Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125

www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Size effects in the analysis of reinforced concrete structures

Roberto D. Rios, Jorge D. Riera

Civil Engineering Department, PPGEC, School of Engineering, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil

Received 27 May 2003; accepted 31 March 2004

Abstract

The mechanical properties of engineering materials are routinely determined by testing. In practice, the dimensions of structural
elements are often much larger than those of the samples that, for technical or economic reasons, can be subjected to laboratory
testing. Consequently, testing is usually conducted on reduced scale models or material samples. At the same time, available the-
ories of material behavior that predict size or strain rate effects are receiving increasing attention in the technical literature. How-
ever, finite element models or similar representations, used for engineering predictions of the strength or loading capacity of large
structures, rarely consider the influence of scale.
The so-called discrete element method (DEM), in which a solid is replaced by a three-dimensional lattice of one-dimensional
elements linking lumped nodal masses, has been extensively used to determine the dynamic response of concrete structures sub-
jected to loads that produce fracture and fragmentation. In this paper, it is shown how the two major causes of size effects,
namely the non-homogeneous character of the materials and the occurrence of fracture, can be incorporated in the analysis, in
order to improve the prediction capability of the method. The latter is validated by numerically analyzing geometrically similar
reinforced concrete beams, tested to rupture by Leonhart and Walter (1965). Those tests were later reproduced by Ramallo et al.
(1993). Both the non-homogeneous character of concrete and steel were taken into account in the DEM, by assuming that the
initial modulus and specific fracture energy are random fields in three-dimensional space. The constitutive criteria for the lattice
elements, employed earlier by the authors to account for the energy dissipated by fracture, is adopted in the paper, with improve-
ments in the consideration of the cross-correlation between relevant variables. As additional evidence of the reliability of the
approach, the discrete numerical model was also used to numerically simulate experimental results due to Vliet et al. (2000),
aimed at quantifying the influence of sample size on the tensile strength of concrete.
# 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Size effects; Concrete; Reinforced concrete; Discrete model

1. Introduction ciencies of the assumption, when used for predictive

In classical theories of solid mechanics it is assumed
that material properties, such as the tensile or com-
pressive strengths, exist and are not scale dependent. In
engineering practice such properties, measured on stan-
dard samples of the material, are usually assumed
applicable to structural elements whose size greatly dif-
fers from those of the test samples. There are few
exceptions to this contention such as, for instance,
some recent code recommendations for the evaluation
of the ultimate shear of concrete beams. The defi-


Corresponding author. Fax: +55 (51) 3316 3999.
E-mail addresses: riera@cpgec.ufrgs.br (J.D. Riera), rrios@ppgec.
ufrs.br (R.D. Rios).
0141-0296/$ - see front matter # 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2004.03.012
purposes, had already been of concern for Leonardo
da Vinci [1] and is at the center of current debates on
the modeling of rupture in solids [2]. Nevertheless, the
explicit consideration of size is still far from being com-
mon practice in structural design.
An important contribution to the understanding of
physical aspects of the problem was presented by
Griffth [3] who, in establishing the fundaments of frac-
ture mechanics, unveiled one of the relevant features of
the phenomenon of rupture in solids. Following an
entirely different line of reasoning, Weibull [4]
explained the commonly observed reduction of the fail-
ure stress of structural elements with size, as a conse-
quence of the random distribution of the local material
properties. Weibull’s approach is clearly not valid for
1116 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125
fragile materials, in which well-defined cracks occur, or
in materials that present localized damaged zones.
These include many engineering materials such as con-
crete, mortars, asphalt mixtures or rocks. Within this
group, cement concrete has possibly been the most
widely used material in the last century and has in
consequence attracted considerable attention. In this
connection, relevant studies, such as those due to
Kaplan [5], date back to the second half of last cen-
tury. Between 1976 and 1978, Hilleborg et al. [6],
inspired in the concept of softening and in the process
of plastic fracture, proposed the fictitious crack model,
which had a decisive influence in further developments,
while Bažant [7] introduced the cracked band model to
explain size effects in concrete. Afterwards, Bažant
[13,14] derived simple expressions to account for the
influence of size on the nominal failure strength of fra-
gile materials, such as concrete subjected to static load-
ings.
A quite different approach to the so-called size effect
was proposed by Carpinteri et al. [8–11], justified by
the apparently fractal properties of fissures in several
materials. Carpinteri suggests that the difference
between the fractal characteristics of cracks and micro-
cracks at different observation scales constitutes the
main cause of size effects in concrete, notion that is
strongly questioned by Bažant [7,13].
In summary, three basic phenomena have been poin-
ted out as responsible for size effects in the mechanical
properties of engineering material: (a) the random dis-
tribution of local material properties (Weibull
approach), (b) the energy necessary to form the new
surfaces that bound cracks, in linear elastic fracture
mechanics (LEFM) or other related theories, including
damage and fracture band models, (c) the theory of
fractals. Models that incorporate more than one basic
cause of size effects have already been discussed in the
technical literature [14]. The objective of this paper is
to describe the methodology necessary to consider the
causes responsible for size effects in a discrete, numeri-
cal formulation that has proved both powerful and
efficient for determining the response of concrete struc-
tures to short-time dynamic loading. Consideration of
the influence of scale is considered an essential feature
of methods of analysis used to predict the strength, i.e.
the failure loads, of large size structures, such as
nuclear power plants containment buildings and other
containment structures, dams or bridges. The preceding
discussion aims at bringing the issue, which is not part
of current engineering practice, into proper focus.
It must be mentioned at this point that most pre-
vious developments in this area were based on the
basic assumptions of Continuum Mechanics, or aimed
at applications of methods of analysis founded on
those assumptions, as for instance, finite (FEM) or
boundary element (BEM) methods. A comprehensive
discussions of size and strain rate effects on the mech-
anical properties of solids, from a continuum standpoint,
was recently presented by Morquio [15]. Morquio and
Riera [16,17], also furnish experimental evidence for
the tensile strength of mild steel.
As anticipated above, an alternative model [12,25],
based on the representation of solids as a three-dimen-
sional lattice of uniaxial elements, has been successfully
used in the last two decades for purposes of dynamic
analysis of structures subjected to fracturing and frag-
mentation, phenomena that are typical of the failure
stage of reinforced concrete structures. Iturrioz and
Riera [18–20], Rios [21], Rios and Riera [22] used the
model in conjunction with explicit numerical inte-
gration of the equations of motion. In addition to its
simplicity and flexibility, this approach permits the sim-
ultaneous consideration of causes (a) and (b) of size
effects, indicated before, and may be reliably used for
prediction purposes. This paper describes the basic fea-
tures of the method, as well as its validation in connec-
tion with the quantification of size effects, by the
numerical determination of the response of reinforced
concrete beams of various sizes tested in Germany and
Argentina and, in addition, of unreinforced specimens
of various sizes subjected to tension, tested in Holland.
It is shown that the influence of scale, as well as the
inherent variability of the experimental results, are cor-
rectly accounted for, thus validating the approach for
the numerical analysis of concrete structures liable to
experience such effects.
2. The discrete element model of solids (DEM)
The approach is based on the representation of a
solid by an arrangement of elements able to carry only
axial loads. The cubic arrangement shown in Fig. 1,
consists of a cell with eight nodes at its corners plus a
central node. Nayfeh and Hefzy [23] determined the
properties of an equivalent orthotropic elastic con-
tinuum, in order to model panels made of large num-
bers of small interconnected bars, widely employed in
the aeronautical industry. Thus, plate or shell finite
elements (FEM) for orthotropic materials could be
used with considerable reduction in the size of the
resulting FE models. The discrete elements represen-
tation of the orthotropic continuum was adopted by
the authors to solve structural dynamics problems by
means of explicit direct numerical integration of the
equations of motion, assuming the mass lumped at the
nodes. Each node has three degrees of freedom, corre-
sponding to the nodal displacements in the three
orthogonal coordinate directions. For a cubic arrange-
ment, the lengths
pffiffiffi of longitudinal and diagonal elements
are Lo and 3=2 Lo , respectively. The equivalence
between the orthotropic elastic solid with the ortho-
 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125 1117

Fig. 1. Cubic arrangements of discrete elements: (a) cubic cell, (b) and (c) structural models.

tropy axes oriented in the direction parallel to the

longitudinal elements of the discrete elements model
was verified by Hayashi [24], through extensive numeri-
cal experimentation. The equations that relate the
properties of the elements with the elastic constants of
an isotropic medium are:
9v
d¼
ð48vÞ
L2 ð9 þ 8dÞ
EAn ¼ o E ð1Þ
Fig. 2. Bi-linear constitutive law for fragile material.
2 ð9 þ 12dÞ
2An
EAd ¼ pffiffiffi
3 elasticity, as well as in elastic instability problems, was
in which E and v denote Young’s modulus and Pois- verified by Hayashi [24]. More recently, Rocha [26] and
son’s coefficient, respectively, while An and Ad rep- Rocha and Riera [27] extended the method to the
resent the areas of normal and diagonal elements, as analysis of fracture and/or non-linear material beha-
shown in Fig. 1a. It is important to point out that for vior in reinforced concrete structures and also for soil–
v ¼ 0:25, the discrete model predictions exactly cement admixtures. In those references, as well as in
coincide with the isotropic continuum formulation, the present paper, the relation between stress and strain
while for other values of v small errors appear in the in the material was assumed bi-linear, as indicated in
shear terms, which may nevertheless be neglected. In Fig. 2. The limit strain er is determined to satisfy the
addition, note that the extreme cases, v ¼ 0 and condition that, upon rupture of the element, once the
v ¼ 0:5, for which the model cannot be used, are not strain reaches the value er, a given amount of energy is
physically feasible. The resulting equations of motion liberated. This energy equals the product of the frac-
may be written in the well-known form: tured area Af, which depends on the correlation length

Lc of the process, and the specific fracture energy Gf,
€ þ C~
Mx F r ðtÞ  ~
x_ þ ~ PðtÞ ¼ 0 ð2Þ
which is in turn a material property. The previously
in which x represents the vector of generalized nodal mentioned criterion for evaluating the energy dissi-
displacements, M the diagonal mass matrix; C the pated is based on the assumption that just one fracture
damping matrix, ~ F r ðtÞ the vector of internal forces act- can occur between two adjacent nodes, which is gener-
ing on the nodal masses and ~ PðtÞ the vector of external ally the case for small lengths Lc in static or pseudo-
forces. The explicit central finite differences scheme is static problems.1 Another important feature of the
used to integrate Eq. (2) in the time domain. Since the
nodal coordinates are altered at every time step, large 1
The material parameters are not independent on the mesh size.
displacements can be considered in a natural and In high velocity impact problems, for example, higher values of the
efficient manner. The convergence of solutions specific fracture energy have to be used to account for the occurrence
obtained with discrete element method (DEM) in linear of multiple cracks between nodes.
1118 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125
approach is the assumption that all material properties,
such as E and Gf, are not constant throughout the struc-
ture, but random fields. The characteristics of these ran-
dom fields are part of the so-called constitutive criteria
of the material and influence its response under load.
This work uses the spectral representation method for
the simulation of three-dimensional homogeneous
stochastic fields [34], which provides one value of the
simulated variable at each point in a previously dis-
cretized field. It is necessary to specify the stochastic
characteristics of the field to be simulated, such as the
power spectral density function Sf or the autocorrela-
tion function Rf. The latter was herein assumed to be
an exponential function of distance, with a single para-
meter, the correlation length Lc. Although this is an
area of ongoing research, the specification of each rel-
evant field spectral content by means of a single para-
meter, its correlation length, seems to be sufficient for
engineering purposes. One of the authors determined
the correlation length for the compressive strength of
concrete in bored piles, which was found to be equal to
2.5 times the maximum aggregate size. This may be
considered as indicative of the correlation lengths for
the fields that characterize E and Gf, for concrete,
which are usually assumed to vary between two or
three times the maximum aggregate size. Various
examples of the DEM used to model concrete and rein-
forced concrete structures may be found in [19–22].
3. Experimental assessment of size effect in
reinforced concrete beams and discrete element
modeling of tested beams
One of the most valuable sets of data on the influ-
ence of scale on the strength of reinforced concrete
structures is due to Leonhart et al. [28], who tested in
Sttuttgart four scaled models of a beam. Afterwards,
Ramallo et al. [29–31] reproduced the Sttuttgart tests
in a carefully conducted experimental program. Herein,
the DEM is used to numerically reproduce the experi-
mental results mentioned above, which furnish impor-
tant evidence on size effects in concrete. For such
purpose, the tests of Leonhart and Walther Series D
beams were simulated. Dimensions and material
properties are indicated in Table 1.
The tested beams had full geometrical similarity,
with constant reinforcement ratio. Thus, the rebar dia-
meters were proportional to the exterior beam dimen-
sions. The beams slenderness was l=h ¼ 100=15 ¼ 6:7.
All dimensions kept the ratios D1:D2:D3:D4 equal to
1:2:3:4, respectively. Conformed and straight steel
rebars were used (Bst IIIb) with no shear reinforcement
or stirrups. The diameters were 6, 12, 18 and 24 mm,
respectively, which results in 1.62% steel ratio for all
beams. Loads were applied symmetrically at two
Table 1
Material properties in numerical models
Property
E (Ec) (MPa) 2:5  10
fck (MPa) 38
ftk (MPa) 3.80
E (Gf) (N m) 120.0
fsy (MPa) 495.0
CV(Gf) (%) 35
CV(Ec) (%) 35
q (Kg/m3) 2500
m 0.20
Lo (m) 0.02667
E( ) and CV denote expected value and coefficient of variation,
respectively).
points, as shown in Fig. 3. At points of load appli-
cation and at the supports, scaled steel plates were
fixed with cement mortar to the beams, to distribute
the loads and reactions.
Ramallo et al. [28] introduced minor alterations in
the tests set-up, which are described below:
1. To maintain the steel percentage constant, while
using commercially available diameters, three
instead of two rebars were used in some of the
models.
2. Concrete compressive strength was determined on
cylindrical rather than cubic specimens.
3. Loads were applied in five to seven increments, ver-
ifying at each stage the degree of cracking. The evol-
ution of the applied loads with time is shown in
Fig. 4.
4. An electronic measuring system was used, which
allowed a detailed monitoring of the response, not
possible in the Sttuttgart tests.
The models used in the DEM simulations had the
dimensions and reinforcement reported by Ramallo
et al. [29–31]. In order to reproduce the laboratory
equipment, which was relatively stiff, time-dependent
displacements were specified at the load application
points, in accordance with the velocity of the hydraulic
system.
Table 1 indicates the parameters for the simulation
of the mechanical properties in the numerical studies,
as well as the element sizes. The number of elements
employed in the numerical simulation are presented in
Table 2.
The reinforcement used by Ramallo et al. [29–31]
was simulated in the numerical models in detail. Note
that there were slight differences in the reinforcement
distribution between the Leonhart and Ramallo beams.
Since Refs. [28–32] do not include information on the
rate of loading, it was assumed that the points of
load application displaced with a constant velocity of
 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125 1119

Fig. 3. Dimensions of models tested by Ramallo [30].

Fig. 4. Evolution of loads with time for the numerical models of beams D1 to D4.
1120 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125
Table 2
Number of elements employed in numerical DEM models
Model M N L method of loading—applied loads or applied displace-
D1 28 3 4
D2 55 5 7
D3 82 7 10
D4 109 9 13
0.015 m/s, which should not perceptibly alter the
response in relation to the velocities actually used in
the tests, but results in a significant reduction of the
computational effort. The time step in the explicit
numerical integration scheme was 4:9  106 s, which
assured numerical stability.
The predicted cracking patterns and deformations
are shown in Figs. 5–8 for models D1, D2, D3, and
D4, respectively. In these figures, elements that remain
linearly elastic and damaged elements are represented
in black and gray, respectively. Broken (failed) ele-
ments were removed from the graphs.
The dimensions of the beams tested in Sttuttgart and
Tucumán, as well as the experimental results, are sum-
marized in Table 5. The numerical predictions resulting
from the simulations with the DEM models are pre-
sented in Table 6. The ultimate load (Pu) for each case
is given in column 12, while column 13 indicates the
corresponding shear forces (Vu). The ultimate shear
stress, calculated by means of Eq. (3) is presented in
column 14, while the peak compressive stress in con-
crete, defined by Eq. (4) is presented in column 17 of
Tables 3 and 4.
Vu
s0 ¼ ð3Þ
0:85
b
h
Msu
rsu ¼ ð4Þ
b
h2
It is interesting to mention that a parallel numerical
analysis was conducted to simulate the tests described
above for applied loads, assumed to be linear functions
of time, rather than under the velocity controlled con-
ditions assumed above. Negligible differences in the
values of the computed ultimate loads for the various
beams were observed, but significant changes in the
Fig. 5. Crack patterns in model D1: (a) before peak load is reached and (b) at time when peak.
cracking patterns, that is, in the failure modes were
recorded (See Figs. 9–12). This suggests that the
ments—may in some structures result in perceptible
differences in the experimentally determined load
capacity.
4. Experimental assessment of size effect in concrete
elements subjected to tension
Experimental studies of the size effect typically
involve bodies subjected to homogeneous, uniaxial
stress fields, in order to avoid the presence of other
potentially relevant factors, such as stress gradients. In
order to achieve this objective, Vliet et al. [33]
employed samples with the form of a bone, which
result in an approximately uniform tensile stress in its
central region, where rupture occurs, thus avoiding the
influence of the grips that fix the samples to the testing
machine. In this section, the samples tested by Vliet
et al. [33] will be modeled using the DEM as further
evidence of the reliability and robustness of the
approach. The testing samples were built with concrete
with a maximum aggregate size of 8 mm and character-
istic cubic compressive strength equal to 50 MPa. The
thickness of all samples herein reported was 100 mm,
corresponding to the five larger samples tested by Vliet
et al. [33]. The length of the discrete elements in the
numerical analysis was Lo ¼ 0:02 m. The dimensions of
the samples are indicated in Fig. 13. Vliet et al. [33]
performed four tests for each model size, in order to
assess the variability of the experimental results, which
contain extremely relevant information. In this numeri-
cal study, the outcome of five or six simulations for
each model size are reported. In the simulation analy-
sis, the testing conditions were reproduced as closely as
possible, including prescribed displacements of the
hydraulic system of load application, with constant
rate throughout the tests. In this connection, it is
important to point out that the experimental displace-
ment rate was 0.028 lm/s, until displacements of the
order of 200–300 lm were reached. Such low velocity
would require an excessively long processing time,
 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125 1121

Thus, a larger displacement rate was initially used, and

Fig. 6. Crack patterns in model D2: (a) below the maximum load,
(b) at the time of failure and, (c) final configuration, after failure.
which with an integration step Dt ¼ 3:0  106 s was
not economically feasible for the available hardware.
further reduced down to 0.048 mm/s, rate at which the
response appeared to the independent of the loading
rate and hence representative of the quasi-static experi-
mental conditions. The mechanical properties used in
the simulation of concrete are given in Table 5.
Fig. 14 presents the failure pattern for one simula-
tion of case D. The undamaged elements are repre-
sented in black, elements within the softening region in
gray and fractured elements eliminated from the graph.
Note that on account of the shape selected in the
experimental program, rupture occurs in the central
region of the model, fact that renders the numerical
modeling of the entire testing sample unnecessary.
The mean value of the failure stress obtained in the
simulation study are presented in Table 6 and Fig. 15,

Fig. 7. Crack patterns in model D3: (a) below the maximum load, (b) at the time of failure and, (c) final configuration, after failure.

Fig. 8. Crack patterns in model D4: (a) below the maximum load, (b) final configuration, after failure.

Table 3
Dimensions, loads and stresses measured in beams tested in Stuttgart and Tucumán

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Laboratory Beam L av h b As l (%) fc M/Vh Pc Failure
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) (MPa) (kN)
Pu (kN) Vu s0 Msu reu rsu Mean
(kN) (MPa) (kN m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Stuttgart, D1/1 520 210 70 50 2U6 1.71 38.0 3 5.33 14.9 7.4 2.48 1.56 434 6.34
Germany D1/2 520 210 70 50 2U6 1.71 38.0 3 4.48 14.7 7.3 2.44 1.54 428 6.28 6.31
D2/1 1040 420 140 100 2U12 1.66 38.2 3 12.0 43.2 21.6 1.82 9.1 323 4.65
D2/2 1040 420 140 100 2U12 1.66 38.2 3 11.2 47.4 23.7 1.99 9.9 352 5.05 4.85
D3/1 1560 630 210 150 2U18 1.62 39.4 3 24.0 94.6 47.3 1.77 29.8 319 4.50
D3/2 1560 630 210 150 2U18 1.62 39.4 3 22.0 90.8 43.7 1.63 27.5 294 4.16 4.33
D4/1 2080 840 280 200 2U24 1.67 36.1 3 36.9 151 75.5 1.59 63.4 278 4.04
D4/2 2080 840 280 200 2U24 1.67 36.1 3 31.0 141 72.7 1.53 61.0 268 3.89 3.96
Tucumán, D1/1 520 210 70 50 2U6 1.60 37.3 3 4.67 13.8 6.9 2.3 1.45 435 5.92 –
Argentina D2/1 1040 420 140 100 2U12 1.61 37.3 3 11.4 52.5 26.3 2.21 11.0 409 5.61 –
D3/1 1560 630 210 150 2U16 1.63 37.3 3 22.9 93.1 46.6 1.74 29.4 320 4.44 –
1U12
D4/1 2080 840 280 200 3U20 1.68 37.3 3 38.0 147.5 73.8 1.55 62.0 277 3.95 –
1122 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125

Table 4
Data for simulation analysis and computed response

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Beam L av h b As l (%) fc M/Vh Pc Failure
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) (MPa) (kN)
Pu Vu s0 Msu reu rsu Mean
(kN) (kN) (MPa) (kN m) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Simulation D1/1 520 210 70 50 2U6 1.60 37.3 3 6.87 13.8 6.9 2.31 1.45 – 5.06 –
D2/1 1040 420 140 100 2U12 1.61 37.3 3 8.16 51.5 25.75 2.16 10.81 – 5.51 –
D3/1 1560 630 210 150 2U16
1.63 37.3 3 25.0 91.6 45.8 1.71 28.85 – 4.36 –
D4/1 2080 840 280 200 3U20 1.68 37.3 3 34.9 145.5 72.75 1.53 61.11 – 3.87 –

Fig. 9. Crack patterns in model D1: (a) below the maximum load, (b) at the time of failure and, (c) final configuration, after failure.

Fig. 10. Crack patterns in model D2: (a) below the maximum load, (b) at the time of failure and, (c) final configuration, after failure.

which include the experimental values reported by van
Vliet et al. [33]. It may be seen that the agreement is
excellent, not only in terms of expected values but also
in terms of inherent variability. This global agreement
confirms that the present approach may be reliably
used to predict the influence of size effects on the
response of plain or reinforced concrete structures sub-
jected to arbitrary loading conditions.
5. Comments on the predictions of size effects on
structural response
The results presented in the last two sections clearly
show that the numerical analysis with the discrete
model representation is capable of quantifying size
effects due to the combined influence of materials het-
erogeneity and fracture. Fig. 16 shows the reduction of
the ultimate stress in concrete with a reference dimen-
sion of the model (h, for example). Exponential
regression models for the experimental and theoretical
results are also indicated in the figure. The regression
coefficients are almost identical. Similar information in
connection with the shear stress at failure is presented
in Fig. 17, while Fig. 18 shows the evolution of the
ultimate load with the reference length h, for both the
tested and simulated structures. Similar behavior is
observed in plain concrete or in mortar subjected to
tensile stresses, as shown in Fig. 15. The correlation
 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125 1123

Fig. 11. Cracking patterns for model D3 under applied loading: (a) before reaching the ultimate load, (b) and (c) rupture configurations.

Fig. 12. Cracking patterns for model D4 under applied loading: (a) before reaching the ultimate load, (b) rupture configurations.

Fig. 13. Dimensions of models tested by van Vliet et al. [13].

between numerical predictions and the experimental

Table 5
evidence due to Vliet et al. [33] is also excellent, both in Mechanical properties of concrete in numerical analysis
terms of expected value and standard deviation.
Property
It is germane to recall at this point that the model of
reinforced concrete structures employed in the analysis fck (MPa) 45
ftk (MPa) 4.5
does not account for bond failure of the steel rebars, or E(Ec) (N/m2) 3:5  10
for the influence of their bending stiffness, as for E(Gf) (N/m) 100.00
example, in the so-called dowel action. Moreover, slid- q (kg/m3) 2400
ing with friction along pre-existing fractures, which m 0.18
CV(Gf) 0.30
plays an important role in the unloading branch of the CV(Ec) 0.30
apparent stress–strain curve of concrete in the uniaxial Lo (m) 0.02
compression test, is expected to be characterized by a Rf 1.15
different size effect law. None of these effects is con- (E( ) and CV denote expected value and coefficient of variation,
sidered relevant in the examples presented. respectively).
1124 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125

Table 6
Comparison of numerical simulation with experimental results: mean
and S.D. (in brackets)

Model rN (MPa) Load (kN)

DEM
DEM van Vliet [33]
B 2.83 (0.180) 2.97 (0.180) 17.0 (1.810)
C 2.78 (0.150) 2.75 (0.210) 33.3 (4.200)
D 2.31 (0.035) 2.30 (0.090) 55.5 (0.900)
E 2.16 (0.130) 2.07 (0.120) 104.0 (6.207)
F 1.88 (0.091) 1.86 (0.160) 179.0 (8.710)

Fig. 16. Relation between the ultimate compressive stress and the
size of the model.

Fig. 17. Relation between the ultimate shear stress and the size of
the model.

Fig. 14. Failure pattern for one simulation of case D.

Fig. 18. Relation between the ultimate load and the size of the
model.

6. Conclusions

It has been shown that size effects can be reliably

Fig. 15. Relation between nominal failure stress and size of element.
accounted for in the numerical determination of the
static or dynamic response of structures if (a) the het-
erogeneous nature of the materials involved and (b) the
energy dissipated by fracture, are correctly modeled.
The discrete element approach (DEM) presents for
such purposes distinct advantages, shared by other
 R.D. Rios, J.D. Riera / Engineering Structures 26 (2004) 1115–1125
numerical methods, in relation to Continuum Mech-
anics formulations, in its simplicity and facility of com-
puter implementation. In fact, it relieves the analyst
from the task of establishing the characteristic lengths
applicable to the structure, to allow the use of empiri-
cal expressions for the strength reduction with size,
which is particularly difficult in case of multi-material
structures, as for instance, reinforced concrete, or for
complex stress states.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the support of
CNPq and CAPES (Brazil).
References
[1] Leonardo da Vinci, 1500s. Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci.
London: Edward McCurdy; 1945 [546] and Les Manuscrits de
Léonard da Vinci [French translatetion by Ravaisson-Mollien
C.]. vol. 3. Inst de France; 1881–1891.
[2] Benallal A, Proença SPB, editors. Recent developments in the
modelling of rupture in solids. Proceedings of the International
Symposium held at Foz de Iguaçu, Brazil, August. ENS Cachan
(France) and USP/Saõ Carlos (Brazil); 2003.
[3] Griffth AA. Phenomena of rupture and flow in solids. Philos
Trans 1920;221A:179–80.
[4] Weibull W. Statistical representation of fatigue failures in solids.
Proceedings, Royal Society, London IT27, 1949.
[5] Kaplan MF. Crack propagation and the fracture concrete. ACI
J 1961;58(11).
[6] Hilleborg A. A model for fracture analysis. Cod. LUTVDG/TV
BM-30051-8. 1978.
[7] Bažant ZP. Instability, ductility, and size effect in strain-soften-
ing concrete. J Eng Mech Div 1976;102(EM2):331–44 [disc 103,
357-358, 775-777, 104, 501-502].
[8] Carpinteri A. Fractal nature of material microstructure and size
effects on apparent mechanical properties. Mech Mater
1994;18:89–101.
[9] Carpinteri A, Chiaia B. Fracture mechanics of concrete struc-
tures. In: Wittmann FH, editor. Proceedings of FraMCoS-2, at
ETH, Zürich. Freiburg: Aedificatio Publ; 1995, p. 581–96.
[10] Carpinteri A, Chiaia B, Ferro G. Size effects on nominal tensile
strength of concrete structures, multifractality of material liga-
ments and dimensional transition from order to disorder. Mater
Struct 1995;28(7):311–7.
[11] Carpinteri A, Ferro G, Intervenizzi S. Fracture mechanics of
concrete structures. In: Wittmann FH, editor. Proceedings of
FraMCoS-2, at ETH, Zürich. Freiburg, Germany: Aedificatio
Publ; 1995, p. 557–70.
[12] Riera JD. Local effects in impact problems on concrete struc-
tures. Proceedings, Conference on Structural Analysis and
Design of Nuclear Power Plants, Porto Alegre, Brazil, October
1984, CPGEC, UFRGS, vol. 3. 1984, p. 57–79.
[13] Bažant ZP. Scaling laws in the mechanics of failure. J Eng Mech
Div Trans ASCE 1993;119(9):1828–44.
[14] Bažant ZP, Chen EP. Scaling of structural failure. Appl Mech
Rev 1997;50(10):593–627.
[15] Morquio A. Estudo teórico-experimental dos efeitos de escala e
de velocidade de deformacão em estruturas de aco. Doctoral
Thesis, PPGEC, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul,
Porto Alegre, Brazil; 2003.
1125
[16] Morquio A, Riera JD. Size and strain rate effects in the mechan-
ical properties of materials. SMiRT 17. Transactions of the 17th
International Conference on Structural Mechanics in Teactor
Technology, Prague, Czeck Republic, August. 2003 [CD].
[17] Morquio A, Riera JD. Size and strain rate effects in steel struc-
tures. Engineering Structures 2004;26:669–79.
[18] Riera JD, Iturrioz I. Discrete elements model for evaluating
impact and impulsive response of reinforced concrete plates and
shells subjected to impulsive loading, 179. Amsterdam: Nuclear
Engineering and Design; 1998, p. 135–44.
[19] Iturrioz I, Riera JD. Discrete elements model for evaluating
impact and impulsive response of reinforced concrete plates and
shells. Int J Nucl Eng Des 1998;179:135–44.
[20] Iturrioz I, Riera JD. Discrete elements dynamic response of elas-
toplastic subjected to impulsive loadings. Commun Numer
Methods Eng 1995;II.
[21] Rios DR. Aplicações do método dos elementos discretos em
estruturas de concreto. Doctoral Thesis, PPGEC, Uni-
versidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil;
2002.
[22] Rios DR, Riera JD. Consideração do efeito de escala em estru-
turas de concreto, Anais, (in CD), XXX Jornadas Sudamer-
icanans de Engenaria Estrutural, Universidade de Brası́lia,
Brası́lia, Brasil, 2002.
[23] Nayfeh AH, Hefzy MS. Continuum modelling of three-dimen-
sional truss-like space structures. AIAA Journal 1978;16(8).
[24] Hayashi Y. Sobre uma representação discreta de meios con-
tı́nuos em Dinâmica não-linear, Master’s Dissertation, CPGEC,
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre,
Brazil, 1982.
[25] Riera JD. Local effects in impact problems on concrete struc-
tures. Proceedings, Conference on Structural Analysis and
Design of Nuclear Power Plants, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil, Oct
1984, Vol. III. 1984, p. 57–79.
[26] Rocha MM. Ruptura e efeitos de escala em materiais não-homo-
geneos. Master’s Dissertation, CPGEC, Universidade Federal do
Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil, 1989.
[27] Rocha MM, Riera JD. On size effects and rupture of non-
homogeneous material. In: Van Mier JGM, Rots JG, Baker A,
editors. Proceedings, Congress in Fracture Processes in Con-
crete, Rock and Ceramics. London: Chapmen & Hall/Ed. Fn.
Spon; 1990, p. 451–60.
[28] Leonhart F, Walter R. The Stuttgart Shear Tests, 1961, Trans-
lation No. 11, C & CA, London Tradução de artigos publicados
em Beton-und-Stahlbetonbau, Vol. 65, No. 12, 1961; Vol. 57,
No. 2,3,7,& 8, 1962.
[29] Ramallo JC, Kotsovos MD, Danesi RD. Una posible explicação
del efecto de tamaño em las estructuras de hormigón, Memórias-
Jorn. Sud.Ing.Est., 15–19 Out. 1993: 383–394. Montevideo
Uruguai (em espanhol).
[30] Ramallo JC, Kotsovos MD, Danesi RD. El efecto de tamaño
em estructuras de H. A., Memórias-Jorn. Arg.Ing.Est., 4–7 Out.
1994: 17–30. Bs. As. Argentina (em espanhol).
[31] Ramallo JC, Kotsovos MD, Danesi RD. Unintended out-of-
plane actions in size effects tests of structural concrete. Transac-
tions of the 13th SMIRT, 13–18 Ago. 1995: 351–357. Porto
Alegre, Brasil.
[32] Riera JD, E Rios RD. Evolução do amortecimento com o nivel
do dano em estruturas de concreto. Memórias, XXIX Jornadas
Sudamericanas de Ingenierı́a Estructural, (en CD) Punta del
Este, Uruguay, Noviembre 2000.
[33] Van Vliet MRA, Van Mier JGM. Size effects of concrete and
sandstone. HERON 2000;45(2):91–108.
[34] Shinozuka M, Deodatis G. Simulation of multi-dimensional
Gaussian stochastic fields by spectral representation. Applied
Mechanics Review, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
1996; 49 (January(1)), 29–53.