THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD - GENERAL INTRODUCTION Whatever the cause of the internal forces and deformations in a structure, three basic conditions must be observed. () The equilibrium of forces; the compatibility of displacements; and (ii) the laws of material behaviour. Condition (i) merely requires that the internal forces balance the external applied loads, ie that equilibrium is satisfied. Although the use of this condition alone is sometimes sufficient to enable a statically determinate problem to be solved, it yields insufficient information to facilitate the solution of a statically-indeterminate (redundant) structure. In the latter case, the second condition (ii) of compatibility. must be invoked separately. Compatibility requires that the deformed structure fits together, ie, that the deformations of the members are compatible. Before this condition can be used, it is necessary to know the load-deflection relationship (iii) for each component of the structure. This relationship reduces to the use of Hooke’s Law in problems of linear elasticity. Since the stiffness method is the one that is most used in practice, it will be this aspect of the finite element method (FEM) which is addressed here. It has great similarities to Simpson’s Rule for numerically integrating a function. For a given structural analysis problem, there is one (or more) partial differential equation(s) governing the compatibility conditions, e.g., For a uniform bar : eae =~ s(x) ie For a uniform beam : For a uniform rectangular plate : DI 7 pee i This governing equation has to be integrated to allow the displacements to be found. Rather than trying to find some analytical solution to these, the FEM makes a crude assumption about the variation of the displacement over the structure. This assumption is almost arbitrary, but once it is made, it allows the compatibility equations to be integrated to give the stiffness form of the simultaneous equations describing the behaviour of the structure. This basic idea - in which assumptions are made about how the displacements vary over the complete structure - has been known about since 1909; it is called the Rayleigh-Ritz method, and has been studied in Part Il. (The Rayleigh-Ritz method is only viable for geometrically simple forms - such as bars, beams, or rectangular flat plates - whose displacement can be described by analytical functions).‘The main breakthrough brought about by the FEM was to replace the globally continuous functions of the Rayleigh-Ritz methodology with piece-wise locally continuous functions, exactly as in Simpson’s Rule, where the continuous function which is to be integrated is replaced by a series of local parabolic segments. This removes the need for the complete geometry of the problem to be of a simple form, since any complicated shape can be approximated by a series of discrete segments. ‘The smaller the segments, the closer the approximation to any arbitrary shape. In the FEM, the segment consists of a single element. These are geometrically simple, being Tine segments for beam type structures, triangles and quadrilaterals for surface type structures, and hexahedra, tetrahedra and wedges for three-dimensional solid type structures. The complete structure is formed by assembling such elements together. They can be assembled into any shape, in the same way that a set of house bricks can be used to construct any type of building, e.g., The fundamental basis of the FEM is to assume that the displacements can be specified over an element independently of how they vary over any other element. This allows the stiffness behaviour of an element to be formed individually for that element. The assumed displacements must satisfy certain conditions in order for convergence to the correct answer to occur when elements are assembled to form a complete structure. (® The displacements must be continuous across the element - that is, they must satisfy compatibility within the element. (i) They must be able to reproduce a constant stress condition through the element for each stress component. (ii) The element must have rigid body motions that give rise to zero strains.For most forms of elements these conditions can only be satisfied by assuming that the displacements vary in some simple polynomial manner over the element. The displacement at any point within the element is then interpolated in terms of these simple polynomials, which themselves are defined by the nodal displacements of the element. Once these interpolation polynomials have been defined, then no other arbitrary assumption needs to be made in order to obtain the element stiffness matrix and herice solve the structural problem. General Solution Procedure: Identify the problem. This will involve choosing a suitable coordinate system, a node numbering system, and establishing element degrees of freedom consistent with the physical medium being modelled. 2. Select _a suitable displacement function. A displacement function that uniquely defines the state of displacement at all points within the element is required. 3. Relate general displacements within an element to its nodal displacements. The aim is to relate the displacements at any point within the element to its nodal displacements, e.g,, (8) = IN ta, o where {8} is a vector of displacements at any point within the element, [N] is a matrix of interpolation functions, and {q} is a vector of nodal displacements (= generalized coordinates of the problem). A. Strai lacement relatic . fe) = [4] 8), @) where (e) is the vector of element strains, and [A] is the matrix of corresponding differential operators. Substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 gives: fel = [A] EN} (q) = [BI tg), @) where [B] = [AJ[N]. Note: {e)” = (q)"[BI".{o} = [D] te) , @) where {a} is the vector of element stresses, and [D] is the elasticity matrix of the element, i.e., the material constitutive relationship. Substitution of Equation 3 into Equation 4 gives: fo} = [D] [B] {9} - 6) 6. Form the Strain Energy. u-1 f {el” {0} aVOL . © 2 VoL By substituting for fe]” and {o], and taking the vector of generalized coordinates outside the integral, the following expression is obtained for the element strain energy: om aa £ (BF [DHE 0b] co) ‘The term within the square brackets is the element stiffness matrix, denoted [K*]. 7. Form the Potential Energy of the loading actions. The Potential energy of the nodal forces {P], and the distributed loading action p(x), is calculated from the work done by these sets of forces as they displace to their equilibrium position. This can be written in general terms as V = API Baya) ~ fp) (8) a0, 6) a where Q is the domain under consideration. The displacement at the nodes (5,a4es} is found simply to be the generalized coordinates of the problem {qJ, because the values of the interpolation functions [N] at each node are, by definition, unity. Hence, ‘on substituting for (5), V = ~ (PI tah ~ [rte NGI a2 Ia) « ) a8. Apply the PMTPE, If the PMIPE is applied in turn to Equations 7 and 9, and the resulting expressions equated, the matrix equation of equilibrium for the element is obtained. au _ ; a” [K*] gh; av “37 P+ [pe Nig) aa. The latter expression is known as the generalized force, and is given the symbol F. Hence the element matrix equation may be expressed as [K*I{q) = {F*). To form the overall global matrix equation for the complete structure, all the energy contributions and load contributions associated with a particular generalized coordinate need to be added together to form the set of equations [K°}(q} = {F°). 9. Apply constraints. Eliminate from the matrix equation all the rows and columns associated with a tigidly constrained degree of freedom. This will reduce the order of the matrix equation to yield [K°geplfqgep) = (Fav) 10. Solve for {q}. Solve for {qxzpl, by using [K°yep}UF pep). 11. Stress-displacement relationship. Find the element loads and stresses in terms of the generalized coordinates. This information follows directly from Equation 5, once {q) is known.&The Finite Element Method in structural Sn meclianics: ————— | “+ General Solution Procedure : | {-lclentify the problem. - Choose a suitable co-ordindle eystem. | ~ Node numbering scheme . ~ Establish element degrees-of - freedom - 2- Select a suitable dicplacement function . -A chosen fusction that defines the displacement field within an element. S: Relate displacement field to nodal dieplacemeiy Using the displacement’ functions chasen | in2, relate displacements at any pint within | cloned tee model aoplcenent Vector of nodal, 18} displacements. Veofor of displacements 8 f }: a. vertically rang QM int with * List = vector. 7 apy eet alata tr 1: a reckangulew ortey. e a = matrix. 4. Strain-displacement relationship . Ze Vector of cap. (el. (SY Jat any pt within {é}=[A] {8} jtaypre "@) of Noman of vector of element differential operators. strains, Use equation into @) : {e}=[AlINW=[E 1193] @ WW Cs 5. Stress-strain relationship. fo} =[0] fs} @) Vector of” % Elasticity element’ stresses, Matin. substitute G) int @) i} = DD)[S] fa} ©),8. Apply the PMTPE @ Form the stram energy + PAT PE + Principle of Minimum Total Rtettial . Energy - | ae $$ felled fo Ja. | Vel Us SQYLKia}-k Z 24K % chai ey si ae Substitute meal and 803, eh ov UIE. +S iheov N, @ad. [KE]: elenent otiffnas oe smatrix . 4. Fem - Potential Energy of loading ations w | (v= ey {Seas}. Sonics} Peli} 40, ® Nodal mee getsralicel distributed — doman 3) Co-ordinates leading « is te total R {Ei Fequivement "etal "err bce becomes east iP3"iq}-( {pool [Ne] da £43 2 UK ]§q2 = {F3 (ia) @9+ Apply constraints, Eliminate all the rows and columns associated With each constrained Aegree-of- freedom. A Yeduced Order matrix FE |: Re ; Notice that the distributed loading action has effectively been “shared” between the nodes on a "Static Equivalence" basis. Sample problem: Find the deflection and stress distribution in | tye 4 hg | Idealize the model thus: > a. t Be = Ise % % GY Fs 4 yConstruct the matrix equilibrium equation for each element. plement: = AE |b “1% Re ° ay }—-1 1 a2) = [Re |* Jo ened aed \ c = |e 9 |e : ek [| Bement: AE Ty -\ Py | [seb al= tn) | A Re 2 Lin Combine the total energy contribution associated with each degree of freedom to yield the global matrix equation of equilibrium: [4-4 0.9 fs eR ° ac (74 444-48 _ [Par Bne Pear Tho -4 42. -2 . BarPa2O.|*]O*SE. a o) 2 Pa = Ra {ts A (K4 (qh ae On simplifying, the following matrix equation is obtained. a -4 0 01[% Re 4 |-4 8 -4 0 |/4 P : AE A : blo -4 6 -2/) 4% sLl4 @) oO oOo -2 2 q4 9. Apply constraints: ‘The geometric constraints governing this problem are: Q,=© ; Qa* 3° remove rows/columns 1&4 . This leaves us with:© [2 Ik] (eouceo) Oneouceo! = (Freouceo) vii Sek eeeceee fa Sp ae ere r= @) al> AE 32 |4A BIL ey wen) This yields the values of the longituctinal displacements at nodes 2 and 3. SPL, Sz = (6P4 sel) = - 7 aie: IGAE * 32 AE 7 az w= (4P+2s.h) = m,st ak Fe RAE IGAE The displacement within each element, and hence the whole bar, can be obtained from the successive application of Equation 1. NOTE: x is local to ench element, Et 3PL SF @)+ @ aa Ee i WhO) (Se aac) e aa) «) ea g 2 + x)= (SPL, s2 Vix B G)* 4299) * 1Ge)= (Tet Bee fh “keia) ea PL 4 Sk \ xy, = SPk, st sob ~ fe) as +(PL +4 SE = SPL, st ee” feat) CA) = Exe* Saat Bone” tenet Do Fe = (Ph 4 Sol? x AG UPE)= 4,980). (Set @ we \(-&) Qe), Plotting these: ue, disp is continuous: from. elemant-to-elament Li, Lig L 10. Find the Reactions: From Row 1 of the global matrix equation: = AE. b4q2)= RL L : - sre se |) LL (3P4 SL Re “HACE “Ske) ae ¥) Reverse vie’,From Row 4 of the global matrix equation: AE (— )+ 4b g Re (E+ gee The reactions are much as we would expect; they are in inverse proportion to the distance they are from the applied "point" forces. NOTE: We have not "lost" the effect of the nodal equivalent distributed load sjL/4 at node 4. A brief check on horizontal equilibrium confirms that everything is in order. SirOr Rt P+ Sole Ra=O whichet does ! = 11. Stre: Jacement relationship: Successive application of Equation to the displacement results for each element yields the strains within each element. The stresses are then simply found by multiplying the strains by E. 8h Sk Ox = Fat BA. : i m2 _ 4 (BP 4 Slt), 4(PL 4S -iy, & oe = -t ata) BAT Aa” A. LPL ek Sn aa SA Plotting these: NOTE: The right hand reaction given by the stress result (= o/A) is only ~(P/A)-(s,L18}; it is an underestimate. of the true reaction force. This is because the stress in Element 3 actually varies in a linear manner, but we have approximated it by a constant!!! LINEAR! EASG eg, > AEBYSSKHC | ie Ad=SKtC a&)=-SXrS . Ox Ox A A To improve the accuracy of the solution, we could further sub-divide the mesh in Element 3, viz-a-viz: We might then expect the stress result to look something like this: g + aBAR FINITE ELEMENT (FLEXURE ONLY) 1. Identify the problem: Wwe PDB { 4 Pee Yap uw i ay Me — p(x) = an applied distributed load, such as a pressure suction or self-weight [N/m] Primary variables: the vertical displacement and rotation, q, and q, at node 1; the vertical displacement and rotation, q and q, at node 2. Secondary variables: the force and moment P, and M, at node 1; the force and moment P, and M, at node 2; 2Seek a displacement function that can give a unit displacement to each node in turn without affecting the others. Consider a uniform bar sub-divided into two finite elements:NOTE 1: NOTE 2: Four distinctly different modes of displacement are assigned to each clement in order to satisfy the criterion that each nodal degree of freedom be given unit value in turn. The displacement and rotation across a node from element-to-element are continuous. Hence the compatibility condition is automatically satisfied To find f,(x): Assume a cubic variation in x, ie f(x) =a + bx + oc + de Apply the geometric boundary conditions (0) = 1; f (0) = 0; file) = 0; f(L¢) = 0- 4 §G) : 3 fife) =1- 32/3, 207 4 x le Similarly, mode 2 has to satisfy (0) = 0; f,(0) = 1; f{L_) = 0; f{L_) = 0 : be) => filtt) = x- 2x 7 Go Mode 3 has to satisfy f,(0) =O; f,(0) =O; fly) = 1; fs(Le) =O Mode 4 has to satisfy (0) =0; f(0) =O; fll, =O: f (Le Le fe 7 2% xd oe Sa)3. Relate displacements within an element to its nodal displacements. For this particular problem, there is only one component of displacement, namely the transverse displacement w(x). The displacement pattern within an element comprises the four shape functions determined above, ie, a] - 4: w(x) = gf) = FCDA, AO) £00 :, o -- / a, @ = IM@ ~ 4. Strain-displacement relationship. For simple flexure, the direct longitudinal strain ¢, at any point z measured from the NA of the beam cross-section is au/0x, where u(x) = -zdw/@x. (See your Part I notes to refresh your memory!). This arises from the assumption that under bending "plane sections remain plane”. In other words, ©, = -20°w/d2?. zh y an — ‘This may be written in matrix form thus: (é.}- L zeal) @) N EEE fe} = [Al {3} By substituting Equation 1 in Equation 2, we obtain jen: [so pO.40.40)]% eee fe} = [A] IN] (q)mee, 3+ -2[ 46), 6), NO), HO] E @) G3, as ra feds -2[CS at Pra) Hy ih(& Z ye) ), a +ra)} ia ~ 8 = [Blt Pig On transposing Equation 4, we obtain: eds -2] 404% AO - GS) For the simple one-dimensional problem considered here, Hooke's Law may be written as 6, = Ee, Z {3.3 -[E Hes Using Equation 4 .. Hence, - C--ZIENSOLOSOLO|E| 6) [o)} = IDILBI Gy 7 6. Form the strain energy. Recall. =i vot = { (é uss f fe)" (o,} 4VOL, where fv = f [es dz. ”Substituting Equations 5 and 6 into Equation 7 gives =! fa4.4.4] J [22 cabeose pe ohne ft fs oA es 7 ee fC and on multiplying out the matrices under the integral sign, we obtain iz [eae Soke -- Hoke | YANN Deane ci : stasead fex FORO SOK a Koop - Soe) Carrying out the integration gives 2 6b. -2 6L,] : 6, 4% -6L, 22, 7 5a % | ES 2 Ss fla 6 12 ~-6L, 6, 22-64 40 | 1% ele IETE IEE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX 7. Form the Potential Energy of the loading actions. Note: the domain of concern © is simply the length of the bar element, Ls. V = Pw, Me Pw, “Mya? - i w(x)dx e NOTE: w, = w(0) = gy w, = w(Le) = gy Bw/x = IwlO)/Ox = gy Bwy/Px = Iw(L NOx = 4Hence, using Equation 1, N= “{eonr.nf- Jper[n]iad er Ga a 0) SEH Bee Is: oNe A [RM Pe, nlf - joborororcfl Vv = -PF fq) ~ fro ING] d2 (qh a 8. Apply the PMTPE. From Equation 8, ~ W/sq, r @ujeq, | = EL) stevent || uwlaq, at erie eness]| 9 Plt Le Mareix |] 4s [Re Ga av ) f(x) os = [reste dx wv be a M, + J pla) f(x) de ov = cn av uy le | PO) fie) ae t = fi px) f(x) de Hence forming 3U/eq, = -2V/q, gives: 12 6le-12 Gle [a] fe Set ‘ pa) Sie) ds EX [te Ate Sle 212 |) 4 : t = 1 | L POR@dx e [+12 -Gle 12 ~Gle | 42 fe f le 22 -6Le ALE | | wy ee Sit LS" peo SiGe nv EzThe distributed loading action, p(x), must be specified in order for the generalized force to be evaluated for a given element. From your handout, it should again be evident that the distributed loading action has effectively been “shared” between adjacent nodes on a "Static Equivalence” basis. Sample problem: Find the deflection, bending moment,-and shear force distributions in p 4 J 4 A 4h | Fr p Idealize the model thus: gy Re 49; Pe | 43) Gs: Re Sa Mie Gai Moy de; Ma =tig > eng (Mark in all the unknown reactions) Construct the matrix equilibrium equation for each element Ex e Blement 1: == a. 3 . Gra) 4% qa Element 2: [95, ET 4 BE lie Gny a;Combine the total energy contribution associated with each degree of freedom to yield the global matrix equation of equilibrium: 12 Gly -12 Gly a Q, 2 6hiy Alta) ~4Liy 2(49) a. |} Me SEL 12 ¥6L}5) B [2 sp 2 “lig 12 Shin, 43 4 | RetBia-P 2 Sbizg 407 a CY Aig) -eYy au ~GL1z Zia) || 9% | | Mets ~12 -Glig 12 -Glyy_ |/ Is Re = eta Lief ~6ta abe) || 96 | [Me 7 IKI = &9 On simplifying, the following 6 x 6 matrix equation is obtained. 2 BL -12 SLO °o fla ‘| Q 1 SB -3L YB ° ° Ge M. SEE [2 Ll 24 © -12 SL I]Q | 2 I-P 7 z e Bg 2 BL En G, oO ° Oo -12 -3h 120 3L a. Re oO oe Ss U2 -Bs 4 Me 9. Apply constraints: ‘The geometric constraints governing this problem are: @. = 4. > Ws* Ge * ° “remove rows/columns \, 2, S, 4G. This leaves us with: ger | 24 |] OEP a Blo 2 6 [KGouceo! (eeoucco = Exzouceo!and solving, B®) Vo4 © IEP 4a | REL ° Ye a This yields the values of the transverse displacement and slope at node 2. 3 a= - PE foger a= ©. =o RoraTiON ar centee oF REAM .(osvious |) The displacement within each element, and hence the whole beam, can be obtained from the successive application of Equation 1. NOTE: x is local to each element. (The result for this particular problem is exact. Why is this so?) ae = °° WO) GOL EED GLOWEE = z [3 | \ QetL Le le ae S a a 3 ae Wue)= GeOvaAh@rsehe)eKGO) =F |nata =| Plotting these: WG) I abe IQ2ET 10. Find the Reactions: From Row 1 of the global matrix equation: Se (“Passe ) =k -Q&+® WW ASSUMED DIRECTION ,From Row 2 of the global matrix equation: iS 4ve BenDinG _ a (-Seaet “adh )= M. RY > Me PL. I By symmetry we can infer that the reactions at the right hand end of the beam are id : ape Re= % 5 Mee Ig 11. Stress-displacement relationship: The second and third derivatives of Equation 4 (suitably factored by El) yield the bending moment and shear force distributions within each element M@- Eray, . -P [& : Fa Coe (4 - 2%) ae i92Lie Le p2z\e BF moy= ETS. . - 2B fe ya] - 8 [a4 | or w2le & imbL 2" 8} Ne : Plotting these: 4 + PLig, SO= er&. -PP (se). % as i2\ B)* 2 S.F. S@= et&. _ pb (+9). —f ete xd p28 2 {=-\ Plotting these: : Rx) 2 LIZZ. L LEER NOTE: This technique “captures” step changes or discontinuities in the Bending Moment and/or Shear Force distributions; it represents a far superior methodology to the Assumed Displacement Method studied in Module 2.