MPR (http://www.pathophys.org) / Hematology (http://www.pathophys.

org/category/hematology/) / Venous thromboembolism (VTE)

VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM (VTE)

Eric Wong (http://www.pathophys.org/author/wongeric/) and Sultan Chaudhry (http://www.pathophys.org/author/sultan/)

Faculty reviewer: Dr. Peter L. Gross, Associate Professor, Division of Hematology and Thromboembolism, Department of Medicine (McMaster
University)

Definition
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) are manifestations of the same pathological entity, called venous
thromboembolism (VTE).

An embolus is any intravascular material that migrates from its original location to occlude a distal vessel. Although the embolus can be
a blood clot (thrombus), fat, air, amniotic fluid, or tumour, a PE is usually caused by a thrombus originating from the deep veins in the
legs (deep venous thrombosis, DVT).

Arterial vs. venous thrombosis

Thromb Haemost. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21225099) 2011 Apr;105(4):586-96.

The coagulation cascade is an essential part of hemostasis. However, the same coagulation factors can give rise to clot formation in the
circulation that is inappropriate (i.e. not for hemostasis). Thrombi can form in both the arteries and veins, but they have different
pathophysiology and lead to different outcomes. This chapter is about venous thrombosis.

Arterial thrombosis Venous thrombosis (VTE)

Mechanism Typically from rupture of atherosclerotic plaques. Typically from a combination of factors from Virchow’s triad.

Location Left heart chambers, arteries Venous sinusoids of muscles and valves in veins

Diseases Acute coronary syndrome Deep venous thrombosis

Ischemic stroke Pulmonary embolism
Limb claudication/ischemia

Composition Mainly platelets Mainly fibrin

Treatment Mainly antiplatelet agents (ASA, clopidogrel) Mainly anticoagulants (heparins, warfarin)

Etiology
N Engl J Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18322285#) 2008 Mar 6;358(10):1037-52.
J Cardiovasc Nurs. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16000912#) 2005 Jul-Aug;20(4):254-9.

Venous thromboembolism is associated with Virchow’s triad: three conditions that predispose to thrombus formation.

1. Hypercoagulability
2. Stasis
3. Endothelial damage

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CONTENTS

Definition Search

Etiology
Pathophysiology of DVT
Pathophysiology of PE
Clinical features of DVT
Clinical features of PE
Diagnosis of DVT
Diagnosis of PE
Treatment
(http://www.pathophys.org/vte/pe-virchow-2/)

VTE often arise from the synergistic effects of multiple risk factors, for example, when a patient with inherited factor V Leiden mutation uses
oral contraceptives (acquired risk on genetic risk background).

Triad component Associated risk factors

Hypercoagulability Hereditary factors (inherited thrombophilia)

Changes in blood Factor V Leiden*: Activated factor V (FVa) is a cofactor for activated factor X, and together, they lead to
coagulation thrombin generation from its zymogen, prothrombin. Thrombin is a serine protease that cleaves soluble
pathway, shifting fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin and activates other factors that amplify the coagulation cascade. To regulate
balance toward coagulation and protect against clot formation, activated protein C (aPC) cleaves and inactivates FVa. Factor
coagulation V Leiden is a mutation at one of the aPC cleavage sites, rendering factor Va resistant to inactivation, thus
predisposing to clot formation and VTE. Individuals with this mutation are at a 5-fold increased risk for
developing a first VTE.
Prothrombin G20210A*: Mutation at nucleotide 20210 from guanine to adenine. The mutation is in the 3’
untranslated region of the prothrombin and therefore does not alter the structure of the protein, but causes
increased production of prothrombin (factor II). Individuals with this mutation are at a 2-4 fold increased risk
for developing a first VTE.
Deficiencies in antithrombin (AT), protein C (PC) and protein S (PS), plasminogen (Pg):
AT, PS and PC are the major anticoagulation proteins and genetic defects can lead to qualitative or
quantitative defects in their structure predisposing patients to developing VTE.
*The 2 most common hereditary factors; autosomal dominant risk inheritance
Acquired factors
Cancer: Cancer cells induce a prothrombotic state through a variety of mechanisms. Some cancer cells
express (i) procoagulant proteins and (ii) cause the release of microparticles (soluble fragments of tumour cell
membranes) leading to a systemic hypercoagulable state. Two common procoagulant proteins are tissue
factor, which indirectly activates factor X by complexing with factor VII, and cancer procoagulant, which
directly activates factor X. Tumour-induced hypoxia and release of inflammatory cytokines have also been
speculated to cause a prothrombotic state.
Pathophysiol Haemost Thromb. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16855354#) 2006;35(1-2):103-10.
Best Pract Res Clin Haematol. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19285272#) 2009 Mar;22(1):49-60.
Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy drugs have been shown to induce TF in tumor cells as well as monocytes,
downregulation of protein C and S (natural anticoagulation mechanism), direct damage to the vascular
endothelium, and platelet activation. Anti-angiogenic agents (bevacizumab) have platelet and endothelial
activation properties leading to a prothrombotic state.
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19228604#) 2009 Mar;29(3):316-20.
Oral contraceptives and hormone replacement therapy: Hyperestrogenemia causes increased hepatic
synthesis of procoagulant proteins and decreased synthesis of anticoagulant and fibrinolytic proteins.
Thromb Res. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20163835#) 2010 Jul;126(1):5-11.
Pregnancy and postpartum period: High estrogen like OCP/HRT and stasis due to obstruction of inferior
vena cava by fetus.
Central obesity: Mechanisms include procoagulant effects of adipocytokines (leptin and adiponectin),
increased activity of coagulation cascade, increased inflammation, oxidative stress, and endothelial
dysfunction.
Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17185009#) 2007 Feb;33(2):223-33.
 Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT): Heparin binds platelet factor 4 (PF4) and exposes a previously
masked epitope, leading to the production of IgG antibody in some heparin treated patients. IgG binds to the
heparin-PF4 complex, forming immune complexes that bind and activate platelets. This leads to a
hypercoagulable state and thrombocytopenia. Platelet activation also induces endothelial cell injury.
Blood. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Determinants%20of%20PF4%2Fheparin%20immunogenicity#) 2007
Dec 15;110(13):4253-60.

Stasis Reduced mobility: Increases length of contact of coagulation factors with endothelium.
The slowing or Examples: Long-haul air travel, hospitalization
stopping of blood Polycythemia: Hyperviscosity, due to excessive overproduction of red blood cells, leads to stasis of blood in
flow the veins.
Endothelial injury: Stasis directly damages the endothelium as well as reduces the natural fibrinolysis.
Congestive heart failure: Failure to pump blood forward results in venous stasis and elevated central venous
pressure.

Endothelial Endothelial dysfunction: Shifts the balance between clot generation and breakdown towards thrombosis due to
damage decreased synthesis of nitric oxide and prostacyclin and increased endothelin-1.
Normal Hypertension
endothelium is Cigarette smoking
antithrombotic. Endothelial damage: Exposure of subendothelial tissue factor and collagen, which offer a substrate for platelet
binding, activation and aggregation; leading to clot formation.
Chronic indwelling central venous catheter (catheters also directly activate the intrinsic pathway)
Major surgery
Trauma

Pathophysiology of DVT
Semin Nucl Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11330789) 2001 Apr;31(2):90-101.
Crit Care Clin. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22082518) 2011 Oct;27(4):869-84, vi.
Circulation. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12814982) 2003 Jun 17;107(23 Suppl 1):I22-30.

Deep venous thrombosis usually arises in the lower extremities. Most DVTs form in the calf veins, particularly in the soleus sinusoids and
cusps of the valves.

Venous valves are avascular, which, in conjunction with reduced flow of oxygenated blood in veins, predisposes the endothelium to be
hypoxemic. The endothelium around valves responds by expressing adhesion molecules that attract leukocytes. These cells transfer
tissue factor to the endothelium, which can complex with activated factor VII to begin the coagulation cascade via the extrinsic
pathway. The main component of these venous thrombi is fibrin (as product of coagulation cascade) and red blood cells, which get
trapped in the clot. Platelets also contribute, but to a lesser extent.
The skeletal muscle pump helps prevent DVT by moving blood past the valves (i.e. reducing venous stasis), which washes away
activated clotting factors that can otherwise propagate the initial thrombus.
If a clot forms and does not resolve (see below), it will extend proximally into the popliteal and femoral veins (“proximal veins”). 25% of
calf DVTs will extend proximally within 7 days. While calf DVTs are usually asymptomatic and do not give rise to significant PEs,
proximal DVTs are more likely symptomatic and can embolize to form dangerous PEs.

By the numbers

96% arise in the lower extremities; 4% arise in the upper extremities.

Chest. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17925416) 2008 Jan;133(1):143-8.
Of symptomatic lower-extremity DVTs, 88% involve the proximal veins; the rest only involve the calf veins. Almost all lower-extremity
DVTs arise from the calf veins and extend proximally.
Arch Intern Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8257253) 1993 Dec 27;153(24):2777-80.
90% of PEs arise from DVTs.
50% of symptomatic proximal lower-extremity DVTs have asymptomatic PEs.
70% of PEs have asymptomatic DVTs.
28% of symptomatic DVTs will have post-thrombotic syndrome after 5 years.

Resolution and consequences

The initial thrombus can lead to complete resolution, clot extension/embolization, or organization.

Complete resolution: Fibrinolysis is a dynamic process where plasminogen is converted into plasmin, an enzyme that degrades fibrin
into soluble peptides. Fibrinolysis starts within hours, and it can lead to complete or partial resolution of the thrombus. Partial resolution
may lead to any one of these 3 consequences.
Clot extension and embolization: Proximal flow of the venous blood sweeps the thrombus in the same direction, extending it into the
proximal veins.
Organization: Thrombi that do not resolve begin to retract within days. At the same time, inflammatory cells infiltrate the thrombi and
cause remodeling. The residual clot is incorporated into the vessel wall and a layer of endothelial cells forms on top (re-
endothelialization). This process, called organization, allows some blood flow to resume, but it destroys valves along the length of the
clot and causes scarring of the veins. The hemodynamic changes to the vein causes post-thrombotic syndrome.
Post-thrombotic syndrome is a consequence of DVTs, and the clinical features include pain, leg edema, and other signs of venous
insufficiency. It occurs in approximately 1/3 of DVT cases. The cause is a combination of venous obstruction by residual clots or
venous scarring and venous reflux due to valve destruction. Prevention of this sequela includes adequate anticoagulation to prevent
VTE recurrence and compression stockings to improve venous return.

Pathophysiology of PE
Hellenic J Cardiol. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17489347#) 2007 Mar-Apr;48(2):94-107.
Circulation. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Circulation.%202003%20Dec%202%3B108(22)%3A2726-9.#) 2003 Dec 2;108(22):2726-9.
Effects of mechanical occlusion
Increased alveolar (physiologic) dead space: decreased perfusion of alveoli distal to thrombus causes the alveoli to be ventilated but
not perfused, resulting in V/Q mismatch (high V/Q) and increased dead space
Increased minute ventilation: patient compensates for dead space and responds to chemical irritation by hyperventilation.
Hypocapnia: increased minute ventilation causes decreased blood CO2 and respiratory alkalosis. Hypocapnia exacerbates alveola
hypoxemia by causing secondary bronchoconstriction.
Increased pulmonary vascular resistance: due to vascular obstruction by thrombus and chemical mediators from platelets (see
below)
Decreased surfactant and atelectasis: vascular compromise beyond thrombus reduces surfactant production and thus predisposes
distal region to atelectasis

Effects of chemical mediators

Platelets from the thrombus secrete chemical mediators such as histamine and serotonin, which causes pulmonary vasoconstriction
and bronchoconstriction.
Bronchoconstriction leads to alveolar hypoxemia, which in turn causes more vasoconstriction and increased vascular resistance.

Hemodynamic consequences
Increased right ventricular afterload: from increased pulmonary vascular resistance.
Right ventricular dilatation and hypertrophy: parasternal heave, loud P2
RV ischemia
Right-sided (backward) heart failure: increased jugular venous pressure (JVP)
Decreased left ventricular filling: because of bowing of interventricular septum to left side from RV hypertrophy
Left-sided (forward) heart failure: hypotension, syncope, cardiogenic shock

Resolution
Intrinsic thrombolytic mechanisms (plasmin) start to lyse clots: D-dimer (breakdown product of fibrin) levels increase in serum.
Symptomatic PE is treated with anticoagulation therapy (oral or parenteral), thrombolytic therapy (for massive PE causing
cardiogenic shock), or inferior vena cava filter (if anticoagulation is contraindicated). See Treatment section for details.
Untreated large PE causes death by acute increase in right ventricular pressure, leading to RV failure.
 Feedback

(http://www.pathophys.org/vte/pe-pathophys/)

Clinical features of DVT

Semin Nucl Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11330789) 2001 Apr;31(2):90-101.
JAMA. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/pubmed/9546569) 1998 Apr 8;279(14):1094-9.

Clinicians accurately diagnose DVT using clinical features in approximately 25% of cases because the signs and symptoms are neither
sensitive nor specific. Therefore, it is important to confirm clinical findings using additional testing, such as compression ultrasonography.
The signs and symptoms of DVT arise from (i) venous obstruction and (ii) inflammation of the veins. Patients may also present with
features of pulmonary embolism.

Symptoms Signs Mechanism

Asymmetric Pitting edema Swelling and pitting edema are caused by venous obstruction. Calf circumference is measured 10cm
leg/calf on affect side below the tibial tuberosity. Normal difference between the two legs should be less than 1cm; greater
swelling than 3cm difference is considered significant.

Pain, Localized Pain, erythema, and tenderness are caused by vascular inflammation. Recruitment of inflammatory
erythema tenderness cells to thrombus and venous stasis causes phlebitis.
along deep
venous system
 Homans sign First observed by surgeon Dr. John Homans, the sign is elicited by passive dorsiflexion of the ankle.
Positive findings include increased resistance to dorsiflexion or knee flexion, both in response to
irritation of the posterior calf muscles. This sign is neither sensitive nor specific.
N Engl J Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20993045) 1946 Aug 1;235(5):163-7.

Dilated Palpable cord Dilated superficial veins are caused by obstruction of the deep venous system. Palpable cord refers to
superficial palpable superficial veins, which is a sign of superficial phlebitis.
veins (non-
varicose)

Clinical features of PE
Hellenic J Cardiol. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17489347#) 2007 Mar-Apr;48(2):94-107.
JAMA. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14657070) 2003 Dec 3;290(21):2849-58.

PEs are frequently asymptomatic. Symptomatic patients most commonly present with dyspnea. Signs of DVT are only found in about 1/3
of PE patients.

Symptoms Corresponding sign(s) Mechanism

Dyspnea* Tachypnea*, decreased Hyperventilation to compensate for increased dead space and in response to chemical
air entry, localized rales, mediators from platelets.Dyspnea is a symptom of central, which causes more severe
wheezing hemodynamic consequences because of occlusion of larger vessels. *Most common
symptom and sign, respectively.

Parasternal heave, loud Increased pulmonary pressure (from vasoconstriction) causes right ventricular overload (
P2, increased JVP P2) and right ventricular dilatation (parasternal heave). Right-sided backward heart failure
causes increased JVP, and eventually left-sided heart failure (tachycardia).

Palpitations Hemodynamic See above. Tachycardia is a sympathetic response to decreased cardiac output.
signs: Tachycardia

Pleuritic Pleural friction rub, signs PE near the pleura (peripheral PE) causes ischemia to the region, resulting in inflammation.
chest pain of pleural effusion (stony Since the pleura is innervated, inflammation will produce localized pleuritic chest pain.
dullness on percussion, Inflammation also increases the permeability of the pleural surface, leading to accumulation
decreased fremitus) of exudative pleural fluid (pleural effusion).

Hemoptysis PE causes damage to the pulmonary vasculature, which leads to bleeding into the airways.
and cough Cough is usually nonproductive, and may be triggered by irritation of the pleura or the
airways.
Am J Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?
term=Am%20J%20Med.%202007%20Oct%3B120(10)%3A871-9.#) 2007 Oct;120(10):871-9.

Syncope Hypotension, cyanosis Decreased left ventricular filling, causing forward heart failure.

Diagnosis of DVT
JAMA. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16403932) 2006 Jan 11;295(2):199-207. (Discussion of Wells DVT score here)
Chest. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315267) 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e351S-418S. (2012 Chest Guidelines)

Diagnosis starts with history (risk factors) and physical, which can be used to generate a pretest probability using a validated clinical
prediction rule, such as the Wells DVT score (see JAMA reference above). Patients with high likelihood of DVT can be further tested with
compression ultrasonography, where the length of the proximal veins (popliteal and femoral) is sequentially compressed with the
ultrasound probe. Normal veins are easily occluded with moderate external compression, but a DVT will prevent occlusion of the vein
lumen. Ultrasonography is both sensitive and specific for DVTs.

A D-dimer level can be done to rule-out DVT in individuals with low pretest probability (see discussion in Diagnosis of PE).
Contrast venography is considered the gold standard for diagnosis of DVT, although this is rarely done because it is invasive,
expensive, and not readily available. Contrast is injected into the dorsal foot vein, and the leg is imaged with CT scan or MRI.

Diagnosis of PE
JAMA. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14657070) 2003 Dec 3;290(21):2849-58.
Diagnosis is based on history and physical, and confirmed with CT or V:Q scan if the clinical suspicion is high. The Wells criteria
can be used to determine risk (pretest probability) of PE.

Criteria Points

1 Clinical signs/symptoms of DVT 3

2 No other diagnosis more likely than PE 3

3 Tachycardia: heart rate > 100 1.5

4 Immobilization for > 3 days (e.g. strict bed rest) 1.5

OR
Surgery in the previous 4 weeks
 5 Previous DVT or PE 1.5

6 Hemoptysis 1

7 Malignancy 1

Low risk (<2): 3% pretest probability

Moderate (2-6): 20%
High (>6): 63%
Thromb Haemost. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca/pubmed?term=Thromb%20Haemost.2000%3B83%3A416-
420.) 2000 Mar;83(3):416-20.

Note on D-dimer: In low-risk patients with symptoms that suggest PE, a D-dimer can be used to rule out PE if negative (high sensitivity,
low specificity). D-dimer level is measured in the blood. As explained above, it is a degradation product of fibrin, which is elevated if a
coagulation and fibrinolysis reaction happens in the body. In PE, endogenous fibrinolytic mechanisms try to dissolve the clot, which is the
basis of an elevated D-dimer. However, the D-dimer level not specific and is elevated in any type of inflammatory process. Its clinical utility
is limited to ruling out PE in those with a low pretest probability.

Treatment
Chest. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315268) 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e419S-94S.
The goals of treatment for VTE are (i) anticoagulation to prevent further clot generation and (ii) thrombolysis if the thrombus is large
enough to cause hemodynamic compromise.

Anticoagulation: Reduces further clot formation

Anticoagulation with parenteral (intravenous or subcutaneous) and oral anticoagulants is the mainstay of VTE therapy. Typically, one of the
parenteral agents (e.g. heparin, LMWH, or fondaparinux) or a new oral anticoagulant (e.g. rivaroxaban) is started first. The patient may be
transitioned to a traditional oral anticoagulant (e.g. warfarin) for chronic anticoagulation.

Unfractionated heparin (UFH): Inhibits the function of thrombin as well as Xa by inducing conformational changes in antithrombin
allowing it to bind the enzymes better.
Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH): Functions similar to UFH, but due to the smaller average heparin chain length, accelerates
the bridging of AT with Xa only, and not thrombin.
Fondaparinux: A pentasaccharide sequence that directly binds to AT (at an allosteric site) and induces a conformational change
allowing it to bind and inhibit factor Xa only.
Rivaroxaban: A new oral anticoagulant that inhibits factor Xa by binding to its active site.

Chronic anticoagulation: For prophylaxis against future VTE

Any of the agents for acute anticoagulation can be used for chronic anticoagulation, but they are less convenient for outpatients due to the
need for daily injections. Oral anticoagulation drugs are the mainstay for outpatient anticoagulation. Vitamin K antagonists (e.g.
warfarin) were traditionally used, but newer agents, such as dabigatran and rivaroxaban, can also be used. In addition, aspirin is an
antiplatelet agent that has been shown to reduce VTE events in recent trials.

Vitamin K antagonists (e.g. warfarin): Warfarin inhibits the vitamin K dependent synthesis of calcium dependent clotting factors (II, VII
IX and X). Furthermore, warfarin also inhibits PS and PC (part of the endogenous anticoagulation pathway).
The inhibition of PC and PS occurs faster than the other clotting factors, making warfarin acutely a procoagulant. Therefore, warfarin
must be given concomitantly with acute anticoagulants at first (a process known as “overlapping”) to (i) prevent acute procoagulant
effect and (ii) allow time for inhibition of vitamin K dependent factors. Once the patient’s international normalized ratio (INR) is
therapeutic (2-3), acute anticoagulants can be discontinued.
Warfarin has been the mainstay of chronic VTE therapy for over 50 years, but there are several issues with its use: (i) increased
bleeding risk, (ii) teratogenicity in pregnancy, (iii) interaction with many foods and drugs, and (iii) close monitoring required because
anticoagulation effect is not reliably predictable by dosage. New antithrombotic medications have been developed that are potentially
safer than warfarin.
Direct thrombin inhibitors (e.g. dabigatran): Directly block thrombin function by blocking the active site. Dabigatran is equivalent
to warfarin in both prevention of recurrent clots and bleeding risk in patients with acute VTE, but it does not require monitoring due to
its predictable therapeutic effect (RE-COVER trial).
N Engl J Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19966341#) 2009 Dec 10;361(24):2342-52.
Direct Xa inhibitors (e.g. rivaroxaban): Directly inhibit the function of Xa by blocking the active site. Unlike warfarin and
dabigatran, rivaroxaban does not require overlapping with heparins. Rivaroxaban is equivalent to warfarin in short- and long-term
prevention of PE in symptomatic patients, but it does not require monitoring or overlapping, and has significantly lower bleeding risk
compared to warfarin (EINSTEIN-PE trial).
N Engl J Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22449293#) 2012 Apr 5;366(14):1287-97.
Aspirin: Although this antiplatelet agent is classically used to prevent arterial thrombosis, new evidence suggests that it can also be
used for recurrent VTE prevention. Daily aspirin (100mg/day used in trials) can reduce VTE recurrence by approximately 1/3. Aspirin,
although not as effective as other anticoagulants, may be used if the patient is intolerant of anticoagulants.
N Engl J Med. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23121404) 2012 Nov 22;367(21):2039-41.

Thrombolysis: Breaks down the thrombus

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA): activates plasminogen (Pg) to plasmin (Pn), which cleaves the thrombus, generating soluble D-
dimer products.

Contraindications to anticoagulation

Thrombectomy: If a large thrombus creates hemodynamic compromise, and there are contraindications to thrombolysis, the clot can
be surgically removed or by interventional radiology.
Inferior vena cava (IVC) filter: Temporary IVC filters can be placed to stop the movement of clots from the deep veins of the lower
extremity from travelling to the pulmonary vasculature.
 (http://www.pathophys.org/vte/vte-anticoagulation/)

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