CHAPTER 6: SAMPLING DESIGNS

Sampling – may be defined as the method of getting a representative portion of the population.
Population –is the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species, or orders of plants or
animals.
Advantages of Sampling
1. It saves time, money and effort.
2. It is more effective.
3. It is faster, cheaper and economical.
4. It is more accurate.
5. It gives more comprehensive information.
Disadvantages of Sampling
1. Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub classification due to small number
of subjects.
2. If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the results may be misleading.
3. Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking, the results can
be erroneous.
4. The characteristic to be observed may occur rarely in a population.
5. Complicated sampling plans are laborious to prepare.
Planning a Sample Survey
1. State the objectives of the survey.
2. Define the population.
3. Select the sampling individual.
4. Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the sample.
5. Design the sampling design to be used that suits to the study, either scientific or nonscientific
sampling.
6. Determine the sample size.
7. Select the method in estimating the reliability of the sample.
8. Test the reliability of the sample in a pilot institution.
9. Interpret the reliability of the sample.
10. Choose experts to administer the research instruments.
Determination of Sample Size
Step 1: Determine the total population (N) as assumed subjects of the study.
Step 2: Get the value of V(2.58), Se(0.01), and p(0.50).
Step 3: Compute the sample size using this formula:
Ss = NV + [ Se2 (1-p)]
NSe + [ V2p(1-p)]
SAMPLING DESIGNS
Scientific Sampling
1. Restricted random sampling – This type of sampling design involves certain restrictions to
improve the validity of the sample.
2. Unrestricted random sampling – This is the best random sampling design due to no restrictions
imposed, and every member in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.

 Lottery Technique
 Table of Random Numbers

3. Stratified random sampling – This type of design divides the population into two or more
strata.
4. Systematic sampling – In this type of design the individuals of the population are arranged in a
methodical manner.
5. Multistage sampling – This design is done in several stages.
6. Cluster sampling – In this type of design, the population is grouped into clusters or small units.
Nonscientific Sampling
1. Purposive sampling – This type of nonscientific sampling is based on selecting the individuals
as samples according to the purpose of the researcher as his controls.
2. Incidental sampling – This type of sampling design is “applied to those samples which are
taken because they are the most available.”
3. Quota sampling – This type of design is popular in the field of opinion research because it is
done by merely looking for individuals with the requisite characteristics.

CHAPTER 7: DATA PROCESSING AND STATISTICAL TREATMENT

Data processing involves:

 Input – it involves the responses from the research instrument by the subjects of the study.
 Throughput – it includes statistical procedures and techniques.
 Output – the results of the study which are presented in data matrix form.

Data processing
It consists of three basic steps:

Categorization of Data

- It refers to the grouping of subjects under study according to the objectives or purposes of the
study.
Five rules in categorizing research information by Kerlinger:
1. Categories are set up according to the research problem.
2. The categories are exhaustive.
3. Each category is derived from one classification principle.
4. The categories are mutually exclusive and independent.
5. Any categorization scheme must be one level of discourse.
Coding of data – Information from the questionnaire, tests, interview schedules, rating scale and
many others must be transformed into coded items to facilitate tabulation of data.
Tabulation of data – this is done by tallying and counting the raw data to arrive at a frequency
distribution and to facilitate in organizing them in a systematic order in a table or several tables.
Data matrix
- Presentation of data in tabular form
3 Types of Data Matrices

 Univariate matrix – involves only one variable.

 Bivariate matrix – involves two variables.
 Multivariate matrix – has three or more variables in the table.
Dummy tables
- Are helpful in preparing for the data matrix because they are used in planning, summarizing,
organizing and analyzing the data on how the different variables differ with each other.
Statistical Treatment
- It is a must that researchers diagnose the problem by using the appropriate statistical tool to
arrive at accurate and definite interpretation of results.
Incorrect Statistical Tool
- Percentage is incorrect or inappropriate statistical tool to scale options due to vague
interpretation of results.
Univariate Statistical Treatment
- The appropriate statistical tool for univariate problem is the weighted arithmetic mean and the
like.
Bivariate Statistical Treatment in Experimental Research
- The statistical tools for bivariate problem in experimental research are t-test and linear
correlation.
Bivariate Statistical Treatment in Descriptive Research
- The statistical tool used in bivariate descriptive research problems are z-test and linear
correlation.
Z-test as Bivariate Statistical Tool in Descriptive Research
- Z-test between percentages. The z-test is used to determine the significant difference between
two percentages of related individuals in which the data are collected through survey.
Z= P1 – P2
PQ[1/N1 + 1/N2]
Multivariate Statistical Treatment
- Two statistical tools used in multivariate experimental research problems with three or more
variables are F-test or ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis One-Way ANOVA and Friedman’s Two-way
ANOVA.
F-test as Statistical Tool in Multivariate Experimental Research
- F-test or two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) involves three or more independent variables
as bases for classification.
Friedman’s Two-Way ANOVA as Statistical Tool for Multivariate Experimental Research
- Friedman’s two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is also a statistical tool used both in
experimental and descriptive research problems. The formula is as follows:
Xr2 = l2 ∑(ri2) – 3N(le + 1)
Nk (k + 1)
Kruskal-Wallis One-Way ANOVA as Statistical Tool for Multivariate Experimental Research
Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) by ranks is another statistical tool used in
multivariate research problems both in experimental and descriptive researches. The formula is
as follows:
H = 12 ∑[Ri2/n] – 3(N + 1)
N(N + 1)
Chi-Square (X2) as Statistical Tool for Multivariate Descriptive Research
Chi-Square (X2) 2 X 2 table. In chi-square (X2) 2 x 2 table or fourfold table, two discrete variables
are involved to test if these variables are independent from each other.
Chi-Square (X2) 3 x 3 Table. It is also called nine-fold which involves three discrete variables to
test if these variables are independent from each other.
Friedman’s Two-Way ANOVA by Ranks as Statistical Tool used in Multivariate Descriptive
Research
- It is used when the data from k related samples consist of at least an ordinal scale and have
been drawn from the same set of observations to different population.
Kruskal-Wallis’ One-Way ANOVA (H) by Ranks a Statistical Tool in Multivariate Descriptive
Research (Tied Observations)
The formula used is:
1 - ∑T
N2 - N