Angles
as line 3 in the diagram below, angle A and angle D are called alternate interior For any pair of parallel lines 1 and 2, that are both intersected by a third line, such
angles. Alternate interior angles have the same degree measurement. Angle B as line 3 in the diagram below, angle A and angle C are called corresponding
and angle C are also alternate interior angles. angles. Corresponding angles have the same degree measurement. Angle B and
angle D are also corresponding angles.

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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M1
Angle Bisector
An angle bisector is a ray that divides an angle into two equal angles.
Example:
The central ray on the right is the angle bisector of the angle on the left.

The centre ray on the right is the angle bisector of the angle on the left.

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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3.1.6. Circles ii. In a circle or in congruent circles, if two chords are the same distance from the
centre, then they are congruent.
Chords & Radii Using these theorems in action is seen in the example below.
All the “parts” of a circle, such as the radius, the diameter, etc, have a relationship Find CD.
with the circle or another “part” that can always be expressed as a theorem. The
two theorems that deal with chords and radii (pulral raduis) are outlined below.

i. If a radius of a circle is perpendicular to a chord, then the radius bisects the chord.
Here’s a graphical representation of this theorem:
OC = radius
AB = chord
Given: circle R is congruent to circle S.
chord AB = 8
RM = SN
Solution -- By theorem number ii above, segment AB is congruent to segment CD.

Therefore, CD equals 8.

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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M1
Tangents Congruent Arcs
The tangent being discussed here is not the trigonometrical ratio. This kind of tan- Congruent arcs are acrs that have the same degree measure and are in the same
gent is a line or line segment that touches the perimeter of a circle at one point only circle or in congruent cirles. Arcs are very important and let us find out a lot about
and is perpendicular to the radius that contains the point. circles. Two theorems involving arcs and their central angles are outlined below.
Example:

i. For a circle or for congruent circles, if two minor arcs are congruent, then their
Find the value of x.
central angles are congruent.
Given: segment AB is tangent to circle C at B.
ii. For a circle or for congruent circles, if two central angles are congruent then their
arcs are congruent.
Example:
x
Solution: x is a radius of the circle. Since x contains B, and AB is a tangent seg-

ment, x must be perpendicular to AB (the definition of a tangent tells us that).
If it is perpendicular, the triangle formed by x, AB and CA is a right triangle.
Use Pythagoras Theorem to solve for x.
15 2 + x 2 = 17
Arc PQ and arc QR are congruent. Angle POQ and angle QOR are congruent
x 2 = 64 (they are supplemental and since POQ = 90 ). Theorem i.
x=8
Angle POQ and angle QOR are congruent. Arc PQ and arc QR have to be congru-
ent by theorem ii.

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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M1
Inscribed Angles
An inscribed angle is an angle with its vertex on a circle and with sides that contain Example:
chords of the circle. The figure below shows an inscribed angle. Find the measure of each arc or angle listed below.
Note; A right angled triangle fitted inside a semicircle, the other 2 angles must be
30 and 60 . arc QSR; angle Q and angle R.

The most important theorem dealing with inscribed angles is stated below.
The inscribed angle is equal to ½ its intercepted arc.

Solution:
Arc QSR is 180 because it is twice its inscribed angle( angle QPR, which is 90 )
Angle Q is 60 because it is half of its intercepted arc, which is 120 .
Angle R is 30 by the triangle Sum Theorem which says a triangle has three angles
that equal 180 when added together.
In the last problem, you noticed that angle P is inscribed in semicircle QPR and
angle P = 90 . This leads to our next theorem, which is stated below.
Any angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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The one last theorem dealing with inscribed angles is a bit more complicated be-
cause it deals with quadrilaterals too.
If a quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle, then both pairs of opposite angle are sup-
plementary.
Example

Find the measure of arc GDE.
Solution:
By the theorem stated above, angle D and angle F are supplementary. Therefore,
angle F equals 95 . The first theorem discussed in this section tells us the arc is
twice that of its inscribed angle. With that theorem, arc GDE is 190 .

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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M1
Circumference & Arc Length
When dealing with circles the circumference, or the distance around a circle. The Solution:
circumference of a circle equals 2 times times the radius. This is usually repre-
L= n 2 r
sented by the following equation (where C represents circumference and r stands 360
for radius):

= 24 2 5
C=2 r 360
= 240
360
For example, if a circle has a radius of 3, the circumference of the circle is 6 .
Also, you can find the length of any arc when you know its angle and the radius the length of the arc is 2 cm, or 2.1 cm
3
with the following formula.
L = length, n = degree measure of arc, r = radius, L= n 2 r

360
Example:
find the length of a 24 arc of a circle with a 5cm radius.

M 1.3 GEOMETRY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
M1 MATHEMATICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2.1.3. Addition & Substraction of Algebraic Terms . . . . 43
2.1.4. Multiplication & Division Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1. ARITHMETIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1.5. Muliplication & Division of Algebraic Quantities . 44
1.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1.6. Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.1.1. Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1.7. Factorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.1.2. Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.1.8. Factors of Quadratic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.1.3. Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.1.9. Algebraic Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.1.4. Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2.1.10. Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.1.5. Signed Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.1.11. Quadratic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.1.6. Common Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2.1.12. Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.1.7. Decimals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.1.13. Number Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.1.8. Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.14. Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.1.9. Ratio & Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3. Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1.10. Power and Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.1.11. Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1.12. Tranposition of Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 3.1.1. Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.1.13. Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 3.1.2. Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.1.14. Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 3.1.3. The Sine Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1.1.15. Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3.1.4. Coordinates & Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.2. Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.1.5. Geometry -- Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.1.6. Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2. ALGEBRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.1. Use of Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.2. Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
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hundreds tens ones

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1st method: take 8 from 15. We have 7 left.

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1.1.3. Multiplication Example:

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ii. 18.098 + 210.099 ii. 1.27 x 0.871

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iv. 1.09 x 104 + 1.2 x 102 iv. 27.3 x --9.31

v. 27.3 + 0.021 + 68.3 v. 1.09 x 104 x 1.2 x 102

ii. 21.76 -- 18.51 ii. 0.1254 ÷ 0.057

iii. 32.76 -- 20.086 iii. 0.6875 ÷ 22

iv. 10.75 -- 19.999 -- 21.100 iv. 24.024 ÷ 4.62

v. 1.09 x 104 -- 1.2 x 102 v. 1.09 x 104 ÷ 12

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1.1.5. Signed Numbers

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25 25 Dividing Signed Numbers

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1.1.6. Common Fractions

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Example: Reduce 21 to its lowest terms

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Comparing the Size of Fractions Adding & Subtracting Fractions

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Two fractions to be subtracted which do not do have the same denominator, a

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Mixed numbers must be converted into improper fractions before multiplying.

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Convert the following mixed numbers to improper fractions:

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Add the following fractions:

Subtract the following fractions:

Multiply and simplify the following fractions:

Divide and simplify the following fractions:

i. 4 ÷ 1 1 ii. 2 1 ÷ 3 3 iii. 5 ÷ 5 1 iv. 1 2 ÷ 3 ÷ 9 v. 2 8 ÷ 1 2 + 1

Arrange the following sets of fractions in order of size:

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1.1.7. Decimals Adding Decimals

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27.6 one decimal point

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Subtracting Decimals Dividing Decimals

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The division shows that 9 = 0.5625 and hence 2 9 = 2.5625.