HISTORY

In what was later to be called The Mother of All Demos, SRI researcher Douglas
Englebart in 1968 gave a preview of what would become the staples of daily working life
in the 21st century - e-mail, hypertext, word processing, video conferencing, and the
mouse. The demonstration required technical support staff and a mainframe time-sharing
computer that were far too costly for individual business use at the time.

By the early 1970s, people in academic or research institutions had the opportunity for
single-person use of a computer system in interactive mode for extended durations,
although these systems would still have been too expensive to be owned by a single
person.

In the 1970s Hewlett Packard introduced fully BASIC programmable computers that fit
entirely on top of a desk, including a keyboard, a small one-line display and printer. The
Wang 2200 of 1973 had a full-size CRT and cassette tape storage. The IBM 5100 in 1975
had a small CRT display and could be programmed in BASIC and APL. These were
generally expensive specialized computers sold for business or scientific uses. The
introduction of the microprocessor, a single chip with all the circuitry that formerly
occupied large cabinets, led to the proliferation of personal computers after 1975.

Early personal computers - generally called microcomputers - were sold often in kit form
and in limited volumes, and were of interest mostly to hobbyists and technicians.
Minimal programming was done with toggle switches to enter instructions, and output
was provided by front panel lamps. Practical use required peripherals such as keyboards,
computer terminals, disk drives, and printers. Micral N was the earliest commercial, non-
kit "personal" computer based on a microprocessor, the Intel 8008. It was built starting in
1972 and about 90,000 units were sold. Unlike other hobbyist computers of its day,
which were sold as electronics kits, in 1976 Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak sold the
Apple I computer circuit board, which was fully prepared and contained about 30 chips.
The first complete personal computer was the Commodore PET introduced in January
1977. It was soon followed by the popular Apple II. Mass-market pre-assembled
computers allowed a wider range of people to use computers, focusing more on software
applications and less on development of the processor hardware.

Through the late 1970s and into the 1980s, computers were developed for household use,
with software for personal productivity, programming and games. One such machine, the
Commodore 64, totaled 17 million units sold, making it the best-selling single personal
computer model of all time[1]. Somewhat larger and more expensive systems (although
still low-cost compared with minicomputers and mainframes) were aimed at office and
small business use. Workstations are characterized by high-performance processors and
graphics displays, with large local disk storage, networking capability, and running under
a multitasking operating system. In 1984, Dr. Mark Dean created a device called the ISA
systems bus, which allows a personal computer to have several machines connected to it
at once, such as a printer and scanner or modem. ISA is widely used today and Dean also
received the Black Engineer of the Year President’s Award in 1997 for his contribution .
However, card slots already existed before the ISA bus of the IBM-PC in the Apple ][.

Eventually due to the influence of the IBM-PC on the personal computer market,
personal computers and home computers lost any technical distinction. Business
computers acquired color graphics capability and sound, and home computers and game
systems users used the same processors and operating systems as office workers. Mass-
market computers had graphics capabilities and memory comparable to dedicated
workstations of a few years before. Even local area networking, originally a way to allow
business computers to share expensive mass storage and peripherals, became a standard
feature of personal computers used at home.

HP 9830 was an early desktop computer with

printer

IBM 5150 as of 1981

Types

Workstation

Sun SPARCstation 1+, 25 MHz RISC processor from early 1990s

Main article: Workstation

A workstation is a high-end personal computer designed for technical or scientific

applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly
connected to a local area network and run multi-user operating systems. Workstations are
used for tasks such as computer-aided design, drafting and modelling, computation-
intensive scientific and engineering calculations, image processing, architectural
modelling, and computer graphics for animation and motion picture visual effects.[16]
Desktop computer

Main article: Desktop computer

Dell OptiPlex desktop computer

Prior to the wide spread of PCs a computer that could fit on a desk was considered
remarkably small. Today the phrase usually indicates a particular style of computer case.
Desktop computers come in a variety of styles ranging from large vertical tower cases to
small form factor models that can be tucked behind an LCD monitor. In this sense, the
term 'desktop' refers specifically to a horizontally-oriented case, usually intended to have
the display screen placed on top to save space on the desk top. Most modern desktop
computers have separate screens and keyboards.

Single unit

Single unit PCs (also known as all-in-one PCs) are a subtype of desktop computers,
which combine the monitor and case of the computer within a single unit. The monitor
often utilizes a touchscreen as an optional method of user input, however detached
keyboards and mice are normally still included. The inner components of the PC are
often located directly behind the monitor, and many are built similarly to laptops.
Netbook

Main article: Netbook

An HP netbook

Netbooks (also called mini notebooks or subnotebooks) are a rapidly evolving[17] category
of small, light and inexpensive laptop computers suited for general computing and
accessing web-based applications; they are often marketed as "companion devices," that
is, to augment a user's other computer access.[17] Walt Mossberg called them a "relatively
new category of small, light, minimalist and cheap laptops." [18] By August 2009, CNET
called netbooks "nothing more than smaller, cheaper notebooks."[17]

At their inception in late 2007 — as smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low
cost[19] — netbooks omitted key features (e.g., the optical drive), featured smaller screens
and keyboards, and offered reduced specification and computing power. Over the course
of their evolution, netbooks have ranged in size from below 5 in[20] to over 13 in,[21] and
from ~1 kg (2-3 pounds). Often significantly less expensive than other laptops,[22] by mid-
2009, netbooks had been offered to users "free of charge", with an extended service
contract purchase.[23]

In the short period since their appearance, netbooks have grown in size and features, now
converging with new smaller, lighter notebooks. By mid 2009, CNET noted "the specs
are so similar that the average shopper would likely be confused as to why one is better
than the other," noting "the only conclusion is that there really is no distinction between
the devices."[17]

Tablet PC
Main article: Tablet PC

HP Compaq tablet PC with rotating/removable keyboard.

A tablet PC is a notebook or slate-shaped mobile computer, first introduced by Pen

computing in the early 90s with their PenGo Tablet Computer and popularized by
Microsoft. Its touchscreen or graphics tablet/screen hybrid technology allows the user to
operate the computer with a stylus or digital pen, or a fingertip, instead of a keyboard or
mouse. The form factor offers a more mobile way to interact with a computer. Tablet PCs
are often used where normal notebooks are impractical or unwieldy, or do not provide the
needed functionality.

As technology and functionality continue to progress, prototype tablet PCs will continue
to emerge. The Microsoft Courier, a personal business device, has two 7" monitors that
support multi-touch gestures, Wi-Fi capabilities and has a built-in camera. The device
looks to be a replacement to traditional planners while offering what most digital
planners cannot, two pages and large writing spaces.[24]

Nettop

Main article: Nettop

A subtype of desktops, called nettops, was introduced by Intel in February 2008 to

describe low-cost, lean-function, desktop computers. A similar subtype of laptops (or
notebooks) are the netbooks (see below). These feature the new Intel Atom processor
which specially enables them to consume less power and to be built into small
enclosures.

Home theater PC
Main article: Home theater PC

Antec Fusion V2 home theater PC with keyboard on top.

A home theater PC (HTPC) is a convergence device that combines the functions of a

personal computer and a digital video recorder. It is connected to a television or a
television-sized computer display and is often used as a digital photo, music, video
player, TV receiver and digital video recorder. Home theater PCs are also referred to as
media center systems or media servers. The general goal in a HTPC is usually to combine
many or all components of a home theater setup into one box. They can be purchased
pre-configured with the required hardware and software needed to add television
programming to the PC, or can be cobbled together out of discrete components as is
commonly done with MythTV, Windows Media Center, GB-PVR, SageTV, Famulent or
LinuxMCE.

Ultra-Mobile PC

Main article: Ultra-Mobile PC

Samsung Q1 Ultra-Mobile PC.

The ultra-mobile PC (UMPC) is a specification for a small form factor of tablet PCs. It
was developed as a joint development exercise by Microsoft, Intel, and
Samsung, among others. Current UMPCs typically feature the Windows XP,
Windows Vista, Windows 7, or Linux operating system and low-voltage Intel
Atom or VIA C7-M processors
Pocket PC

Main article: Pocket PC

An O2 pocket PC

A pocket PC is a hardware specification for a handheld-sized computer (personal digital

assistant) that runs the Microsoft Windows Mobile operating system. It may have the
capability to run an alternative operating system like NetBSD or Linux. It has many of
the capabilities of modern desktop PCs.

Currently there are tens of thousands of applications for handhelds adhering to the
Microsoft Pocket PC specification, many of which are freeware. Some of these devices
also include mobile phone features. Microsoft compliant Pocket PCs can also be used
with many other add-ons like GPS receivers, barcode readers, RFID readers, and
cameras. In 2007, with the release of Windows Mobile 6, Microsoft dropped the name
Pocket PC in favor of a new naming scheme. Devices without an integrated phone are
called Windows Mobile Classic instead of Pocket PC. Devices with an integrated phone
and a touch screen are called Windows Mobile Professional.[25]

Laptop
Main article: Laptop

A mid-range HP Laptop.

A laptop computer or simply laptop, also called a notebook computer or sometimes a

notebook, is a small personal computer designed for portability. Usually all of the
interface hardware needed to operate the laptop, such as USB ports (previously parallel
and serial ports), graphics card, sound channel, etc., are built in to a single unit. Laptops
contain high capacity batteries that can power the device for extensive periods of time,
enhancing portability. Once the battery charge is depleted, it will have to be recharged
through a power outlet. In the interest of saving power, weight and space, they usually
share RAM with the video channel, slowing their performance compared to an equivalent
desktop machine.

One main drawback of the laptop is sometimes, due to the size and configuration of
components, relatively little can be done to upgrade the overall computer from its original
design. Internal upgrades are either not manufacturer recommended, can damage the
laptop if done with poor care or knowledge, or in some cases impossible, making the
desktop PC more modular. Some internal upgrades, such as memory and hard disks
upgrades are often easy, a display or keyboard upgrade is usually impossible. The laptop
has the same access as the desktop to the wide variety of devices, such as external
displays, mice, cameras, storage devices and keyboards, which may be attached
externally through USB ports and other less common ports such as external video.

A subtype of notebooks, called subnotebooks, are computers with most of the features of
a standard laptop computer but smaller. They are larger than hand-held computers, and
usually run full versions of desktop/laptop operating systems. Ultra-Mobile PCs (UMPC)
are usually considered subnotebooks, or more specifically, subnotebook Tablet PCs (see
below). Netbooks are sometimes considered in this category, though they are sometimes
separated in a category of their own (see below).

Desktop replacements, meanwhile, are large laptops meant to replace a desktop computer
while keeping the mobility of a laptop. Entertainment laptops emphasize large, HDTV-
resolution screens and video processing capabilities

Hardware
An exploded view of a modern personal computer and peripherals:

1. Scanner
2. CPU (Microprocessor)
3. Primary storage (RAM)
4. Expansion cards (graphics cards, etc.)
5. Power supply
6. Optical disc drive
7. Secondary storage (Hard disk)
8. Motherboard
9. Speakers
10. Monitor
11. System software
12. Application software
13. Keyboard
14. Mouse
15. External hard disk
16. Printer

Main article: Personal computer hardware

Mass-market consumer computers use highly standardized components and so are simple
for an end user to assemble into a working system. A typical desktop computer consists
of a computer case which holds the power supply, motherboard, hard disk and often an
optical disc. External devices such as a video monitor or visual display unit, keyboard,
and a pointing device are usually found in a personal computer.

The motherboard connects all processor, memory and peripheral devices together. The
memory card(s), graphics card and processor are mounted directly onto the motherboard.
The central processing unit microprocessor chip plugs into a socket. Expansion memory
plugs into memory sockets. Some motherboards have the video display adapter, sound
and other peripherals integrated onto the motherboard. Others use expansion slots for
graphics cards, network cards, or other I/O devices. Disk drives for mass storage are
connected to the mother board with a cable, and to the power supply through another
cable. Usually disk drives are mounted in the same case as the motherboard; formerly,
expansion chassis were made for additional disk storage.

The graphics and sound card can have a break out box to keep the analog parts away
from the electromagnetic radiation inside the computer case. For really large amounts of
data, a tape drive can be used or (extra) hard disks can be put together in an external case.

The keyboard and the mouse are external devices plugged into the computer through
connectors on an I/O panel on the back of the computer. The monitor is also connected to
the I/O panel, either through an onboard port on the motherboard, or a port on the
graphics card.

The hardware capabilities of personal computers can sometimes be extended by the

addition of expansion cards connected via an expansion bus. Some standard peripheral
buses often used for adding expansion cards in personal computers as of 2005 are PCI,
AGP (a high-speed PCI bus dedicated to graphics adapters), and PCI Express. Most
personal computers as of 2005 have multiple physical PCI expansion slots. Many also
include an AGP bus and expansion slot or a PCI Express bus and one or more expansion
slots, but few PCs contain both buses.

Mouse
Main article: Mouse (computing)

Apple Mighty Mouse that detects the right and left clicks through what appears to be one
large button.

A Mouse on a computer is a small, slidable device that users hold and slide around to
point at, click on, and sometimes drag objects on screen in a graphical user interface
using a pointer on screen. Almost all Personal Computers have mice. It may be plugged
into a computer's rear mouse socket, or as a USB device, or, more recently, may be
connected wirelessly via a USB antenna or Bluetooth antenna. In the past, they had a
single button that users could press down on the device to "click" on whatever the pointer
on the screen was hovering over. Now, however, many Mice have two or three
buttons(possibly more); a "right click" function button on the mouse, which performs a
secondary action on a selected object, and a scroll wheel, which users can rotate using
their fingers to "scroll" up or down. The scroll wheel can also be pressed down, and
therefore be used as a third button. Some mouse wheels may be tilted from side to side to
allow sideways scrolling. Different programs make use of these functions differently, and
may scroll horizontally by default with the scroll wheel, open different menus with
different buttons, among others. These functions may be user defined through software
utilities.

Mice traditionally detected movement and communicated with the computer with an
internal "mouse ball"; and used optical encoders to detect rotation of the ball and tell the
computer where the mouse has moved. However, these systems were subject to low
durability, accuracy and required internal cleaning. Modern mice use optical technology
to directly trace movement of the surface under the mouse and are much more accurate,
durable and almost maintenace free. They work on a wider variety of surfaces and can
even operate on walls, ceilings or other non-horizontal surfaces.
Motherboard

Main article: Motherboard

Asus motherboard

The motherboard, also referred to as systemboard or mainboard, is the primary circuit

board within a personal computer. Many other components connect directly or indirectly
to the motherboard. Motherboards usually contain one or more CPUs, supporting
circuitry - usually integrated circuits (ICs) - providing the interface between the CPU
memory and input/output peripheral circuits, main memory, and facilities for initial setup
of the computer immediately after power-on (often called boot firmware or, in IBM PC
compatible computers, a BIOS). In many portable and embedded personal computers, the
motherboard houses nearly all of the PC's core components. Often a motherboard will
also contain one or more peripheral buses and physical connectors for expansion
purposes. Sometimes a secondary daughter board is connected to the motherboard to
provide further expandability or to satisfy space constraints.
Hard disk

Main article: Hard disk drive

A Western Digital 250 GB hard disk drive.

Mass storage devices store programs and data even when the power is off; they do
require power to perform read and write functions during usage. Although flash memory
has dropped in cost, the prevailing form of mass storage in personal computers is still the
hard disk.

The disk drives use a sealed head/disk assembly (HDA) which was first introduced by
IBM's "Winchester" disk system. The use of a sealed assembly allowed the use of
positive air pressure to drive out particles from the surface of the disk, which improves
reliability.

If the mass storage controller provides for expandability, a PC may also be upgraded by
the addition of extra hard disk or optical disc drives. For example, BD-ROMs, DVD-
RWs, and various optical disc recorders may all be added by the user to certain PCs.
Standard internal storage device connection interfaces are PATA, Serial ATA, SCSI

Central processing unit

Main article: Central processing unit

AMD Athlon 64 X2 CPU.

The central processing unit, or CPU, is that part of a computer which executes software
program instructions. In older computers this circuitry was formerly on several
printed circuit boards, but in PCs is a single integrated circuit. Nearly all PCs
contain a type of CPU known as a microprocessor. The microprocessor often
plugs into the motherboard using one of many different types of sockets. IBM PC
compatible computers use an x86-compatible processor, usually made by Intel,
AMD, VIA Technologies or Transmeta. Apple Macintosh computers were
initially built with the Motorola 680x0 family of processors, then switched to the
PowerPC series (a RISC architecture jointly developed by Apple Computer,
IBM and Motorola), but as of 2006, Apple switched again, this time to x86-
compatible processors by Intel. Modern CPUs are equipped with a fan attached
via heat sink.

Keyboard

Main article: Keyboard (computing)

A computer keyboard

In computing, a keyboard is an arrangement of buttons that each correspond to a function,

letter, or number. They are the primary devices of inputing text. In most cases, they
contain an array of keys specifically organized with the corresponding letters, numbers,
and functions printed or engraved on the button. They are generally designed around an
operators language, and many different versions for different languages exist. In English,
the most common layout is the QWERTY layout, which was originally used in
typewriters. They have evolved over time, and have been modified for use in computers
with the addition of function keys, number keys, arrow keys, and OS specific keys.
Often, specific functions can be achieved by pressing multiple keys at once or in
succession, such as inputing characters with accents or opening a task manager. Programs
use keyboard shotcuts very differently and all use different keyboard shortcuts for
different program specific operations, such as refreshing a web page in a web browser or
selecting all text in a word processor.

Main memory

Main article: Primary storage

1GB DDR SDRAM PC-3200 module

A PC's main memory is fast storage that is directly accessible by the CPU, and is used to
store the currently executing program and immediately needed data. PCs use
semiconductor random access memory (RAM) of various kinds such as DRAM, SDRAM
or SRAM as their primary storage. Which exact kind depends on cost/performance issues
at any particular time. Main memory is much faster than mass storage devices like hard
disks or optical discs, but is usually volatile, meaning it does not retain its contents
(instructions or data) in the absence of power, and is much more expensive for a given
capacity than is most mass storage. Main memory is generally not suitable for long-term
or archival data storage.

Visual display unit

Main article: Visual display unit

A flat-panel LCD monitor.

A visual display unit (or monitor) is a piece of electrical equipment, usually separate
from the computer case, which displays viewable images generated by a computer
without producing a permanent record. The word "monitor" is used in other contexts; in
particular in television broadcasting, where a television picture is displayed to a high
standard. A computer display device is usually either a cathode ray tube or some form of
flat panel such as a TFT LCD. The monitor comprises the display device, circuitry to
generate a picture from electronic signals sent by the computer, and an enclosure or case.
Within the computer, either as an integral part or a plugged-in Expansion card, there is
circuitry to convert internal data to a format compatible with a monitor. The images from
monitors originally contained only text, but as Graphical user interfaces emerged and
became common, they began to display more images and multimedia content.

Video card

Main article: Video card

ATI Radeon video card

The video card - otherwise called a graphics card, graphics adapter or video adapter -
processes and renders the graphics output from the computer to the computer display, and
is an essential part of the modern computer. On older models, and today on budget
models, graphics circuitry tended to be integrated with the motherboard but, for modern
flexible machines, they are supplied in PCI, AGP, or PCI Express format.

When the IBM PC was introduced, most existing business-oriented personal computers
used text-only display adapters and had no graphics capability. Home computers at that
time had graphics compatible with television signals, but with low resolution by modern
standards owing to the limited memory available to the eight-bit processors available at
the time.