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In the past few decades, the Cannabis sativa L. hemp variety has been unfairly ne-
glected because of its similarity to the illegal kind Cannabis indica used as a narcotic.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the process of oil extraction from Cannabis
sativa seeds by cold pressing, followed by extraction with supercritical CO2. In the press-
ing experiments, the response surface methodology was conducted in order to study the
effects of temperature, frequency, and nozzle size on oil recovery and quality parameters.
The optimal condition for obtaining the highest oil recovery (23.34 %) and the best oil
quality within the experimental range of the variables studied was at temperature of
60 °C, frequency of 20 Hz, and nozzle of ID 6 mm. The residual oil (10.33 %) in the
press cake was extracted totally by supercritical CO2 in a newly designed supercritical
fluid extraction system. Oregano essential oil was the most effective in protecting the oil
from oxidative deterioration.
Key words:
hemp seed oil, cold pressing, supercritical CO2 extraction, optimization, oxidative stability
F i g . 1 – Handmade supercritical fluid extraction system: 1. Compressor; 2. CO2 Tank; 3. Stainless steel coil; 4. Cooling bath; 5. Air
driven fluid pump Haskel MS-71; 6. Valves (B-HV); 7. Manometers; 8. Extraction vessel; 9. Separator vessel; 10. Water
bath; 11. Centralized system glass fiber heater; 12. Flow meter
dimensions 10 x 2 mm are connected to each other alongside the water heater, water input temperature
by Ermeto couplings (flat, knees, tees). The used in the heat exchanger, and the output CO2 tempera-
high-pressure valves were provided by the same ture that exits the heat exchanger. The temperature
company that produces Ermeto couplings (model is regulated using standard PID regulator, taking
B-HV). Pressure extraction cell is controlled by two into account the differential temperatures of water
WIKA manometers (model 212.20) 60 MPa and lines and output gas line. Pressure in the separator
one WIKA manometer (model 212.20) 4 MPa for is regulated by means of an electromechanical solu-
pressure in separator. tion for controlling pressure valve, with a pressure
Extraction cell is heated with a glass fiber elec- sensor working as a feedback.
tric heater, controlled by a centralized system and The pump used to pressurize liquid CO2 is
Solid State Relays (SSR). Temperature is controlled Haskel® MS-71. Liquid CO2 is precooled through
by means of a PID regulator set to maximum tem- the SS coil at –18 °C, cooled by ethylene glycol/
perature of 80 ºC with lag delay compensation, due ethanol cooling bath. A check valve is located after
to the large mass of the extraction cell. Temperature the pump to prevent eventual CO2 flow disorders.
measurements and regulation of the extraction cell Prior to the input extraction vessel, CO2 is preheat-
is performed using an integrated temperature sensor ed through a stainless steel double coil at the tem-
within the cell and additional temperature sensor perature of extraction. After the extraction vessel,
measuring output gas temperature. The input CO2 the high pressure is reduced by a high-pressure
line towards the extraction cell is preheated using a valve (B-HV) to the desirable pressure. Valves and
heat exchanger powered by a water heating system. tubing are heated to a temperature of 0 °C due to
The temperature of the input gas is regulated by high-pressure drop. Flow of CO2 is controlled
measuring three temperatures: water temperature through Matheson FM-1050 (E800) flow meter.
K. ALADIĆ et al., Cold Pressing and Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Hemp (Cannabis…, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 28 (4) 481–490 (2014) 493
Results and discussion lina oil and assumed that the increase in FFA was
probably caused by hydrolytic activity of lipolytic
Cold pressing experiments enzyme during preparation of the seeds for oil pro-
Hemp seed oil was obtained by cold pressing duction. It can also be assumed that drying condi-
using different process parameters (nozzle size, tions of harvested seeds were rigorous and contrib-
temperature, and frequency). The oil recovery and uted to the increase in FFA. The oil temperature in
quality parameters of obtained cold pressed hemp all experimental runs in this study ranged from 41
oil were monitored after different experiments (Ta- to 49 °C and the content of insoluble impurities was
ble 2) and the process was optimized using RSM. between 0.33 and 0.49 %. According to obtained re-
In all the experiments, only a small percentage sults, it was concluded that the produced oil is of
(0.071–0.094 %) of moisture was found in the ob- satisfactory quality as defined by the Ordinance on
tained oils. Primary oxidation processes in the oil Edible Oils and Fats NN 41/2012.
mainly form hydroperoxides, which are measured Table 3 shows the regression coefficients ob-
by the PV. In general, the lower the PV, the better tained by fitting experimental data to the second-or-
the quality of the oil17. In this study, the average PV der response models for investigated responses. The
of all experimental runs was 1.95 mmol O2 kg–1. coefficients are related to coded variables. The
Borhade18 published that peroxide value in produ first-order term of nozzle size (X1) had a significant
ced hemp oil was 7.2 Meq O2 kg–1 (3.6 mmol O2 kg–1), effect (p<0.05) on the volume of obtained oil and on
while Teh and Birch19 had a PV of hemp oil the amount of residual oil in the press cake. The
1.94 Meq O2 kg–1 (0.97 mmol O2 kg–1). It is very first-order term of temperature (X2) had a significant
important that cold pressed oils are low in moisture effect on oil volume, oil temperature, and free fatty
content and FFA to maintain the quality and shelf acid content, while frequency (X3) had a significant
life of the oils19. In this study, FFA content ranged effect on oil volume, insoluble impurities and the
from 2.49 to 2.66 %, while Teh and Birch19 pub- amount of cake residual oil. The second-order term of
lished that FFA content was 0.89. Abramovič and nozzle size (X12) had a significant effect (p < 0.05) on
Abram20 published also high value of FFA in came- oil volume and insoluble impurities. The second-or-
FFA – Free fatty acids; II – Insoluble impurities; CRO – Cake residual oil
494 K. ALADIĆ et al., Cold Pressing and Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Hemp (Cannabis…, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 28 (4) 481–490 (2014)
Term Coefficienta Cold press oil Oil after centrifugation Oil temperature FFA II CRO
Intercept β0 255.60 –*
214.80 *
43.40 *
2.63 *
–0.45 *
12.20*
X1 β1 –15.00*– –11.25* –0.75 0.003 –0.011 0.91*
X2 β2 –4.38* ––5.88* ––3.13* 0.041* –0.004 –0.17–
X3 β3 –8.13* –12.63* ––0.63 0.001 –0.020* 1.53*
X12 β11 –4.07* ––1.60 ––0.55 0.003 –0.035* –0.21–
X22
β22 –5.32 *
––7.65 *
––1.30 –0.059 *
–0.015 –0.090
X32
β33 –0.33 ––2.65 ––0.80 –0.019 –0.017 –0.33–
X1X2 β12 –7.50 *
––6.25 ––0.25 0.015 –0.052 *
0.11
X1X3 β13 –5.00 *
––7.25 *
––0.25 –0.015 –0.025 *
0.40
X2X3 β23 –1.25 ––2.00 –––0.000 0.003 –0.025 *
–0.008
X1: nozzle size; X2: temperature; X3: frequency.
*
Significant at p ≤ 0.05
der term of temperature (X22) had a significant effect actions between the nozzle size and frequency, while
on oil volume and free fatty acids, while frequency interactions between temperature and frequency had
(X32) had no significant effect on any of the investi- a significant effect only on insoluble impurities.
gated responses. The interactions between the nozzle The ANOVA results for the modeled responses
size and temperature had a significant effect on oil are reported in Table 4 (F-test and probability).
volume, and insoluble impurities, the same as inter- Joglekar and May21 suggested that for a good fit of
Ta b l e 4 – Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the modeled responses
Sum of Degree of Mean Sum of Degree of Mean
Source F-value p-value Source F-value p-value
squares freedom square squares freedom square
Cold press oil volume Free fatty acids
Recovery Recovery
Model 3015.02 9 335.00 28.10 0.0001 Model 0.032 9 0.00300 4.59 0.0286
Residual 83.45 7 11.92 Residual 0.006 7 0.00080
Lack of fit 56.25 3 18.75 2.76 0.1760 Lack of fit 0.006 3 0.00200 59.72 0.0009
Pure error 27.20 4 6.80 Pure error 0.0001 4 0.00005
Total 3098.47 160 Total 0.038 160
Oil volume after centrifugation Insoluble impurities
Recovery Recovery
Model 3236.48 9 359.61 11.29 0.0021 Model 0.028 9 0.0030 10.75 0.0025
Residual 223.05 7 31.86 Residual 0.002 7 0.0003
Lack of fit 182.25 3 60.75 5.96 0.0588 Lack of fit 0.001 3 0.0004 2.60 0.1895
Pure error 40.80 4 10.20 Pure error 0.0007 4 0.0002
Total 3459.53 160 Total 0.030 160
Oil temperature Cake residual oil
Recovery Recovery
Model 98.43 9 10.94 4.39 0.0320 Model 26.93 9 2.99 4.58 0.0286
Residual 17.45 7 2.49 Residual 4.57 7 0.65
Lack of fit 14.25 3 4.75 5.94 0.0591 Lack of fit 0.66 3 0.22 0.23 0.8745
Pure error 3.20 4 0.80 Pure error 3.91 4 0.98
Total 115.88 160 Total 31.51 160
K. ALADIĆ et al., Cold Pressing and Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Hemp (Cannabis…, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 28 (4) 481–490 (2014) 495
F i g . 2 – Response surface plots showing the effects of inves- F i g . 3 – Response surface plots showing the effects of inves-
tigated variables on oil recovery tigated variables on oil quality
a model, R2 should be at least 0.80. In our study, the which means that there was a statistically signifi-
R2 values for all investigated response variables cant multiple regression relationship between the
were higher than 0.85, indicating the adequacy of independent variables and the response variable.
the applied regression models. The probability The best results were obtained for cold press oil
(p-value) of all regression models was below 0.05, volume (R2 was 0.973 and p-value 0.0001).
496 K. ALADIĆ et al., Cold Pressing and Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Hemp (Cannabis…, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 28 (4) 481–490 (2014)
The best way to express the effect of cold find the best process parameters for the cold press-
pressing parameters on oil recovery and oil quality ing of hemp seed oil. Applying response surface
within the investigated experimental range was to methodology, the optimum cold pressing conditions
generate response surfaces of the model (Figs. 2–3). were obtained: temperature of output press head
Fig. 2. shows that the amount of obtained cold press 60 °C, frequency of 20 Hz, and nozzle of ID 6 mm.
oil significantly decreases with the larger nozzle Cold press oil volume was calculated to be
size. The frequency parameter had a significant ef- 285.3 mL, oil temperature 42.5 °C, free fatty acids
fect on the amount of residual oil in the cake. When 2.51 %, insoluble impurities 0.39 %, cake residual
the lower frequency was used, a smaller amount of oil 9.97 %, which is in very close agreement with
oil in cake was measured. Fig. 3. shows the influ- experimental obtained data.
ence of pressing conditions on the quality of the ob- In the obtained hemp seed oil at calculated op-
tained oil. It can be seen that the oil temperature is timum cold pressing conditions, the iodine value,
significantly influenced with increasing temperature
saponification value, and moisture content were
of the output press head. Temperature of the ob-
also determined. Moisture content was determined
tained oil proportionally increases with temperature
to be 0.075 %. Iodine value was 155 g I2 100 g–1 oil,
of the output press head. FFA increased with in-
and saponification value was 205 mg KOH g–1 oil.
crease in nozzle size from 6 to 12 mm, while fre-
quency has a double effect on FFA. Using frequen- Kostić et al.22 published that iodine value in hemp
cies from 20 to 30 Hz, the FFA content increased, oil was 153 g I2 100 g–1 and saponification number
while a further increase in frequency decreased the was 189.8, while iodine value and saponification
FFA. It significantly increased with higher tempera- number determined by Borhade18 in hemp oil was
ture and nozzle size from 6 to 10 mm, while with 163.5 g I2 100 g–1 oil and 190.2 mg KOH g–1 oil,
nozzle size of 10 to 12 mm a decrease in the inves- which is in close agreement with our results. p-Ani-
tigated matter was observed. The ANOVA showed sidine value (AV) in the obtained cold press hemp
that the models were acceptable and could be used oil in this study was 1, and Totox value was calcu-
for optimization of the pressing parameters with re- lated to be 2.8, indicating that the obtained cold
spect to oil recovery and quality. press oil is of good quality because p-anisidine val-
ue is less than two and Totox value is less than
Optimization of screw pressing of hemp seed oil four17. Oomah et al.2 determined p-anisidine value
at different varieties of hemp oil and AV was from
Optimization is an essential tool in food engi- 0.88 to 3.41, and Teh and Birch19 determined AV of
neering for the efficient operation of different pro- hemp oil to be 0.62.
cesses to yield a highly acceptable product. During
optimization of cold pressing process, several re- Oxidative stability of hemp seed oil
sponse variables describe the oil quality characteris-
tics and influence on oil recovery. Some of these Oxidative stability of cold pressed hemp oil
variables need to be maximized, while others need with and without the addition of natural antioxi-
to be minimized. The goal of this research was to dants is shown in Fig. 4. The stability of oil is deter-
mined by the accelerated oxidation test, the Schaal CO2 extraction was subjected to Soxhlet extraction
oven test (63 °C). Hemp oil without added antioxi- and the obtained results indicated that only 0.39 %
dants (control sample) after four days of the test had of the oil was retained in that material. The PV of
a peroxide value (PV) 9.09 mmol O2 kg–1. The addi- oil obtained by cold pressing (CP) at optimal press-
tion of the essential oil of oregano (in concentration ing conditions, and oil obtained by supercritical flu-
of 0.05 %) in hemp oil achieved the best stability of id extraction (SFE) was compared. The PV value of
oil to oxidative deterioration (PV 6.23 mmol O2 kg–1 oil obtained by supercritical CO2 was slightly high-
after four days) in relation to the use of other inves- er (2.98 mmol O2 kg–1) than PV obtained in cold
tigated natural antioxidants. Winter savory essential press oil. It is assumed that the higher temperature
oil (0.05 %) effectively protected this oil against ox- of output press head resulted in the higher tempera-
idative deterioration, PV after four days of the test ture of cake, resulting in the raised PV in residual
was 6.67 mmol O2 kg–1. Green tea extract (0.2 %) oil cake, which can be attributed to higher tempera-
lead to a decrease in the stability of the hemp oil, in ture of cake. Furthermore, the obtained hemp oil
relation to hemp oil with the essential oil of orega- has an intensive green color due to chlorophyll con-
no, after 4 days the PV was 7.24 mmol O2 kg–1. The tent. Thus, the content of chlorophyll a and chloro-
addition of OxyLess CS rosemary extract in con- phyll b, as well as total carotene content were deter-
centrations of 0.1 % and 0.2 % did not significantly mined in both oils and compared (Table 5). It can
affect the stability of hemp oil; the value of PV was be seen that the hemp oil obtained by supercritical
slightly lower than in the control sample. The sta- CO2 has three times higher chlorophyll content and
bility of hemp oil was further reduced by the addi- four times higher total carotene content compared
tion of antioxidants, respectively, pomegranate ex- to cold press oil. Teh and Birch19 published that
tract (0.2 %), basil essential oil (0.05 %) and thyme chlorophyll content as mg of pheophytin a/kg in
essential oil (0.05 %), but stability of hemp oil was cold pressed hemp oil was 75.21.
better than stability of hemp oil with addition of
rosemary extract. However, the addition of olive Ta b l e 5 – Chlorophyll and carotene content of hemp oil
leaf extract (0.1 % and 0.2 %), pomegranate extract
(0.1 %), green tea extract (0.1 %) and mint essential Chl a Chl b Chl a+b Car
Hemp oil
(µg g–1) (µg g–1) (µg g–1) (µg g–1)
oil (0.05 %) did not affect the stability of hemp oil
to oxidative deterioration, on the contrary, PV was CP 59.22 39.45 98.60 31.46
higher than the control sample after 4 days of the SFE 193.50 35.39 228.79 125.37
test.
CP – Cold Pressing; SFE – Supercritical Fluid Extraction
Extraction of residual oil from press cake with CO2
The cake obtained from cold pressing at opti- The obtained results show that homemade su-
mal conditions was subjected to extraction with su- percritical fluid extraction system permits the ob-
percritical CO2 in a newly designed supercritical taining of extracts in an inexpensive way. Similar
fluid extraction system (Fig. 1). Residual oil in op- conclusions were published by Castro-Vargas et
timal press cake determined by extraction with al.23, where they explained in detail that the ob-
n-hexane was 10.33 %. Fig. 5 shows that after 3.5 h tained extraction yields and composition were very
of extraction, the residual oil from press cake was similar to those obtained by commercial supercriti-
totally extracted by supercritical CO2. For compari- cal fluid extraction system.
son of the results, the material after supercritical
Conclusion
The results of this study suggest that screw
press conditions have great influence on oil quality
and oil recovery. The quality of produced hemp
seed oil was satisfactory, and optimum pressing
conditions for obtaining the highest oil recovery
and the best oil quality were at temperature 60 ºC,
frequency 20 Hz, and nozzle size of ID 6 mm. The
influence of different natural antioxidants (in con-
centration of 0.05 %, 0.1 % and 0.2 %) on the oxi-
dative stability of hemp oil was investigated, and
F i g . 5 – Extraction of cake residual oil with CO2 using the essential oil of oregano in concentration of
HM-SFE system 0.05 % was the most efficient in protecting the
498 K. ALADIĆ et al., Cold Pressing and Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Hemp (Cannabis…, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 28 (4) 481–490 (2014)
hemp oil against oxidative deterioration. Supercriti- 7. Pharmacopoea Jugoslavica, Editio Quarta (Ph. Jug. IV),
cal CO2 extraction of oil from press cake was car- Vol. 1, Federal Institute of Public-Health, Belgrade, Yugo-
slavia, 1984.
ried out with a handmade supercritical fluid ex-
8. AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis, seventeenth ed. As-
traction system, where the oil was extracted almost sociation of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington,
completely (only 0.39 % of the oil remained in the USA, 2000.
cake after extraction). Low temperatures of ex- 9. AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis, sixteenth ed. AOAC
traction, reduced energy consumption, high product International, Gaithersburg, 1999.
quality, and absence of solvent in extracts are only 10. ISO 3960, Animal and vegetable fats and oils – Determina-
tion of peroxide value, 1998.
a few of the numerous advantages that the super-
11. ISO 663, Animal and vegetable fats and oils – Determina-
critical fluid extraction technique can provide as op- tion of insoluble impurities content, 1992.
posed to traditional methods of extraction. Because 12. ISO 6885, Animal and vegetable fats and oils – Determina-
of the oil’s high quality, as well as the high content tion of anisidine value, 2006.
of high-quality components in hemp seed and its oil 13. Hamilton, R. S., Rossell, J. B., Analysis of oils and fats,
that positively affect human health, this study is Elsevier Applied Science, London, UK, 1986, pp 23–32.
very significant given the small number of pub- 14. Dere, S., Gunes, T., Sivaci, R., Spectrophotometric determi-
lished studies on hemp seed oil. nation of chlorophyll – A, B and total carotenoid contents
of some algae species using different solvents, Tr. J. of Bot-
any. 22 (1998) 13.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 15. Joyner, N. T., McIntyre, J. E., The oven test as an index of
keeping quality, Oil Soap. 15 (1938) 184.
This work has been fully supported by the Cro- http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02639526
atian Science Foundation under Project 1321. 16. Bas, D., Boyacı, I. H., Modeling and optimization I: Usabil-
ity of response surface methodology, J. Food Eng. 78
(2007) 836.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.11.024
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