Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Geology and mineralogy of the area southwest of Lake Indawgyi, Mohnyin Township,
Myitkyina District, are studied in fairly detailed. The study area covers about 225 square
kilometers (90 square miles) and lies between Lat. 25° 00' N and 25° 10' N, and between
Long. 96° 06' E and 96° 15' E. Predominantly mafic and ultramafic rocks and their
metamorphosed associates occupy the three-fourth of this area. They are mapped in
1:4,00,00 scale.
The mafic cumulates constituted the main plutonic complex in the central part and in
places textures and structures of high temperature sedimentation are observed. This
gabbroic mass comprises 5 units viz., 1 Orthopyroxene gabbro, 2 Hornblende gabbro, 3
Plagioclase-diallage cumulate, 4 partially serpentinized Olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro,
and 5 Layered gabbroic complex. As most of them are layered rocks, they are studied
and described in the nomenclature of classical layered intrusions. Some small-elongated
bodies of foliated granodiorite and quartz diorites are also observed among them as
leucocratic associates.
Regional geologically, the study area is the southern extension of the Jade Mine
metamorphic belt and rocks exposed are suggested as part of an ophiolite-suite in
confirmation with petrological and mineralogical characters which are identical to the
world's alpine type mafic-ultramafic bodies. They are assumed to be the disrupted
fragment of an older subduction zone that may have taken place during Mesozoic as
young as Cretaceous time.
In this area, layers of mafic cumulate express the inverted-cone like configuration or
lopolith-like structure. Five normal faults and two strike-slip faults are noted in local
scale. NW fracture system is the most prominent, and histogram of joints are interpreted
to be prominent of NW directed stress occurred in the area.
The mineral assemblages observed in the metamorphosed mafic and ultramafic rocks
represent the Greenschist facies to Amphibolite facies (geographically higher to the east).
The mineralogical and structural interpretations stated that at least two phases of
ii
deformation occurred in this area. The earlier please is syn-origin to the igneous rocks
and possibly related with the formation of rock-suite in a (Pacific type) fast-spreading
centre and associated oceanic hydrothermal metamorphism. The later phase is regional
metamorphism took place during accretion of the rock-bodies to the Eurasian plate.
Rock forming minerals viz. plagioclase, olivine, pyroxenes, amphiboles and serpentine
minerals are briefly described. Cumulus plagioclase in layered gabbroic complex is sodic
upward and olivine in the olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro is rich in iron. Orthopyroxenes:
bronzite, enstatite and hypersthene, clinopyroxene: diallage and augite are found in the
mafic cumulates as important constituents. Uralitization is the common phenomenenon
of mafic pyroxenes. Orthoamphibole: anthophyllite, clinoamphibole: hornblende and
tremolite-actinolite and alkali amphibole: riebeckite and talc and antigorite are observed
in the metamorphic units.
Ore minerals viz. chromite and magnetite, and chalcopyrite and pyrite occurred in gabbro
and serpentinites are studied and described in their textural significance and relationship
with rock-forming minerals.
Placer platinum group metals are classified into 3 groups viz.: (1) Platinum-iron alloy, (2)
Osmium-Iridium-Ruthenium alloy and (3) minerals combined with other elements. They
are optically studied and described in their form, textures and inclusions. The EPMA
results of 162 grains of PGM from the area mainly Os-Ir-Ru alloys are studied and
manipulated to know the relationship between constituted platinum group elements, and
they strongly indicated the host rock of them as the alpine type ophiolites that is identical
to the petrogenetic considerations. In comparison with precious metal placers of the
Chindwin basin, they are interpreted to be originated from different sources which are of
similar association i. e., ophiolites.
iii
For the pressure dominant metamorphism and Tertiary and Pleistocene sedimentary
processes occurred in the area, the area has the potential to mining of Jade. Serpentinites,
amphibolite and some gabbroic rocks are interesting for ornamental properties.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
During the last days of December, 1993, in a seminar managed by Professor Dr U Thein
of the Department of Geology, Yangon University, the topic “PGM in Myanmar” was
presented by U Soe Win who is a retired director of the Technical Services Corporation.
As a young graduate student, the present author attained the idea and speculation on
mineralogy of PGM from that refreshment and those scholars are prevalently inscribed
his prime thanks in this thesis.
Dr. Win Htein, Professor of Geology, Dagon University, former Head of the Universities
Research Centre is highly appreciated for his closed supervision, guidance and
constructive criticism rendered throughout the course of this research work.
The author is deeply indebted to Professor Dr. Pe Maung Than of the Department of
Geology, University of Yangon, for his encouragement and suggestions.
The author wishes to express his gratitude to U Hla Kyi, Professor of Geology,
Mawlamyaing University, for patiently reading this manuscript critically and protection
for the student.
Sincere thanks are due to Dr. Khin Maung Myint, Lecturer in Geology Department,
Mandalay University, for his final reading to become a full-fledged successful execution
of this work.
Thanks are also extended to U Min Swe, Lecturer of the Department of Geology,
University of Yangon for his valuable helps, encouragement and technical schooling
throughout graduate studies of the present author.
He wishes his heart-felt thanks to U Than Htay, U Dennie Sein and DGSE personals for
their literature and laboratory facilities and hospitality during field work.
In otherwise, U Ye Myint Swe and U Saw Naing, Assistant Lecturers of the Universities
Research Centre are recorded as the scientists who have the good will for the new
generation.
Finally, but not the least, the author also wish to acknowledge all his colleagues and
friends of the Geology Departments of Yangon and Dagon Universities for their
v
encouragement and helping hands throughout the period lasted five years for this
outcome.
vi
CONTENTS
Page
Abstract i
Acknowledgements iii
Contents iv
List of Figures vii
List of Tables xii
CH 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Scope and Objectives 1
1.2. Location, Size and Accessibility 1
1.3. Methods of Study 1
1.4. Previous Works 4
CH 2. GEOLOGY 6
2.1. General Statement 6
2.2. Geomorphology 6
2.2.1. Distribution of Principal Geomorphic Features 6
2.2.2. Drainage Characteristics 8
2.2.3. Climate, Vegetation and Land use 10
2.2.4. Weathering 10
2.3. Regional Geologic Setting 10
2.3.1. Distribution of Major Rock Units 10
2.3.2. Regional Structural Setting 12
2.4. Nature of Exposures and their Distribution 13
2.5. Description of Sedimentary Units 14
2.5.1. Kyaukphyar Sandstone 14
2.5.2. Older Alluvium 15
2.5.3. Younger Alluvium 15
2.6. Geological Structures 17
2.6.1. Form and Structures of Igneous Rocks 17
2.6.2. Structural Expression in Metamorphic Rocks 17
2.6.3. Compressional Features 19
2.5.4. Extensional Features 20
CH 3. PETROLOGY 23
vii
CH 4. MINERALOGY 66
4.1. General Statement 66
4.2. Rock-forming Minerals 66
4.2.1. Plagioclase 66
4.2.2. Olivine 68
4.2.3. Pyroxenes 70
4.2.3.1. Orthopyroxene 70
4.2.3.2. Clinopyroxene 70
4.2.4. Amphiboles 71
4.2.4.1. Hornblende 71
4.2.4.2. Orthoamphibole-anthophyllite 71
4.2.4.3. Riebeckite 71
4.2.5. Serpentine minerals 72
4.2.5.1. Pseudomorphic textures 72
4.2.5.2. Non-pseudomorphic and vein textures 72
4.3. Ore Minerals 75
viii
4.3.1. Oxides 75
4.3.1.1. Chromite 75
4.3.1.2. Magnetite 75
Page
4.3.2. Sulfides 79
4.4. Precious Metal Mineralogy 81
4.4.1. General occurrences of Precious Metals in the area 81
4.4.2. Alluvial Gold 84
4.4.3. Alluvial Platinum Group Metals 89
4.4.3.1. Mineral Species and Occurrence 89
4.4.3.2. Microtextures and Inclusions 93
4.4.3.3. Genetical Consideration of PGE alluvium 94
4.4.4. Concentration in host rock 94
4.4.5. Comparison with Precious Metal Placers of the Chindwin Area
105
4.4.6. Comparison with World's PGM Deposits 107
CH 6. CONCLUSION 119
REFERENCES 125
APPENDICES
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figs. page
1.1 Location map of the study area 2
2.1 Topographic map of the study area 7
2.2 Drainage map of the study area 9
2.3 Regional geological map 11a
2.4 Structural trace map of the northern Myanmar region 11b
2.5 Photogeological trace map of the study area 16
2.6 “Blacksands” Heavy mineral accumulation on the flank of a drained
surface which is a common phenomenon of Indawgyi lowlands. 18
2.7 Hourglass texture of lizardite plates in the photomicrograph. Chrysotile
cross-fibre vein-let occurred in the centre. Asymmetric folding of this vein
indicates left lateral shear took place in the area. 18
2.8 Histogram of shear joints in the area. 21
2.9 Histogram of magma cooling joints in the area. 21
3.1 Layering nature of the gabbroic rock. 25
3.2 Photomicrograph of the rock of above outcrop, which is a plagioclase-
orthopyroxene-olivine cumulate; Postcumulus growth made the rock to be
poikilitic textured. 25
3.3 Photomicrograph of Orthopyroxene gabbro where large poikilitic
orthopyroxene crystal and earlier bronzite displaying schiller structure 27
3.4 Photomicrograph showing clinopyroxene altered to amphibole (tremolite-
actinolite) in the poikilitic orthopyroxene gabbro. 27
3.5 Modal composition of some Indawgyi gabbroic rocks in the Plagioclase-
Orthopyroxene-Clinopyroxene diagram 29
3.6 Modal composition of some Indawgyi gabbroic rocks in the Plagioclase-
Pyroxene-Hornblende diagram 31
3.7 Photomicrograph of Poikilitic augite in the diallage plagioclase cumulate
enclosing grains of feldspar and orthopyroxene 33
3.8 Alteration of orthopyroxene to fibrous amphibole in contact with pore filling
magnetite grain seen in the photomicrograph of labradorite orthopyroxene
cumulate of magnetic anomaly zone 33
3.9 The structures of high temperature sedimentation occurred in the
Plagioclase-orthopyroxene cumulates of layered gabbroic complex 36
x
Figs. page
3.10 Layering of the mafic minerals and anorthositic plagioclase in lower
gabbroic cumulate 39
3.11. Jointed Quartz diorite outcrop 39
3.12 Modal composition of some Indawgyi gabbroic rocks in the Plagioclase-
Pyroxene-Olivine diagram 41
3.13 Photomicrograph of foliated muscovite-biotite granodiorite. Euhedral
plagioclase crystals were selectively subjected to sericitization 42
3.14 Photomicrograph of a layered microdiorite 42
3.15 Modal composition of some Indawgyi granitoid rocks in the Quartz-Alkali
feldspar-Plagioclase diagram 45
3.16 A jointed, less-well deformed serpentinite outcrop observed in stream section47
3.17 Sheared serpentinite outcrop at the bank of Namyinhka stream 48
3.18 Photomicrograph of closely spaced, sub-parallel cross-fibre veinlets of
fibrous serpentine outlining a single pseudomorph, suggesting a preferred
orientation of original olivine before serpentinization 48
3.19 Megascopic textures seen on the photograph of the plagioclase-amphibolite 50
3.20 Photomicrograph of feldspathic epidote amphibolite in which twin bands of
plagioclase are still preserved with minor distortion but partially
recrystallized into rounded, zoned grain 50
3.21 Inconsistent intercalation of schistose layer in the pegmatoidal unit of the
amphibolites 51
3.22 Photomicrograph of a feldspar-amphibole rock showing gradational nature of
amphibole grain-sizes 51
3.23 Figure showing mineralogical and textural transition of sheared serpentinite
to Talc-chlorite schist. 53
3.24 Photomicrograph of Talc-chlorite schist showing minor distortion of crystals
possibly because of right lateral shear 53
3.25 Photomicrograph between crossed Nichols of orthoamphibole (anthophyllite)
crystals in the Alkaline-amphibole schist 54
3.26 Bluish green and brown alkali amphibole (Riebeckite) crystals in the
Alkaline-amphibole schist 54
3.27 A small exposure of sheeted meta-serpentinites (antigorite schist) in the
serpentine schist unit of M4 56
3.28 Slip-fibre serpentine vein with sweeping extinction occurred as the foliation
of the antigorite schist. Interpenetrating leaf-like aggregate of the same
minerals are still retaining original distribution of cumulus crystals. 56
xi
Figs. page
3.29 Megascopic texture of feldspathic amphibole schist of the M2 unit 57
3.30 Photomicrograph of Feldspathic amphibole schist in which plagioclase as the
occasional intercalation and greyish, horizontally cracked anthophyllite
occur 57
3.31 Comparison of disrupted Indawgyi Ophiolites with reconstructed section of
Kings River Ophiolite 60
3.32 Diagrammatic representation of the steady-state situation visualised beneath
the axial zone of a slow spreading oceanic ridge 62
3.33 Possible field of emplacement of the Indawgyi plutons (dotted area) in the
diagram of relationship between mineral zonation and depth in idealised
Ophiolite section that has undergone hydrothermal metamorphism 65
4.1 Photomicrograph of an anorthositic band in the plagioclase-clinopyroxene-
orthopyroxene cumulate 67
4.2 Intercumulus texture of feldspar in the photomicrograph of Hornblende-
plagioclase cumulates 67
4.3 Perthitic intergrowth of feldspars is observed in the photomicrograph of
plagioclase-clinopyroxene-olivine cumulate between crossed-Nichols 69
4.4 A cumulus olivine crystal in the ol-opx gabbro. Twinning is observed
inconsistently and terminated by almost perpendicular strain-lamellae. 69
4.5 Photomicrograph taken between crossed-Nichols of a serpentinized
peridotite of the 2 unit in which hourglass-textured antigorite as mesh rims
and relict olivine as mesh centre 73
4.6 Photomicrograph of serpentinized peridotite showing mesh texture and
fibrolamellar, feathery flakes of antigorite 73
4.7 Antigorite cross fibre vein cutting across the interpenetration texture of
antigorite brucite and magnetite 74
4.8 Left-lateral shear occurred in the chrysotile vein in the non-pseudomorphic
to pseudomorphic antigorite, brucite and magnetite 74
4.9 Very fine-grained interlocking texture of serpentine in the previously
plagioclase-pyroxene rock possibly equivalent to 1 unit 76
4.10 Chromite replacement among leaf-like aggregate of antigorite showing
hourglass-like interlocking texture 76
4.11 Disseminated ore mineral grains observed in the photomicrograph of
serpentinized peridotite under plane polarised light 77
4.12 Enclosed and penetrating nature of magnetite grains in the silicates. 77
4.13 Network-like distribution of magnetite grains occurs as the products of
serpentinization of iron rich minerals (possibly Bronzite or Fayalite) 78
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table page
INTRODUCTION
Some members of the Platinum Group Minerals are recently known to occur in the Gold
Placers of the Upper Chindwin and Indawgyi areas. The possible source of these alluvial
precious metal occurrences is speculated to be the mafic-ultramafic plutons of the
northern Myanmar and the area west of the Lake Indawgyi possesses the particular
interest for this study. This area has not been geologically and mineralogically mapped
and described before.
In this study, geological field investigation, sampling of minerals and rocks and
production of a fairly detailed geological map are methodically and systematically done.
Mineralogy of Gold and Platinum Group Metals are qualitatively studied. Investigation
and characterisation of precious metals occurrence in this area are carried out and some
discussions are made for further geological interpretations.
The area in which specific observations are performed is situated closed to the western
bank of the Lake Indawgyi, Monhyin Township of Myitkyina District in the Kachin State
of the Northern Myanmar (fig. 1.1). The area lies in the one inch topographic map 92 C/4
(approximately between Lat. 2500 N and 2510 N and between Long. 9606 E and 96
15 E) and covers about 225 square kilometres (90 square miles).
The Indawgyi area is accessed through recently developed Belumyo-Nammon pass from
Monhyin on the Mandalay-Myitkyina railroad and through Sezin-Hepan pass motorable
in dry season from Upper Chindwin region. There is no village or men settlement in the
area of precise study.
Aerial photogeological techniques and regular field geological techniques were applied to
know general geology and to produce the geological map of the study area.
2
3
As the area is densely forested and sporadically covered by large rock boulders in the
thick soil formation so aerial photographs are greatly important in the geological
mapping.
Photographs taken since 1958-59 by the Government of the Union of Burma in 1:50,000
scale were applied to note large-scale geological data. In this study, following fifteen
airphotographs of the three flight lines covered the area.
They were thoroughly studied with TOPCON Mirror stereoscope and discrete, large-
scale lithologic boundaries, fractures and lineaments were traced. Detailed photogeologic
mapping was done with pocket stereoscope and CONDOR T-22, Y-model, Ushikata
stereoscope on following thirty 1:25000 scale aerial photographs dated 26-1-1985.
The identified geological features were transferred through overlay sheets to one inch to
two-mile scale topographic map in conversion to the appropriate map scales. To get more
accuracy, decisive checking of drainage lines and contours on the map with topographic
expressions on the airphotos was developed finally.
Detailed geological observations were done in the fields conducted in May and
November 1997, each of which was lasted about 3 weeks. In the field studies most of the
traverses were done along the deeply drained channels and in-situ outcrops were
observed upstream toward the high points of the mountain ranges. The spar-geology was
distrusted because of the highly eluviated and bouldery nature of the area. The small-
scale structural impressions were recorded for the wider geological interpretations. 180
rock samples were collected and systematically numbered for the later interpretations.
Megascopic and macroscopic petrography was done in the field to note the outcrop
nature, and photographs were taken. And then, in the laboratory, hand specimens were
observed in detail. Mineralogy of rock-forming minerals and microscopic petrology were
performed based on 100 thin sections of various rock types occurred in the area.
4
Some rock specimens containing opaque minerals were mounted in epoxy resin and
polished with diamond ponder. Precious mineral grains were optically analysed under the
binocular stereomicroscope. They were separated with a hand magnet and mounted in
transparent resin and polished. 20 polished sections were studied with the Nikon
OPTIPHOT- POL ore microscope at the Mineralogy Laboratory of the Universities
Research Centre. Samples of grains of alluvial platinoid placers panned from Namyinhka
stream of the southern part of the area were sent through DGSE to R. L. Barnet
Geological Consulting, of Lambeth, Ontario, for electron probe microanalysis and
applicable data of 165 grains were manipulated.
17 drill-core samples taken from the bore hole no. 16,17 and 22 of the Ngagyan
exploration site (around the area, the intersection of lat. 25'04' N and long. 96'07. 5') of
the DGSE were chemically analysed to obtain the concentration of ore minerals at the
Metallurgical Research Laboratory in Pyinmana Township.
The study area is remote and impenetrable jungle covered so geological observations are
difficult to be done. Though it is the immediate southern continuation of the Jade Mine
area, works outcome on there in the aspect of the precious mineralogy has never been
published. Some regionalized works can only be observed.
The precious metals occurrence in Northern Myanmar region has been published in the
Records of the Geological Survey of India since 1886. In this concern, Bion (1912)
observed the gold placers of the Upper Chindwin area. In his report, the origin of gold
was assumed to be the veins in the Tertiary igneous rocks and the source of platinum and
platinoid minerals was speculated to be the chromite deposits associated with serpentines.
5
Brown mentioned the alluvial precious metal occurrence in the northern Myanmar in
1924 and speculated the provenance to be the chromite bearing ultramafic plutons of its
further north.
Chhibber (1934) observed the Jade Mine area and established in his classic works-
'Geology of Burma' and 'Mineral Resources of Burma'. The associated occurrence of such
rock types as crystalline schist, serpentinized peridotite, granite, gabbro and Tertiary
sedimentary rocks were noted. As his data collections were specially intended for the
exploitation of jade so he mapped and described in detail the northern continuation of the
present study area for the occupancy of jadeite in good quality.
Clegg (1941) studied the ultramafic-m mafic rocks of the region and recorded as of the
Cretaceous and associated rocks of Burma. Petrography of the epidiorite, gabbro,
peridotite and serpentinites exposed in the area were briefly described.
The Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) conducted a project,
Eastern Chin and Arakan Mineral Survey (ECAMS) with the framework of Technical
Co-operation with Myanmar in the years 1980s. As part of this work, Hagen et. al.
published a paper, "Platinum Group Minerals in the Quaternary gold placers in the Upper
Chindwin area of the Northern Burma" in 1990. Their SEM and electron probe
microanalysis studies have revealed that the main PGM are Pt-Fe and Os-Ir-Ru alloys.
The origin of the PGM is assumed to be the ophiolites in northern Myanmar.
6
Chapter 2
GEOLOGY
The area west of Lake Indawgyi can generally be mention as the tectonically emplaced
bodies of mafic and altered ultramafic rocks and their metamorphic equivalents. It is
included in the West Kachin Unit of Bender (1983,p.39) and surrounded by Wuntho
Massif of the Central Volcanic Line of Steffineson and Marshall (1984) in the west and
the Indawgyi plain and well-deformed Miocene clastic sedimentary rocks in the east.
Actually, the study area is a southern segment of the Jade Mine Ultramafic Belt of
Mitchell (1983).
2.2. Geomorphology
The area is a highly rugged terrain so pre-eminently rising mountain ranges with high
scarps, steep slopes and narrow flat peaks ornamented by deep gullies which initiates
bouldery streams are observed between the partially swampy even plains. The
generalised configuration of the topography can be observed in fig. (2.1).
The north-western central area covering two-third of the observations is constituted with
gabbroic mass and inverted cone-like configuration of layers express the Northwest
facing, partially destroyed circular distribution of mount-chains. The important high
points are 2500 peak (B 755052), 2326 peak (B 760045), 2330 peak (B 766040), 2700
peak (B 777030), 2747 peak (Ngagyan old village site), 2584 peak (B 803030, near
Hpaola old village site) and 2609 peak (Lwenan Bum). (The number naming before a
peak is its altitude in feet and its co-ordinate grid and/or location are in the parentheses.)
They form northwesterly opening saddle shaped mountain chain. Nampokgale stream is
flowing among them into a wide cultivated plain of the north-western part.
The northernmost area is covered with metamorphosed ultramafic rocks and the ranges
are trending in the structural curvature West – west of Southwest – east of Northeast. The
peaks are not too high but having about one thousand feet above sea level. There is a flat
small valley in the eastern part of this segment.
7
8
The eastern mountains have lateral linkage with previously described circular shaped
mountain chains but are showing the sliding nature to the east because of the reflection of
east-dipping foliation of the deformed mafic bedrock.
In the southern area, an east trending swampy valley lies between the mountain chains
expressed above and the moderately rugged hills of the southernmost part. The southern
hills are constructed with serpentinites and small gabbroic bodies.
The area is actually a segment of the drainage divide of Chindwin and Ayeyarwady
rivers. Such streams initiated from the highest mountains locally named as Lagyantaung
(in English language, the Mount Crescent), Namata, Nampokgale, Namsakun and
Nampok flow to the north-western plain of the area and they merged respectively near
Maingpok as Nampok stream which is a tributary of the Uyu river that flows into the
River Chindwin. At the other side of the mountain range, the streams Nansakyin and
Nansagon flow to the south and merge with Namyinhka which initiated in corporation of
Hpalap Hka and Wetchi Hka near the point 930 (G 727955) flowing to the east near the
point 688 (G 782976) and the stream continues to the Northeast with tributes of Namsai
Hka (Nanthe) and Namsankawn from the south and Namyinti from the North and then
fills the Lake Indawgyi that make the region to be prominent. The Indaw river in the
north, which is one of the tributaries of the River Ayeyarwady, discharges the Lake
Indawgyi (see fig. 1.1).
Most of the streams are fracture-controlled. For the decomposition of mafic minerals and
because of spheroidal weathering, the straight streams are generally modified to be
curvilinear (fig. 2.2). In reflection of the ultramafic bedrock, classic circular drainage is
observed in the southernmost and eastern part of the area. The dome-shape intrusions of
coarse-grained gabbroic rocks exhibit the radial drainage around the central and northern
heights.
While the streams are in the basin plain, the sinuous channels are partially controlled by
old fractures that can be seen along the directions i. e., N-S in the stream Namata and NE-
SW in the stream Namyinhka. In the southern area where sedimentary rocks are exposed,
the fan-shape distribution of channels from the south into the Indawgyi plain is observed.
9
Transitional climate of Tropical Monsoon and Temperate Hilly types occurs. Throughout
the whole year the temperature ranges between 17 and 28 Celsius degrees and annual
rainfall is about 200 to 250 centimetres. The higher parts are cloudy for the days of rains
and winter. The whole area is covered with very thick evergreen forest except the tall
grassy fields growing in small plains.
Farming in places of low hills where the sedimentary rocks covered, and cultivation of
rice and wheat in the small valleys are observed. Timber extraction is the main use of this
land where as safari and local panning of alluvial gold and platinum metals are
subsidiary.
2.2.4. Weathering
As the area is so wet and highly vegetated that both physical and chemical weathering
take place in a momentum. The Mafic and Ultramafic bedrock comprise high
concentration of iron ores such as magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite and chalcopyrite as well as
composed of ferromagnesium silicates as major components so they can easily subjected
to oxidation in the wet temperate climate. Spheroidal weathering distinctly occur, and
huge, rounded, boulder floats are seen to roll down along the narrow-V shaped stream
gullies. Leaching of mafic minerals resulted kaolinites in some stream gullies and reddish
soil formation is observed as insoluble residue.
Regional geology of the Indawgyi area located in Northern Myanmar region shown in
fig. (2.3) as described by J. C. Brown (1924), Chhibber (1934), Earth Sciences Research
Division (1977), A. H. G. Mitchell et. al. (1978), Bender et. al. (1982) and ESCAP
(1991) is quoted in this thesis.
Generally, ultrabasic and basic rocks, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks and volcanics
ranging in age from Precambrian to Quaternary with granitic and gabbroic intrusives of
unknown age occupy large part of Northern Myanmar region.
11
12
The earliest unit, Mogok gneiss that is of the northern continuation of the Mogok Belt of
Searl and Ba Than Haq (1964) occurs as the south-eastern limit of the northern Myanmar
region. The unit which mainly composed of low- to medium-grade metamorphic rocks
possibly equivalent to the Chaung Magyi Group of Precambrian to Cambrian lies along
the north trending eastern half of the region in association with schists and gneisses
probably equivalent to Mogok Gneiss. That older three units form the Eastern frontier
ranges and Kumon range of the Kachin State and among them, Orbitolina-bearing
limestone with ultrabasic and basic intrusives occur as an ophiolite belt which follows the
NNE-SSW regional trend. Cretaceous Flysch units are also observed in the IndoBurman
Ranges of north-western area and Kywethe Limestone and carbonate-dominated
Cretaceous rocks occur near the Banmauk area.
The central part and western half of the region are occupied by three distinct rock suites
which are gabbro, ultrabasic, and low grade metamorphic rocks of Jade Mine area, calc-
alkaline volcanics of Wuntho massif, overlain by Tertiary sedimentary rocks. They are
sporadically intruded by the granitic rocks of unknown age. Hukawng valley and Upper
Ayeyarwady valley are covered with Mio-Pliocene Irrawaddy Formation and Quaternary
sediments. Pleistocene Uyu Boulder Conglomerate is observed in the Uyu valley and,
Indawgyi plain and Monhyin-Wuntho plain are covered with alluvial deposits.
The area around Lake Indawgyi is constituted with ultramafic-mafic rocks of the Jade
Mine area in the west, and Miocene sedimentary rocks in the east that are divided by
Sagaing major right lateral strike-slip fault. Ultramafic-mafic rocks are metamorphosed
in the northern area, and gabbroic bodies with small acidic igneous intrusions are
sporadically distributed among or closed to them. Miocene sedimentary rocks are shallow
marine sand-dominated deposits of the Upper Pegu Group. At the southern area of the
lake, conglomerates and pebbly sandstones possibly equivalent to Irrawaddy Formation
are observed.
Regional structural trend is approximately NNE-SSW, but in the northern part, north-east
and north-west structures are in parallel position, but the enclosure at the northern end
near Lat. N 2630, north of Hukawng valley is observed as a curve or bent to form a
south plunging synform. (See fig. 2.4)
13
The major right-lateral strike-slip Sagaing Fault, which is a trench link fault (Win Swe,
1971; Dey, 1968; Curray et. al., 1979, Myint Thein et. al., 1991) probably ceases its
lateral displacement near the area of Indawgyi Lake and bifurcates northward and
eastward into Taikri and Namyin faults. In the eastern area of the lake, the rising rock
masses of Miocene sediments are seen tectonically crushed in the synthetic and antithetic
shear of this fault system.
The right lateral movements of the major wrench system resulted the lazy 'S'-shaped,
fracture- bounded Indawgyi valley to be a pull-apart basin.
The gabbroic complex occupies about 60 per cent of the study area and is observed as
major component in the centre and also in the north-eastern and southern part. Much of
those mafic exposures are banded or layered but in some plutons no layer or foliation is
examined in the field.
Among the gabbroic rocks, granodiorite and quartz diorite with microdiorite are
emplaced as small elliptical shaped bodies. They occur in the western central part along
the drainage divide of Namata and Namsagyin streams.
Massive serpentinites are observed in the southern part covering about 7 per cent of the
area. They are jointed, layered rocks of regular sequence exposed in the stream sections
of Namyinhka Chaung and its tributaries.
Alkaline-amphibole schists occur as narrow, north trending linear bodies at the western
boundary of the gabbroic batholith and talc-chlorite schists are observed between them as
a transition unit. In the southwestern area, near the initiating stream Namsagyin, this type
of schists is seen as an allochthonous block by the displacement of a strike slip fault. In
the northern area, serpentine schists and amphibole schists are observed as NW-SE, to
NE to E curvilinear ridges. This unit occupies approximately 15 per cent of the area of
study.
14
The following unit, namely Kyaukphyar Sandstone is informally described for the clastic
sedimentary rocks exposed in the southern part of the study area at about 6 per cent
coverage, and also in the south-western part of Indawgyi Lake valley.
Reference Area
The name of the unit is restricted after Kyaukphyar stream section near Maingnaung-
Ngagyan Bulldozer road approximately around the loc. SG-870955 and SG-858972. It is
exposed in the South Indawgyi drainage basin comprising Namsankawn and Namthe
streams flowing into the Lake Indawgyi. Some good exposures are observed at the base
of Lwengaw Bum (loc. SG-864980).
Lithology
Tuffaceous, gritty to pebbly, loosely cemented, buff to reddish brown coloured massive
sandstone is dominant. Pebbles are 1 to 5 cm in size and are mainly of serpentine and
chlorite schist with some quartz pebbles. Microscopically observed clasts are moderately
sorted, sub-rounded to sub-angular, constituting mainly quartz and minor feldspar (both
plagioclase and orthoclase) with minute rock fragments such as serpentine, schist and
quartzite. Though the rock shows no distinct bedding character, lineation of pebbles is
observed in places.
As the normal characters of the younger units, the beds are of low angle dips round about
20 except for the northern exposures outside the area along the Maingnaung-Lonton
road (the western throughway of the Lake) where the high angle dips (60-70) are
observed. It is probably because of slumping due to minor faulting. The contact of it with
serpentinites and gabbroic rocks is not distinctly seen however it is suggested that these
sediments are unconformably overlying the mafic and ultramafic rocks which occur as
inliers in them (see geological map, plate 1), and ultramafic detritus are observed in the
secondary rocks.
15
Since paleontological data is extremely rare in this unit, lithologic and structural
characters can only be applied for the correlation purpose. In these concerns, the unit is
assumed to be equivalent to Namting Series (Chhibber, 1934b) of Mio-Pliocene age. The
nearest exposures of the series is known to occur in its type locality between Namting
(2538, 9627) and Lonkin (2539, 9622).
This unit is the unconsolidated gravelly sand-dominant deposits, which are of interest for
the precious metal extraction. It comprised of fan deposits in the valleys and at the base
of intrusive masses, and old terraces of the Lake Indawgyi. Pebble constituents are
mainly made up of mafic and ultramafic rock-fragments and are loosely cemented with
clayey sands. Large, spheroidally weathered, rounded boulders of gabbroic rocks are
sporadically observed in these layers. This sedimentary unit is speculated to be of
equivalent age or at least younger than Pleistocene Uyu Boulder Conglomerate exposed
in Jade Mine area.
It covers the Maingpok plain of the northwestern area and Namyinhka valley of the
southeastern area. The alluvial soil is evidently sandy, and economically interesting due
to the presence of "dark sands" (fig. 2.6) which are observed along the banks of streams.
Most of the area where this unit is present is vegetated with tall grasses about 5 feet
height. The streams flowing in the Younger Alluvium are sandy ones, which yield
precious metal placers.
16
Unit boundary
Boundary with alluvial plains
Structural trends (exposure lines of consolidated units)
Photolineaments
Dip direction of bedding and foliation
Histogram of fractures
1-5 Igneous units
M1-4 Metamorphic units
Tmpk Sedimentary units
Q1-2 Unconsolidated units
The Lagyantaung (Mt. Crescent) gabbroic mass is a crudely circular pluton, which shows
poorly defined concentric zoning and local layering. Photogeologically, it displays the
circular shape lineaments (fig. 2.5). The distinctly observable centimetre-scale layering
accompanying sedimentary-like structures occur in the highest parts of the plutonic mass.
Graded layering and cross layering are well developed. At the base of the well-layered
gabbroic mass, the plagioclase-olivine cumulates show the structures like that as well
seen in fig. 3.9. Foliation of these layers show moderate to high dip (37-73) inward and
the intrusion is found to have the form of an inverted cone or a lopolith.
In the southern area, smaller gabbroic masses with faint layering can be seen. As the
contact relationship of them are not distinctly observed, it can not be determined whether
they are parts of a single pluton or not and however their chronological order of
emplacement is assumed as they are of normal sequence.
In otherwise, there are the observable cupolas viz.-Maingpok hill in the northwestern
plain and Lwengaw Bum in the southeastern part.
Granitoid bodies are observed as small, elongated stocks intruded into unlayered gabbroic
complex, orthopyroxene gabbros and serpentinized peridotites. Generally they are
trending in NE-SW direction. In granodiorite, foliations are primary and horizontal but
those in microdiorite are nearly vertical with trend of 220.
The strain displaying in serpentinites, possibly because of the shear of a minor strike slip
fault (the SF1) is examined in the field (loc. SG-767989) as well as in thin-section studies.
In fig 2.7 a micro-vein of chrysotile cross-fibres displays an asymmetric folding
indicating the left lateral shear, which may have taken place around there after the
formation of the protolith. The time of deformation is possibly contemporary with the
period of serpentinization.
18
19
The measurable attitudes of layers in gabbroic rock mass exhibit the structure of an
inverted cone (lopolith). It is actually elliptical shaped and the longer axis is trending
approximately east. For the lack of observable plastic deformation up to microscopic
scale, the time of deformation (interpreted to be north directed) is possibly syn-formation
or immediate post-formation.
The attitude of the metamorphic rocks are not too harmonised not only with the main
intrusive body and also among each other so they are estimated to be deformed at least
for two times. The earlier phase is syn-origin to the mafic mass that includes the southern
area serpentinites and metagabbro or feldspathic amphibolites, which show east-dipping
foliation. Within these meta-igneous units the latter is the older. The later phase seems to
occur after the formation of the igneous units but simultaneous to the emplacement of the
whole rock-suite into the present location. It is recognised in the metamorphosed
ultramafics of the northern and western area. The northern area meta-serpentinites are
folded to form an asymmetrical north plunging broad syncline in this part of study.
Shear joints noted in the area are plotted in the histogram (fig. 2.8). It displays the
prominence of NW-directed (300-320 Azimuth) stress that may have occurred in the
area.
Strike-slip faults well seen in the area are briefly described here.
SF1 It is a left lateral strike-slip fault, which took place in the NW-fracture system. It is
observed in the southwestern part of the area and Alkaline amphibole schist unit to be
laterally intruded into the gabbroic rocks. The serpentinite unit closed to this fault line is
distinctly sheared and microscopically examined left lateral activity is evident for this
deformation. In otherwise, curvilinear lineaments detected photogeologically are
supporting the existence of this sinistral activity. The fault is traced about 8 kilometres in
the study area and the relative horizontal displacement along the fault is approximately 3
kilometres.
SF2 It is a right lateral strike-slip fault that is generally parallel to and an associate of
the formerly described fault. In the activation about this two fault-lines the massive
gabbro unit is relatively displaced roughly 8 kilometres to the west of Northwest. The
topographic and rock-unit offsets, deep and straight stream gullies, and photogeologic
20
Lineaments are the evidence of fault existence. In this area the fault is traced
approximately 3 kilometres and relative displacement is at least 2.5 kilometres.
The photogeologically noted tensional fractures and lineaments i. e., exposure lines of
hard bands and exposure lines of consolidated units are mapped in fig. 2.5 in which their
histogram includes.
Air photo fractures i.e., the straight lineaments are generally classified into 4 systems
viz., NW system, WNW system, NE system, and NNE system successively ordered to the
younger. Among them, NW fracture system is the most prominent (see fracture rose
diagram). Tensional joints (most probably the magma cooling joints) are regularised in a
separate diagram (fig. 2.9).
NF2 It took places in the Centre of the eastern area and occurred within the plagioclase
amphibolite unit and extended into the unconsolidated units. It activated along the NW-
fracture system. The relative vertical displacement is about 10-20 metres where the
southwestern part is down thrown side. The topographic offsets are the supporting
evident of existence and the lineament is traced about 4 kilometres.
NF3 The fault is observed in the southern Centre of the area and being the contact of
olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro and amphibolite units. It also activated along a NW
directed fracture and downthrow occurred at the southwestern part with relative vertical
displacement about 3 to 12 metres. Along the lineament , the rock units and their
represented geomorphic characters are distinctly changed. The fault line is traced about
3.5 kilometres that measured photogeologically.
21
22
NF4 Unlike NF1, NF2 and NF3, the fault is ENE to E trending and can only be traceable
about 3.7 kilometres on the aerial photographs. The northern block has downthrown and
minor offset of SF1 is observed.
NF5 It is a minor fault observed in the northern area which being a contact of fan
deposits and gabbroic units. The northern part shows the downthrow approximately 30
metres. The fault occurs also in the NW fracture system. Lithologic and topographic
offsets make the fault to be distinguished. Length of the fault is about 1.4 kilometres.
23
Chapter 3
PETROLOGY
The rocks in the area are categorised into 15 mappable units viz. eight igneous units, four
metamorphic units and three sedimentary units. The igneous rocks are mainly different
species of gabbro with two granitoid kinds. The gabbroic rocks are observed as layered
and unlayered (massive) outcrops. In occurrence of them as successive exposures in
accordance with general attitude of layering, the rocks are described in δ1 to δ5 units as
their chronological order.
The layered units are important for study in comparison with world’s typical layered
intrusions. This nature is examined in the field (fig. 3.1) however outcrops are not too
large. The origin by crystal accumulation is acceptable for them and the word ‘cumulates’
for the rocks like that origin is acquiesced as proposed by Wager, Brown and Wadsworth
(1960) instead of the old term ‘gneissoid gabbro’ of Kemp (1940) not to be misnomer
with meta-igneous rocks. In certain cases, an orthopyroxene cumulate may be an
orthopyroxenite unit in one locality where postcumulus overgrowth has been dominant
but, in another locality along strike, it may be a norite, where entrapment of intercumulus
liquid has resulted in cementation by post cumulus plagioclase. In classifying these
heterogeneous rocks, it is not possible to make nomenclature with regular schemes of
igneous rocks (e.g. those of Streckeisen, 1979) for this extraordinary nature and the
terminology used by Jackson (1967) is followed here (see appendix-1). Mappable layered
units are semiquantitatively named as which based on cumulus crystals/minerals listed in
order of decreasing abundance only. In that type of mapping, the horizons are determined
to occur in phase contacts and ratio contacts where the former is more dominant. Despite
the boundary of mineralogical and textural units are transitional to gradational, the
contacts with and among other units are mostly concealed and in places observable
structurally.
24
Some gabbroic units are of faintly layered and unlayered types. Hornblende gabbro (2)
shows slightly discernible cryptic layering and Olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro (4) and
Orthopyroxene gabbro (1) microscopically appears large poikilitic mafic crystals with
vaguely parallel euhedral plagioclase grains (fig. 3.2). The homogeneous or random
expression of mineral grains both in hand specimen and in thin section is absent in
gabbroic rock of the area. For this reason, mineralogical names of cumulates are used and
the conventional nomenclature is only subsidarily applied. The modal compositions of
the cumulates are not too trustworthy but are plotted in the IUGS Classifications
(Streckeisen, 1979 & 1983) to estimate the general composition of their parent magma.
The patches of granitoids among them are ordinarily described in completion of the rock-
suite. They are,
These acid and intermediate igneous rocks are noted as part of the leucocratic associates
of the cumulate part of the present rock suite. Their contact relationships such as chilled
margin and appophyses are not seen throughout the area of study so seem to be absent.
The metamorphic rocks in the Indawgyi area are very low- to medium- grade
metamorphosed ultramafic and related lithologies. They are generally and informally
categorised in their type of collective occurrence as follows.
M4 Serpentine schists
M3 Alkaline-amphibole schists
M2 Plagioclase amphibolites, and
M1 Serpentinites.
Field Occurrence
It is exposed in the southern area of the present study. The outcrops are generally
rounded, rolling hills capped by spheroidally weathered boulders. They are mostly coated
with recent algae and dark brown to yellowish brown weathered surface is common. It
seems to occur as lateral mineral facies change (olivine to pyroxene) with serpentinite
unit.
Megascopic Study
The rock is light grey, lead-grey to mottled dark coloured. Mafic minerals are tabular to
short prismatic in form and deeply dark in colour with sizes ranging about 0.5 mm to 7
mm in diameter. The felsic mineral is white to lead grey and brownish grey coloured and
1 to 4 mm in grain size. In the mottled appearance of light coloured minerals and vitreous
lustre of mafic crystals, the rock is seen as a lead-grey, mass in hand-specimen.
Microscopic Study
The longitudinal section of grey, fibrous bronzite is common and the schiller structure is
observed. Pyroxenes are sporadically uralitized (fig. 3.4) and feldspars are mostly zoned
but unaltered.
Field occurrence
It occurs in the southwestern part of the area contact with serpentinites and amphibole
schists. Outcrops of this type are observed along the road cutting sections and closely
spaced (2 to 15 cm) joints are prominent to be susceptible to weathering. It is possibly
extruded rock mass by strike slip fault (SF1) (see geological map, plate 1). Similar rock
types are vastly exposed at Mawkham Range (along Long. 9605 around loc. SB-
699029) closely west of the study area.
Megascopic study
Parallel oriented green to dark green (possibly amphiboles) and white (possibly
plagioclase) minerals of approximately 1 x 0.5 x 2 mm sized grains composed of the hand
specimen. Weathered coloured jointed surface is light brownish.
Microscopic study
1 Orthopyroxene gabbro
4 Olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro
5l Lower layered gabbroic rocks
5m Middle layered gabbroic rocks
5h Upper layered gabbroic rocks
Fig. 3.5 Modal composition of some Indawgyi gabbroic rocks in the Plagioclase-
Orthopyroxene-Clinopyroxene diagram of IUGS nomenclature of mafic rocks (after
Streckeisen, 1976)
30
Much of the mineral constituent observed in this specimen (especially hornblende, quartz
and feldspar) display wavy extinction that indicating the rock had suffered strain effect.
Plagioclase 55 %
Hornblende 36 %
Biotite 3%
Quartz 3%
Clinopyroxene 2%
Chromite 1%
Total 100 %
According to IUGS classification of gabbroic rocks, the rock fall in the range of
hornblende gabbro. (See fig. 3.6)
Field occurrence
These cumulates are seen as a medium size body (about 3 square miles) in the north-
eastern area and as the small, isolated patches in the western border area. The plutons are
the elongated rock hills with the well jointed (16 to 30 cm-spaced) exposures. Weathered
outcrops are common with 1 to 2 cm thick-crust of oxidised ferromagnesium layers that
colouring the rock to reddish to yellowish brown.
Megascopic study
In hand specimen, it can be mistakable from hornblende gabbro (3) but it exhibits dark
grey homogeneity when is cut. The parallel orientation of 1 to 2-mm equant green and
white mineral grains is seen on the slightly weathered joint planes. The mafic grains are
little larger than those of hornblende gabbro and consistency of orientation occur here.
31
1 Orthopyroxene gabbro
2 Hornblende gabbro
3 Plagioclase-diallage cumulate
5m Middle layered gabbroic rocks
5h Upper layered gabbroic rocks
Fig. 3.6 Modal composition of some Indawgyi gabbroic rocks in the Plagioclase-
Pyroxene-Hornblende diagram of IUGS nomenclature of mafic rocks (after Strekeisen,
1976)
32
Microscopic study
Cumulus crystals
Plagioclase 58 %
Diallage 22 %
Titan-augite 3 %
Orthopyroxene 2%
Intercumulus minerals
Olivine 2%
Magnetite 4%
Postcumulus material
Saussuritized Plag. 4%
Amphibole 5%
Total 100 %
Field Occurrence
It occupies the large area exposures of the central highlands. The exposures are well seen
along the stream sections, as rock masses constituted the waterfalls, and rough and
jointed rock bodies crop out in the road cutting sections. Magnetive anomaly are high in
this type of rock due to the richness of magnetite and other ferromagnesium minerals in
the parent rock.
Megascopic Study
Generally, the rock is dark brown to dark coloured. Part of the weathered surface is
stained with iron oxide and yellowish- to reddish brown-coloured crust is observed. It is a
granular melanocratic rock with 1 to 1.5 mm size grains. Mafic minerals are dark green
short prismatic (possibly pyroxene crystals), light green spherical (possibly olivine) and
felsic mineral (possibly feldspar) shows light brown to whitish colours.
Microscopic Study
It is a granular textured rock with occasionally containing large poikilitic crystals and
vaguely parallel euhedral plagioclase grains. Major constituents are plagioclase
(larbradorite), sheeted, poikilitic orthopyroxene, olivine and amphibole probably the
product of alteration. . Magnetite grains are seen in the interspaces (fig. 3.8) and some
including as the poikilitic minerals (fig. 3.3). The plagioclase crystals are elongated,
blade-like forms, 0.5 x 1 mm is the largest in thin sections. They are twinned in combined
Carlsbad-Albite law and Pericline law. Orthopyroxene mainly hypersthene is fibrous, like
the 1 rock and being oikocryst to contain feldspar, clinopyroxene (diallage) and opaque
grains. Its size is large up to 3-x 1.5 mm. The mineral is 1st order light brown coloured
and slightly pleochroic.
Plagioclase (An50-57) 54 %
Orthopyroxene 21 %
Clinopyroxene 12 %
Olivine 7%
Amphibole 2%
Magnetite 4%
Total 100 %
According to IUGS classification of the gabbroic rocks (1983) the rock fall in the
Gabbronorite (fig. 3.5) or Olivine-gabbronorite (fig. 3.12) fields.
Field occurrence
It built the curvilinear high ridges of the central part. The plutonic mass dominantly rises
up among the rocks of the olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro and associated lithologies. It is a
sequence of cumulates of ranging compositions. Well-pronounced cumulus texture, and
structures of high temperature sedimentation are observed. Large exposures with even
surface walls (possibly fallen down joint planes) are seen at the upper part.
Though the complex has rhythmic layering and much variation in composition, 3 major
types of cumulate are classified.
The lowermost part consists of leucocratic unit i.e., influenced with feldspathic bands.
Alternations of light- and dark-coloured, centimetre-scale, parallel laminations are
thinned up within one metre. Above this zone, regular layering occurs and then metre
scale false-layering and slump structures are seen (fig. 3.9). Upper parts display half-
centimetre scale layering. The colour bands are even but not too continuous resulting
gneiss-like appearance.
36
37
Megascopic Study
Layering in hand specimen of lower cumulate is regular but uneven and inconsistent (fig.
3.10). Right laterally sheared rock cleavage in 0.7-cm spacing is observed. Small pits are
found on the weathered surface along the dark layers due to decomposition of mafic
minerals (especially olivine) but are not continuous for the inconsistency of layering.
The rock of middle cumulate is massive. 1 to 6 mm size prismatic dark minerals are
roughly parallel-oriented and transparent to translucent whitish minerals (feldspar) are
found among them.
The Uppermost cumulate is dark grey-coloured and 1x2.5-mm approximate size dark
minerals are distributed in a flow manner and the light minerals are occasionally
observed among them on polished surfaces. This rock has yellowish brown weathered
crust about 1 cm thick.
Microscopic study
Clinopyroxene is diallage showing distinct {100} partings. The cumulus diallage has 1.5
x 0.8-mm average size and the intercumulus clinopyroxene is 0.2-mm diameter rounded
grain. Olivine occurs in various habits i.e., equant, tabular and, irregular fractures are
common but alteration is not observed. The largest olivine grains are seen in the lower
cumulates with 1 x 2-mm size approximately.
38
Orthopyroxene is fibrous, grey hypersthene with 0.3x1-mm size grains and mostly
common in the middle cumulates. Patchy and peripheral alteration to clinopyroxene and
then to hornblende is normally seen.
The estimated mineral composition in per cent of each cumulate is described here.
Field Occurrence
They are sporadically observed as small, elliptical shaped bodies within the non-cumulus
Olivine orthopyroxene gabbroic rock unit (4). It took place possibly near or along the
boundary of this massive olivine gabbronorite. Quartz diorite is half metre-spaced jointed
and dark green to light green coloured exposures are common (fig. 3.11). Microdiorite is
a faintly layered, dike-like, body in the fracture control stream but the exposure is not
distinctly observable.
39
40
Megascopic study
Microscopic study
Plagioclase 47.3 %
Orthopyroxene 18.0 %
Hornblende 13.6 %
Quartz 7.3 %
Opaque 7.3 %
Alkali feldspar 4.0 %
Olivine 2.5 %
Total 100 %
According to IUGS diagram of granitic rocks, the rock falls in the field of Quartz-diorite
(see fig. 3.13).
41
3 Plagioclase-diallage cumulate
4 Olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro
5h Upper layered gabbroic rocks
5l Lower layered gabbroic rocks
Fig. 3.12 Modal composition of some Indawgyi gabbroic rocks in the Plagioclase-
Pyroxene-Hornblende diagram of IUGS nomenclature of mafic rocks (after Strekeisen,
1976)
42
43
Field occurrence
The rocks are observed as discontinuous patches among the gabbroic rocks and also
gradational with the Quartz diorites. The outcrops of granodiorite are examined in the
deep stream gullies. In the drained channel, the exposure is massive and low waterfalls
and scarps are seen there. They are metre-scale jointed and brownish coloured surface is
cropped out.
Megascopic Study
It is distinctly foliated in hand specimen and the foliation is roughly horizontal. The rock
is whitish and 3 x 4 x 12 mm size felsic grains and 0.5 x 3 x 7 mm size mafic minerals
(dark green biotites?) are parallel oriented. The weathered surface is rough and quartz
crystals about 2 to 3-mm diameter are configured as small knobs. In places, the
transitional upper crust, about 1-inch thick, with biotite deficiency and thin white mica
flakes occur instead.
Microscopic Study
Anhedral Quartz crystals are varied in size and extinction is slightly wavy. Alkali
feldspar has similar size to plagioclase and is mostly unaltered. Biotite is 0.3 x 0.5 mm
size brownish green crystals as 0.3 x 5 mm the largest in thin-section and some
boundaries are chloritized. Muscovite crystals are 0.1 x 2 mm the largest. Apatite is 0.2 x
0.5-mm size crystal with horizontal partings and magnetite is very rarely observed.
44
Quartz 27.5 %
Plagioclase 43.3 %
Alkali feldspar 13.7 %
Biotite 8.7 %
Muscovite 4.8 %
Apatite 1.0 %
Magnetite 1.0 %
Total 100.0 %
In accordance with the classification of Streckeisen (1976), the rock falls in the field of
Granodiorite. Its compositional variation is slightly occur at the margin of the body to be
more rich in felsic minerals especially plagioclase and the rock is tending to be tonalitic.
45
3.3.1. M1 Serpentinites
Field occurrence
Serpentinite hills occupying the eastern half of the southern area are rounded and rolling
that classic circular drainage is observed among them. Moderately thick red soil covered
these types of rocks remarkably and the exposures are found in the stream sections. Most
of them are massive, moderately jointed (half-metre spacing) (fig. 3.16) generally dipping
to the north and sheared in places (loc. SG 726970 and SG 765987, fig. 3.17).
Megascopic study
It appears dark green to brownish green coloured fine-grained rock with even layering.
Massive kinds are crusted with 2-cm thick light brownish layer and shear ones have
soapy, smooth outer surface. Ore mineral grains with 0.05-0.2-cm in diameter are
sporadically distributed in many specimens. Whitish veinlets, possibly composed of
asbestos, are rarely found in fresh surfaces.
Microscopic study
Common serpentine minerals viz.- antigorite and chrysotile constituted the massive
serpentinite unit of the area in order of abundance. The main rock mass is totally
serpentinized and no mineral relict of protolith can be examined in thin section. Aside of
that, the texture and structure of serpentine are notable in prediction of the original rock.
In figure 3.18, closely spaced, sub-parallel cross-fibre vein-lets of fibrous serpentine
outlining a single pseudomorph, are suggested as a preferred orientation of original
olivine before serpentinization. Similar orientation of adjacent pseudomorphs can also be
noted and they indicate the relic layering of original mafic cumulates.
The common textures observed in these serpentinites are mesh texture, interpenetration
texture, parallel vein texture, and hourglass texture. Pseudomorphic textures after
pyroxene is also observed. An overstated study of serpentine minerals and textures are
described in chapter 4.
47
48
49
3.3.2. Plagioclase-amphibolites
Field Occurrence
It occupies the eastern range frontiering the Lake Indawgyi. Foliations of these rocks are
approximately trending NE-SW, which is parallel to the trend of the ranges. The ranges
along this belt are stepping down to the east in the dip of the S-surfaces. Outcrops are
observed mostly on the higher reaches of stream channels. The rock is actually the meta-
gabbro, which was described as the epidiorites by Chhibber (1934 b, p.28). The name
`Plagioclase-amphibolites' is used after Harker (1950). The group of rocks comprises
mainly feldspathic amphibolites with minor schistose amphibolite (feldspathic
hornblende schist), epidote schist and quartzite and sometimes shows flow layering
which is one of the typical features of Ophiolite-suite (fig. 3.21).
Megascopic study
It is the foliated textured rocks of dark-green to dark coloured, 1-4 mm long, columnar
mafic crystals and whitish, 2x2 to 2x4 mm size tabular felsic crystals. The foliations are
partially schistose (fig. 3.21) and mostly anastomosing (fig. 3.19). In the partially
schistose rocks, the mafic mineral, possibly amphibole is more greenish. Some specimens
are totally dark grey coloured and the minerals are finer in size.
Microscopic study
Field occurrence
They are foliated rocks but occur as massive, small-elongated hillock-like bodies at the
western area. They occurred in contact with gabbroic complex with minor (about 10-15 ft
in width) transitional unit of talc schist which probably the soft medium of a tectonic
contact between the mafic mass and metamorphosed ultramafic rocks. The exposures are
seen in the stream sections (loc. SB-721093 and B-746032) and at the road cutting (loc.
SG-753990). The outcrops are inch-spaced jointed and weathered colour is dark brownish
green and in places mottled with yellowish brown oxidised layers. For the susceptibility
to weathering of ferromagnesium minerals and dense jointing, the stream outcrops are
observed partially changing into earthy crusted exposures. The talc chlorite schist is
possibly the product of directed deformation of serpentinites to be observed in contact
with mafic unit (see fig. 3.23).
Megascopic study
In hand-specimen, the rock is finely foliated and dark green coloured in amphibole-rich
variety and pinkish to light brown coloured in talc-rich variety. Polished surface is dull in
day light but shine along the foliation planes in bright sunlight . In the amphibole-rich
rocks, coarse-grained (1x3-mm to 3x5-mm size) prismatic anthophyllite crystals are
sparsely found in the green lump.
Microscopic study
The talc-dominant rock exhibits distinctly parallel orientation of minerals (0.03-cm the
longest) and distortion of alignment of acicular component indicating shear (possibly
right-lateral movement influenced) is not uncommon (fig. 3.24). The amphibole-
dominant rock shows no distinguished microscopic foliation and 0.03x0.1-cm-sized
crystals of orthoamphibole and minute alkali amphibole mineral grains. The
orthoamphibole is prismatic crystals with horizontal partings (fig. 3.25) and alkali
amphiboles are remarkably seen as blue and bluish green crystals(fig. 3.26).
53
54
55
Field occurrence
The curvilinear ridges of the northern area are constituted of these rocks. Regionally it is
the southern continuation of the high metamorphic mountain ranges which are formed
with crystalline schist (Chhibber, 1934a) of the Jade Mine area. It is a low- to medium-
grade metamorphosed unit of mafic and ultramafic rocks and the outcrops are linear, and
moderately jointed. Unevenly sheeted appearance is examined in the serpentine schist
(fig. 3.27) and the amphibole schist is generally massive. The rocks are exposed mostly
in the road cuttings and are covered with reddish brown soil formation in the ridge-and-
valley topography.
Megascopic study
In hand-specimen, foliation plane of the rock is distinct. Weathered colour is dark green
to dark brown, and it is light to dark green in fresh surface. The foliations are five to ten
centimetres in wavelength. The surface of serpentine rock express greasy or soapy
feeling, and greenish ivory coloured 0.2-0.3 cm size specks (talc minerals) are observed
on foliation planes. They look-like sheared serpentinites. the rock is mire tough than
ordinary serpentine and is breakable along the fissile, scaly cracks when it is beaten. The
amphibole rock has light green coloured appearance and fibrous, sub-vitreous 0.05x0.15-
cm size minerals are forming the foliations. Translucent (feldspathic) bands about 3 cm
thick, are occasionally intercalating concordantly. (see fig. 3.29)
Microscopic study
3.2. Petrogenesis
The ultramafic and mafic bodies west of the Indawgyi Lake are described as of the
Ophiolite-suite by some authors but no peterological observation supporting these
suggestions has been published before.
Hutchison, (1975 and 1996) established the western bifurcation of north trending
Mandalay ophiolite line in the evidence of occurrence of ultramafic rocks in abundance
in this area and its north and south extensions. Besides, imbrication of the ophiolite suite
were noted to be a plate contact in the geosuture between the Indian and Chinese massifs.
Otherwise, the existence of serpentine and pre-Eocene basalt along and immediately west
of the Sagaing fault north of Mandalay was described to suggest a possibly Mesozoic
plate boundary more or less along the line of the fault. It implies that in early Mesozoic
times, western Myanmar formed an island arc separated by oceanic crust, possibly a
marginal basin, from mainland Southeast Asia.
Mitchell, (1998) implies ultramafic and amphibolitic rocks within the "Wuntho-Monywa-
Jade Mines geanticline" are considered to be allochthonous, and were moved east over
Cretaceous Schist and Triassic Flysch. He regards them as the offset equivalent of the
thrust sheets above the Triassic turbidites at Tagaung Taung and their NE projection
through the Upper Ayeyarwady basin.
Though the regionalized works suggest the Ophiolite or allochthonous origin of the rock
bodies under study, the existence of layered gabbroic rocks incomparable to cratonic
stratiform basic intrusions such as the Bushveld, Stillwater, Skaergaard, or Muskox so is
perceivable to identify their origin in petrographic and structural evidences.
In this study, the distinguished phenomena of the intrusive bodies in the Indawgyi area
are described according to the principal kinds of features that characterise alpine type
ophiolites as mentioned by Thayer (1967).
4. Flow layering and related structures and textures that are characteristic of high
metamorphic rocks, can be observed in the Plagioclase-Amphibolites M1 unit (fig.
3. 21/loc.-SB-762021).
By assuming the Indawgyi complex as part of an Ophiolite suite, the stratigraphy of well
described sequences (Church, 1972; George, 1978; Moody, 1979) and reconstructed
composite mafic-ultramafic cumulates units exposed in the study area are comparable. As
the present exposures are partially metamorphosed, they are reconstructed and illustrated
in comparison with Kings River Ophiolite (Saleeby, 1978) which has close similarity to
Indawgyi section. (See fig. 3.31)
The mafic and ultramafic rocks exposed in the study area are generally the cumulate part
of an Ophiolite suite. As described in Coleman, 1978, the layering nature is presumably
controlled by lateral temperature gradient in a permanent reservoir (magma chamber)
existed under a spreading ridge (fig. 3.32). Though it is a transported of partially to
wholly deformed body in the emplacement within a continent, the characteristic features
like; absence or very least occurrence of sheeted dyke complex, well recognised layering
nature which resulted from more gentle geothermal gradient in large magma chamber and
block topography, absence of deeply penetrating faults across the body, are still
indicating the nature of its original position to be the fast-spreading ridges. Oceanic ridge
model for fast spreading centre according to Moody (1979) is agreeable with the
hypothetical origin of the Indawgyi Ophiolites.
3.2.2. Metamorphism
The metamorphic rocks exposed in the area west of Lake Indawgyi can be tabulated in
their relative position in disrupted sequence and common minerals.
This indicative rock type and mineral succession is also convincing the metamorphosed
Ophiolite sequence of Olympus Ultramafics, Troodos Complex, (George, 1978) and
Kings River Ophiolites, California (Saleeby, 1978), and comparable to determine type of
metamorphism with scheme of metamorphism for ophiolites of Moody (1979 after
Coleman, 1977) (Appendix IV).
62
Fig. 3.32 Diagrammatic representation of the steady-state situation visualised beneath the
axial zone of a slow spreading oceanic ridge. Crystallization relations in one half of
magma chamber are shown. (After Greenbaum, 1972 in Coleman, 1977)
63
The emplacement of ophiolites in this area was mentioned by various authors viz.
Hutchinson (1975), Bannert and Helmcke (1981), Mitchell (1985,1993 and 1998), Hla
Maung (1983 and 1989).
Most of the contributors fundamentally accepted the mafic-ultramafic bodies found in the
present area and its northern extension as the offset equivalent of Tagaung Taung
Ultramafic bodies and its north-east projection through Upper Ayeyarwady basin.
Mitchell (1985, 1993 and 1998) assumed the emplacement of this Ophiolite belt as an
obducted nappe over the igneous line and the crestal part of igneous dome is thought to
be lost by erosion. Rangin et. al. (GIAC Project of ENS, France and Myanmar-Thailand
Universities, 1996-1998) roughly accepted this idea (U Win Naing, personal
communication). Hla Maung (1983 and 1989) speculated the basic-ultramafic belt as
representation of a failed rift formed over the Amsterdam-St. Paul hotspot and named belt
as Medium Ophiolite Line of the Myitkyina valley. Bannert and Helmcke (1981)
suggested the occurrence of ultramafic rocks in the Northern Myanmar as an older
(?Jurassic) subduction zone between the Eurasian Plate and the old Tethys ocean that can
be connected with the ophiolites and melanges of the Indus-Tsangpo Suture.
Though the present work is not specially concerned in tectonic evolution, a hypothetical
remark on the alpine type ultramafic-mafic rock suite took place in the area south-west of
Lake Indawgyi is made as a disrupted fragment of oceanic crust accreted in an older
subduction zone in the following reasons that are requiring stronger evidence.
64
- The ultramafic part of the rock suite was partially to wholly serpentinized however
not distinctly deformed like the ultramafic bodies along the western range. e. g.
Webula ultramafic body (Hla Htay, 1985) which occurs as moderately to highly
deformed.
- The mafic pluton is undeformed except for the amphibolite unit of the eastern part
which has the uncertain or gradational contact with its protolith, and cumulus nature
is still in existence to be dissimilar to a largely (at least 220 kilometre apart)
transported rock mass after obduction.
- In the Tagaung Taung Ophiolite area which is reliable and generally accepted offset
equivalent of present plutons, the rock suite is also less deformed and in a certain
part, lava pillows are still observable as original eruptional features (U Thura Oo,
personal communication).
- The occurrence of acid volcanics (rhyolite and related rocks) as a discontinuous belt
parallel to the Ophiolite line of present study that is evident at the Tangphyre-east (U
Ba Than Haq, personal communication), Myitkyina-east and their southern
extensions. Though these eruptive rocks are possibly the marginal products of the
granitoid bodies in the eastern belt of Khin Zaw (1990), they are here in assumed to
be part of a subduction related volcanic arc of the older subduction zone.
The existence of an older subduction along the western margin of the eastern highland
was described not only by Bannert and Helmeke (1981) but also by Maung Thein (1983)
and Khin Zaw (1990). The formers assumed the age of convergence as possibly Jurassic
and the latter two authors suggested it as Palaeozoic and Lower Palaeozoic respectively.
For the lack of assured evidence for determining the age of this event, and according to
the trustworthy remarks for widely accepted age of the serpentine intrusions in Myanmar
of Clegg (1941) and IGCP National Committee (1982), the present study considered the
age of ultramafic-mafic plutons simply as the Mesozoic, as young as the Cretaceous time.
65
Fig. 3.33 Possible field of emplacement of the Indawgyi plutons (dotted area) in the
diagram of relationship between mineral zonation and depth in idealised Ophiolite
section that has undergone hydrothermal metamorphism. Assumed geothermal gradient is
150 C/ km (after Coleman, 1977).
66
Chapter 4
MINERALOGY
Mineralogical aspects of the Indawgyi area are described in three categories i. e., the
study of rock-forming minerals, that of ore minerals and, precious metal mineralogy.
Ore minerals are identified with reflected polarised light and oxides such as chromite and
magnetite and sulphides viz., chalcopyrite and pyrite are observed in separated sections.
As the area has not distinguished with hydrothermal alteration as well as does not very
rich in ore minerals so products of magmatic dissemination occur in mafic rocks are
primitively studied.
4.2.1. Plagioclase
Plagioclase is the commonest mineral of the gabbroic rocks as well as meta-gabbro and
granodiorite of this area. It persists throughout the exposed cumulates and varies in
composition from approximately An68-80 in the Plagioclase-clinopyroxene-
orthopyroxene-olivine cumulate (the lowermost unit of the layered gabbroic complex)
67
68
Grain size of plagioclase is variable in the cumulates as well as in massive gabbro. That
of the layer rocks is ranging from 0.3 x 0.5 to 2 x 0.5-mm (0.6 x 1.0-mm means) as
measured microscopically. Its crystals are mostly euhedral to subhedral.
Cumulus plagioclase is mostly unzoned but normally zoned plagioclase is observed in the
massive units. The occurrence of unzoned crystals of cumulates probably resulted from
the adcumulus growth, which is the process of enlargement of the cumulus crystals by
material of the same composition (Wager, Brown and Wadsworth, 1960). In the
Plagioclase-diallage cumulates, medium and low temperature zones are developed at the
borders of originally rectangular crystals of some plagioclases. The zoning is of interest
because it records details of the unzoned core which may be the original primocryst, and
part may be due to cumulus growth subsequent to deposition while outer zone is the
result of development from the trapped intercumulus liquid. Slight variation in the
composition of the core is also found in this rock, which may be the result of the
individual crystal moving through the liquid to the places of variable temperature and
pressure, and consumed differences in the composition of plagioclase solid solution.
The cumulus crystals are widely altered in various types and sausseritization is common.
In the anorthositic band of the layered gabbroic complex, feldspars are in alteration to
talc and grain boundaries are corroded (fig. 4.1). In granodiorite, sericitization is seen
along the twin bands of plagioclase (fig. 3.15).
4.2.2. Olivine
In spite of the occurrence of indicative structural pattern in serpentinites and relict grains
in serpentinized rocks of the Olivine orthopyroxene gabbro, olivine is rarely found in the
observation because of the almost totally metamorphosed nature of the ultramafic part of
rock-suite in the area. The crudely rounded, 0.5 to 0.8 mm size cumulus crystals are
comprised in Olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro and irregular shaped, 1.5 x 3 mm size grains
69
70
4.2.3. Pyroxene
Both orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene are important constituent in the cumulates where
the former is rather predominant in poikilitic orthopyroxene gabbro, orthopyroxene
olivine gabbro and layer gabbroic complex than the clinopyroxene which mostly occurs
in diallage plagioclase cumulates.
4.2.3.1.Orthopyroxene
4.2.3.2. Clinopyroxene
crystallisation and this type of alteration is a very kind of uralitization that is typical in
mafic magmatic sediments.
The relict structure of those minerals (mainly ferroan enstatite) is observed as bastite
pseudomorph after pyroxene in massive serpentinites of the southern area.
4.2.4. Amphiboles
Principle kinds of amphibole occurred in the area of precise study are clinoamphiboles
such as magmatic magnesiohornblende in hornblende gabbro and hornblende plagioclase
cumulates of layered gabbroic complex, hornblende as transformed product in
plagioclase amphibolites, and metamorphic tremolite-actinolite in amphibole schist of M4
unit, orthoamphibole anthophyllite and alkali amphibole riebeckite in alkaline amphibole
schist (M3).
4.2.4.1. Hornblende
It is one of the important rocks forming minerals in the alkaline amphibole schist and
amphibole schist (M3) units. It is colourless to light coloured 1 x 3 mm to 0.5 x 5 sized
orthorhombic grain with horizontal partings (fig. 3.25). Anthophyllite is the product of
ultramafic mafic rocks in metamorphism (T K 650-750, P 0.5-4 kb, Hyndman, 1985) to
that the associated occurrence of the mineral with talc schist and serpentine schist is
observable in interpreting the metamorphic history of rock suite.
4.2.4.3. Riebeckite
They are the bluish and greenish brown, 1x1.5 mm sized, subhedral to euhedral minerals
in alkaline amphibole schist. Longitudinal cleavage lines are seen to be deformed (fig.
3.26) and it is probably because of that unit (M3) which is laterally displaced after strike
slip faulting of SF1 (see also section 2.6.2.). The mineral is also evident by XRD analysis
(see appendix II-1).
72
The predominant serpentine minerals in the ultramafic rocks of the Indawgyi area are
antigorite, lizardite and chrysotile in order of abundance. Chrysotile consists in the
sheared rocks. Texturally, pseudomorphic, non-pseudomorphic and vein-textures are
observed.
Mesh texture of serpentine and serpentine is observed in the serpentinized rock of the
orthopyroxene-olivine gabbro unit (fig. 4.5) where relict olivine grains as the mesh centre
and cross-fibre antigorite as mesh rims. While the serpentinization proceeds, mesh
centres are also formed with fibrous, fine-grained serpentine minerals possibly lizardite
(Fig. 4.6). Hourglass texture is also seen along the mesh rims of this figure and in (fig.
2.7).
In the northern area, very fine-grained interlocking texture is seen in serpentinized mafic
unit. The predominance of a vaguely parallel relict feldspar grains in the serpentinized
matrix indicates the protolith to be a plagioclase cumulate.
73
74
75
4.3.1. Oxides
Chromite and Magnetite are observed as oxide mineral specks disseminating in mafic and
ultramafic rocks.
4.3.1.1. Chromite
The boundaries of chromite are indented against plagioclase and pyroxene (as in fig. 3.8)
and peripheral trapping of it in the silicate material observed in thin section confirm the
adcumulus growth of silicates being advanced into ore grain.
4.3.1.2. Magnetite
It is widely dispersing in the massive and cumulus mafic and ultramafic rocks (fig. 4.11).
They are anhedral grains of various sizes in the range between 0.02 to 0.15 cm. In the
upper part of massive gabbroic unit, magnetite seems as intergrowth with ilmenite and
associated with chalcopyrite. It also has the common association with hornblende (fig.
4.12). The distinctly later generation of magnetite is observed related to serpentinization
of ferroan olivine (fayalite) and to possible basatization of bronzite. It is more
widespread and typically present as network-like distribution of small grains either
traversing the ferromagnesian minerals or following their peripheries (fig. 4.13). In this
mode of formation, magnetite content of the complex is very variable because of which
can often be coupled to disturbances or tectonism. In figure 4.14, twinning of anhedral
magnetite is observed.
76
77
78
79
4.3.2. Sulphides
The area does not distinguished with hydrothermal alteration and not very rich in ore
minerals especially sulphides so those have to be the products of magmatic crystallization
occurred in mafic cumulates. There are the occurrences of kaoline in places, that
assummed in some school of thoughts as hydrothermal products, but no prominent
zonation controlled by any structural character is observed. Mafic rocks are
characteristically produce them in tropical weathering and it is so least to record
sulphides which can occur in mafic rocks in hydrothermal alteration.
Chalcopyrite and pyrite are observed as common constituents in the Indawgyi gabbroic
rocks. They are mostly found as subhedral to euhedral grains of various size. Growth
twinning and zoning are the salient features of them (fig. 4.15 and 16) and are probably
formed during adcumulus growth of cumulates by reacting with intercumulus liquid.
80
The distribution of gold and PGM in the alluvial placers is confident in the Namyinhka-
Indawgyi- and Namata-Maingpok-Uyu- drainage basins (see drainage map, fig. 2.2). For
being the area as part of the divide of Chindwin and Ayeyarwady drainage basins,
precious minerals primarily occurred in this intrusive complex disperse toward those
river valleys and prominently make occurred along the Uyu River in the west and in the
south-western plains of Lake Indawgyi in the east. In fig. 4.17, the possible dispersion
trends of precious metals are shown upon the geological sketch map of the northern
Myanmar region.
In the area of present study, black sands (heavy mineral concentrates) occurred
everywhere in the residual as well as transported soils and can be seen on the low spars,
small channels and shore of the streams Namata, Namsagyin and Namyinhka. They are
mainly composed of magnetites and minor zircons. Precious metals are scarcely observed
in pan concentrates of the present day deposited black sand from the above-described
drainage basins.
The results of panning by local people are not too bad as 0.5 to 2 grains per the
centrifugal concentration of a half-metre diameter pan. DGSE did this work emphasised
on the alluvial precious metals in the Namyinhka stream outcome one of 13732 cubic
metres grading 0.076 gm Pt +Au per m3, in the Namsagyin stream one of 83333 cubic
metres grading 0.05 gm Pt +Au per m3, and in the Namata stream resulted grading 0.11
81
gm Pt + Au per m3. The ratio of occurrence between gold and PGMs is approximately
1:1.
82
H4 H32 Plagioclase- 0.4 0.1 0.2 60.0 180.0 100.0 0.6 4.0
amphibolite
H6 H22 Orthopyroxene- 0.3 0.1 0.1 870.0 100.0 90.0 0.4 4.7
olivine gabbro
H10 H35 Plagioclase- 0.4 0.1 0.1 65.0 250.0 60.0 0.5 4.1
orthopyroxene-
hornblende cumulate
Fig. 4.17 Possible dispersion trends of precious metals upon the geological sketch map of
the northern Myanmar region
84
The majority of gold grains are flattened and measured 0.5 to 2 mm across but nuggets up
to 5 mm across are known to occur in Maingpok drainage basin. Boundaries of most of
the grains are rounded or sub-rounded with semi-square shape, whereas some grains
preserve much more delicate outlines i. e., irregular, lobed or elongated, and dumb-bell
shapes. The grain surface of the gold is rough and often shows scratches as a result of
abrasion during transportation.
By examination in the reflected light microscopy, it shows bright yellow with orange tint
yellowish than platinum minerals, but both colour and reflectance slightly vary in
different areas on surface of a single grain likely because of varying metal content. In
most of the grains, the outer rims show golden or orange yellow and the cores are creamy
or lighter in colour with higher reflectivity (fig. 4.18). It is distinguished because of the
higher gold content in the exterior part and indicating the leaching of silver in the acidic
stream water or the overgrowth of gold deposited from solution in the placer
environment. Moreover, this feature could be an outcome of primary zonation in which
gold-silver alloy was encrusted by gold-rich marginal domain. The gradational colour
variation is supporting the possibility of the former and last speculations. The irregular
shape of gold grains observed in the area (Fig. 4.19) is interpreted the provenance of gold
to be not far from the present locations.
Marginal bright domain ?Native gold (gold enrichment zone probably due to
leaching of silver)
In concluding this study, grain 1 and 3 have the similar distribution of element i. e.,
almost purely native gold in the margin and Au-Ag alloy in the central zone. This result
is also identical to the optical interpretation (see fig. 4.18).
86
87
Au Ag Os Cu TOTAL Au/Au+Ag
Grain 1 Main Zone 80.370 18.710 0.000 99.080 0.811
80.390 18.590 0.000 98.980 0.812
79.780 18.630 0.030 98.440 0.811
78.810 18.350 0.040 97.200 0.811
80.700 18.980 0.080 99.760 0.810
79.400 19.330 0.060 98.790 0.804
79.760 19.160 0.020 98.940 0.806
78.660 18.810 0.030 97.500 0.807
79.480 19.270 0.030 98.780 0.805
79.570 19.270 0.040 98.880 0.805
Grain 1 Marginal Bright 97.330 0.860 0.100 98.290 0.991
Domain 98.420 0.910 0.110 99.440 0.991
101.730 0.190 0.060 101.980 0.998
101.040 0.230 0.090 101.360 0.998
99.700 0.200 0.070 99.970 0.998
99.830 0.180 0.060 100.070 0.998
100.210 0.200 0.070 100.480 0.998
Grain 2 High Au Outer Zone 91.380 0.420 3.670 6.050 101.520 0.995
91.220 0.520 3.720 5.540 101.000 0.994
90.570 0.460 3.880 5.790 100.700 0.995
90.560 0.500 3.880 5.780 100.720 0.995
91.540 0.500 3.840 5.350 101.230 0.995
Other half of elevated Gold 99.410 0.000 0.110 99.520 1.000
100.080 0.050 0.080 100.210 1.000
Other half of Grain 2, 60.310 38.000 98.310 0.613
Central 61.720 37.310 99.030 0.623
Grain 2A Outer Zone 95.720 3.280 0.040 99.040 0.967
96.090 3.170 0.030 99.290 0.968
Grain 3 Central 83.410 12.740 0.060 96.210 0.867
83.510 12.870 0.100 96.480 0.866
Grain 3 Outer Zone 98.720 1.480 0.010 100.210 0.985
97.500 1.460 0.030 98.990 0.985
100.030 0.840 0.070 100.940 0.992
98.730 1.920 0.060 100.710 0.981
98.410 2.150 0.020 100.580 0.979
97.260 2.120 0.050 99.430 0.979
0.814
0.812
0.810
Au/Ag+Au
0.808
0.806
0.804
0.802 Marginal Bright Main Zone
Domain
0.800
0.798
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
scan line
Fig. 4.20 Gold Silver Ratio Plot of An Indawgyi Placer Gold Grain
(Grain 1 of table 4.3)
89
The platinum group mineral grains identified can be classified into three groups: (1)
Platinum-Iron phases, (2) Osmium-Iridium-Ruthenium phases, and (3) minerals
combined with other elements such as sulphur and arsenic. Though there is no
quantitative analysis of the relative amount of concentration of each group on placers, the
Os-Ir-Ru phase is observed to be more prominent in the Namata alluvium grains (western
area samples). The third group of mineral compounds is not distinctly evident as separate
mineral grains but they may possibly exist as inclusions in the formers.
(1) The group of Platinum-Iron Phases is separated from the Os-Ir alloys by using low-
intensity magnetic separation and optical classification on their crystal habits, forms,
colour and reflectivity. For the deficiency of determination of molecular structure of
those alloys, they are named as Pt-Fe alloys according to Cabri and Feather (1975).
The alloy grains are generally observed as cube forms, cubooctahedron and irregular
rounded forms with sizes of 100-300 m under the binocular microscope; it shows
metallic lustre. The surfaces are not smooth. Its polished surface is purely white
coloured and more (but slightly) yellowish than Os-Ir-Ru alloys. It exhibits very high
reflectivity and is almost totally isotropic.
(2) The Osmium-Iridium-Ruthenium Phases are examined as the grains of very weak
to inert magnectivity. Unlike Pt-Fe phases, the placer grains are observed as thin
flakes. The hexagonal, pseudo-hexagonal and triangular outlines, and 120 edges
make the mineral alloys to be distinguished (Fig. 4.21 & 4.22). In studying their
roundness, they are ranging from well rounded, to sub-rounded and angular and
irregular forms. The occurrence of the different forms and sizes of grains in the
limited area suggests the ultimate source be within or very close to the drainage
basins. In studying the EPMA data, they are mostly Rutheniridosmine, Iridosmine
and Osmiridium alloys. Under the reflected polarised light, the polished colour is
creamy white but iridium rich variety is little more yellowish. The reflectivity is more
or less similar to platinum-iron alloys but sometimes brighter. The Ir-Os alloy is
isotropic for its cubic crystallisation. Though the Os-Ir alloys must occur spectacle
the anisotropy because of hexagonal crystallinity, almost all the grains are dark in
crossed polarised light as observed as (0001) sections they were mounted.
90
I. Native Platinum
2. Iridosmine (Ir 10-50 %, Os 40-80 %, Ru < 10 %, Os > Ir ± Pt, Pd, Rh, Re)
(see table 4.5)
3. Osmiridium (Os 10-40 %, Ir 60-80 %, Ru < 10 % ± Pt, Pd, Rh) (see table 4.6)
Alluvial platinoid minerals of the Indawgyi area are plotted in the ternary diagram of Ru-
Os-Ir of Feather (1976 after Harris and Cabri, 1973). According to this, majority (85 %)
is the Rutheniridosmine, 9 per cent is the Iridosmine and 2 Osmiridium grains. Some
other are settled in the immiscibility gap. (See fig. 4.23)
91
92
Fig. 4.23 Electron microprobe analyses (at %) of (Ir, Os, and Ru) alloy grains of the
Indawgyi area plotted in the ternary diagram Ru-Os-Ir of Feather (1976 after
Harris and Cabri, 1973)
93
300 polished grains of Indawgyi alluvial PGM are examined under reflected polarised
light and their microtextures, inclusions, and habit of grain-growth are observed and
described with some aspects of theoretical considerations. Photomicrographs and their
accompanying texts are self-explanatory and constitute the essence of this work. The
main features of them are hereby noted for reference.
Peripheral recrystallization is the prevalent character of the alluvial grains. Unlike the
silver depleted margin in alluvial gold grains previously described, the boundary between
primarily formed grains or those loosed out from host rock by weathering and related
processes, are sharp or can distinctly be examined. The recrystallized platinoids are
usually fine particles approximately 1 to 5 sized and this feature is distinguished in Pt-
Fe alloys (Fig. 4.24). In this process of element agglutination, the originally formed
grains are made composite ones by the finer platinoids and examined as irregular to
regular shaped larger grains (Fig. 4.25). When this type of formation came in a stage of
maturity, the secondary products are found to be homogeneous and could be mistaken to
assume as primary products.
The primary grain growth (Fig. 4.18, 4.27 & 4.28 respectively) is observed as regular
banding, embedding and layers. The compositional or non-compositional growth features
are distinguished by differential erosion during transport. For the lack of back-scattered
electron image facilities, their compositional variation is not quantitatively measured but
dissimilarity in resistance to abrasion and to leaching strongly provided for interpreting
their heterogeneous nature.
Non-compositional banding is studied in a discrete alloy grain (Fig. 4.29). The bands
are flowing curvilinear and only patent in surface feature without changing optical
properties. In occurrence of this character in the single euhedral grain, their igneous
origin is evident though there are the candidates on the sedimentary origin of composite
platinoids.
94
original precipitation. In otherwise, a Pt-Fe alloy grain exhibiting reticulate texture that
can be observed in fig. 4.34 is scrutinised as a habit of minerals formed in high
temperature.
In the studies of alluvial PGM , "degree of maturity" (the ratio of Os + Ir / Pt, Cousins,
1973) is a distinctive criterion. This proportion of concentrated PGM amount is
speculated by Cousins (1973) as of the influence of saline condition in depositional
environment while Cabri and Harris (1975) assumed it as a function of the type of source
rock; multiple intrusion of Alaskan type having a low Os + Ir / Pt ratio and `cold' alpine
emplacement having a high ratio. In the area of precise study, EPMA data of the
Indawgyi alluvial grains in Appendix V-1, 2 & 3 show the degree of high maturity and
indicate the alpine type intrusion as the host rock of them. It is supported by the
petrogenetic idea of nearby alpine type ophiolite ultramafic complex. The possible
eutectic crystallisation and reticulate texture observed in alluvial PGM grains are strongly
convincing the igneous origin of the minerals.
Platinum bearing rocks of Indawgyi area (see table 4.1) carried PGM but which are not
visible and just detected with chemical analysis though the alluvial occurrence is
distinguished. It is speculated that, a small quantity of primary platinoid minerals such as
sulphides, arsenides, antimonides and tellurides, and a certain proportion of the platinoid
element are intimately associated with base-metal sulphides either as molecular-sized
inclusions or as colloidal platinoid metal of nearly molecular dimensions in the source
rock. They were released from those base metal sulphides on weathering and during
transportation and coalesce or accrete to much larger PGM alloy grains than the original
concentration.
The rocks of Indawgyi ultramafic mafic complex containing platinum group elements are
analysed by in atomic absorption spectrometry. The concentration in the host rock is
much less distinguishable than the alluvial products optically. Pt is detected in the 4
95
dominant rock types of the study area viz., gabbro, meta-gabbro, serpentinite and
granodiorite. The approximate results of concentration of Pt and Pd in them are observed
in table 4.1. As the data show, the content of Pt + Pd in the Indawgyi Intrusive bodies is
ranging between 280 and 560 ppb. The average Pt content of unmineralized mafic and
ultramafic rocks is approximately 10 ppb with a range from 0.1 ppb to 500 ppb
(Macdanald, 1987) so the Pt concentration in Indawgyi rocks is generally approaching to
that of low level mineralised body and there are the possibilities to explore for PGM in
the present area. Enrichment factor to be an economic deposit is about 100 times.
However, whole rock and mineral separate analyses are always likely to be influenced by
the samples containing non-representative impurities, and this is especially true for PGE
analyses of ultramafic rocks and mineral separates as PGE are so irregularly dispersed
among the silicates. Interpretation based on standing data is correspondingly conditional.
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
Fig. 4.40 Geographic distribution of primary Pt, Pd and Au in the study area
(Values in Graphs are * x 100 ppb; original data is shown in table 4.1.)
105
Platinum Group Metals are also known to occur in Quaternary gold placers of the Upper
Chindwin Area. Hagen et. al., 1990, studied them and described main minerals as Pt-Fe
and Os-Ir-Ru alloys usually in a ratio between 2 and 5. They observed sperrylite, laurite,
irarsite, cooperite, tulameenite, and isomertieite that occur infrequently as individual
mineral grains and sometimes as inclusions in the alloy grains. Braggite, platarsite,
hollingworthite, bowieite, keithconnite, cuprioiridisite, malanite, stibiopalladinite,
geversite, kashinite, several unnamed PGM, and Fe, Ni and Cu sulphides were also noted
by them as inclusions, mainly in the Pt-Fe alloys and also to a lesser extent in the Os-Ir-
Ru alloys. Lamella and myrmekite-like intergrowths, oriented exsolution lamellae, and
idiomorphic inclusions of sulphides in the alloys were described to be the indicators of
magmatic origin of the PGM.
In present study area, Os-Ir-Ru alloy is the most predominant in subordination of Pt-Fe
alloy as described before, 20-35 per cent occurrence of Pt-Fe alloy in the Chindwin Basin
is particular for genetic consideration of precious metals.
Ye Myint Swe and Win Htein analysed and classified a collection of PGM from the
Chindwin Basin in 1993 as 4 types of native platinum mainly Pt-Fe alloys and Pt-Cu
alloys and 7 types of platinoid minerals mainly Os-Ir-Pt alloys, Os-Ir-Ru alloys, Ir-Os-Pt
alloys, Ir-Os-Ru alloys, and Ir-Os-Rh alloys. (See table 4.4)
As illustrated in possible dispersion trends of precious metals (fig. 4.17), PGM occur both
in Indawgyi area and in Chindwin area are speculated as of single provenance - Ophiolite
bodies Southwest of Lake Indawgyi. It has to be considered that, present irregularity is
because of the following reasons.
106
Table 4. 4 Metal classification of PGM from Chindwin river basin based of electron
probe microanalysis (Ye Myint Swe and Win Htein, personal communication)
I. Native Platinum
2. Os-Ir-Ru-Pt (Pt 1-2 %), minor ± Pd, Rh, S, Sn, Fe, Ni, Cu Os-Ir-(Pt/Ru)
Gold occur in Chindwin region is also recorded (ECAMS, 1980s, U Soe Win, personal
communication) as flattened grains and nuggets with irregular element zonation of silver,
gold, and electrum dissimilar to those of Indawgyi area. It indicated that, precious metal
placers of Indawgyi and Chindwin areas came from (two or more) different sources.
In otherwise, PGM grains collected in the Chindwin placers were analysed by Hagen et.
al., (1991) with electron micro-probe and plotted in ternary diagram Ru-Os-Ir of Feather
(1976, after Harris and Cabri, 1973) where there are some disagreements to that of
Indawgyi placers of present investigation (see fig. 4.41). In this comparison, Chindwin
PGM grains are not only fall in the fields of Rutheniridosmine, Iridosmine and
Osmiridium like Indawgyi samples, but also can be assigned as osmium, ruthenium,
osmian ruthenium, ruthenian osmium and ruthenosmiridium. Generally, high-ruthenium
and high-osmium samples are observed to be distinguished with Indawgyi platinoids.
Hagen and others compared this result with placer deposits in Tasmania. Tasmania PGM
contains also mainly rutheniridosmine, but with much lower ruthenium content they
suggested it as indication of differences in the chemical composition of the ophiolitic
source rocks. This conclusion is also agreeable with present comparison.
The ratio of Pt / Pt + Pd is high in the study area averaging about 0.8 which is the same
proportion that occurred in the Urals platinum deposits. The ratio Au / (Au + Pt + Pd),
ranging from 0.1515 to 0.4736, shows no systematic variation in Indawgyi complex to
make comparison with world's PGE deposits for classification. The Pt/(Pt + Pd) ratio is
plotted against the Cu/(Cu + Ni ) ratio in Fig. 4.42 in data reference of Naldrett and
Cabri, 1976. The deposits associated with tholeiites display an almost linear trend of
decreasing Pt/(Pt +Pd) with increasing Cu/(Cu + Ni ), but komatiitic deposits cluster as a
group in a totally different part of the diagram. PGE and base metals ratio in the
Indawgyi ultramafic-mafic Complex has different trend of correlation which exhibits
generally linear Pt/(Pt + Pd) ratio similar the deposits associated with tholeiites that has
negative correlation but the values are differently higher despite Cu/(Cu + Ni) ratio are
approximately coincided.
108
In figures 4.43 and 4.44 available data of primary and alluvial precious metals occurrence
(tables 4.4, 4.5 & 4.6) are make comparison with different types of ultramafic complexes
and different igneous associations in Pd/(Rh + Pd), Rh/(Ru + Rh), Ir/(Os + Ir), Pt/(Os + Ir
+ Pt), Pt/(Pt + Pd), and Au/(Pd + Pt + Au) ratios based on the original data of Naldrett
and Cabri (1976). In comparison with the different types of ultramafic complexes,
Pt/(Pd+Pt) value in Indawgyi gabbroic rocks is not distinguishing among those of the
Alpine and Alaskan type complexes while the value in Indawgyi serpentinites is
approximately coincided with that of dunite and peridotite of Alaskan type complexes
and chromite-rich rocks of Alpine type complexes. The Au/(Pd+Pt+Au) values of the
Indawgyi rocks are distinctly higher than those of other ultramafic complexes. In
comparison with sulphide ores from different igneous associations, Pt/(Pd+Pt) ratios of
primary and alluvial occurrences of Indawgyi Platinoids are doubtfully seen to be equal
to those of large stratiform complexes mainly of Merensky Reef. Indawgyi
Au/(Pd+Pt+Au) values are not too comparable among them but generally equivalent with
those of the tholeiitic orogenic associations. As the ophiolites, the possible source of the
metals of present interest, are of oceanic origin, this elemental analysis supports the idea
of petrogenetic and mineralogical considerations.
The ratios of Ir/Os + Ir vs. Rh/Ru + Rh, Pt/Pt + Pd vs. Ir/Os + Ir and Pt/Os + Ir + Pt vs.
Pd/Rh + Pd in Indawgyi PGM placers are made correlation with logarithmic regression
lines in the figures- 4.45, 4.46 & 4.47 respectively.
Ir/Os + Ir and Rh/Ru + Rh are distinctly not correlated. Pt/Pt + Pd and Ir/Os + Ir are fairly
correlated. The concentration of iridium moderately depends on that of platinum. Pt/Os +
Ir + Pt and Pd/Rh + Pd are roughly correlated. Palladium concentration more or less
increases about the multiplication of platinum.
109
Fig. 4.41 Comparison of Electron probe microanalyses (at %) of (Ir, Os, Ru)
alloy grains of Indawgyi (shaded area) and Chindwin areas plotted in
the ternary diagram Ru-Os-Ir of Feather (1976 after Harris and
Cabri, 1973)
110
Fig. 4.42 The relationship between Pt /(Pt+Pd) and Cu /(Cu+Ni) ratios in certain
areas of world's PGM-bearing rock-suites and Indawgyi area
Fig. 4.43 Comparison in the ratios of platinum, palladium and gold in different type of
ultramafic complex and in Indawgyi complex
111
112
0.12
0.10
0.08
Rh/Ru+Rh ratio
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.34 0.39 0.44 0.49 0.54 0.59
Ir/Os+Ir ratio
0.70
0.60
0.50
R2 = 0.342
Ir/Os+Ir ratio
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
Pt/Pd+Pt ratio
Fig. 4.46 Diagram showing the correlation of Pt/Pt +Pd Vs Ir/ Os+Ir of Indawgyi alluvial
platinoids
0.60
R2 = 0.2286
0.50
0.40
Pd/Rh+Pd
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Pt/Os+Ir+Pt ratio
Figure. 4.47 Correlation of Pt/Os+Ir+Pt and Pd/Rh+Pd ratio of the Indawgyi alluvial
platinoids
114
Chapter 5
ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Alluvial platinum and gold are extracted locally along the streams Namyinhka (around
the point SG 726976 Kachinmagon) and Namata (around the point SB 720090,
Shwephyu Chaung). The regularly used methods are panning and sluicing as other
alluvial gold workings in Myanmar. A pan applied in this area is soccer-like timber plate
of about half-metre in diameter. Generally, local methods yield precious metals 0.01 to
0.05 ounces per day, which make empty about 0.5 to 1 cubic metre stream sand. In
absence of technology to separate and refine the PGM, gold is more economic for the
local people and for the lack of knowledge to extract the precious minerals with advanced
techniques so regular production does not exceed than 100 ounces annually from eastern
drainage basin.
Though the alpine type igneous complexes generally occur only as the source rocks of the
placer PGM deposits (Evans, 1984), there are some economic platinum deposits such as
Thetford Mine Ophiolites, Quebec (Oshin and Crocket, 1982) and Urals dunites, Russia
(Naldrett and Cabri, 1976) so the prospect in the ophiolitic rocks is still withstanding. In
table 5.1, concentration of platinum group elements and associated gold, copper and
nickel are made comparison with those of the classified ultramafic bodies.
The lithologic variation of alpine rocks is actually complicated and detailed mineralogical
mapping is required for the exploration purposes in this area. To obtain a this type of
map, enumerating outcrop mapping and, drilling and trenching for determining the
unexposed units have to be performed.
115
Table (5.1) Comparison of Platinum Group Elements and associated Elements Concentration in
Indawgyi Complex and classified Ultramafic Bodies
Description Sample Analytical wt% Analytical results in Cu/(Cu Pt/(Pd+Pt) Au/ (Pd+
No/ No Method +Ni) Pt +Au)
of ppb
samples Ni Cu Pd Pt Au
Granodiorite A-9 1 0.04 0.01 80 200 100 0.2 0.7142 0.2631
INDAWGYI
Feldspathic amphibolite H-32 1 0.06 0.1 100 400 200 0.625 0.8 0.2857
Serpentinite A-4 1 0.23 0.01 160 400 100 0.042 0.7142 0.1515
Orthopyroxene gabbro H-22 1 0.87 0.09 80 300 100 0.563 0.7894 0.2083
Hb-plag-opx cumulate H-35 1 0.065 0.06 80 400 100 0.48 0.8333 0.1742
Dunite & Peridotite, 8 1 18 73 0.8
ALPINE
Average, Urals
Harzburgite, chromite 1 1 310 510 0.62
schlieren,Urals
Massive chromite in 1 1 3900 38000 0.91
dunite
Dunite & Peridotite, 0 0 21 57 1.2 0.73 0.015
ALASKAN
Average, Urals
Kyrlyn, dunite with 1 1 330 560 0.63
chromite schileren
Bushveld
0 ?3 0.15 0.96 900 730 470 0.87 0.45 0.2238
Western Platinum Mine, 25 2 0.16 0.079 1600 3700 460 0.33 0.7 0.08
sulfide
Ni Cu
Merensky Reef
ores
Data Source for classified Ultramafic Bodies; Naldrett and. Cabri, 1976.
116
Variation of ore mineral concentration is also needed to know for each layered unit and
the target can narrow down by examination the geochemistry of the cumulus phases.
In otherwise, alluvial precious metal occurrence in the area has much prospects in the
Namyinhka and Namata drainage basins in deduction the local extraction results and
previous studies. The mapped areas of terrace gravels and fan deposits (Q 1 unit) are
observable for the exploration of precious metal placers.
The area of present study generally lies in the Jade Mine Metamorphic Belt of Maung
Thein (1980), Nyan thin (1991) and Mitchell (1985 & 1993). As serpentinites and
metamorphosed ultramafic rocks such as glaucophane-schists, jadeitite and albitite are
associated with plate margins, and mineralogically, jadeite is formed under high pressure
and low temperature and blue schist is formed in the metamorphic condition of increasing
temperature and unusually slowly increasing pressure (Nyan Thin, 1991) so, the rock
suite of present study has more or less possibilities for the formation of jadeite and
related minerals. In the area southwest of Lake Indawgyi, the metamorphic units viz.,
feldspar amphibolites, alkaline amphibole schists, amphibole schists, serpentine schists
and meta-serpentinites are generally similar to the rocks further north and northwest
where primary and secondary jade-bearing rocks are produced.
The rocks of special interest among them are the alkaline-amphibole schist (M3 unit) and
feldspathic amphibole schist and serpentine schist (M4 unit) containing low- to medium-
grade pressure-dominated metamorphic mineral assemblages viz., anthophyllite,
riebeckite, richterite, antigorite and plagioclase (An45) which have close association with
jade and jade-like minerals.
Generally, primary jadeite can occur only in the following places (fig. 5.1).
1. Western metamorphic area along the north flowing Namata stream (approximately
between vertical grid SB 720 and 740, between horizontal grid SB 030 and 100)
where the anthophyllite-riebeckite schist, anthophyllite-hornblende schist, talc-
chlorite schist and other alkaline schist are exposed.
2. Northern metamorphic area (approximately between vertical grid SB 790 and 870,
between horizontal grid SB 080 and 120, where the sheeted meta-serpentinites,
tremolite-anthophyllite schists, feldspathic amphibole schists are exposed.
117
118
In other view, the study area has dominantly modified by intense physical weathering
during Quaternary probably related and contemporary with Pleistocene Uyu Boulder
Conglomerate of its northern extension that was evident by the occurrence of large
boulders on or within the sporadically covering thick soil formation (up to 25 meters).
The foliations of metamorphic rocks exhibit the area as the north plunging segment of a
metamorphic dome so the crestal part was probably eroded after the deformation possibly
during Cenozoic.
In otherwise, Jade is extracted from Tertiary conglomerate in the Hwehka area Lat. N 25
29 3 long E 96 16 43 and Quaternary Uyu Boulder Conglomerate in the Hparkant-
Lonkin areas (Chhibber, 1934b) where are the northern and northwestern extension of the
Indawgyi area. Therefore, the exploration of Jadeite in the secondary deposits should be
done in the Tertiary Kyaukphyar sandstone unit (see geological map plate 1) and fan
deposit and terrace gravels (Q1 unit). (See fig-5.1)
The area has also the prospect of ornamental stones as early as the accessibility to the
railroad (Mandalay -Mohnyin-Hopin-Myitkyina) is stirring better.
Cumulus gabbro unit (especially anorthositic lower unit of layered gabbroic complex)
and serpentinites are extractable for the curving and thick slicing because of their
attractiveness after polishing and large space of jointing. The metagabbroic rock,
plagioclase-amphibolites are better looking for decoration purposes for their sinuosity of
dark greenish and dark brownish foliation on the white hairy hide. Jointing in this unit is
moderately spaced.
In the more deformed part of the serpentinized ultramafic rocks, generally around the loc.
SB 755993 where the Fault SF1 and NF3 were activated, chrysotile veinlets are observed
and there are the possibilities to extract asbestos as raw material.
The gabbroic rocks of the Indawgyi area are also useful for road material. In road
construction, silica poor layers are also applied among silica rich ones so that Indawgyi
mafic rocks could be priceful for their composition which contain free or less amount of
quartz.
119
CONCLUSION
The study area, southwest of Lake Indawgyi, Mohnyin Township, Myitkyina District
covers about 225 square kilometres (90 square miles). Mafic, ultramafic and their
associated rocks occupied the three-forth of the area and sedimentary rocks
nonconformably rested on them. The following salient points are the outcome of the
present study.
6.1 Geology
1. The area built up predominantly with gabbroic pluton in the central mountain
chain, with serpentinites in the small hills of the southern area, with plagioclase-
amphibolites in the eastern spar of the central mountain chain and with amphibole schists
and serpentine schists in the homoclinal ridge-and-valley provinces of the western and
northern area.
2. The gabbroic rocks are mostly showing cumulus texture and dip of the layers is in
configuration like an inverted-cone or in a structure of lopolith. The plagioclase-
amphibolites show the sliding nature to the east because of the reflection of its east
dipping foliation. Cupolas are also observed in the northwestern and southeastern parts.
3. There are seven igneous units and four metamorphic units mapped in the area.
They are partially covered by Mio-Pliocene Kyaukphyar sandstone unit possibly
equivalent to Namting series of the Jade Mine area and Older alluvium containing fan
deposit and terrace gravels.
4. Igneous units comprise five gabbroic units and two granitoid units. Gabbroic
units are classified as 1 Orthopyroxene gabbro, 2 Hornblende gabbro, 3 Plagioclase-
diallage cumulate, 4 Olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro and 5 layered gabbroic complex.
Granitoid units are Quartz diorite and Foliated Biotite granodiorite. Boundaries of the
particular units are mostly transitional or in terms of the cumulate; phase contact to ratio
contact and occasionally structural contact.
6. Granitoids are elongated stocks in massive and layered gabbroic mass and they
are noted to be leucocratic associates of the rock association. Foliations are also seen as
nearly horizontal in granodiorite and nearly vertical with trend of 220in quartz diorite.
7. Photolineaments and shear joints indicate the northwest directed stress occurred in
the study area. It is possibly related to the dextral displacement of Sagaing major strike-
slip fault.
6.2. Petrography
10. The leucocratic associates viz., foliated granodiorite and quartz diorite are also the
common inclusions of the alpine type ultramafic association. Composition of plagioclase
is moderately high in An content.
Sheeted metaserpentinites are also found. These units are assumed as metamorphosed
part of mafic dikes and lavas.
6.3. Petrogenesis
15. The ultramafic and mafic bodies of the area west of Lake Indawgyi is hereby
described as ophiolites which is disrupted or dismembered, by six principal kinds of
features, of Thayer (1967) and some general matching with mineralogical identity to
cumulate sections of alpine type ophiolites. By assuming the Indawgyi complex as part
of an ophiolite suite, the stratigraphy of well described sequence (Church, 1972; George,
1978 and Moody, 1979) and reconstructed composite mafic-ultramafic-cumulates
exposed in the study area is presented to compare.
16. In otherwise, the characteristic features like: absence or very least occurrence of
sheeted dyke complex, well recognised layering nature which resulted from more gentle
geothermal gradient in large magma chamber, and block-topography, absence or no trace
of existence of deeply penetrating faults across the body, are indicating the nature of its
original position to be the fast-spreading centre or pacific type oceanic ridge.
6.4. Metamorphism
18. The metamorphism of ophiolite in this area is assumed as two phases viz. (i)
oceanic hydrothermal metamorphism to transformed the part of the ultramafic section to
cumulus serpentinite that continued to part of the mafic cumulate, and (ii) regional
metamorphism of part of the rock-suite by accretion to continent and major deformation
resulted amphibolite and green-schists.
20. Plagioclase is the commonest mineral in the area. In cumulus rocks, medium and
low temperature zones are developed around the calcic core. This development of zones
122
outside or inside the boundary of cumulus crystal is observable for determining the stages
of adcumulus growth, and in this area, Olivine-orthopyroxene gabbro (4) and
Plagioclase-diallage cumulate (3) are orthocumulate to mesocumulate and rocks of the
Layered gabbroic complex (5) are orthocumulates. Its composition is ranging between
labradorite to bytownite and regularly sodic upward.
21. Olivine is mostly found as relict grains in serpentinized rock. It has strain
lamellae and occasional twin bands. Those in layered gabbroic complex are iron-rich and
closed to the composition of fayalite.
22. Pyroxenes occur in the area are orthopyroxene; enstatite, ferroan enstatite
(bronzite) and hypersthene, and clinopyroxene; augite (diallage variety and titan-augite
variety). Bronzite occurs as oikocrysts in poikilitic orthopyroxene gabbro of 1 unit.
Schiller structure is common. Diallage is observed as magmatic sediment in plagioclase-
diallage cumulate of 3 unit. These two minerals are widely found throughout the
cumulate section.
25. Chromite, Magnetite, Chalcopyrite and pyrite are common constituents of the
Indawgyi igneous and meta-igneous rocks so their texture is roughly observed. Chromite
is commonly associated with hornblende. Much of them persisted in gabbroic rock as
intercumulus liquid. Magnetite is a product of serpentinization and network-like
distribution of it is found in thin section of serpentinites. Sulphides are observed
frequently as overgrowth and this feature is speculated to form after postcumulus reaction
of magmatic sediments and intercumulus liquid.
123
26. Alluvial occurrence of gold and platinum in the northern Myanmar is roughly
discussed and the speculation of the ophiolite body west of Lake Indawgyi as part of the
primary source area of these precious metals is proposed.
27. Chemical compositions of Alluvial gold grains analysed by EPMA are identified
marginal bright domain (or outer zone) of these grains are approaching to the
composition of native gold and that of central zone are gold-silver alloy. This occurrence
is also checked under reflected-light microscope and difference in reflectivity within a
gold grain which has silver-depleted margin. It is interpreted as the leaching of silver in
the acidic stream water. In otherwise, the irregular shapes of grains observed in the area
is suggested the provenance of gold to be closed to the sampled area.
28. Platinum group minerals are classified into 3 groups viz. (1) Pt-Fe phases, (2)
Ru-Os-Ir phases and (3) minerals combined with other elements. Among them, Os-Ir
phases are the most common in Namata alluvial grains and the third group is not
distinctly evident as separate mineral grains but possibly existed as inclusion in the
others.
29. A collection of Os-Ir alloy grains from the area analysed by electronprobe
microanalysis is manipulated. The ratios of Pt/Os+Ir+Pt, Ir/Os+Ir, Rh/Ru+Rh, Pd/Rh+Pd
and Pt/Pd+Pt are plotted and correlated for interpretation. In comparison with PGM
occurrence in the Chindwin Basin, the present area is distinguished in predominant
occurrence of Ru-Os-Ir alloys.
30. Concentration of platinum group elements and other associated elements in four
represent rock types of the study area viz. gabbro, meta-gabbro, serpentinite and
granodiorite are analysed with atomic absorption spectrometer and the results are
interpreted. The content of Pt+Pd in the Indawgyi igneous and meta-igneous rocks is
ranging between 280 and 560 ppb and it is generally approaching to that of low level
mineralised body and there are possibilities to explore for economic PGM deposit.
Enrichment factor is approximately 100.
31. In consideration of the platinum genesis in Indawgyi area, degree of maturity (the
ratio of Os+Ir/Pt) is high and indicating the host rock of them as alpine type intrusion.
32. Microtextures and inclusion on Indawgyi placers PGM are studied and
interpreted. Some main features are primary grain-growth, non-compositional banding,
124
33. For the platinum group metal exploration, it is speculated that the type of primary
occurrence of platinum to be orthomagmatic and type of source rock as the alpine type
mafic-ultramafic bodies. The prospect area for placer precious metals occurrence is
mapped and described.
34. In the close similarity of rock suite to Jade Mine metamorphic, and the occurrence
of intense sedimentary process resulting rounded rock boulders in thick soil formation,
the area has the prospect of jadeite mineral exploration. The possible area is also mapped
and described.
35. The rocks of the Indawgyi area are also seen to be interested for decorative
purposes. Plagioclase amphibolites, serpentinites and layered gabbro are attractive for
use as ornamental stone. The serpentinites have the possibility to extract asbestos and the
mafic rocks of the area possess the sufficient quantity and quality to application as road
material.
126
REFERENCES
1. Bannert, D. and D. Helmeke, 1981. The Evolution of the Asian Plate in Burma, Geol.
Rhundschau, 70, 2, 446-458
2. Bender F., 1983. Geology of Burma, Beitrage zur Regionalen Geologie der erde band
16, Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin. p. 293
3. Best, M. G., 1982. Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, W. H. Freeman and Co.,
USA. p. 630
4. Billings, M. P., 1954. Structural geology, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N. J. p. 514
5. Bion, H. S., 1913. The gold-bearing alluvium of the Chindwin River and tributaries.
Rec. of the Geol. Surv. India, 43, 4, 241 -263, 3 pls.
6. Boudreau, A. E. and I. S. McCallum, 1992. Concentration of Platinum - Group
Elements by Magmatic Fluids in Layered Intrusions. Econ. Geol., 87, 1930-1848
7. Bowles, J. F. W., N. R. Cameron, B. Beddoe-Stephens and R. D. Young, 1984.
Alluvial gold, platinum, osmium-iridium, copper-zinc and copper-tin alloys from
Sumatra- their composition and genesis. Trans. Instn. Min. Metall. (Sect. B: Appl.
earth sci.) 23-30.
8. Brown, J. C., 1924. A Geographical classification of the mineral deposits of Burma.
Rec. of the Geol. Surv. India, 56, 1, 65-108
9. Cabri, L. J. and D. C. Harris, 1975. Zoning in Osmium-Iridium alloys and the relation
of the geological and tectonic environment of the source rocks to the bulk Pt: Pt + Ir +
Os ratio for placers. Canadian Mineralogist, 13, 266-274.
10. Cabri, L. J. and C. E. Feather, 1975. Platinum-iron alloys: A Nomenclature Based On
A Study of Natural and Synthetic Alloys. Canadian Mineralogist, 13, 117-126.
11. Cabri, L. J., 1981. Relationship of Mineralogy to the Recovery of Platinum - Group
Elements from Ores. in Cabri, L. J., ed., Platinum -Group Elements: Mineralogy,
Geology, Recovery: Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Special Volume 23,
233-250.
12. Chhibber, H. L., 1934a. The Geology of Burma, London, Mac Millan. p. 538
13. Chhibber, H. L., 1934b. The Mineral Resources of Burma, London, Mac Millan. p.
320
127
14. Church, W. R., 1972. Ophiolite: its definition, origin as oceanic crust, and mode of
emplacement in orogenic belts, with special reference to the Appalachians. in E.
Irving, ed., The Ancient Oceanic Lithosphere, Earth Phys. Branch Publ., Dep.
Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, 42, 3, 71-85
15. Clegg, E. L. G., 1941. The Cretaceous and associated rocks of Burma. Mem. of the
Geol. Surv. India, 74, 1, 1-102, pl. 1.
16. Coleman, R. G. 1977. Ophiolites, Ancient Oceanic Lithosphere?, Springer-Verlag,
Newyork. p. 229
17. Cousins, C. A., 1973. Platinoids in the Witwatersrand system. South African Inst.
Mining Metallurgy Jourl., 73, 184-199
18. Cousins, C. A. and E. D. Kinloch, 1976. Some Observations of Textures and
Inclusions in Alluvial Platinoids. Econ. Geol., 71, 1377-1398.
19. Curray, J. R., D. G. Moore, L. A. Lawver, F. J. Raitt, M. Henry & R. Kieckhefer,
1979, Tectonics of Andaman Sea and Burma: in J. Watkins, L. Montardert & P.
Dickinson eds. Geological and Geophysical Investigation of Continental Slopes and
Rises. AAPG Mem., 29, 189- - 127 -198, 6 figs.
20. Currie, K. L., 1976. The Alkaline rocks of Canada. Geol. Soc. of America Bull., 239,
228
21. Deer, W. A., R. A. Howie and J. Zussman, 1992. An Introduction to the Rock-
Forming Minerals, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. p. 696
22. Dey, B. P., 1968. Aerial photo interpretation of a major lineament in the Yamethin-
Pyawbwe Quadrangle. Union of Burma Jourl. of Sci. & Technol., 1, 3, 431-443, 6
figs.
23. Earth Sciences research Division, 1977. Geological Map of the Socialist Republic of
the Union of Burma, 1:1,000,000 scale, MOGE, Minye Kyawzwa rd., Dagon.
24. ESCAP, 1991. Atlas of Mineral Resources of the ESCAP Region, Vol. 12; Geology
and Mineral Resources of Myanmar, United Nation, Newyork. p. 193
25. Evans, A. M., 1987. An Introduction to Ore Geology, 2nd ed., Black Well Scientific
Publications Oxford. p. 358
26. Feather, C. E., 1976. Mineralogy of Platinum- Group Minerals in the Witwatersrand,
South Africa. Econ. Geol., 71, 1399-1428
27. George, R. P., 1978. Structural petrology of the Olympus ultramafic complex in the
Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus. Geol. Soc. of Amer. Bull., 89, 845-865
128
28. Goossens, P. J., 1978. The metallogenic provinces of Burma; their definitions,
geologic relationships and extension into China, India and Thailand. Third Regional
Conf. Geol. and Miner. Resources of Southeast Asia, Bangkok, 431-492
29. Harker, A., 1950, Metamorphism: A Study of the transformations of rock-masses,
3rd.ed, Methuen & Co. Ltd., London. p. 362
30. Hla Htay, 1985. Mineralogy and Petrology of The Webula Ultramafic Body and
Khwekha Metamorphics, Falam Township, Department of Geology, University of
Rangoon (unpublished M. Sc. thesis). p. 304
31. Hutchison, C. S., 1975. Ophiolite in Southeast Asia. Geol. Soc. of Amer., Bull., 86,
797-806, 4 figs.
32. Hutchison, C. S., 1996. Geological Evolution of SouthEast Asia, 2nd ed., Geological
Society of Malaysia, Art Printing Works Sdn. Bhd. p. 368
33. IGCP National Committee, 1982. Stratigraphic Committee Field Excursion in the
Kawlin, Tigyaing, Male and Sagaing Areas; Field Excursion No. 9, p. 58, 2 maps.
34. Jackson, E. P., 1967. Ultramafic Cumulates in the Stillwater, Great Dyke, and
Bushveld Intrusions. in P. J. Wyllie ed. Ultramafic and Related Rocks, Chap. 1-II,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. p. 464
35. Kemp, J. F., 1940. A Handbook of Rocks for use without the petrographic
microscope, 6th ed., 6th printing 1950 Jan., D. Van Nostrand Co, Inc., New York. p.
300
36. Khin Zaw, 1990. Geological, petrological and geochemical characteristics of
granitoid rocks in Burma: with special reference to the associated W-Sn
mineralization and their tectonic setting. Jourl. of SE Asian Earth Sci., 4, 4, 293-335
37. Macdonald, A. J., 1987. The Platinum - Group Element Deposits: Classification and
Genesis. Geosciences Canada 14, 3, 117-131
38. Maltmon, 1977. Serpentinite and related rocks of Angelsey. Geological Journal, 17,
113-127
39. Mason, R., 1984. Petrology of the Metamorphic Rocks, 1st Indian ed., CBS Publishers
& Distributors, Delhi. p. 254
40. Maung Thein, 1980. Metamorphic Belts of Burma, a contribution map, Departmental
Circulation, University of Mandalay.
41. Maung Thein, 1983. The geological evolution of Burma, Department of Geology,
Mandalay, Mandalay, (unpublished). p.
129
42. Mitchell, A. H. G., 1985. Collision related Fore arc and Back arc Evolution of the
Northern Sunda Arc. Tectonophysics, 116, 323-334
43. Mitchell, A. H. G., 1993. Cretaceous-Cenozoic tectonic events in the western
Myanmar (Burma)-Assam region. Jourl. of the Geol. Soc. London, 150, 1089-1102
44. Mitchell, A. H. G., 1998. Myanmar as a Nappe stack and Relationship to Plate
Collisions and the Himalayas, Seminar paper read at Myanmar Oil and Gas
Enterprise. p. 11, 16 figs.(unpublished)
45. Mitchell, A.H. G., Tin Hlaing and Zaw Pe, 1978. Post-Devonian Geology of Burma,
Unpublished report, DGSE. p. 57
46. Moody, J. B., 1979. Serpentinites, spilites and ophiolite metamorphism. Canadian
Mineralogist, 17, 871-887
47. Myint Thein, Kyaw Tint & Aye Ko Aung, 1991. On the Lateral displacement of the
Sagaing Fault. Georeports, 1, 1, 15-24
48. Naldrett, A. J., 1981. Platinum-Group Element Deposits. in Cabri, L. J., ed., Platinum
-Group Elements: Mineralogy, Geology, Recovery: Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, Special Volume 23, 313-397
49. Naldrett, A. J., and L. J. Cabri, 1976, Ultramafic and Related Mafic Rocks: Their
Classification and Genesis with Special Reference to the Concentration of Nickel
Sulfides and Platinum-Group Elements. Econ. Geol., 71, 1131-1158
50. Nyan Thin, 1991. Tectonic Environment of Jadeite deposits of the Phakant-Tawmaw
area, Kachin State, Upper Myanmar, Georeports, 1, 1, 49-80
51. Oshin, I. O. and J. H. Crocket, 1982. Nobel Metals in Thetford Mines Ophiolites,
Quebec, Canada. Part I: Distribution of Gold, Iridium, Platinum and Palladium in the
Ultramafic and Gabbroic rocks. Econ. Geol., 77, 1556-1570
52. Ramdohr, P., 1969. The Ore Minerals and Their Intergrowths, translated 3rd ed. by C.
Amstuz, Pergamon Press, Oxford. p.
53. Saleeby, J., 1978. Kings River Ophiolite, Southwest Sierra Nevada foothills,
California. Geol. Soc. of Amer. Bull., 98, 617-636
54. Searle, D. L. and Ba Than Haq, 1964. The Mogok Belt of Burma and its relationship
to the Himalayan orogeny. 22nd Internat. Geol. Congr. India., New Delhi, 11, 133-
161, 3 figs.
130
55. Stephenson, D. and t. R. Marshall, 1984. The Petrology and Mineralogy of Mt. Popa
Volcano and the nature of the late-Cenozoic Burma Volcanic Arc. J. geol. Soc.
London, Vol. 141, p.747-762, 8 figs, 4 tables.
56. Streckeisen, A., 1976. To each plutonic rock its proper name. Earth Sci. Rev., 12, 1-
33 (not seen)
57. Streckeisen, A., 1983. IUGS Classification of Mafic and Ultramafic rocks. in
Elsevier's Mineral and Rock tables, chart
58. Stumpfl, E. F. and M. Tarkian, 1976. Platinum Genesis: New Mineralogical
Evidence. Econ. Geol., 71, 1451-1460
59. Thayer, T. P., 1967. Chemical and Structural Relations of Ultramafic and Feldspathic
rocks in Alpine Intrusive Complexes. in P. J. Wyllie ed. Ultramafic and Related
Rocks, Chap.7-IV, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. p. 464
60. Uytenbogaardt, W., and E. A. J. Burke, 1971. Tables for Microscopic Identification of
Ore Minerals, 2nd revised ed., Elsevier. p. 430
61. Vermaak C.F. and L. P. Hendriks, 1976. A Review of the Mineralogy of the
Merensky Reef, with Specific Reference to New data of the Precious Metal
Mineralogy. Econ. Geol., 71, 1244-1269
62. Wicks, F. J., and E. J. W. Whittaker, 1977. Serpentine Textures and Serpentinization.
Can. Mineral., 13, 244-258
63. Winkler, H. F., 1979. Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks, 5th ed., Springer-Verlag,
New York. p. 348
64. Wyllie, P. J., 1967. Review. in P. J. Wyllie ed. Ultramafic and Related Rocks, Chap.,
12-IV, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. p. 464