ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT

HANDOUTS
LESSON 1: COMMUNICATION LESSON 2: PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

I. WHAT IS COMMUNICATION? I. THE FIVE ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

 Communication is a process of sharing and
conveying messages or information from one
person to another within and across channels,
contexts, media, and cultures.
 Communication is a process that involves the
exchange and the development of ideas to
achieve a particular goal or purpose.
 Communication may take place between
between two people, among three or more
individuals, or even hundreds and thousands of
participants.
The experience of communication — that is, the
delivery, processing, and reciprocation of message —
distinguishes humans as the most intelligent beings on
Earth.
II. ORIGIN OF THE TERM
Scholars trace the English term “communication”
to the Latin term communicare, which means “to
share or to be in relation with. This suggest that
communication is an act that brings people
together, or an experience shared by individuals II.
who subsequently establish relationships and
communities.
Other experts highlight the Latin noun
communicatio, which means “sharing” or
“imparting”. From this perspective,
communication involves an exchange or
transaction of goods. Therefore, from an
etymological standpoint, communication may be
understood as both a common experience and a
product transaction.
III.
III. DIFFERENT WAYS OF UNDERSTANDING
COMMUNICATION
 Communication, broadly, may be seen as
synonymous to behavior. Some experts
consider all behavior (speech, bodily gestures,
and all other observable acts) as
communication. Conversely, communication
also affects the way humans behave.
 Communication may be seen as a flow of
information. The sender of communication
expresses his/her thoughts and feelings which
the receiver interprets and comprehends.
Humans exchange ideas with the end goal of
understanding one another’s messages.
 Communication may be seen as synonymous to
interaction. This perspective emphasizes social
contact among humans.
 Communication is hence regarded as an
instrument of connectivity with other persons.
1. Sender – This is the person who initiates
the process. The sender delivers or
transmits ideas to the receiver.
2. Receiver – This is the person that
decodes the message transmitted by the
sender.
3. Message – This is the idea encoded by
the sender. The message entails both
the content (and the ideas) that the
speaker wishes to transmit and the
formulation or structure of the ideas.
4. Medium – This is the way through which
the message is delivered. The medium
may be oral, written, or nonverbal.
5. Feedback – This is the response to the
message. The feedback confirms the
message has been correctly interpreted.
By extension, feedback validates that the
communication process has been
effective.
OTHER ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
1. ENCODING – the process of converting
the message into words, actions, or
other forms that the speaker understands
2. DECODING – the process of interpreting
the encoded message of the speaker by
the receiver
3. CONTEXT – the environment where
communication takes place
4. BARRIER – the factors that affect the
flow of communication
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

IV. NATURE OF COMMUNICATION

a. Communication is a process.
b. Communication is systematic.
c. Communication is symbolic.
d. Communication involves meaning.

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PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION Example of Communication Manifesting Shannon
The SPEAKER generates an idea. and Weavers’ Model
 Resource Speaker in a large auditorium
The speaker ENCODES an idea or converts the idea
into words or actions IV. INTERACTIVE MODEL
 This model explains communication as a
The speaker TRANSMITS or sends out a message. dynamics exchange.
 According to Wilbur Schramm (1954), the key
The RECEIVER gets the message. element of this model is FEEDBACK: the
reaction to a message. Through feedback, the
The receiver DECODES or interprets the message communicator and the recipient can clarify and
based on the context. develop the ideas in their conversation.

The receiver sends or provides FEEDBACK

LESSON 3: MODELS OF COMMUNICATION (LINEAR

AND INTERACTIVE)

I. LINEAR MODEL
There are two types of linear models, one
introduced by Harold Dwight Laswell (1948) and
another one modeled by Claude Elwood
Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949)

II. LASWELL’S MODEL

Laswell’s model culminated with the outcome or
effect of communication. From Laswell’s
perspective, communication is a one-way
process in which only the communicator is the Examples of Communication Manifesting Interactive
active participant. The recipient, meanwhile, Model
processes the information but does not  Oral conversation
reciprocate the message.  Sending texts or e-mail messages
 Telephone conversations
 Use of sign language

LESSON 4: MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

(GATEKEEPER AND ECOLOGICAL)

I. THE GATEKEEPER/INTERMEDIARY MODEL

 The Gatekeeper Model presents the
Examples of Communication Manifesting Laswell’s
process where the information is filtered
Model
for dissemination, whether for
 Radio and Television Broadcasting publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or
 Resource Speaker in a large auditorium some other mode of communication.
 Magazines, Newspapers, and Books  This model can represent mass
communication—that is, how an
III. SHANNON-WEAVER’S MODEL audience (on a local or even national
 Their model resembled the transmission of a scale) receives information from media,
telephone message. the intermediaries of information.
 Their model introduced the idea of noise —  It is assumed that the key players of
secondary signals that hinder the transmission mass media have access to information
of the message. and, more importantly, have control over
what is disseminated to the public.

Example
 The Movie and Television Review and
Classification Board (MTRCB)

II. THE ECOLOGICAL MODEL

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  The Ecological Model encompasses the – refers to the frequency of your
fundamental statements of relationship voice
establishing a series of general relationships  Stress
between people, messages, language, media, – refers to the emphasis on a
and the communication they enable. certain word
 This model expounds on the role of mass media,  Phrasing
as well as the individuals and groups that control – refers to how you group the
these outlets of information (such individuals words in a sentence
and groups are called “Creators”).  Speed
 Moreover, the model considers messages to be – refers to how quickly you speak
embedded in language (another factor that can
aid or hinder the exchange of ideas), which is III. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
subsumed within the context of media. When we use nonverbal communication, we
employ communication strategies other than the
spoken word.

IV. SKILLS REQUIRED FOR EFFECTIVE

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
 Eye Contact
– By looking at the listeners as we
speak, we can engage them in
the communicative process
taking place.
 Facial Expressions
– Adjusting the eyebrows, lips, and
other facial features can help
convey the emotions in message.
 Head and Body Movements
– We can turn our head and move
our arms, hands, legs, and feet to
emphasize certain points.
 Posture
 In this model, there are roles that are productive
– Stand upright to attain a level of
(“create,” “interpret”) and receptive (“observe,”
dignity or formality as we speak.
“learn”).
 Proximity
Example – In public speaking situations, we
can walk from one side to another
 Lawyers
so we can reach out to our
 Doctors
audience.
In the given examples, the “consumers” or the users of
 Personal Appearance
language have the capability to interpret the language
– Knowing how to dress based on
and provide feedback.
where you’re going to do your
speech must be observed. We
LESSON 5: VERBAL AND NONVERBAL
should look neat and presentable.
COMMUNICATION
A good communicator uses both verbal and
nonverbal communication effectively. By mastering
I. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
both oral and nonverbal skills, we can deliver our
When we use verbal communication, we employ
message properly.
sounds and language to deliver the message.
LESSON 6: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS
II. SKILLS REQUIRED FOR EFFECTIVE
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
I. FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE
 VOLUME
COMMUNICATION
– refers to the loudness of your
In their book Effective Public Relations,
voice
Professor Broom, Cutlip, and Center (2012) list
 Pronunciation the 7 Cs of Effective Communication. This list is
– refers to the act or result of widely used today, especially in public relations
producing the sounds of speech, and advertising.
often with reference to some
 Completeness
standard of correctness or
– Complete communication is
acceptability
essential to the quality of
 Enunciation communication process in
– refers to the proper pronunciation general.
of the sounds on a word or the
 Conciseness
blending of sounds to produce a
– Conciseness does not mean
word
keeping the message short, but
 Pitch
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 making it direct or straight to the
point.
 Consideration
– To be effective, the speaker
should always consider relevant
information about his/her receiver
such as mood, background, race,
preference, education, status,
needs, among others. By doing
so, he/she can easily build
rapport with the audience.
 Concreteness
– Effective communication happens
when the message is concrete
and supported by facts, figures,
and real-life examples and
situations.
 Courtesy
– The speaker shows courtesy in
communication by respecting the
culture, values, beliefs of his/her
receivers. Being corteous all the
time creates a positive impact on
the audience.
 Clearness
– Clearness in communication
implies the use of simple and
specific words to express ideas. It
is also achieved when the
speaker focuses only on a single
objective in his/her speech so as
not to confuse the audience.
 Correctness
– Correctness in grammar
eliminates negative impact on the
audience and increases credibility
and effectiveness of the
message.
II. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION
Kaul (2000) classifies two types of
communication barriers: sender-oriented and
receiver-oriented.
A. Sender-oriented Barriers
 Poor Structure of Message
– This happens when the sender fails
to organize properly the ideas in
his/her message. The receiver then
becomes confused as to the
sender’s true content or intent.
 Noise
– This refers to the sounds that
impede the transmission of ideas.
This may also refer to facial
expressions or bodily gestures that
distract the receiver from
understanding the message.
 Faulty Choice of Words
– This occurs when the senders uses
terms that are suggestive or
ambiguous in meaning. This blurs
the true content of the sender’s
message.
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 Inappropriate Quantity of Information
– The sender reveals too little or too
much information. In the case of the
former, the receiver will struggle to
fill in the gaps of the message. In the
case of the latter, the receiver will
not be able to process the ideas
efficiently.
B. Receiver-oriented Barriers
 Poor Retention of Ideas
– This happens when the receiver fails
to remember points from the
sender’s message. If the receiver
does not retain ideas well, he/she
will get lost in the flow of the
sender’s ideas.
 Inattentive Listening
– This occurs when the senders uses
terms that are suggestive or
ambiguous in meaning. This blurs
the true content of the sender’s
message.
 Tendency to evaluate
– The receiver judges the validity of
the sender’s message even
before the sender finishes
communicating. Hasty evaluation
may be cause by the receiver’s
attitudes, prejudices, or
knowledge that is in conflict with
the sender’s message.
III. How to Avoid Communication Barriers
Butterfield (2009) offers the following tips in
order to avoid communicative barriers:
1. Use appropriate language. Choose the best
terms to convey your ideas.
2. Make the delivery of your message clear. Avoid
using filler words like “maybe,” “a little bit,” or
even “um.” Make your sentence concise.
3. Send consistency signals. Your nonverbal cues
should be synchronized with you verbal delivery.
4. Reduce physical distractions. Stay away from
background noise, interruptions, and
uncomfortable temperatures.
LESSON 7: NATURE OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
I. DEFINITION
Intercultural Communication happens when
individuals interact, negotiate, and create
meanings while bringing in their varied cultural
backgrounds. (Ting-Toomy, 1999)
It pertains to communication among people from
different nationalities.
It is when people draw from their cultural identity
to understand values, prejudices, language,
attitudes, and relationships.
This can also be seen as a bargained
understanding of human experiences across
diverse societies.
II. THREE MAIN ISSUES OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
  Knowledge Intercultural communication skills are those
– If we are unaware of the customs required to communicate, or share information,
and values of a certain culture, with people from other cultures and social
we may fail to communicate groups.
properly with individuals who
practice that culture. While language skills may be an important part
 Skills of intercultural communication, they are by no
– Having attained cultural means the only requirement.
knowledge, we can perform
actions appropriate to the Intercultural communication also requires an
culture’s specific norms. On a understanding that different cultures have
concrete level, we can then different customs, standards, social mores, and
express our ideas in a respectful even thought patterns.
manner, using grammatical
competence in the foreign Finally, good intercultural communication skills
language, as well as use requires a willingness to accept differences
nonverbal cues ad other these and adapt to them.
communication strategies unique
to the foreign culture. 1. DEMONSTRATE YOUR WILLINGNESS TO
 Attitudes MEET OTHERS AT LEAST HALFWAY BY
– From an affective standpoint, we LEARNING A FEW PHRASES IN THEIR
also need to show a tolerant LANGUAGE.
disposition towards people of ╶ This is easy if you know that you’re going
different culture. If we adopt a on holiday somewhere, but it’s also
respectful attitude towards any important for expatriate assignments and
culture, we shall be able to other business trips. A few phrases, even
interact with any individual if it’s only ‘Good morning’, ‘good
without difficulty. evening’, and ‘thank you’, will go a long
way.
III. Characteristics of Competent Intercultural
Communication 2. TALK TO PEOPLE WHO KNOW THE
World Bank (2010) identifies the following traits CULTURE ABOUT COMMON TRAPS AND
that define a competent intercultural PROBLEMS.
communicator. ╶ Before you go, find people who know the
1. Flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of region to which you’re travelling, and ask
uncertainty their advice. Ask your co-workers what
2. Reflectiveness or mindfulness people commonly do that’s just ‘wrong’,
3. Open-mindedness or what problems they have
4. Sensitivity encountered, and learn from it. Listen
5. Adaptability carefully to their answers, including what
6. Ability to engage in divergent thinking (or they don’t say, as this can tell you a lot.
thinking creatively) and system-level thinking (or
thinking how each one in a system or 3. ADAPT YOUR BEHAVIOR, AND DON’T
organization influence each other) ALWAYS EXPECT OTHERS TO ADAPT TO
7. Politeness YOU
╶ This includes not being offended if
Note that in addition to culture, other elements such someone unwittingly does something
as gender, age, social status, and religion must also that you find difficult to accept. You don’t
be taken into consideration when communicating have to accept it, but it’s best to explain
with others. Refrain from showing a bias when politely why you find it hard, not just go
talking to someone by following the tips below. off in a sulk.

1. Do not talk down on younger people and elderly.
2. Be sensitive to religious practices of others.
3. Be polite at all times; do not belittle people you
perceive to be on a lower social class than you.
4. Avoid stereotypes, i.e., generalizations about a
certain group
5. Challenge gender norms; avoid using “he” and
“man” to refer to a general group of people. To
remedy this, you may use plural pronouns or
rewrite a sentence to avoid using pronouns. The
use of his/her is also acceptable.
IV. SKILLS REQUIRED FOR COMPETENT
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
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4. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING AND THAT
OF OTHERS
╶ The best way to avoid
misunderstandings is to listen carefully
and check understanding regularly in the
course of a conversation. Ask questions
to make sure that you have understood,
and ask others to recap what you have
said to ensure that they have understood
you.
5. DON’T BE AFRAID TO APOLOGIZE
╶ You can usually see quite quickly if you
have caused offence. The fastest way to
manage that is to apologise, and ask
 what it was that you did. A confession of Examples of situations
total ignorance will often go a long way to manifesting Information
mitigate offence. Ignoring it will just Dissemination
offend further.
o A person sharing what he has
6. USE LOCAL TELEVISION TO LEARN ABOUT read from a book
BEHAVIORAL ISSUES AND NORMS “Did you know that there’s
╶ You wouldn’t want to rely on television a secret apartment at the
dramas as your only source of top of the Eiffel tower?”
information, but they can provide useful
insights. In the UK, for o An SSG officer announcing
instance, Coronation Street or East the steps to follow in
Enders could give you an idea of what’s joining a club.
considered acceptable and unacceptable
behavior. Comedies are perhaps less  Social Interaction
reliable as they often use communication – This communication functions to
difficulties to generate laughs. allow individuals to interact with
others.
7. REFLECT ON YOUR EXPERIENCE – This function of communication is
╶ As with so many aspects of life, a little used to produce social
reflection about your experience can help relationships; used to develop
you to put it in context, especially if you bonds, intimacy, relations, etc.
are able to discuss it with someone else
in a similar position. Examples of situations
manifesting Social Interaction
o Marriage Proposals
LESSON 8: FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION “Will you marry me?”
o Invitation
I. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION “Would you like to have
This refers to how people use language for coffee with me?”
different purposes and how language is affected
by different time, place, and situation.  Emotional Expression
– This communication facilitates
These are also used to control the behavior of people’s expressions of their
people and to regulate the nature and amount of feelings and emotions
activities people engage in
Examples of situations
The most basic functions of communication in manifesting Emotional
an organization are to regulate/ control, to Expressions
inform, to interact socially, to express and to o Appreciation
motivate. “I’m so glad that you
came into my life.”
 Regulation/Control “I like you so much!
– This communication functions to o Expressing one’s ambition
control behavior. “I want to finish up my
studies with good
Examples of situations grades to be accepted in
manifesting Regulation/Control a good university.”
o Doctors’ Prescription o Expressing a need
“Take your medicine 3 times a “I need you in my life.”
day.” o Expressing prayers
o Parents’ Instruction to their child “We pray for the souls
“Wash the dishes now, or else I of people who are facing
won’t allow you to go to the many problems in life.”
party later.”  Motivation
o Friends giving advice on what to – This communication
do motivates or encourages people
“Move on. He doesn’t love you to live better.
anymore”
Examples of situations
 Information Dissemination manifesting Emotional
– This communication functions to Expressions
convey information. o “You can do it!”
o “You will pass the
examination! You just
have to study well!”