Materials Assignment

Manufacturing Process Technology Assignment 02 K0155118 2011
TEESSIDE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
MATERIALS ASSIGNMENT
BY
Victor Obinnaya Chikezie Nwosu
K0155118
MSc Environmental Technology
Supervisor: Dr Stuart W Graham
18th April 2011
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to the Almighty God for his grace and goodness, which have
greatly bestowed on me.
This work is also dedicated to my late Granduncle, Mazi Joseph Chinedo Irokwo (Ye
je) of blessed memory, a one-time scholar at the Loughborough University,
Leicestershire, UK may his gentle soul rest in the bosom of our Lord Jesus Christ
Amen.
Also, I want to dedicate this work to the entire Nwosu family for the love, commitment
and care throughout writing this work.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I thank the Almighty God, the author of life and the universe for
giving me the grace and strength throughout the writing of this work
This work would not be complete without mentioning the efforts put by Professor
Farhad Nabhani, and Doctor Stuart W Graham of the Teesside University,
Middlesbrough. Finally, I want to thank my practical group members, all my friends,
family members and siblings.
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TABLES OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Table of Contents
List of Figures
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Fusion welding
1.1 Introduction
1.2 MMA arc welding
1.3 MIG welding
1.4 TIG welding
1.5 Submerged-arc welding
1.6 Electric Arc
1.7 Friction Stir Process
1.8 Laser welding
1.9 Election Beam welding
1.10 Weld preparations
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Polymer Technology
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Nylon
2.3 Vinyl Polymer
2.3.1 Polyethylene structure
2.3.2 Polypropylene structure
2.3.3 Polystyrene structure
2.3.4 Polyvinyl Chloride structure
2.3.5 Polyvinyl Acetate structure
2.3.6 Polyvinyl Alcohol structure
2.4 Techniques for Thermoplastic polymers
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2.5 Techniques for Thermosetting polymers

2.6 Fillers usage in polymers
2.7 Whiskers
REFERENCES
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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1.0 MMA arc welding
Fig 2.0 The MMA welding principle
Fig 3.0 MIG welding
Fig 4.0 TIG welding
Fig 5.0 Current Drooping Characteristics
Fig 6.0 Constant current
Fig 7.0 Submerged arc welding
Fig 8.0 Electric arc between two nails
Fig 9.0 Laser welding
Fig 10 Electron beam welding (a) Process (b) Keyhole
Fig 11 Electron beam welding machine
Fig 12 Welding preparation due to accessibility
Fig 13 Addition Polymerisation
Fig 14 Structure of Nylon
Fig 15 Polyethylene structure
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Fig 16 Polypropylene structure
Fig 17 Polystyrene structure
Fig 18 Polyvinyl Chloride structure
Fig 19 Polyvinyl Acetate structure
Fig 20 Polyvinyl Alcohol structure
Fig 21 Injection-moulding machine
Fig 22 Plastic extrusion press
Fig 23 Thermoforming machine
Fig 24 Compression moulding process
Fig 25 Bakelite moulding making machine
Fig 26 Bakelite powder, Phenolic Moulding Compounds
Fig 27 Bakelite moulding making
Fig 28 Fillers in polymers
Fig 29 Silicon whiskers
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ABSTRACT
This work discusses on the two processes out of the numerous processes which are
involved in manufacturing process technology of materials, the first part of the work
talks about fusion welding process, friction stir welding process and weld preparations
whilst the second part of the work discusses about polymer technology.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 FUSION WELDING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Fusion welding according to (R.L., 1998) is the principle of joining two pieces of metal
with the use of a filler metal which is similar with the parent metal. The molten metal
then fuses together and forms a homogenous joint whose strength is the same as the
parent metal; they are types of fusion welding which are MMA arc welding which is
heated with an electric arc, MIG/MAG welding which is heated by a mixture of oxygen
and acetylene (oxyfuel gas) and TIG welding using little current in its welding.
1.2 MMA ARC WELDING

MMA arc welding is the mostly used fusion welding process which is hand-held
operated equipment in which a metal electrode serves as the arc and acts as a filler-rod
that deposits molten metal onto the joint. According to Timings (1998), it is the fusion
welding process energy generated is used to melt the edges of the metal pieces and filler
is provided by the arc which is the name given to the prolonged spark struck between
electrodes. The filler rod is one electrode while the work is the other electrode; the filler
rod is flux-coated which shields it form oxygen attack at high temperatures of about
6000 degrees celsius. In MMA arc welding, they are four main types of electrodes
which are; 1.C-Cellulose electrode 2. A-Acidic electrodes 3. R-Rutile electrode 4. B-
Basic electrodes
Acid electrodes are made of a thick coating and the produce iron-manganese oxide
silicate slag which is acidic metallurgically. These acidic electrode types normally has a
high deposition speed and can be used at high current intensity which is best suited for
downhand welding and are AC-DC applicable. Thinner coated acidic electrodes are
used for cold-welding and thicker coated electrodes are hot-welding, when using the
acidic electrodes the parent metal should be of fine weldability because if not cracks
will appear on the base metal.
Cellulose electrodes contain organic elements which they decompose in the arc to
produce shielding gas which the amount of slag is small and can be easily removed. It
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has a large penetration, a medium-high melting point; spatter loss is high and an
unevenly distributed coarse weld. They are used primarily for welding vertical-down
and widely used in USA and Europe for welding of pipelines.
Rutile electrodes contains a large percentage of rutile- titanium dioxide like 50%, the
slag is dense and self-releasing, penetration is small and this type of electrode is used
for horizontal and vertical fillet welds. These electrodes are suitable for welding in large
cross-sections and hard workpieces in steels.
Basic electrodes are dried electrodes which are very hard to avoid hydrogen and
porosity of the metal which means that it must be stored in a wet-free environment and
that the weld metal should have a low content of hydrogen. This reduces the hydrogen
crack risks if steel hardens in the heat-affected zone (Arc11).
Fig 1. MMA arc welding (MMA11).
Fig 2. The MMA welding principle (MMA111)
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1.3 MIG WELDING

MIG welding process is when coalescence is created by heat from the arc between a
metal and the work which is shielded by a mixture of argon, carbondioxide and helium.
There are two methods that are used: one is the TIG welding which uses a tungsten
electrode with filler metal as in gas welding and the other which is MIG welding which
uses a consumable metal wire as the electrode MIG welding is a process which uses the
heat from an electric arc which is established between a continuous fed wire and the
metal workpiece in which the wire is melted and the weld metal is transferred to the
base metal workpiece. It is also a welding process in the atmosphere of inert gas such as
argon and helium which is mixed with small quantities of oxygen, carbondioxide and
hydrogen or similar substance. Direct current reverse polarity provides a stable arc and
offers the greatest heat input at the workpieces which is highly recommended for
aluminium, magnesium, copper and steel. Alternating current is seldomly used in MIG
welding (MAG11). Consequently, the MIG welding process is one of the most diversely
used welding methods which is used in motor-car manufacturing, shipbuilding, aircraft
engineering, heavy electrical engineering and manufacturing of tanks (Higgins, 2006)
1.4 TIG WELDING

TIG welding is also known as gas tungsten arc welding which uses tungsten electrode
and the weld area is protected by the feeding of an inert gas through a water-cooled
electrode holder, the metal kind to be welded determines the kind of current to be used,
direct current is required for stainless steel, copper and cast iron (Ostwald. P, 1997).
This welding process is the most versatile methods of welding and it uses 0.5A current
for welding foil and 750A for welding thick copper. It is use for works in engineering
industries (Higgins, 2006)
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Fig 3. MIG welding (MIG11)
Fig 4 TIG welding (TIG10)
1.5 SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING

Submerged-arc welding is a welding process which the metal arc is shielded by a
blanket of granular, fusible flux during the welding. Its similar to automatic arc-welding
which a bare electrode is fed through the welding head into the granular material which
it is laid along the seam to be welded and the process takes place beneath it, the arc is
started by striking beneath the flux on the work or by initially placing some conductive
medium under the electrode. The intense heat of the arc produces a pool of molten
metal in the joint and melts a portion of the granular flux, this material floats on the top
forming a blanket that eliminates spatter losses and protects the welded joint from
oxidation. Upon cooling the fused slag solidifies and it is removed which the granular
material not fused is recycled and used again.
This welding process is limited to flat welding, although welds can be made on a slight
slope or on circumferential joints. It is advisable to use a backing strip of steel or copper
on the joint to avoid losing some of the molten metal. The process uses a strong current,
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which permits a high rate of metal transfer and welding speeds. Deep penetration is
obtained and most commercial-thickness metal plates are welded with one pass. As a
result, thin plates are welded without preparation, whereas a small vee is required on the
others. Most submerged-arc welding is done on low-carbon and alloys steels, but may
be used on many nonferrous metals (Ostwald, 1997). The fundamental requirements to
get a satisfactory weld it is need to have the following: 1. Energy source 2. Removing
of surface contaminants 3. Protection of metal from atmospheric effect 4. Welding
metallurgy control 5. Observance of safety welding precautions.
1.6 ELECTRIC ARC

An electric arc is the electrical disassociation of a gas which creates a plasma discharge,
resulting from a flow of current through a normal non-conducive medium like air. An
arc discharge is featured by a lower voltage than arc glow discharge which relies on
thermonic emission of charged electrons from the electrode on the arc which is called
voltaic arc lamp. The shapes of electric arc are the properties of non-linear pattern of
current and electric field, the arc is attained when a gas-filled space between conducting
electrodes which results to a very high temperature which is capable of vapourizing
materials. An electric arc can occur either in direct current circuit system or alternating
current circuit system. Also, an electric arc has a non-linear mutualism between
voltages and current when the arc is established, increases current results a lower
voltage between the terminals of the arc. Negative resistance which needs some positive
impedance placed in the circuit to maintain a stable arc which destroys the arc since its
draws a lot of current at a fixed voltage (06). This is related to the drooping
characteristic power supply which the direct current output voltage decreases and an
output characteristic become constant current drooping characteristic when the load
increases in a manually operated process (2005). Also, the arc is characterised by a
relatively high currents and low voltage which is established by the arc itself which is
the arc characteristic. For MIG and TIG welding, power supply is set up to be a
Drooping power characteristic and the current and voltage is determined by the point of
the arc and power characteristic (Graham, 1998)
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Fig 5 Current drooping characteristic (Dro11)
Fig 6 Constant current (Con11)
Fig 7 Submerged Arc Welding (Sub11)
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1.7 FRICTION STIR PROCESS

The Friction Stir Process was patented in the early 1990s by the welding institute for
use with low-melting-temperature material such as aluminium, brass and copper. Its is a
solid-state welding process in which a tool is rotated along the two materials interface to
be joined, the tool consists of a protruding pin that is plunged into the workpieces with a
larger concentric shoulder that is maintained on the surface of the joint. The concave
surface of the shoulder produces a mixture of frictional heating created by the shoulder
and pin rotation in contact with the base material produces a local plasticized region
around the tool. Features of friction stir processes creates a refined microstructure which
is compared to the original base metal which is typical of ferritic steels undergoing an
allotrophic phase transformation, these microstructures are dependent upon the welding
parameters. Its is also a relatively new joining process that has many advantages over
traditional arc welding processes, including reducing distortion and eliminating
solidification defects, joining takes place below the melting temperature of the material
at minimal distortion, no filler material and no fumes. Friction stir welding process is
also highly efficient and eco-friendly than traditional welding methods. Also for the
pipeline industry, First stir welding process is beneficial because when compared to
normal fusion welding processes, FSW is energy efficient and has a better weld quality
because it is immune to the welding defect such as solidification in fusion welding; it is
also a highly productive method of welding and can join dissimilar materials. The First
stir process is relatively easy to control in the presence of adverse conditions, it saves
time and reduces the pipeline welding logistics, saves labour cost and it addresses the
current shortage of qualified welders (2009). Advantages of Friction stir welding
process are: 1. Shrinkage is low 2. It is energy efficient 3. It is an environmental
friendly 4. It has excellent mechanical properties.
1.8 LASER WELDING

The laser welding process according to (Ostwald, 1997) is a fine focused high-
collimated beam of photons which is refered too as coherent beam which is capable of
delivering up to about 30000W/in2 , this allows for deep penetration welding which does
not affect the base metal because of the energy bond is small and broad heating does not
take place. Joint designs for laser welds are the same to electron beam welds except that
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the tolerances are tighter and surface finish is better because of the accuracy of the laser
beam. Laser beam welding is one that makes excellent and precise welds. The most
common laser in welding is the carbondioxide weld type; the lasing material is a
mixture of carbon dioxide, helium, and nitrogen. The laser welding process
accomplishes soldering, welding and cutting as well as drilling, slitting and perforating.
The principle of operation for Laser welding is depicted when an intense light is with
contact on a special man-made ruby which is 10mm is circumference that contains 0.05
percentage weight of chromium oxide, light which is green fires the chromium atoms to
a larger energy state which each excited atoms releases a red light which it is in phase
with the colliding red light wave that makes the red light recurring amplified. For the
effect to be further enchanced the parallel ends of the rod are mirrored to reflect the red
light continuously back and forth within rod, when at a critical intensity of firing is
attained; the collision chain reaction becomes very strong to start a burst of red light
(Ibrahim, 2007).
Fig 8 Electric arc between two nails
Fig 9 Laser welding (2010)
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1.9 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING PROCESS

Electron beam welding is when coalescence is created by a bombardment of the steel
piece with a dense beam of electrons at high velocity which the steel is joined by
melting the edges of the work piece or by penetrating the steel which no filler metal is
added. This process is used to join common metals which are previously impossible to
weld, this type of welding consist of an electric gun which is placed within a vacuum
chamber and arranged in such a way that it can be raised, lowered or moved in a
horizontal plane. The electron gun is positioned and the chamber is evacuated due to the
welding operation, chamber evacuated to a pressure and the beam circuit is energized
and directed to the desired spot on the weld, the beam remains stationary and the work
is moved as a speed past the electron beam. The range of temperature of this electron
gun is sufficient to vaporize tungsten or any known material such as steel or cast iron.
Features of Electron Beam welding are; 1. The beam penetration is high 2. Penetration
can be controlled 3. The welding process can be used at a higher welding speeds 4.
Minimal heat affected zone and elimination of weld distortion. The electron beam
welding process is performed in air, near vacuum conditions and under a blanket of
inert gas, it is also formed in a chamber arrangement similar to the vacuum machine
then passes through a special orifice and finally through argon or helium to the
workpiece (steel). The non-vacuum unit supplements the conventional vacuum-welding
process and increases the range of welding that is done with electron beam welding
(Ostwald, 1997). Comparisim between electron beam welding and laser welding in
terms of power is that Electron Beam welding power supply pulls a low current and
provides a high voltage while laser welding has a high power intensity and density. In
terms of welding of steel, Electron Beam welding can be used to weld structural steels
and special metals whilst Laser welding can be used for the jointing of dissimilar metals
such as columbium, titanium, stainless steel, chromium and copper.
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Fig 10 Electron beam welding (a) process (b) keyhole (Ele11)
Fig 11 Electron beam welding machine (2011)
1.10 WELD PREPARATIONS

Welding preparations are the designs of a structure in which the welds are decided
where it should be placed, the types of joint design such as square butt weld, flange
weld, lap weld and single-V butt weld for each weld and the sequence in which each
weld is made. However, the joints configurations such as square butt weld, flange weld,
lap weld, single-V butt weld, fillet weld and corner weld (2011). Welding cost can be
calculated using the three basic methodologies which are; 1. Cost per unit 2. Cost per
length 3. Cost per weight. The cost per unit method is highly effective which the
application pieces that move through a workstation which makes the most accurate of
the three methodologies. The cost per length is the approach that is used for estimating
the long welds cost which is best used for single pass welds of a particular size. The
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cost per weight is the easiest estimating method and it is used best in applications in
which volumes of metal must be deposited and it is not too accurate when applied to a
single small short pass welds and which does not account for overwelding (2004).
Advantages of welding joints in terms of cost are: 1. Low cost of power consumed 2.
Fatigue and personal wages for the welder 3. Waste materials 4. Short period of
welding time 5. Reduced machining is needed for post-welding 6. Inspection easy 7.
Reduced initial cost of welded joints 8. Welding fabrication design is not tough
Fig 12 Welding preparation due to accessibility (Eff11)
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 POLYMER TECHNOLOGY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
According to (Alexander, 1987), Plastics are the most widely used form of new
synthetic polymer material which are far simpler and more primitive than natural
polymers and all plastics have large molecules which is based on the four covalent
bonds of carbon atoms
Polymerization is the process of the reaction of monomer molecules in a chemical
reaction process that creates a linear chain or three-dimensional chain network of
polymer; they are two main categories which are addition polymerisation and
condensation polymerisation. Addition polymerization which involves the joining
together of molecules which is incorporated into double or triple chemical bonds which
these unsaturated monomers have an extra, internal bond which is able to break and join
with other monomers to form the recurring chain. Also, addition polymerization is the
manufacturing of polymers such as polyethene, polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride,
addition polymerization leads to living polymerization. It is also the breaking of double
or triple bonds, which are used to link monomers into chains (2010)
Fig 13 Addition Polymerisation (Add11)

2.2 NYLON
Nylon is synthetic fabric material made from petroleum which was developed in the
1930s as an alternative to silk, it was extensively use during the war and it was
developed by Wallace Carothers at the Dupont Chemical Company which still
manufactures it until today. Nylon is extremely of great value due to its light weight,
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high tensile strength, durability and resistance to destruction, Nylon is now amongst the
numerous polymer products in common frequently use around the world, it is versatile
and relatively to make. Nylon has a very slow decay rate which environmentally, results
to the accumulation of used nylon and nylon products in landfills around the world.
Nylon is made by a chemical process known as the ring opening polymerization which
molecules with cyclic shapes are opened and flattened, other nylon forms are created
through the chemical reaction process between two monomers which adipoyl chloride
and hexamethylene diamine. When nylon is stretched out, the fibre thins, smooth and
even out until it reaches a point at which it will no more give and still very strong, it
then is extruded in a thread form and stretched or drawn after it cools to make it extend,
even fibres. Nylon has a tangled structure which stretches out in to parallel lines before
been drawn (Smith, 2011).
Fig 14 Structure of nylon (Str11)
2.3 VINYL POLYMERS

The vinyl group of polymers are a conglomeration of polymers from vinyl monomers
which their backbone is an extension of an alkane chain which is created by
polymerising an alkene group into chains. Vinyl polymers are the most common type of
plastic such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinyl
acetate and polyvinyl alcohol.
2.3.1 POLYETHYLENE STRUCTURE

Ethylene can be polymerised by many processes to create different types of
polyethylene which the most important are low-density polyethylene and high-density
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polyethylene. The low-density polyethylene was the first commercial ethylene polymer
in 1939 which is the largest of the thermoplastics manufactured in the United States of
America. This type of polyethylene is produced by free-radical bulk polymerisation
using traces of benzoyl or diethyl and uses azo compounds as the initiator. Polyethylene
with reduced branching is the high-density polyethylene can be produced by the
polymerization of ethylene with supported catalysts or in the presence of catalysts.
Low-density polyethylene is a partially crystalline solid with a degree of crystallinity to
about 70 percentage range, melting temperature of up to 120 degree celsius, and specific
gravity of about 0.94, branches acts as defects and as such a level of side chain
branching determines the degree of crystallization which alters many polymer
properties. High-density polyethylene is a polyethylene thermoplastic which is created
from petroleum which takes like 1.75 kilograms of petroleum to create 1 kilogram of
high-density polyethylene, it is commonly recycled, it has little branching, as stronger
intermolecular forces and tensile strength, higher specific strength, can withstand higher
temperatures and it contains chemical elements, carbon and hydrogen.
Fig 15 Polyethylene structure (Pol11)
2.3.2 POLYPROPYLENE STRUCTURE

Polypropylene is one of the major plastics and was first created and introduced in the
late 1950s. It is made by the polymerisation of high-purity propylene gas recovered
from gas streams in oil plants and refineries; reaction is a low-pressure process that uses
Ziegler-Natta catalyst. The reaction is done in reactors operating at a temperature of 80
degree celsius and pressure of 25 atm. Polyproyplene is also known as polypropene
which is a thermoplastic polymer which is an addition polymer made from propylene
that is very resistive to many chemical solvents such as acids and bases. Polypropylene
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can also be made in isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic structural forms which usually
over 90 percentage of the polymer is in isotactic form which is linear with a
constructive orderly arrangement of molecules in the polymer chain and polypropylene
is one of the lightest of the widely used commercial thermoplastics.
Fig 16 Polypropylene structure (Pol111)
2.3.3 POLYSTYRENE STRUCTURE

Polystyrene is a linear polymer which can be created in isotactic, syndiotactic and
atactic structure forms which the commercial product is atactic and amorphous isotactic
polystyrene is brittle more than and also difficult to process than atactic polystyrene
which makes it of no common interest. Polystyrene is one of the largest volume
thermoplastics because it is versatile polymer whose characteristics are transparency,
colouring, processing and low cost. The chemical makeup consists of a long chain
hydrocarbon with every other carbon connected to the phenyl group which contains a
chemical elements carbon and hydrogen. It is an aromatic compound which burns with
a light yellow flame, oxidation of polystyrene creates carbon dioxide and water vapour.
The addition polymer of styrene results when vinyl benzene monomer is attached to
form a polystyrene chain (Ebewele, 1996).
Fig 17 Polystyrene structure (2011)
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2.3.4 POLYVINYLCHLORIDE STRUCTURE

Polyvinylchloride is a vinyl polymer with a vinylic repeating unit which is –[CH2-CH]-
n; and n is between 600-2700 for PVC polymer with reasonable properties which
depends on three major factors such as the number of repeating units in the polymer
chain, imperfections and spatial arrangement of the polymer chain (Pol112).
Polyvinylchloride is also one of the largest volume thermoplastics which are chemically
inert and versatile which is available as rigid and flexible grades. Suspension
polymerisation aids in 80 percent of PVC manufactured which vinyl chloride droplets
are suspended in water by means of protective colloids. Polyvinylchloride is partially
syndiotactic with a low degree of crystallinity due to structural irregularities, PVC is
relatively unstable to light and heat. PVC is enchanced dude to addition of
organometallic salts of leads, tin, barium-cadium, calcium and zinc.
Fig 18 Poly (Vinyl Chloride) structure (Pol113)
2.3.5 POLYVINYL ACETATE STRUCTURE

Polyvinyl acetate is a synthetic rubbery polymer which belongs to the polyvinyl esters
family and it is a thermoplastic type of polymer which should not be confused by
relating it to polyvinyl alcohol. Polyvinyl acetate is a starting material which is used for
the production of two polymers which is not created through direct polymerization dud
to a starting monomer which is unstable. It is atactic which is currently available with a
glass transition temperature of 29 degrees celsius and its strength is depicted by its
water sensitivity.
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Fig 19 Polyvinyl Acetate (Che111)
2.3.6 POLYVINYL ALCOHOL STRUCTURE

Polyvinyl alcohol has an atactic chain structure which is amorphous and can be
stretched into a crystalline fibre; small size of the OH group allows it to be fitted into a
crystal lattice. Polyvinyl alcohol is found in various grades which are defined by
molecular weight and by the degree of hydrolysis which depicts its polymer water
solubility. Vinyl alcohol is very unstable and isomeric with acetaldehyde and it is
indirectly obtained by the alcoholysis of polyvinyl acetate in ethanol which the reaction
is carried out in the presence of a base catalyst which is a faster catalyst.
Fig 20 Polyvinyl Alcohol (Pol114)

Polymers can be strengthened by addition of side-branching which is done by the
replacement of a substituent on a monomer unit by a covalent bonded chain of the
polymer that alters and increases the strength of polymers such as polystyrene and
polyvinyl-acetate, etc.
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2.4 TECHNIQUES FOR THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS

Injection-moulding machines are used to convert plastic materials from a granular
material to a liquid process and it is injected into a mould, where solidification takes
place. Material is changed continuously from solid to liquid without change in chemical
composition which makes it ideal for rapid processing due to the tonnage and the
amount of material injected per cycle. The polymer is plasticized in the machine before
it is injected at a high rate, there are nine basic steps of injection moulding which the
first is the granular plastic material is loaded into a heating cylinder, material is
compressed and air is forced out by a ram. Secondly, material is moved to the heat
section by the ram where it will melt, the moving mould part is now been matched to
the fixed mould part by a locking device on the machine. The ram pressure injects the
softened material through the nozzle of the machine which displaces air content of the
mould cavity. The polymer with contact on the cold sidewalls of the mould stiffens in
the gate sealing the cavity, as the cooling starts the mass is hardened, removing the
finished part. After cooling, the mould is opened and the part is removed by the ejector
system. Injection moulding is faster, a production cycle of two to six shots per minute.
The mould costs are lower since fewer cavities are necessary to maintain production;
articles of difficult shape and of thin walls are produced successfully. Bearings,
contacts, or screws can be placed in the mould and cast integrally with the product.
Fig 21 Injection-moulding machine (Pro11)
Extrusion is the process where thermoplastic materials such as polyethylene can be

extruded through dies into simple shapes and sizes of any length, granular material is
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fed into a hopper and forced through a heated chamber by spiral screw. In the chamber,
the material transforms into a thick viscous mass that is forced through a die which
when it leaves the die it is cooled by either water, air or by contact with chilled surface
and which fully hardens as it rests on the conveyor. Tubes and rods are produced in
these manners which are conduits for conductors. Extrusion coating process is used
extensively for paper coating, metal foils and fabrics in which a thermoplastic material
is extruded through a flat die onto a sheet passing beneath it. The extrudate blends onto
the substrate and is contacted by a rubber roll that holds it against the steel roll at a
pressure desired. Insulation on cable and wire is an extrusion coating application. The
extrusion stretch blow-moulding process is used in bottle-making which the process is
analogous to the traditional methods of producing glass bottles in which a semi-molten
tube is prepared called the Parison which is clamped between two halves of the bottle
mould and inflated to be fixed to the surface of mould that is kept cold to freeze the
shape of the bottle. This process is gaining more acceptances, especially for producing
carbonated drink bottles from polythyleneteraphtalate. The role of the extrusion screw is
to mix and compact the solid charge, to melt it, remove gases, heat the melt to a uniform
temperature and to compress the melt to provide the pressure needed to produce the
flow of the material through the die (Tlusty, 1999).
Fig 22 Plastic extrusion press (2011)
Thermoforming consists of heating the thermoplastic sheet until it becomes soft and it is
then forced to conform to some mould by either differential air pressure or by
mechanical methods. Free forming is a technique that uses air pressure and the blown or
drawn section retains its shape when it is cooling. Drape forming is when the plastic
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sheet is clamped and drawn over mould or mould is forced into a sheet. The plug assists
forming first heats and seals the sheet over the mould cavity; plug pushes the plastic
sheet into a near bottom position. Vacuum is applied to complete formation of the sheet,
mould are made of wood,plaster, metal and plastics (Ostwald, 1997).
Fig 23 Thermoforming machine (Mou11)
2.5 TECHNIQUES FOR THERMOSETTING POLYMERS

Positive-die moulding process is when a two-part mould is fitted into a hydraulic press
which maybe the upstroke type in which the hydraulic ram and cylinder are housed in
the base or it can be the downstroke type which the cylinder and piston mounted above
the upper bolster is free to move and the lower bolster is fixed. The platterns are
provided with stream or electric heating elements so that the moulds fastened to them
can be heated to the curing temperature of the thermosetting plastic being processed.
Modern presses are fully automatic in operation and this ensures constant moulding
conditions at each stroke. The three factors which are needed are: 1. the moulding
pressure 2. The time that the mould is closed 3. The temperature of the mould
The mould is closed by the press while moulding material cures under cavity, it is then
opened and the moulding is ejected. A vertical flash is created in the direction of the
moulding pressure, the surplus material is extruded between the upper and lower mould
through the slight gap which has to be left for venting purposes. Flash is the name given
to any surplus material is known and must be trimmed from the moulding.
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Flash moulding is a type of moulding which is for simple, shallow components where
compaction of the moulding powder during curing is not critical so to ensure complete
filling, excess moulding powder is placed in the cavity. When the mould is closed,
excess material is squeezed out into the flash gutter. The flash-land creates a
constriction which tends to hold the moulding material back into the mould cavity
during curing in order to reduce shrinkage losses and uneven wall thickness.
Compression-moulding process is when the moulding material is fed into a mould as

powder, as granules are compacted to a performed shape. The latter is used to ensure
uniform filling of the mould cavity, particularly when the cavity has a complex form.
The moulding material can be loaded either cold or preheated. The preheating reduces
the curing time and reduces erosion of the mould cavity since the not-completely
plasticised material is in a less abrasive condition. During curing, volatile gases are
released and these must be allowed to escape either through the mould clearances,
through vents or by momentarily opening the mould part-way through the cure
(Timings, 2000).
Fig 24 Compression moulding process (Com11)
Bakelite is an early plastic which is a thermosetting phenol formaldehyde resin which is

created from an elimination reaction of formaldehyde and phenol with filler which was
created and developed by a Belgian chemist, Leo Baekeland (2001). Compression
moulding is the technique used in the early 1900s to mould bakelite, and then transfer
moulding and finally injection moulding (2009)
29
Fig 25 Bakelite mould making machine (Bak11)
Fig 26 Bakelite Powder, Phenolic Moulding Compounds (2011)
30
Fig 27 Bakelite Moulding Making
2.6 FILLER USAGE IN POLYMERS

Filler are added to polymers to improve the strength, resistance, stability and other
properties. Materials used as fillers are wood floor, sand, clay, talc, limestone and silica
flour. The particle sizes are from 10nm to macroscopic in dimensions (William, 2001).
Each filler type has different properties and these in turn are influenced by the particle
size, shape and surface chemistry. Filler characteristics are discussed from costs to
particle morphology. Particle specific surface area and packing are important aspects.
Carbon blacks are very important fillers, especially in the rubber industry and most
filler are inorganic and polar, which can give rise to poor compatibility with
hydrocarbon polymers and processing problems, among other effects (Rothon, 2002).
31
Fig 28 Fillers in Polymers (Fil11)
2.7 WHISKERS
Whiskers are very thin single crystals that have extremely large length-to-diameter
ratios and they have a high degree of crystalline perfection and are flaw free which
gives account for their high strengths, they are known as the strongest known materials
but are not really utilized extensively as a reinforcement agent because they are
extremely very costly and it is quite difficult and impractical to fix whiskers into a
matrix. Whisker materials include silicon carbide, graphite and aluminium oxide
(Callister, 2007).
Fig 29 Silicon Whiskers (2009).
The importance of fibre alignment of the use of fibre woven matts are used to
strengthen polymers such as cold setting resins are strengthened by woven textile fibres
and also its tensile modulus. Fibre woven Matts is the process of fibre braiding in two or
more fabric dimensions which is processed with polymer resins which gives it strength
in many directions which is designed to meet specific load requirements. The
32
importance of control of fibre length is very necessary for the effective strengthening
and stiffening of the material to achieve maximum benefit.
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Manufacturing Process Technology Assignment 02 K0155118 2011

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Victor Obinnaya Chikezie Nwosu

MSc Environmental Technology

Supervisor: Dr Stuart W Graham

18th April 2011

2.5 Techniques for Thermosetting polymers

Fig 1.0 MMA arc welding

Fig 2.0 The MMA welding principle

Fig 3.0 MIG welding

Fig 4.0 TIG welding

Fig 5.0 Current Drooping Characteristics

Fig 6.0 Constant current

Fig 7.0 Submerged arc welding

Fig 8.0 Electric arc between two nails

Fig 9.0 Laser welding

Fig 10 Electron beam welding (a) Process (b) Keyhole

Fig 11 Electron beam welding machine

Fig 12 Welding preparation due to accessibility

Fig 13 Addition Polymerisation

Fig 14 Structure of Nylon

Fig 15 Polyethylene structure

Fig 16 Polypropylene structure

Fig 17 Polystyrene structure

Fig 18 Polyvinyl Chloride structure

Fig 19 Polyvinyl Acetate structure

Fig 20 Polyvinyl Alcohol structure

Fig 21 Injection-moulding machine

Fig 22 Plastic extrusion press

Fig 23 Thermoforming machine

Fig 24 Compression moulding process

Fig 25 Bakelite moulding making machine

Fig 26 Bakelite powder, Phenolic Moulding Compounds

Fig 27 Bakelite moulding making

Fig 28 Fillers in polymers

Fig 29 Silicon whiskers

1.0 FUSION WELDING

1.2 MMA ARC WELDING

Fig 1. MMA arc welding (MMA11).

Fig 2. The MMA welding principle (MMA111)

1.3 MIG WELDING

1.4 TIG WELDING

Fig 3. MIG welding (MIG11)

Fig 4 TIG welding (TIG10)

1.5 SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING

1.6 ELECTRIC ARC

Fig 5 Current drooping characteristic (Dro11)

Fig 6 Constant current (Con11)

Fig 7 Submerged Arc Welding (Sub11)

1.7 FRICTION STIR PROCESS

1.8 LASER WELDING

Fig 8 Electric arc between two nails

Fig 9 Laser welding (2010)

1.9 ELECTRON BEAM WELDING PROCESS

Fig 10 Electron beam welding (a) process (b) keyhole (Ele11)

Fig 11 Electron beam welding machine (2011)

1.10 WELD PREPARATIONS

Fig 12 Welding preparation due to accessibility (Eff11)

2.0 POLYMER TECHNOLOGY

Fig 13 Addition Polymerisation (Add11)

Fig 14 Structure of nylon (Str11)

2.3 VINYL POLYMERS

2.3.1 POLYETHYLENE STRUCTURE

Fig 15 Polyethylene structure (Pol11)