Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Rob LeSueur
Definition
The idea of trauma being passed on through generations is referred to with many terms
definitions vary slightly between these terms, but are all interrelated. Dass-Brailsoford (2007, p.
???) defines defined transgenerational trauma as “the cumulative emotional and psychological Commented [PN1]: Need to develop APA style habits!!! If
direct quote, always needs page number. Have reference info
close. One way to avoid the challenges of the APA manual is to use
wounding that is transmitted from one generation to the next.” (2007). a paper that has been published in an APA formatted journal and
copy
History of Transgenerational Trauma Commented [PN2]: Once it has been published, it is past tense.
Applies throughout
Goodman, 2013; Phipps & Degges-White, 2014). The research started withbegan by the look
intoexamining survivor’s guilt, or the trauma and grieving experienced by an individual who Commented [PN3]: Avoid the colloquial common for a more
formal language.
lives through an event while another does not, particularly when the triggering death was sudden,
traumatic, or multiple deaths (MADD, 2015). The idea of survivor’s guilt was combined as a
potential symptom of with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a potential symptom instead
of being an official diagnosis (Kangas, 2014). Commented [PN4]: Awkward – with might resolve the problem
– not sure
causational events for transgenerational trauma especially the effects of imperialism on native
peoples, slavery, and genocide (Durham & Webb, 2014). Depending on the area in which the
research took placewas conducted, the research took different paths to identifying Commented [PN5]: That colloquial thing again
transgenerational trauma (Phipps & Degges-White, 2014; Shevlin & McGuigan, 2003; Fonagy,
1999). The common thread in the early research was that researchers were examining trauma
responses and the resulting negative behaviors in the firsthand experiencers of the trauma when
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KNOWING: TRANSGENERATIONAL TRAUMA
similar responses would arise in the family around the initial experiencer. As the examination
into this newly researched phenomenon continued, the psychological effects on third-generation
and further removed generations from the initial traumatic experience began to be identified
(Firestone, 2014; Ritter, 2015). Also during this time, the emergence of research into minorities
and how they are effected by transgenerational traumas occurred. and rResearch into related to
indigenous people, immigrants, and other minorities who have been subjected to systematic
bigotry further showed evidence of transgenerational trauma (Phipps & Degges-White, 2014;
The research has identified the initially identified negative psychological effects, but
newer research has also identified some positive results of transgenerational trauma (Goodman,
2013). The commonly observed negative effects often present similarly to PTSD (Downes,
Harrison, Curran, & Kavanagh, 2012). The observed negative symptoms of transgenerational
trauma vary greatly. Common observed trends among negative effects include depression,
substance abuse, alcoholism, anxiety, anger, guilt, and problems identifying and expressing
emotions (Osher et al., 2011; Grayshield, Rutherford, Salazar, Mihecoby, & Luna, 2015;
Downes et al., 2012; Durham & Webb, 2014). The most common positive result of
transgenerational trauma cited is an increase in resilience (Danieli et al., 2015; Phipps & Degges-
White, 2014; Goodman, 2013). Firestone (2014) also notes the positive attributes of a strong
will to survive, enhanced familial bonds, and a desire to assist others. Another observed positive
effect was an increase in awareness of their own culture and a sense of cultural pride (Pokhrel &
Herzog, 2014).
Transgenerational trauma is still not listed in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM), even though the existence of the effects of transgenerational trauma has been
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well-documented (Grayshield et al., 2015). The current definition within the DSM of trauma
does not include a condition that would allow a sufferer of the effects of transgenerational
Theories of Transmission
Many theories about how the initial trauma is transmitted through generations currently
exist. These theories have evolved over time, but no one theory is predominantly accepted over
Stress-Vulnerability Models
This model states that it is not the trauma that is transmitted, but instead a vulnerability to
develop PTSD after a traumatic vent happens in the life of the offspring (Downes et al., 2012).
Physiological Transmission
This theory of transmission focuses on the mother transmitting her traumatic past to her
offspring born after the trauma occurs. This theory centers on the fact that cortisol levels have
been noted to be reduced in individuals that are diagnosed with PTSD. Cortisol effects how an
individual responds to stress. In research, newborns that were born to mothers diagnosed with
PTSD also had reduced levels of cortisol (Phipps & Degges-White, 2014).
Parenting
These theories state that it is the parents’ parenting behaviors that transmit the trauma
across generations and result in their children’s development (Danieli et al., 2015). This could
be a result of poor parenting as a symptom of the PTSD in the parent, leaving the child without
Transposition
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experiencer living in both the experiences of their parent’s traumatic past as well as in reality.
The second sufferer lives their reality while trying to recreate and understand their parent’s
experience. This results in a struggle with this created trauma in the second sufferer’s mind and
Family Systems
transgenerational trauma (Downes et al., 2012). The research has repetitively shown evidence
that the initial trauma is avoided and not discussed within the family in a pattern (Danieli et al.,
2015; Goodman, 2013; Feldman, 2015). In this theory, information and facts about the initial
trauma are not shared with the family in a perceived attempt to protect others from the trauma
(Downes et al., 2012). Despite the efforts to minimize the effects of the trauma through not
sharing or discussing it, the trauma is expressed and transmitted non-verbally (Firestone, 2014).
An image of the trauma can form in the following generations can develop from the fragmented
stories from what is said and non-verbal transmission in conjunction with any knowledge of the
communities can vary in size from a single familial unit all the way up to an entire nation of
people. The shared experience of the initial trauma separates the communities into their separate
domains, but commonalities in effects exist across all communities (Hartmann & Gone, 2014;
Phipps & Degges-White, 2014; Kwan, 2013; Osher et al., 2011; Downes et al., 2012).
Perception
The major portion of how transgenerational trauma experiencers view the world (or their
way of knowing) is through an altered way of perceiving the world around them. This altered
perception can be categorized into reactionary perception and resilience (Phipps & Degges-
White, 2014).
the world around the experiencer, often the result of fear (Peirce, 2013). This reactionary
perception is most often observed with perceived slights and reliance on stereotypes to define the
outside world (Phipps & Degges-White, 2014; Pokhrel & Herzog, 2014; Firestone, 2014).
Perceived slights are defined as everyday actions toward the experiencer that the perceiver takes
as discrimination regardless of the intention (Pokhrel & Herzog, 2014). These perceived slights
often are the result of a mistrust of the world outside the people in the experiencer’s own people.
among transgenerational trauma experiencers (Pihama et al., 2014). Resilience is defined as “the
ability to withstand and rebound from disruptive life challenges” (Walsh, 2003, p. 1). It has been
suggested that focusing on resilience can dampen the negative effects of transgenerational
trauma (Goodman, 2013; Durham & Webb, 2014; Hartmann & Gone, 2014). This resilience is a
shared benefit among the experiencers, often through cultural traditions (Hartmann & Gone,
2014).
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KNOWING: TRANSGENERATIONAL TRAUMA
The narrative way of knowing focuses on storytelling through written and spoken words
and explanations (Sandelowski, 2007). Culturally, stories are shared between generations to
teach lessons, relate history, and explain the world in which the culture exists (Block &
Weatherford, 2013).
Pattern of Silence. While most narrative transmission occurs through oral or written
traditions, transgenerational trauma has been shown to be transmitted as much or more by what
is not said (Kwan, 2013; Schwab, 2004; Danieli et al., 2015; Fonagy, 1999; Baum, 2013). This
tendency to avoid talking and sharing about the initial trauma is coined the “conspiracy of
silence” (Danieli et al., 2015; Goodman, 2013) or “the unspoken” (Downes et al., 2012;
Feldman, 2015). While the conspiracy of silence is noted in familial settings, it is mirrored in the
response of society to the trauma (Downes et al., 2012). This is expounded when children are
involved; it is assumed that the truth is dangerous to their psyche (Downes et al., 2012; Rogers,
2002). Some research has shown the development of fantasies to explain the affect of trauma or
to connect fragments of information into a more coherent trauma story (Schwab, 2004; Fonagy,
1999; Downes et al., 2012). Links between a lack of factual information about the initial trauma
and an increase in negative symptoms have been observed (Downes et al., 2012).
known is through schemas, or the shaping forces within an individual’s way of knowing, that are
passed through the generations, both in verbal and non-verbal methods (Potter, 2015; Firestone,
2014). Children hear and witness how their parents experience the world and recreate their
Most of the research thus far has focused on a corrective model of a negative disorder.
Further research needs to be done on the experiences of transgenerational trauma focusing less
on the negative symptoms of having such a worldview and more on the benefits to the self, the
cultural group, and the world as a whole that are available from an individual that experiences
trauma when looking at what is being written on the topic (Schwab, 2004; Durham & Webb,
2014; Firestone, 2014). While the negative effects should be mitigated, complete breaking of the
transgenerational trauma ignores the benefits that are also present. Some have suggested that
this desire to break the cycle is actually a traumatic experience in itself (Potter, 2015; Sacks,
There are also implications for researchers working with cultural groups that are
trauma themselves. Due to the findings that minorities are more likely to experience
transgenerational trauma (Durham & Webb, 2014; Pokhrel & Herzog, 2014), a researcher
working with a minority population must be cognizant of the possibility that their subjects are
experiencing transgenerational trauma. This is of even greater concern when the researcher is
considered an outsider of the minority population’s culture and could be further expounded if the
researcher belongs to a majority class. Researchers that experience transgenerational trauma also
need to be able to recognize possible interference within their research due to effects like
transgenerational trauma that is centuries old. The history of the Ukrainian people has been full
of colonization by a multitude of outside cultures and a lot of war, genocide, and hardship. If
just the last decade is taken into account in traumas that are being transmitted through the
generations of Ukrainians, the list of atrocities that they have faced is tremendous. Orchestrated
famines such a Holodomor, the Holocaust, occupation by both the Soviets and the Nazis,
Chernobyl, Maidan, and currently a proxy war with Russia and the resulting refuge crisis all lead
In order to continue to work with the Ukrainian people, I have to at the very least
understand the lens of transgenerational trauma in which they see the world. As I work with a
part of the culture that is already on the fringe of Ukrainian culture (individuals with disabilities,
their families, and the professionals who work with these individuals), I must be able to at least
try to differentiate their viewpoints from those of transgenerational trauma experiencers and
References
Block, B. A., & Weatherford, G. M. (2013). Narrative research methodologies: Learning lessons
Chaitin, J. (2003). Narratives and Storytelling. In G. Burgess and H. Burgess (Eds.), Beyond
Danieli, Y., Norris, F. H., Lindert, J., Paisner, V., Engdahl, B., & Richter, J. (2015). Danieli
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.06.011
Downes, C., Harrison, E., Curran, D., & Kavanagh, M. (2012). The trauma still goes on...: The
Durham, M., & Webb, S. S. N. (2014, October). Historical trauma: a panoramic perspective. The
Firestone, T. (2014). Trauma legacies in the Middle East. Tikkun, 29, 6-10. doi:
10.1215/08879982-2713259
Grayshield, L., Rutherford, J. J., Salazar, S. B., Mihecoby, A. L., & Luna, L. L. (2015).
Hartmann, W. E., & Gone, J. P. (2014). American Indian historical trauma: Community
perspectives from two Great Plains medicine men. American Journal of Community
Kangas, M. (2013). DSM-5 trauma and stress-related disorders: Implications for screening for
Association.
MADD. (2015, September 30). Coping with survivor guilt. Retrieved from
http://www.madd.org/blog/2015/october/coping-with-survivor-guilt.html
Osher, T., Garay, L., Jennings, B., Jimerson, D., Markus, S., Martinez, K. (2011). Closing the
Peirce, P. (2013). Leap of perception: The transforming power of your attention. New York:
Atria Books.
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KNOWING: TRANSGENERATIONAL TRAUMA
Pihama, L. E., Reynolds, P., Smith, C., Reid, J., Smith, L. T., & Tenana, R. (2014). Positioning
Phipps, R. M., & Degges-White, S. (2014). A new look at transgenerational trauma transmission:
Pokhrel, P., & Herzog, T. A. (2014). Historical trauma and substance use among Native
doi:10.5993/ajhb.38.3.11
http://www.jemh.ca/issues/open/documents/JEMH_Open-
Volume_Article_Theme_Colonization_Reflections_June2015.pdf
Ritter, A. (2015). Theories of trauma transmission after Ferenczi: The unique contribution of
Rogers, F. (2002). The Mister Rogers parenting book: Helping to understand your young child.
Shevlin, M., & Mcguigan, K. (2003). The long-term psychological impact of Bloody Sunday on
families of the victims as measured by The Revised Impact of Event Scale. British
Walsh, F. (2003). Family resilience: A framework for clinical practice. Family Process, 42, 1-18.
doi: 10.1111/j.1545-5300.2003.00001.x
Rob - I am convinced. Intergenerational trauma does shape culturally situated ways of knowing :-) Reporting
about resilience, reactionary perception, the role of narrative, patterns of silence, and cognitive schemas
certainly demonstrates how the lens that some use to view the world derives from experiences of trauma
Your paper would have been much more powerful if you had situated it a thesis or problem. In other
words, you simply jumped into talking about intergenerational trauma without letting the reader know
why it was important, why the topic attracted you, what problem you were trying to explore. In fact, this
was an exploration of intergenerational trauma as a "way of knowing" - asking the question "if" or making
the point that it "is." Then, of course, it would be important to talk about what a way of knowing is, why a
way of knowing is important, what are criteria for identifying something as a "way of knowing." Then, the
remainder of your paper would be much like it is but all that information would have a context - a reason
for being in the paper. And, at the end, not only would you be able to say why it is important to your
work but how you have answered the question of supported the thesis. If all that doesn't make sense, lets
talk :-)
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Finally, it is really important that you work on and develop your editing skills and your APA skills. Use
others, use the writing center, read out loud. All those finishing touches really show that the paper is
valuable to you, that the ideas are worthy of attention! I edited the first couple paragraphs just by way of
example :-)
Thanks for taking on this topic - I learned a lot and was drawn into a domain of inquiry I was unaware
of. The "reactionary perception" caught my eye especially - hmmmm, more research???? Priscilla