UNIT 1 WATER SUPPLY

Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Basic Design Considerations
Sources of Water and their Characteristics
Water Quality
Unit Operations i ~Water
i Treatment
1.5.1 Aeration
1.5.2 Coagulation
1.5.3 Flocculation
1.5.4 Clarification
1.5.5 Filtration
1.5.6 Disinfection
Transmission and Distribution of Water
Special Problems in Water Treaiment
1.7.1 Hardness
1.7.2 Removal of 1m1 and Manganese
1.7.3 Removal of Fluorides
1.7.4 Algae (:oatsol
Treamexit and Disposal of Sludge and Waste Water Produced from Water
Treatment Plants \..
Maiate~iaiceof Water Supply Systems
1.9.1 Diseases Due to Iusanitary Conditions
1.9.2 Pre.sence of Toxic Metals and Nou-Metals in WaIer
1.9.3 Preventive and Remedial Steps for Prevention of PoRution ..
1.9.4 Pmtectio~~ of Sources of Water Supply
1.9.5 Maintenance of Tube Wells
1.9.6 Operation and Maintenance of Pumping Stations
1.9.7 Routine Schedule of PreventiveMaintena~~ce
1.9.8 Maintenauce of Distribution System
1.9.9 Maii~tenanceof Grwnd Level and Elevated Tanks
Monitoring of Treated Water Quality
1.10.1 Quality Monitoring of Drinking Water Supplies
1.10.2 Types of Exanunatioq
1.10.3 Frequency of Sampling & Number of Samples
1.10.4 Laboratory Equipnlent and Facilities
1.10.5 Methods of Examination
Water Supply System within the Building
1.11.1 Systems of Supply
1.1 1.2 Supply to Highrise Buildings
1.1 1.3 Cnpacities of Underground and Overhead T a n b
1.1 1.4 Design of Pipelines
Summary
Answers to S AQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Water constitutes one of the imporcult physical enviro~unentsof man and has a direct bearing
on bis health. Water is required for domestic, industrial and irrigation purposes. With
.' evergrowing population and i n d u s ~ i s a t i o n ,the demand for water is increasing day-by-day.
Almost all cities and towns in our country, are experiencing water shortage and it is
heconling ir~creasi~lglydifficult to meet tbe domestic, idustrial and irrigation demands.
Therefore, identification of sources of water supply, their conse~vatbnand optimal utilisation
is of utmost imporu~ice.
Out of the various beneficial uses of water to mankind, water for drhkmg is considered the
highest beneficial use. In order to ensure that water is free from health hazards, it should not
contain pathogens, toxins and carcinogens. Aesthetic factors, such as temperature, clarity, taste
and odour and chemical balance are also important parameters. Absolutely pure water is rarely
found in nature, water from underground sources is generally clear, but in some regions it
may be excessively hard or contain iron andfor manganese, fruoride, c:hloride etc. making it
unsuitable for domestic consumplion.
Building Services - I The aim of water treatment is to produce and maintain water that is hygienically safe,
destheticdlyi attractive and palatable in an economical manner. Though Ule treatment of water
would achidve the desired quality, the evaluation of its quality should not he confiued to the
end of the (reatment facilities hut should be extended up to the point of consumer use.
The method of treatment to he employed depends on the nature of raw water and the desired
standards of water quality. Chemical treatment is the most important step in processing public
water supplies. Surface water normally requires chemical coagulation to elimulate turbidity,
colour, tast$ and odour producing compounds, while water from well is commonly treated to
remove disfolved minerals (such as Iron and Manganese) aid also hardness.

Objectives
After studging this unit, your should be able to
estimate the basic design parameters e.g. population foreca5t and per capita d e m ~ d ,
identify the quality of water ohtan\-:! from different sources,
assess the quality of water for &nking or industrial purposes,
stbdy the various unit operations adopted in the treatment of water,
cboose and design the systems for transmission and distribution of water,
identify and solve the problems of removal of hardness, iron, manganese, fluorides
azld algae from water,
sDudy the treatment of waste water produced from water treatment plants,
operate and maintain watzr supply system,
monitor the quality of treated water, and
dksign water supply systeim within buildings.

Many fackors influence the availability and use of water. These include reliability of data,
populatioq, economic considerations, environmental regulations and conservation programmes
As per the CPHEEO Manual, a public water supply system is usually designed to meet the
requirements over a thirty-year period after their completion. The populatio~ito be served
during sulch a period will have to be estimated with due regard to all factors governing the
future gr wth and development of Uie city in industrial, com~nercial.educational, social and
Y.
administrpve spheres. Special factors causii:g sudden emigration or intlux of population
should also he foreseen to the extent possible.

1.2.1 Population Forecast

Knowled$e of population forecasting is very important for design of ruiy water supply
scheme. Otherwise a present scherne will he inadequate in near future. The following methods
of populhtion forecast are generaFPy adopted.
i) Arithmetical 1ncrr:ase Method: This method is gener'ally applicable to a large
and old city. In 9.1s method, the average increase in populatton per decade 1s
calculated from dne population records and added to the present population to J

I
find out the poflalation in the next decade.
ii) Incremental Infxease Method: A progressively increasmg or decreasing rate
rather than a c?,nstqt rate is adopted in &is method. This could be apphed m
1 general to cihai l~kelyto grow in such a manner. In this method t h e incremental
increase is detc:rmined from the past decades and the average of that is added to
tlie average m:rease. This method improves the low result obtained by the
arithmeucal in crea5e method.
dl) Geometrical .increase Methods: In this method the percentage increase is
assumed to br: rate of growth and the average of percentage increase is used to
I
find out futur e lncre,ment in population. This method is applied to cities with
unlimited sco pe for expinsion and where a constant rate of growtli is anticipated.
 Decrease Rate of Growth: In this method it is assumed that the rate of Water Supply
iv)
percentage increase decreases, and the average decrease ui the rate of growth is
calculated. Then the percentage increase is moditied by deducting the decrease
rate of growth. This is an improvement over the geometric increase method.
v) Graphical Method: In this method the population curve (the population vs. past
decades) is smoothly extended for getting future value. This extension should be
done carefully aud it requires proper experience and judgement. This i s dolie by
comparing the population curves of some other cities having similar conditions
of growth and extending the curve suitably.
The following numerical example will illustrate the use of the some of the methods stated
above.
Example 1.1: Population data of a town in various years is given below. It is required to
forecast the population of the town in the year 2000 AD.
Year 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
Populat~on 50000 75000 110000 125000 150000 200000
Year 1980 1990
Populat~on 275000 325000

Populntion Increase in Incremental Percentage Decrease in

*Year Decade Increase Increase Percentage
Increase

Total 275000 +25000 219.29 31.82

Average 79285 4167 31.33 5.30

Arithmetical Increase Method

(2000 - 1990)
Population 2000 = Population in 1990 + x average increase in decade
10

Incremental Increase Method

Population 2000 = 3,25,000 + (39285 + 4167) = 3,68,452
Geometrical Increase Method
31.33
Wpulation in 2000 = 3,25,000 + -100
x (3,25000) = 4,26,822

Decrease Rate of Growth Method

I
4
(31.33 - 5.30)
Population in 2000 = 3,25000 + x 325000
100

From the above results it may be seen that the arithmetical increase method and the
incrementid increase method given more reliable information on future population.

1.2.2 Per Capita Water Supply

Piped water supplies for communities should provide adequately for the followi~ig
requirements as applicable.
Y

Building Services - I
i) lbomestic needs such as drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, tlushing of toilets,
gardening and individual air conditioning
ii) ?nstitutiondl needs
iii) Public purposes such as street washing, or street watering, flushing of sewers.
batering of public parks.
iv) Firefighting
v) Requirements for livestock
vi) !Likely waste amongst all users
In a$ses$ing these requirements, due consideration should be given to the local needs, people's
habits a$d customs and standard of living, the industrial and commercial unportance of the
city, clhatic conditions, availability oP private water supplies etc.
The Expert Committee of the Ministry of Health in their Manual on Water Supply has
recowended tile following rates per capilk per day for domestic and non-domestic necds:
a) For communities with populatiori 70 to 100 litres
, upto 10,000
b) For communities with populatiori 100 to 125 litres
10000 to 50000
I

c) , For communities with population 125 to 200 litres

I above 50,000
The National Building Code of India: 1963 has recommended a minimurn of 200 litres per
capita per day (Ipcd) for all residences provided with Pull tlushing system for excreta
disposgl. This figure has been recommended for the design of all the water supply scheme to
tile residences. For lower income group and economically weaker sections of society,
howevbr, it recommends a minimum water supply of 135 lpcd.
i) Do@estic Needs
In the lease of rural communities where l~ouseservice connections are not contanplated and
the subply is through hand pumps or centrrii stand post,, the rate shall not be less than 40
lpcd. where house service connections are contemplated in order to make the schemes
self-pdying the rate shall be at least 70 lpcd.
The approximate water needs of a person for various domestic uses in a day are
i), For drinking 2 to 3 liues
ii) For cookitlg 10 to 15 litres
di) For bathing and washing clothcs 40 to 60 litres
iv) Flushing in water closets 30 to 45 litres
v) Other needs 12 litres
92 to 135 litres

ii) Irjstitutional Needs

In addition to donestic needb, water supply systcm should cater to the various
institbtionaUpuhlic utilities like schools, colleges, hospitals, off~ces,cinemas, railway stations,
bus Qtatiotlsetc. The water requiremeilt prescribed by NBC for various public utilities are
give61 in Table 1.1.
iii) Wire Righting Demand
I11 aqdition to domestic, industrial, institutiollal needs, water supply distribution system should
catei to lhe fire tigllting demand and CPHEEO Manual recommends a provision in kiloliues
basdd on the formula 100@ where, P = population in thousands and may he adopted for
c o d u n i t i e s large than 50000. It also recommends that one third of the fire fighting
reqdirements form part of service storage. The bala~lcerequirement may be distributed in
sevqral static tanks at strategic points. These tanks may be tilled with nearby water sources
like(ponds, streams, canals, rivers etc.
 iv) Industrial Needs Water S u ~ p i y

The per capita water supply recommended previously includes small industrial demands of
small indmtries excluding factories. However, in planning water supply works, possible future
industrial development in the area should be considered and necessary provision should be
made. The forecast of this demand will be based on the nature and magnitude of each of such
industry and the quantity of water required per unit of production. Industries and factories
should be encouraged to develop their own water sources if feasible, and also go for
reclamation of waste water for reuse for non-potable applications, to reduce consumption of
potable water.
V) Pressure Requirements
A water supply should be designed to distribute water to consumers at adequate quantity and
at adequate pressure. Piped water supplies should be designed for continuous 24 hours supply.
Intermittent supplies are not desirable from the public health point of view. The minimum
recommended pressure head at ferrule points for one storey building is 7 m. two-storey
building 12 m and for three-storey building 17 m.
* A distribution system should not be designed for pressure heads greater t l m ~22 m. For high
rise buildings, water should be supplied by pumps provided to pump water from ground level
reservoir to terrace level tanks.
t Table 1.1 : Requirements for Water Supply for Buildings other than Residences

SI. No. Type of Buildings Consumption Per Day in Litres

1) Factories where bathroon~sare to be provided 45 per head

2) Factories where bathroom are not to be provided 30 per head
3) Hospitals (including laundry)
a) Number of beds not exceeding 100 340 per bed
b) Number of beds exceeding 100 450 per bed
4) Nurses homes and medical quarters 135 per head
5) Hostels 135 per head
6) Hostels 180 per head
7) Offices 45 per head
8) Restaurants 70 per seat
9) Cinemas, concert h.alls and theatres 1.5 per seat
10) Schools
a) Day schools 45 per head
b) Boarding schools 135 per head
11) Railway and bus stations
a) lntermediate stations (excluding express and mail stops)
1) Where bathing facilities are provided 45 per head
2) Where no bathing facilities are provided 23 per head
12) Railway Junction stations and intermediate station9 where mail or
express stoppage is provided
a) Where bathing facilities are provided 70 per head
h) Where no bathing facilities are provided 45 p r head
13) Terminal railway and bus stations 45 per head
1.
14) Illternational and domestic airports 70 per head

- Note: For iten15 (11) to (14) the nunlber of persons shall be determined by the average number of passengers handled
by the stations daily; due considerations may be given to the staff and vendors likely to the facilities.

1.3 SOURCES OF WATER AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS
The origin of aU sources of water is the rainfall. Water can be collected as it falls as
before it reaches the ground or as surface water when it flows over the ground, or is pooled
in lakes or ponds, or as ground water when it percolates into the ground and flows or collects
as ground water or from the sea into which is finally flows.
Building Services -I Water resources lvary widely in regional and local patterns of availability. The supply is
dependent on totographic and meteorological conditions as they influence precipitation and
evapotranspiratidn. The quality of water varies according to the source as well as the media
through which id flows. Water supply engineers are concerned with both the quantity and
quality of water required to meet the human needs in an efficient and economical manner.
Neither factor c& be neglected. The usefulness of the maximum available water supply is
determined to a reat extent by its quality.
ip
Through the y w , due to rapid growth of population and industrialisation, pollution of water
sources has affe4ted the quality of water thus impairing its usefulness. Such impairment of
water quality ha$ resulted in extensive loss of aquatic life and in the destruction of the proper
biological balanh of streams.

1.3.1 Quality of Water from Different Sources

I

a) Water from Precipitation

The quality of pfecipitation is usually quite high but once the precipitation water has
penetrated the sdil with its component minerals and rocks aid flowed in streams contaminated
by municipal and industrial wastes, its quality may be seriously degraded by bacteria, organic
matter, dissolved salts, acids and possibly radioisotopes.
b) Ground Watb
The rain water as it seeps down, comes in contact with organic ,md inorganic substances
during its passagle through the ground and acquires chemical characteristics representative of
the strata it passes through. In limestone formations ground waters have a high hardness, tend
to form deposits i n pipes, and are relatively non-corrosive. In granite formattons they are soft,
low in dissolved)minerals, and relatively high in free carbon dioxide.
Bacterially, grouhd waters are much better than surface water except where subsurface
pollution exists. bround waters are generally of usifom quality although changes may occur
in quality with changes in the rate of draft and in rainy season. Municipal and industrial
wastes entering aquifer are major sources of organic and inorganic pollution. The effects of
such pollution @y continue for indefinite periods since natural dilutioli is slow and artificial
flushing or trea@ent is generally impractical or too expensive.
Considerable car&should be exercised to protect ground water storage capacity from
irreparable harm bough the disposal of waste materials.
c) Surface Watek
Water from riverb, streams and canals are generally more v,ariablz in quality and less
satisfactory than wose from lakes and impounded reservoirs. The quality of water depends
upon the charadr and area of the watershed, its geology and topography, the extent and
nature of development by man, seasonal variations and weather conditions. Substantial
variation in the qpality of the water may also occur between the maximum and the minimum
flows. The prim4y causes of deterioration of surface water quality are municipal and
domestic waste yater. Industrial and agricultural wastes (organic, inorganic, heat) and solid
and semisolid.ref~se.The natural andor manmade pollution results in producing colour,
turbidity, tastes q d odours, hardness, bacteria mid other micro-organisms in the water supplies.

1.3.2 Choice of Source

The selection of tlhe source determines the adequacy, reliability aid quahty of the water
supply. The raw Cater quality dictates the treatment requirements. For example, ground waters
that are free from( objectionable minerals may be used without treatment provided the wells
are properly loca@l and protected. Surface waters, on the other hand, are exposed to duect
pollution and t r e b e n t is usually a prerequisite for their development as a drinking water
supply. I

Whenever possiblb raw water source of highest quality and economically available should be
selected providedthat its capacity is adequate to meet the needs of a community. The careful
selection of the sburce and its protection are the most important measures for preventing the
spread of water-bbme diseases in developing countries.
The American Society of Civil Engineers has characterized water sources for potable supplies Water S ~ ~ p p l y
according to water quality, using parameters of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), coliform,
pH, chlorides and fluorides, as shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Quality of Raw Water Sources

Excellent Good Source Poor Source Rejectable

Source Source

Average BOD 5 day, 20°C. (n~gfl) 0.75 to 1.5 1.5 to 2.5 2.5 to 4 >4
Average Coliiom MPN per 100 nll 50 to 100 100 to 5000 5000 td 20000 > 20,000

Chlorides, (mgfl) < 50 50 to 250 250 to 600 > 600

Fluorides, (mgfl) 1.5 1.5 to 3 >3 -

WATER QUALITY
1.4.1 Quality of Drinking Water
The most important requirement that drinking water must meet, is that it should be free from
pathogeilic organisms i.e. micro-organisms which cause diseases in human beings, and
chemical substances which mtght be injurious to health, or in other words it should be
"wholesome". Drinking water should be of such a composition that consumers do not
question the safety of the water. Drinking water should not be chemically aggressive to
materials like lead, copper, asbestos, cement and concrete, cast iron because pipes and fixtures
used in distribution system and plumbing installations usually consist of these materials.
Drinking water should be free from any disagreeable taste or odour, or in other words it
should be "palatable7'.
Tl~estandards of potable water supplies prescribed by various agencies are given in Tables
1.3 (a) & 1.3 (b).
Table 1.3(a): Standards for Potable Water Supplies (Physical & Chemical Quality of
Water)

3. . Characteristics CPHEEO Manual 0nW.S. & IS No. 10500-1983

No. Treatment
(1) (2) (3) (4)

Permissible
Acceptable Limits in
Values Cause Desirablef Absence of
Rejection Essential Alternate
Limits Sources of
Water
1) Turbidity (NTU) 2.5 10 10 25
2) Colour (Units on Platinum 5 25 10 10
cobalt scale)
3) Taste and Odour Unobjectionable Unobjectionable

5) Total iss solved Solids (nlgfl) 500 1500 500 3000

6) Total Hardness (as Ca Co) (mgn) 200 600 300 600
7) Chlorides (as C1) (rngfl) 200 1000 250 1000"
8) Sulphates (as SO) (mgn) 200 400 150 400 -
9) Fluorides (as F) (mg~l) 1.O 1.5 0.6 to 1.2 1.5
10) Nitrates (as No) (mgfl) 45 45 45 -
11
Building Services - I
11) Calcium (as Ca) (mgll)

12) Magnesium (as Mg) (mgfl) If

there are 250 mgll of Sulphates
Mg conqnt can be ~ncreasedto a
maxlmun) of 125 mgfl w ~ t hthe
reduction of sulphates at the rate
of 1 urutper every 2.5 unlts of
sulphatesl
13) Iron (IU p)(rngfl) 0.1 1.0 0.3 1.0
14) Manganese (as Mn) (mgll) 0.05 0.5 0.1 0.5
15) Copper (@ Cu) (rngll) 0.05 1.5 0.05 1.5
16) Zinc (as En) (rngfl) 5 15 5 15

17) Phenolic Compounds (as Phenol) 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002

(mgfl) ,
18) Allionic Detergents (n~gfl)Toxic 0.2 1.0 0.2 1.0
Materials1
19) Arsenic 4n.s As) (rngll) 0.05 0.05 0.05 - I

20) Cadnuunb (as Cd) (mgA) 0.0 1 0.01 0.0 1 -

21) Chrornlu@ (as Hexavalent (3) 0.05 0.05 0.05 -
(rngA)
22) ~ y a n ~ d (as
e s CN) (mgll) 0.05 0.05 0.05 -
23) Lead (as ~ b (rngll)
) 0.10 0.10 0.1 -
I
24) Seleniuq (as Se) (mgfl) 0.01 0.01 0.01 -
25) Mercury (Total as Hg) (mgI1) 0.001 0.001 0.001 -
26) Poly Nuclear Aromat~c 0.2 0.2 - -
Hydrocaobons (PAH) (Mlno g d l )
Rad~oA$tlv~ty
27) Gross Alpha Actlv~ty( ~ npclfl) 3 3 lo* -
28) Gross B4ta Activity (in pcin) (in 30 30 lo* -
m c f d , 4ax)*
* mclrnl = micio curies per ml.

b) Guidelink Values for Bacteriological Quality

IS 10500-1983, Standards
1) Piped Water Supplles
I
Water in the Disttibution System
a) ~hrdughoutany year, 95 per cent of samples should not contain any coliform
org&isms in 100 ml.
b) No dample should contain E.Coli ill 100 ml.
c) No damples should contain more than 10 colifom organisms per 100 ml, and
d) Coliform organisms should not be detectable in 100 ml. of any two col~secutive
samples.
If Coliform drganisms are found, resampling should be done. The repeated finding 0%1 to 10
colifom o r g ~ i s m sin 100 ml or the appearance of higher numbers in any sample should
necessitate q e investigation and removal of the source of pollution.
2) unpiped( Water Supplies
Coliform org~anismsnumber ..... less than 10 per 100 m
Faecal colifocms ........0 or absence per 100 ml.
This requirement implies h1t its physical characteristics like turbidity, colour, taste and odour
should be lop and micro-organisms should be absent. Drinking water should be suitable for
house-keepink for this reason.
The Iron and Manganese content should be low, because these substances can cause colour to
clothes during washing.
Table 1.3 (b): Standards for Potable Water Supplies (Bacteriological Quality Prescribed
by CPHEEO)

Guide-
Organism UN~ line Remarks
Value
A. Piped Water Supplier
A l . Treated water entering distrihution system
faecal coliforn~snumber 100 ml 0 TurbidLy > 1 NTU for disinfection
coliform organisms number 100 ml 0 with chlorine. pH preferably 8.0, free
chlorine residual 0.2-0.5 i11g/1
following 30 minutes (minimum)
contact
A2. Untreated water entering the distrihution
system faecal colifonus number 100 ml 0 in 98% of samples examined
coliform organisnls number 100 ml 0 throughout the year in the care of
large supplies when sufficient srunples
are examined.
Coliform organisms number l a , ml 3 in an occasional sample, but not in
consecutive srunples.
,43. Water in the distrihution system
faecal coliforrns number 100ml 0
culifonn organisms number 100 ml 0 in 95% of samples examined
throughout the year in the case of
large supplies when sufficient samples
are examined.
Culifornl organisms number 100 1111 3 in an occasional santple but not in
consecutive samples.
A4. Unpiped water supplies
faecal coliforrns number 100 ml 0
Cobform orgalisms number 100 ml 10 should not occur repeatedly, if
occurrence is frequent and sanitary
protection cannot be improved an
alternate source must be found, if
possible.
A5. Emergency water supplies
faecal colifonns numher 100 ml 0 advise public to boil water in case of
Coliform organisms numher 100 0 failure to meet guideline values.

Hardness should he low, because water with a high hardness causes scale formation in
water-heaters by precipitation of calcium carbonate. More over a high hardness of water
implies that a high dosage of detergent is required for washing.

1.4.2 Quality of Water for Industrial Uses

In any industry, water is not only used for drinking purpose but also used for various other
uses such as process, air conditioning, horticulture, and general house keeping. The quality of
water depends on various end uses.
In addition to the above mentioned characteristics, water for special industrid purposes
sometimes require that water should be completely free from total dissolved solids, i.e. cations
and anions. Waters produced from &mineralisation plants and steam distillation!plants have
such characteristics. Production of such high quality water require special treatment processes,
and its use also is restricted to specific purposes where called for.

1.5 UNIT OPERATIONS IN WATER TREATMENT

The various unit operations adopted in the treatment of water are:
1) Aeration
2) Coagulatioi~
Building Services -I 3) Flocc~lation
4) Clanfleation
5) ~iltrat{on
6) ~isinf*
7) Soften$g
8) Deferribtion and Dcflouriclation
Depending on the source of water and the nature of impunties to be ranoved, combinations
of various unit qperations are adopted in the treatment of water.
The various con/binations of unit operations commonly adopted in the treatment of ground
water and sunfacp water are presented in Figure 1.1.
I
I

Aeration is the ddition of oxygen to water and to expel dissolv2d gases from the water.
Ground water obdained from deep borewells or wells often are devoid of or deficient in I
oxygen and conwns Iron, Manganese, Carbon dioxide, Hydrogen sulphide and other volatile
substances which ';cause taste and odour. By aeration, these dissolved gases are expelled from
the water and disdolved oxygen is imparted to the water there by improving it$ palatibility. r
Further the dissolded oxygen comhines with the dissolved Iron (~e") and Manganese (Ivln2+)
in water and form$ insoluble ~ e and ~ 'M S ~ precipitates.
+ Ofien aeration is commonly adopted
for removing Iron \,wd Manganese from ground water. By aeration due to expulsioi~of
dissolved gases an$ addition of oxygen, the pH of water is inaeased.
The aeration of wdter is achieved by aerators. There are two main types of aerators depending
upon the mechanic$ of aeration. They are:
a) Those forming drops or thin sheeu of water exposed to the atmosphere i.e water is
exposed to come in contact with the ambient air, and
b) Those fording small bubbles of air which rise in the water i.e. is brought in contact
with the whter.

f
Spray, wate fall or multiple tray, cascade and mecl~anicalaerators can be considered
under type a) while diffused aerators fall under type (b). Spray aerators, water fall,
multiple and cascade aerators are known as gravity aerators. (Figure 1.2).
In the field of sanitary engineering the mechanical and diffused aerators (bubble aeration) are
used for aerating sewage and normally not used in the water purificatio~lplants.
Table 1.4: Comparison of Various Types of Aerators
I

Aerators Removal Emeiency Area Requirements Sq.

m/cu.mlhour of Flow
I
Multiple Tray
Aerators

Cascade Aerators

Spray Aerators I c02 7@-90% 0.03-0.09

large. Hence adoped in small
trcatlnent plaits

i) Flocculation

f
Flocculation is the prim y technique in the treatment of surface waters for the removal of
suspended and colloidal impurities. It is effective in reducing turbidity caused by clay, silt and
other suspeuded inorgan;c materials to one NTU or less; it gives nearly complete removal of
algae and other plankton\ The natural brown stain of marshy land waters is reduced to 60 to
90% by this technique. %IS technique is successfully adopted at water treament plants in the
Country to reduce yellowish brown colour of well water caused by colloidal organic humic Water Supply
subsLmces. In addition to removal of suspended and coloidal impurities, bacteria and protista
are 90 to 90% removed and viruses are reduced in population 80 to 90%. However, dissolved
organic substances are little affected.

PRE C L O R ~ N A T I O N

/ SURFACE WATER 1
a SURFACE WATER

SURFACE WATER

@ @ RAPID SAND F I L T E R

@ FLASH MIXER @ CHLOR~NAT~OH

@ FLCCCULATOR @ SLOW S A N D FILTER

@ SETTLING T A N l @ CLEAR WATER RESERVOlR

Figure 1.1: Unit Operattons in Water Treatment

Figure 1.2: Examples of Gravity Aerators

ii) Particle Size

Most of the suspended materials present in water and (waste waters) are microscopic or sub
microscopic size. Based on their size, particles are classified as
a) Dissolved - Size < mm (10" micron)
, , SO2, NO? , NH4 etc.)
Example: Inorganic dissolved substances like ~ a + C1-
b) Colloidal to mm (lov3 - 1 micron)
Example: Clay, Silica (Si02), Viruses, Orgauic matter.
C) Suspended > m (1 micron)
m
Example: Clay, Sand, Bacteria, Algae, Al(OH)3, Fe (OH)3 Precipitates.
The particles of size 10" mm to lo-' mm - 10 micron) are rtimovable by coagulation
and >lo-' mm (to micron) by plain settling.
Building Services - I Particles of siw 0.1 mm to 10 mm are visible to naked eye, to mm a& visible
under microsape. - mm are submicroscopic: i.e. can be seen under electron
microscope.
Particles of cdlloidal and dissolved substances are difficult to remove by plain sedunentation
because of ceMn inherent characteristics which promote their stability. The tenn skbility
refers to the ckipacity of such particles to remain as independellt entities within a dispersion. It
is due to the enormous surface area to mass ratio, the colloids are able to exist as stable
dispersions. 114 this case lesser is the influeilce of gravity effects associated with the mass.
Table 1.5: Surface Area & Settling Times of Various Particles

Size mm! Total Surface Area Settling Time Examples

sq.m/cu.m
10 mm-0.1 mm ) 6 1 0 4 - 6 x 10-2 0.1 sec.-13 sec. gravel, silt, sand, macroplankton 8:
(Coarsc dispersi4n) flocculatetl particles.
lo-? - 104 0.6 - 60 11 min.-80 days Mineral substances: precipitated and
flocculatetl particles, silt, bacteria,
plankton & other organisms. I

lo4 - to? 60 - 6000 80 days - 20 years Viruses: mineral substances, inacro

molec~11e.s.

From the ~ a b l t1.5, it may k seen that settlement of colloickal particles is very difficult
unless ttle size$ of the colloidal particles are increased by some means and the stable colloidal
dispersions are(converted to an unstable state. This conversion of stable dispersion to an
unstable state is termed destabilization. The processes which are used for destabilization of
water borne p&ticulates or dissolved material are coagulatiorl and flocculation.

Coagulation is the process where by destabilizatio~lof a given suspension or solutioil is

effected. This ib usually achicved by addition of certain chemicals known as coagulants to

9
water and disp rsing the same as rapidly a$ possible. The dispersion of coagulalt in water is
brought about y the mechanical power drive11 paddles known as flash mixers or non
mechanical type in mixing channels provided with baffles.
The commonly l used coagulants in water treatment are
i) Alum (Alz(S04) 24 H20)
ii) Ferric Chloride (FeC13)
iii) Sodium Aluminate (Na A102)
iv) Femc Sulphate (Fez (S04)3, 8 H2O)
v) Ferroud Sulphate (Fe S04, 7Hz0)
(also kpown as Copperas)
What happens when a coagulant is added to water .?

When Alum is bdded to water tile following reaction takes place.

each mgll of aliun decreases water alkalinity by 0.50 mg/l (as CaCO3) and produces 0.44
mgll C02. The resultant pH of water decreases. -~
Alkalinity is the capacity of water to absorb hydrogen ions without significant pH change (i.e.
to neutralize acids). It is determined in the laboratory by titrating a water sample with a
standard sulfuric acid solution. Bicarbonates, carbonates and llydroxides trom salts of weak
acids and strong bases, cause alkalinity. If water does not contain sufticieilt alkalinity to react
witll alum. lime or soda ash is fed to provide the necessary alkalinity.
Alz(S04), 14.3 M 2 0 + 3Ca (OH)3 + 2A1 (OH)3 + ..3Ca SO4 + 14.3 H20
I

The usual dosag&of alum adopted in water treatement is in the range of 5 - 50 mgll. The

!
effective pH ran e for alum coagulation is 5.5-8.0. Alum is preferred to treating relatively
high quality surf ce waters beause it is the only chemical needed for coagulation.
 Water Supply
Fcmc Salts: Similar reaction as alum, but ferric hydroxide Fe ( OH ), flocs are fonnetl, which
are required to be removed by settling.
Advantages of ferric coagulants are
1) Broader pH raige (effective range 4-9.0)
2) The precipitate Fe(OH)3 is heavy and hence quick settling.
3) Tlley are more effective in the removal of colour, taste and odour compounds.
The above reactions are most simplified represelitatio~iof the actually occurring complex
reactions when a coaguhit is aded to water.
The tliree major mechanisms by which colloidal particles are removed by cliernical
coagulatioii are:
1) Electrostatic action or charge neutralisation
2) Specitic ion adsorption and
3) Interparticle bridging.
iv) Choice of Coagulant
f

In selecting the best coagulant for any specific treatment problem, a choice has to be made
forin among various chemicals, each of which may offer specified advantages under different
cogdiuons. The choice of the coagulant to be used for ally particular water should preferably
be based upon a series of 'jar tests'. Although there is some relation betweeti turbidity of
raw water and the proper coagulant dosage, the exact quantity cxi be determined oiily by
trial. Effective coagulation depends upon various factors like the type of coagulant, its dosage,
characteristics of water like pH, turbidity, suspended solids, and temperature. Hence optllnum
dosage of coagulalt 2uld optimum conditio~isat which maximum turbidity removal occurs for
a particular water are determined from jar test. Based otr the jar test results, the coagula~it
dose in the field should be judiciously controlled.
v) Coagulant Aids
Coagulatio~~ aid is a chemical, which when used along with maill coagulant, improves or
accelerates the process of coagulatio~land flocculatioll by producing quick-forming, dense mid
rapid settling flocs. The common coagulant aids used in watel treatmelit are: Fuller's earth;
bentonite clay; activated s i l i ~ i.e.
~ , sodium silicate activated with aluminium sulfate, sulfuric
acid; polyelectrolytes. Polyelectrolytes are chemicals made by many firms, under different
brand names. The quantity of alum required is fou~ldto be much less when it is used in
conjunctioil with a polyelectrolyte. The dosage of aiy polyelectrolyte, aid its point of
application, must be detennined by 'jar test'.
t
vi) Jar Test
A multiple stirring apparatus witti variable speed drive is used for the jar test. A typical u~iit
colisists of six agitator paddles lnechanically coupled to opemte at the same speed, which ctui
, be from 10 to 100 rprn (Figure 1.3). The Jar test apparatus permits laboratory studies on
chemical coagulation and flocculation. Experiments may be conducted to detcnnine fhe
effectiveness of various coagulants, optirmun dosage for coagulation, optimum pH,
requirement of any coagulalt aid if any, its cot~cenuatio~i and tlae most effective order in
which to add various chemicals.

a0
Figore 1.k & Jar at ~pparaiwfor Determining Chemical Dosqe
Ruiiding Services - I The geneual procedure for conducting a jar test is outlined as follows:
1) gill 6 one litre beakers with a measured amount of tlie water to be treated.
2) kdd the coagulant andlor otlier chemicals to each sample.
33 flash-mix the samples by agitating at maximum speed (100 rpm) for 1 mill.
i
4) flocculate the samples at a stirring rate of about 20 rpm for 10-30 min. Record the.
time of floc appearance for each beaker. i
4
5) Stop the motor and allow the flocs to settle down for 30 iniiiutes. Record the nature
of the tloc, clarity of supernatant fluid arid settling charcteristics of the tloc.
I
6) hbasure the turbidity of the clarified water and compare it with the raw water value. 1
7) The dosage which gives maximum turbidity.or colour removal is the optimum dosage
far applying in the field.

1.5.3 Flocculation
I
Flocculatiom is the process whereby destabilized particles or particles formed as a rcsult of
destabilizalbon are induced to come together m<&e contact aid thereby form larger
agglomerat~s.Flocculatiai is accomplished by slow stirring of water containing coagulant for
a longer pdriod, during which very small particles grow and agglomerate into well defined
tlocs of sufficient size to settle readily. The devices which are used to accomplish the >
tlocculatiorl process are h o w n as flocculators. The most common methods used 111 water
treatment mactices are:
i) baffled chamber, jets (Hydraul~ctype)
ii) Mwliaiical-power driven padclles-0;igure 1.4)
The most common type of tlocculator used today is the paddle flocculator. It esse~itially
consists of @ shaft with protruding steel arms on which are mounted a ri~trnberof wooden or
metal bladeb. The shaft slowly romes (to the order of 60 to 100 revolutions per hour),
causing a gentle agitation and collision of the floc particles with one another. Tlie end result
is promoti00 of floc growth, so that finely divided suspended solids and colloidal particles
can be removed by satiment~tion.Flocculation is directly proportional to the velocity gradient
(also knowq as veloctty shear gradient) established in the water by the stirring action. The
average taporal meal velocity gradient in a shearing fluid is denoted by G. Tlie absolutc
velocity gradient at a point in a moving liquid dul~j,is equal to the square root of the power
loss through liqmc+sliear per unit of volume of water divided by the dynamic viscosity.
du .
The mean vblocity gradient - is given by
dy

where,
W = rate of power dissipation per unit of volume
p = dp~amicviscosity of water

W = Power
'
input (P)
T'mk Volume (V)

For Mechanical Rocculator

Power input P = C ~.JA . p . -

v;
2
where,
A = Paddle area,
CD = Coefficient of drag, (value depends on the shape of blade
i.e. Cr, = 1.9 for Flat Blades.)
p = mass of water kglcum
 Water Supply
Vm = Velocity difierential 0.75 x Vp
Vp = Velocity of paddles
N = RPM of paddles.
r = distance from shaft to centre of paddle:

n BAFFLES

vLoaut
' WATER

H O R I Z O N T I C FLOW B A F F L E D CHANNEL FLOCCULATOR IPLANI

S E C T I O N T H R O U & H A MECHANICAL
PADDLE T Y P E FLOCCULATOR

I
Figure 1.4: Various Types of Flocculators Used in Water Treatment

For effective flocculation the value of G sllould be in the range of 20 to 75 Sec- and the '
dimension G x t s is 2 - 6 x 10 for aluminium coagulants, and 1 to 1.5 x 10' for femc
coagulants where t-is the Detention time of water in the flocculator, which should be
minimum 10 to 30 minutes. High G values will result in shear and breakdown of flocs.
Hence high rpm should be avoided in the flocculator.

1.5.4 Clarification
i) Clarification is the next important unit operation, followed in the physical-chemical
treatment for separating the flocs formed during the previous step of flocculation. Water
is allowed to stand in quiescent condition in large tanks ~ I I O W I Ias settling talks with
hydraulic detention period of 2 to 4 hours to remove suspended solids, flocs whic11 are
heavier tllm water from water by gravitational settling.
ii) Types of Settling
011the basis of the conce~ltrationand the tendency of tl~eparticles to interact, four
general classifications of the manner in which particles settle cim be made.
Type I: Settling refers to the sedimenbtion of discrete particles in a suspension of low solids
concentration. Pmcles settle as individual entities, and there is no significant interaction with
neighbour particles. A typical example is a dilute suspension of grit or sand particles. This
type of settling is also called flee .serrling.

DEPTH

UUNDEREO SETTLING REGION TYPE I I

PRESSION R E I O N TVPEIY
a

Figure 1.5: Settling in Water (Waste Water) Treatment

Building Services -1 Type 11: settling refers to a ratlim dilute suspension of particles that coalesce, or flocculate,
during the sedFmentation operation. By coalescing, the particles increme in mass aiid settle at
a faster rate. I
Type Ilk Settling occurs in suspensions of Intermediate concentration, in which interparticle
forces are sufficient to prevent the settling of neiglibouring particles. The particles tend to
remain in fixed positions with respect to each other and the m;ss of particles settles as a uni:.
A distinct solids - liquid interface develops at the top of tl~esludge mass. This type of
settling is generally called zone settling.
Type IV: SettJImg occurs when the particles are of such conceiitrat~onthat a structure is
formed and fudthw settling can occur only by compressioii of structure, compressloll takes
place due to wtight of the particles, which are consmitly being added to the structure by
sedimentation $-om the supernatant liquor. This type of settliilg is called conipression settling
and occurs usuhUy in the lower layers of deep sludge masses.
The schematic Ppresetltation of four types of settling in a cylinder is shown in Figure 1.5.
iii) Theory of Sedimentation
The removill of piartides of varying hydraulic subsidence values is a tirnctioii of surface
area and is1 independent of the depth of the basin. For effective settling, the overflow rate
V , i.c. dist$mrge rate divided by the plat area of the Gmk should be equal to or greater
than the v&ocity of the particles falling through the full depth H of the settling zone in
the detentidn time T as shown in the Figure 1.6.

SURFArnRU A s LX8 k

S E T T l l N E ZONE

2 FILTERED WlATER
OUTLET I

L FIUERCD WATER FOR

BACK FlLLlpG SLUOGE ZONE
1 NLET
ZONE

6 WbSH W A T E ~ OUTLET
1 I

Figure 1.6: Settling Paths of Discrete Particles in an Ideal Horizontnl M n a Settling Tank
Consider a partifle of silt entering tl~etank to have a vertical velocity of V,,.
I
H
Time Lien for tile particle to fall full height of the tank is T =
I
-
vl)

~f VH is tlie hori$o!ontal velocity of liquid in the settling tank, then

L L.BH
Time crf horizonb tlow = - -
I V Q
-
For the parlicle tb reacli the bottom of settling zone before the water leaves tl~etank: the time
of fall must be ehual to tlie time of horizollLd flow.

where,
d = S d a c e area of the settling zone.
I

Vo = Thelouertlow rate or surface loading

All barticies with a settling velocity V., 2 Vo are completely removed. Those
wid1 V, < Vo are p<utly,removed in the same proportion :as their velocity bears
 I

to C2/A i.e. if V, is half of Vr, then only half the particles falling at this speed Water Supply
reach tl~ebottom.
lhample 1.2
If surface area of settling tank (A) is 300 sq. In and L) = 1.2 cu inls, the11 Vo is 0.40 cmls.
Tlieoretically all particles with settling velocity Vc 2 0.40 cmls are completely removed, 50%1
of tllose having a Vr of 0.20 cmls and 25% of those having Vs of 0.10 cmls aid so on. In
the sedimentation of flocculant p'uticles (alum or ferric tlocs after chemical coagulatition~both
the overflow rate and depth of sedimentation tank, i.e. detention period are importzult.
In general, tl~efactors that influence sedi~nentationare
a) Size, shape and weight of the floc,
b) Viscosity of water and temperature,
c) Detention period in tlle clarifier,
d) Effective depth of basins,
1
e) Surface area of basins,
f) Surface overflow rate,
g) Velocity of flow,
i
h) Inlet and outlet design.
iv) Types of Sedimentation Tanks
Depending upon the direction of flow, settling tanks can be cla5sified as either horizontal flow
settlinlg tanks or vertical flow settling tanks. The tanks may be rectangular, bquare or circular
in plan (Figure 1.7).

CIRCULAR HORIZONTAL C I R N W VERTICAL R E C T Y ( G U U R MORlZONlAL

FLOW % l T L l N b ~ N l PLOW S l l l L U l G 1 A I M F W IIERI.OUI*.

, . Figure 1.7: Various Types of Settling Tanks Used in Water Trmtment PwcCiee

111 the horizontal flow settling tanks,the surface loaditlg used v'uies from 30 to
40cum/d/sq.m, while in vertical flow settling tanks, they may range from 40 to 50 curn/d/sq m.
V) Sludge Removal
Sludge is normally removed under hydrostatic pressure through pipes, in small plants :uld by
the tnechanical scraping unit in large plants. Sludge should be removed from b a s i ~ ~when
s the
lower portion reserved for sludge storage is filled, otherwise, the upper layer of unsoliditied
sludge will be subject to scohr by the overlying water, incidental to reduced space above.
Further more, sludge contaii~ingalgae and other organic matter will he subject to putrefaction,
especially when pre-chlorination is not practised, and so may have to be removed before
sludge storage space is completely filled. 111 large plants the advantage is that the mechanic:d
aludge renlovsll equipment removes sludge continuously or frequently. In small plants, care
sllould be exercised to rerlove sludge from clarifiers as and when necessary or at least once
 Services - I
Buildi~~g in a shift. The frequency of sludge removal 11% to be fixed by tile plant operator for the
particular water treatment plant.

Filtration 1s a physical and chemical process for separating suspended and colloidal impurities
from watdr by passage through a porous bed, usually made of gravel and sand or other
granular haterial. Sand filters are not merely "strainers" for removing suspended solids larger
than the spaces or pores between the sand grains. Since colloidal clay and colouring matter
and bacteria are smaller than these spaces or pores, their removal involves complex process.
The ovedll removal of impurities in a filter is brought about by a combination of different
phenomena, the most important of which are
a) hechanical straining
b) sedimentation
c) adsorption
d) Chemical activity, and
e) biological activity
Types ofl Filters
There are two types of filters commonly used in public water supplies. They are
a) p v i t y filters, and
b) pressure filters.
The examples of gravity filters are
1) $low Smd Filters (SSF), and
2) Rapid Sand Filters (RSF)
For public water supplies RSF are widely used; and SSF are also used where sufficient land
is available. However for illdustrial water supplies pressure filters ruld diatomaceous earth
filters art co~nmonlyused. In our country pressure filters are com~nonlyused in industrial
water supplies. The diatomaceous earth filters are not common in our country
1) Slow Sand Filters (SSF)
Slow s@d filters are the oldest type of filters used for public drirlking water supplies, going
back as Far as 1829 when they were first built by James Simpson for the Chelsea Water
Company in London. In these slow sand filters, tl~ewater is passed by gr:~vitydownward
tluough a layer of fine sand at low velocities. For conditions of average daly demand the
rate ranges from 0.08 to 0.2 d l 1 (cud11 per sym of filter bed area) i.e. (80 to
filtratio~~
200 1phhq.m). The normal rate of filtration adopted is 0.16 m/l~or 4mIday (160 1pWsq.m).
This rat$ is so small, that only after an extended period of service, (a few weeks to a few
months /3r more) cleaning is necessary. With the filter bed composed of tine grains, effective
diarnetet between about 0.15 and 0.35 mm, suspended and colloidal matter from the raw
water m retained in the very top of the filter bed and a biological film develops over the
sand bed. The clogged material here may be removed and the filter restored to its original
capacity by scraping off this top layer of dirty sand to a depth varying from one to a few
centunetres. Slow sand filters are not suitable for ueating che~nicalcoagulated waters or raw
waters with turbidities exceeding 30 NTU. Mostly SSF are used in small community water
supply dchemes (Figure 1.8).

VENTILATOR

--f

+ 3

Figure 1.8: Basic Elements oP a Slow Sand FiIter

 Water Supply
[ 2) Rapid Sand Filters (RSF)
In rapid said filters, tl~ewater flows down a bed of medium to coarse said at
relatively high velocities. For the normal type of down tlow filtration, this sand is
carefully graded to a uniform size varying from 0.5 to 2 mm or larger. The ~ionnd
rate of filtration adopted is 80 to 100 IpmJsqm which is about ten times the filtration
rate in slow sand filters. This rate is so high that a rapid clogging of the filter bed
occurs ~iecessitatingcleaning quite frequently. By the use of medium to coarse sand,
more over. impurities from the raw water peiietrate the filter bed to greater depths.
Cleaning of a RSF is therefore only possible by back-washing, reversing the flow of
water which expands the filter bed and scours the grains, carryi~~g the accumulated
impurities to waste. The depth of sand layer is 60-75 crm. The sta~ldiiigdepth of
water over filter varies between 1 aid 2 m (Figure 1.9).

I- - %&a W A I N WATE GUTTER

rn n

I
I -
LONGITUDIWL SECTION CROSS SECTION

Figurc 1.9: Schemntic Representntion of a Down Flow Rapid Sand Filter

ii) Specifications of Filter Sand

Shape. size a ~ quality
d of filter sand shall satisfy the following nonns:
a) Sand shall be of hard and resistant quartz or quartzite and eree of clay, fine particles,
i, soft grains and dirt of every description.
t . b) Effective size ( dl0 ) shall be 0.45 to 0.70 mm.
rile = Effective size is that size of grain such that 10% of the grains by weight are
s~nallerand 90% are larger, as determined by sieve analysis test of said.
c) Uniformity Coefficient shall not be Inore thai 1.7 nor less than 1.3.
(Uniformity Coefficient is defined as the ratio of the sieve size passing 60% sand to
the sieve size passing 10% of it. This is also determined from sieve analysis).
Example 1.3

then Uniformity Coefficient U = - = - Oh2 - 1.38

c l ~ o 0.45
li(ote: For procedure of sieve analysis, refer any standard text book on soil m e c h a n i ~ .
.
m

d) Ig~iitionloss should not exceed 0.7% by weight.

e) Soluble fraction in hydrochloric acid shall not exceed 5% by weight.
C
f Silica content should not be less t h a ~99.8%.
g) Specific gravity shall be in the range between 2.55 to 2.65.
11) Wearing loss shall not exceed 3%.
iii) Filter Gravel
Gravel is placed between the sand a ~ thed under-drainage system to prevent sauld from
entering underdrains ald to aid uniform distribr~tionof wash water. The gravel should
accomplisli both purposes without being displaced by the rising wash water. In between
,said aid gravel media, a layer of coarse sand is provided to preve~~rt
filter sand from
entering gravel !ayer. In general the support media comprises of:
Building Services - Cle'm coarse sand 1.5 m r r ~Lo 3 mm, 75 mm deep.
Gkt 3-6 'mm 75 mm deep

~ ( a v e 60-12
l mm 75 mm deep

GrPvel 12-25 mm 75 mm deep

Grhvel 25-50 mm 150 m

m deep

450 mm deep
Gravel;for rapid sand filters should consist of hard rou~ldedstones with specific gravity not
less tl@ 2.5 and should be carefully washed to remove sand, clay, w'm, dirt and organic
impuri(ies of any kind. For detailed specifications for filter and gravel used in rapid sand
filters tefer IS 8419-1977: Requirements for Water Filtration Equipment, (Part I : Filtration
media / Ssand and Gravel. Part 11: Under drainage System).
iv) Bakk Washing of RSF
During filtration the hydraulic resistance attains its maximum allowable value or the quality of
the effluent drops below the set standard, then cleaning of the filter is necessary to restore i?

k
capacit aidlor to improve dle quality of the filtered water. As head loss increases across the
bed, h lower portion of the filter is under a partial vacuum. This negative head permits the
release iof dissolved gases, which tend to fill the pores of the filter causing air binding a111d
reducin$ the rate of filtration. It is usual to allow a filter head loss of 1.X to 2 m before
cleanin+ of filters. Under no circunistarlces a build up of negative head within the filter media
be alloyed. Under average operating conditions, granular media filters are backwaslslled about
once in: 24 hours at a rate of 600 ltrsl sq mlmi~~ute for a period of 10 minutes. This method
of backhashing is known as 'High Rate Backwash Method' and in this method only water is
used for backwashing. The pressure in the under drainage system in usually 6-8 m with wash
water rdquirement 40-50 m/h (cu mlsq m/h) for a duration of 6 to 10 minutes.
Dilring backwashing the bed of filter media is expanded hydraulically by about 50% and the
released impurities are conveyed in the wad1 water to the wa~shtroughs.
In the cleaning of RSF the present trend is to back wash with both air and water. In this air
wash system, compressed au is used to secure effective scrubbi~igactic>n with a smaller
volume of wasli water. The air may be forced tluough the under drains before the wasli water
is introduced or through a separate piping system placed between the gravel and the sand
layer. with the former procedure free air of about 36 to 45 mAl (600-900 Ipmlsq m of the
filter arqa) at 0.35 kglsq. cm is forced through the under drains until the said is thoroughly
agitated (for a duration of about 5 minutes, following which wash water is introduced through
the same under drains at a rate of 24-36 m/h (400-600 Ipmlsq. in). In the latter procedure
both airand water are simultaneously forced but water through underdranage system and air
through (separatepiping. The rate of supply of air is 45-50 m111 and water 12-15 mh.
v) Presure Filters
Pressure fiters are based on the same principles r2s gravity type rapid filters, with a sole
differenoe that the filter bed with the supporting filter bottom and the supernatant raw water
are enca$ed in a water-tight steel cyhnder (Figure 1.10). Water is pumped tlirough tile filter .
under pressure and die media are washed by reversir~gtlow tllrougli the bed, flushi~igout the
impuritigs. High pressure allows a large tilter resismice without the danger of negative heads,
and also1no pumps are required for pumping filtered water to supply. The application of a
large filtbr resist~ncepermits the use of high filllation rates. The filtration rates rlorpJally v~uy
from 124 to 300 Ipdsq m while values of 600 to 000 lpmlsq In are no exception. In the
latter caqe, the tune of contact between the water to be treated and the filtering material
becomesa limiting factor, asking for greater bed thickness of 2 or 3 m for instance. Back
washing of pressure filters is done similar to rapid sand filters by air scour followed by water
wash. ~ h s s u r efilters are used on a large scale for industrial water supplies or swimming
pools fon pumping water less t!an 0.1 or 0.2 cu mlsec. for a limited number of people.
 vi) Diatomaceous Earth Filters
Diatomaceous earth filters are used extensively in filtration of recycled swimming pool water
and to a limited extent in small water treatment systems. It is popular in USA and other
developed countries, but not in our country.

"I* *.rEI
DISLHIWI

Figure 1.10: Pressure Filters

' F

1.5.6 Disinfection
I

i) Water treatment processes such as storage, coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation,

- filtration are specitically designed to produce water that is aesthetically acceptable and
economical to use. Though these physico-chemical processes remove micro-organisms
present in water to a varying degree, disinfection of water has to be done for killing of
pathogenic organisms. Bacteria, viruses, and ameobic crysts constitute the three main
types of enteric pathogens found in polluted waters. The need for disinfection in ensuing
protection against transmission of water borne diseases cannot be over-emphasised and its
inclusion as one of the water treatment processes is considered necessary.
ii) The most widely used disinfectant in public water supplies is ga9eous chlorine or its
compounds such as bleaching powder which is a compound of lime, calcium c~lloride
( CaC12 ) and calcium hypochlorite ( CaOC12 ); sodium hypochlorite (NaOCI) and calcium
hypochlorite Ca(OCD2 ;. For small water supplies (0.5 mld) bleaching powder and
~ l c i u mand sodium hypochlorites are used. Commercial brands of bleaching powder have
available chlorine of 20 to 30% i.e. 20 or 30 pam by weight of chlorine per 100 parts by
weight of bleaching powder.
iii) Action of Chlorine
The exact action of chlorine 011 bacteria is still debated. However, it is now believed that
chlorine has direct toxic action on bacteria. When added to water, chlorine react3 to fonn
hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite :

The hypochlorous acid (HOCI) and the hypochlorite OC1-) together represent the "free
available chlorine", which is a very powerful bactericide. The hypochlorous acid is more
powerful than the hypochlorite.
If ammonia is present, either naturally or because it has been added, chloramines will be
fonned.
pH > 8.5; NHn + HOCl $ NH2 Cl + El? + Hi 0 (m~ocllloramine)

pH 1 4.5; NH2 C1 + H OC1 $ NHCh + H2 O ( d i c h l o k e )

2
pH 1 4.4; NHCh + HOCl 7 NCb + H2 O (trichlotamines)
Bullding Services - I
The relationship between the amounts of the three types of chloramine depends on the pH
and the cbncentration of the water. hl normal water treament practice, fonnation of low
pH is avoided and hence there is no formation of trichloramines. Mostly monochloramines
and dichloramjnes are formed in water treatment practice. The sum of monochloramines and
trichloramines is known as combined available chlorine.
iv) Break Point Chlorination
Even the pure$ water tends to have slight traces of ammonia and other compounds. These
immediately react with chlorine to form chloramines, which are also bactericidal. If chlorine is
further continded to be added to water, all the chloramines will be completely destroyed and a
free residual chlorine is formed in water. The dose at which all reducing substances like
nitrogen, ammmia etc. are completely destroyed by chlorine and formation of free residual
chlorine starts, is known as break-point chlorination.
v) chlorine-hioxide
Chlorine is veiy reactive and combines with ahnost everything in the water. Research has
shown ihat chlorine reacts with organic compounds that occur ilaturally in water to form
chlorinated hydrocarbons (CH), many of which are toxic. Chlorination is thus unsatisfactory
when water is rich in organic acids such as those from peaty upland areas. A major problem
is the presence of phenol in water. The chlorine reacts with phenol to form chloro-phenols
which give rise to taste and odour in water. In case chloriile is used in the form of chlorine
dioxide, forma/tion of odourous clllorophenols can be prevented. Chlorine dioxide is produced
by mixing sodium chlorite with chlorine at a very low pH.
Cl2 +2 NaC102 2C1 0 2 +2 Na C1
Theoretically datio of chlorine to sodium chlorite is 1:2:6. In practice, however, a large excess
of chlorine is ~enerallyapplied in order to avoid unreacted chlorite in the treated water.
Chlorine dioxi'de is unstable and subject to explosion in gaseous form but aqueous solutions
of the gas are stable and safe. It has been reported to be a good bactericide and its
bactericidal efficiency is relativeiy unaffected by pH between 6 and 10. It is a good sporicide
and a oxid+. It does not combine with ammonia and most organic impurities before
oxidizing the&. The common dosages of chlorine dioxide range from 0.2 to 0.3 mgh.
Recommended doses of ClO2 are as follows:
for ramoval of 0.1 mgll Phenol : 0.3 mgll C102
for removal of 1 mgA iron : 1.2 mgll C102
for removal of 1 mgll manganese : 2.5 mgll C102
vi) Disinfectibn by other Methods
Disinfection of water can also be achieved by other methods like halogens, (iodine and
bromine) ozode, potassium permanganate, ultraviolet irradiation and heat.
Halogens like bromine and iodine are ako effective germicidal agents with chemical equilibria
similar to those of chlorine. Iodine, unlike bromine and chlorine does not react with ammonia
or organic nitrogen compounds to form mines, and thus persists as hypoiodous acid and
molecular iodine. It is a good disinfectant which has been used in swimming pools. It is
unlikely to be widely used in water treament because of its physiological effects on thyroid
activity and its relatively high cost. A mixture of halogens monochlorxnine and iodine has
been found to provide more rapid disinfection than chloramine alone presumably as a result
of the formatibn of hypoiodous acid. The iodine - iodate system is a better disinfectant at
neutral pH than chloramines, but the combination proved to be more effective than either
chloramine or1 iodine alone. Bromine, while a11 effective disinfectant, is more expensive than
chlorine, it al$o forms trihalomethanes (THMs) and there is little experience with its use. For
these reasons it is unlikely to be commonly used.
Ozone (03), like chlorine dioxide, has effects other than disinfection which make it
particularly aqkractive in water treament. Being a strong oxidizing agent, it improves the
effectiveness bf subsequent coagulation apparently by polymerization of meta stable organics;
aids in removlal of musty, earthy, fishy and muddy tastes and cdours, reduces subsequent
chlorine d e q d , reduces the concentration of the precursors of THMs, alnd produces fewer
Halogenated Yganics than other common oxidizing disinfectants. Ozone, unlike chlorine,
requires very little contact time for effective disinfection. Contact times even for virus
 inactivation are reportedly as little as 2 minutes. The action of ozone is not particularly Water Supply
sensitive to pH in the range of pH 5 to 8 but is quite sensitive to temperature. As temperature
u~creasesboth the rate and degree of completion of oxidation reactions are likely to increase.
I
Hence ozone demand may increase with temperature.
The spontaneous breakdown of ozone to molecular oxygen also increases with temperature,
while its solubility decreases. Hence its production at locations remote from the point of use
is impractical. This decay phenomenon also prevents maintenance of a residual ozone
concentration which might guard against subsequent contamination of the distribution system.
For this reason, ozonation is normally followed by chlorination in modest dosages, either a$
free or combined chlorine.
! Ozone is manufactured by electrical discharge into cooled, dried air, high purity oxygen or
oxygen enriched air in a ozone generator. In the case of air,approximately 1% of tl~eoxygen
:
content is converted to ozone at an energy consumption of 0.025 kwh per gram 0 3 . Increased
yield is provided by oxygen enrichment, but the economy of the process depends upon the
cost of producing the oxygen. The mixture of gases is winsferred to water either by bubbling
it through the bulk solution or by permitting droplets of water to fall through a rising column
b
of gas. Ozone which is not transferred should not be discharged to the atmosphere, since it is
an air pollutant. Ozone is very widely used in Europe for treatment of water.
I

Potassium permanganate, is a strong oxidizing agent and a germicidal. It is also used in small
%
I
installations for iron and manganese removal or fpr control of taste and odour.
Ultraviolet radiation is effective in killing all types of bacteria and viruses through the
I
\ probable mechanism of destruction of nucleic acids. The W rays are generated by mercury
, vapour quartz lamps which have an efficiency of about 30%. a wave length of 253.7 lun and
an intensity of 50 UVWIsqm at a distance of 50 mm. Minimum retention time is of the order
t of 15 seconds with water films less than 120 mm thick. The advantages of ultraviolet
disinfection include ease of automation, no chemical handling, short retention time, no effect
on chemical characteristics, taste or odour of the water, and no ill effect from over doses.
The disadvantages lie primarily in the lack of residual protection, relatively high cost, and
ineffectiveness on turbid waters in which the rays cannot penetrative. The process is used for
the most part in industrial applications and small private water systems.
Heat can be used to disinfect water, but the method is impractical on a large scale. Boiling of
water' before consumption is advised when there is a fear of water contamination.
I

Softening for removal of excess hardness, deferrization - (removal of excess iron) and
defluoridation (removal of excess fluorides) are specialized treatment methods and are
covered in detail in section 1.7.

1.6 TRANSNIISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER

Water supply involves transmission of water from the sources to the area of consumption,
through free flow channels or conduits or pressure mains. Depending upon topography, water
mains are designed either as free flow conduits or pressure mains. Transmission of water
involves substantial capital outlay hence judicious choice is required to be made considering
--* the economics of various alternative proposals. It is also important to maintain the quality of
water in the transmission and distribution mains to be of prescribed standards by preventing
pollution until it reaches tlle consumer point.
C
1.6.1 Conduits for Transmission of Water
There are a number of methods by which water is transmitted from the source to its
destination. However, the methods to be used for transmission depends on the quantity of
water to be transmitted, topography, pressure requirement, allowable velocity and cost. The
commonly adopted methods are;
i) Canals
ii) Gravity aqueducts and tunnels,
iii) Pressure aqueducts and tunnels, and
iv) Pipelines
27
Building Services - i) Canab
Open cansls have restricted use in water works practice in view of the losses due to
percolatioh, evaporation and also the possibility of pollution and misuse of water. However,
when hugb quantities of water from source is to be transported to water treatment works for
treatment over short distances, canals are used. For conveying treated water, open canals
cannot be used. Economical sections for canals are generally trape7nidal while rectaigular
sections ake more economical where rock cutting is involved.
ii) Gravlty Aqueducts and Tunnels
Aqueduct$ and tunnels are designed such that they flow three - quarter full at required
capacity ?f supply in most circumstances. For structural reasons they are usually horse-shoe
shaped.
Gravity f4~wtunnels are used in hilly terrain to reduce the length of transmission to conserve
head and for economy. They are usually unlined if cut tllrougli hard rock regions. The meal
velocities of flow for lined tunnels are 1 to 2mlsec. aid for u~ilinedtunnels 0.3 to 0.6 mlsec.
iii) ~resdureaqueducts and tunnels
I

Usually bey have circular shape. In the case of pressure tunnels, the weight of overburden is
to resist internal pressure. Reinforcements like steel cylinders are used when there
mal pressure and insufficient counter balancing pressure.
iv) Pipe Lines
1) @e most common method for traismission of water is pipelines. Pipelines are
qsually circular in section and mainly follow the profile of tlle ground surface quit€
Closely. Gravity pipelilies have to be laid preferably below the hydraulic gradient.
0

2) Qhoice of Pipe Material

dipes are of various types and sizes consisting of spun or cast iron (CI), steel pipes,
rbinforced cement concrete (RCC) pipes, presstressed reinforced concrete (PSC)
dipes, asbestos cement (AC), Polyethylene (low and high density) unplasticized PVC
dipes, etc. glass reinforced plastic (GRP), pipes.
The selection of pipe material aid pipe design depends upon the followi~igfactors :
a) Internal pressures and extemhl loads to which the pipe is subjected;
) Carrying capacity of pipe and the quality of water that is to be carried;
G) Capital cost of installations and availability of funds;
d)I General conditions of topography, geology, and communication:
4) The safety, economy and availability of manufactured sizes.
f) The availability of skilled labour ui laying and jointiiig of the pipelines.
) The requirements of maintenance and repair, losses of water by leakage and
other matters of pipe behaviour aid ability.
1) Cast Iron Pipe

d
Cast Iron is the most commonly used pipe material. Though tlle cast iron pipe lkis the
disadvan ges of heavy weight and consequent high transport costs. short lengths, leading to
higher laiing and jointing cost, low tensile strength, liability to defects of intier surface etc it ,
is widely used because of still good lasting qualities. Due to its strength 'and corrosion
resistance, CI pipes cai be used in soil and for water of slightly aggressive character. They
are well- suited for pressure mains aid laterals where tappings are made for house connections. ,
Vertically' Cast Iron pipes shall conform to IS 1537-1976. The pipes arc manufactured by
vertical castbig in sand moulds. However, tlle method of cast iron pipe production' used
universalf today is by centrifugal action or by spinning. Compared with vertical castmg in
sand mod! ds, the spinning process results in faster production, longer pipes with vastly
improved metal qualities, a smoother inner surface and reduced thickness and consequent light
weight. qentrifugally cast CI pipes are available in diameters from 80 to 500 mm and are
covered with protective coatings. They should conform to IS:1536-1989 ~d 3114-1985. Pipes
are supplied in 3.7 in and 5.5 m length and a variety of joints are available ii~cludiiigsocket,
spigot and flanged joints. The pipes have been classified as LA, A ald B according to their
thickness, Class LA pipes have been taken as the basis for evolving the series of pipes.
j
,. z

I
I :+ 5
 Class 'A' allows a 10% increase in thicktiess over Class LA. Water Supply

Class 'B' allows a 20% increase in thickness over Class LA.

A uniform hydrostatic test pressure of 35 kgflsq. cm at works for all classes of pipes has
been specified while the hydrostatic test pressure the maximum field working pressure after
installation of LA, A and B classes are fixed at 12, 18 and 24 kgflsq. cm respectively. For
flanged pipes tile corresponding test pressures are slightly less.
h
Jointing CI Pipes: Several types of joints, such as
- Rubber gasket joint known as Tyton joint
- Mechanical joint known as screw gland joint
- Conventional joint known as lead jolnt are used.
Testing of Pipeline: After a new pipe ha5 been laid ald jointed, it shall be subjected to the
following two tests in accordance with IS:3114-1965.
a) Pressure test at a pressure .of at least double the maximum working pressure: pipe
and joints shall be absolutely watertight under the test, aiid
b) Lecakage test (to be conducted after the satisfactory completion of the pressure test) at
i
a pressure to be specified by the authority for a duration of two hours.
The CPHEEO Ma~ualprescribes that the field test pressure to be imposed should be not less
, than the greatest of the followi~ig:
a) Oiie and a half times maximum sustaiiied operating pressure.
b) One and a half times the maximum pipeline static pressure.
c) Sum of the maximum sustained operating pressure and the maximum surge pressure.
d) Sum of maximum line static pressure and the maximum surge pressure, subject to a
maximum equal to the works test pressure for any pipe fittings incorporated.
The field test pressure should, wherever possible, be not less than Y3rd of work test pressure
appropriate to the class of pipe except in the case of spun iron pipes aid should be applied
and maintained for at least four hours. If the visual inspection satisfies that there is no
leakage the test can be passed.
2) Ductile Iron Pipes
The ductile iron pipes are cast centrifugally from a material produced by treating molten iron
of suitable composition with magnesium. The pipes have high mechanical suength, resisLulce
to corrosion and good ~ a s t i ~ qualities.
lg The pipes are suitable for hydraulic working pressures
upto 40 kglsqcm depending on the diameter, being subjected at works to a hydrostatic proof.
test pressure of 1.5 times the recommended mcmimum working pressure. These pipes are
approximately 30% lighter than conventional cast iron pipes. The use of ductile iron pipes in
water mains may lead to saving in cost of water supply project. Further information can be
obtained from IS 12288-1987.
3) Sty1 Pipes
Steel pipes of smaller diameter can be made from solid bar sections by hot or cold drawings
processes and these are referred to as seamless. The larger sizes are made by welding together
the edges of suitably curved plates, the sockets being formed later in a press. The thickness of
a steel pipe is always considerably less than the thickness of the corresponding vertically &%st
_,
or spun iron pipe. Owing to its higher tensile strength, it is possible for steel pipes to be
more than twice the length of CI pipes of the same class, with consequent saving in
transportation, pipe laying and jointing costs. Specials of all kinds can be fabricated without
difficulty to suit different site conditions. Due to their elasticity, steel pipes adapt themselves
to changes in relative ground level without failure and llence are very suitable for laying on
ground liable to subsidence. Steel pipes required protection against corrosion.
Electrically welded steel pipes for water, gas, and sewage of sizes from 150 to 2000 mm
nominal diameter are covered by IS:3589-1981. The pipes are designated by the method of
manufacture followed by a number corresponding to the minimum tensile suength in MPa, as
for example EFW410 indicates electric fusion (arc) welded steel pipes having a minimum
tensile strength of 410 MPa (Note: 1 MPa = 10 kgflsq. cm).
Building Services - I Methods of Jointing: Methods of jointing the steel pipes are threading and welding. For
laying of steel welded pipes, IS:5822-1970 should be followed and for type ot joints and e ~ d s
of pipes IS:3589- 1981 gives the guidelines.
4) Concretei Pipes
Reinforced concrete pipes used in water supply are classified as Pi, P2 and P3 with test
pressures of 2, 4 and 6 kglsq. cm respectively. For use on gravity mains the working pressure
should not evceed two thirds of the test pressure. For use on pumping inains the working
pressure shoqld not exceed half of the test pressure. IS:458-1971 gives specifications for RCC
pipes with aud without reinforcement but does not cover prestressed concrete pipes. Generally
concrete p i p s have corrosion resistant properties similar to these of prestressed concrete pipe.
9 e concrete pipes made by the spinning process have improved corrosion resistance
properties.
Method of Jointing: RCC pipes may be jointed by any of the fc?llowing methods :
i) Bandage joint,
ii) Spigot and socket joint,
iii) C o l b joint,
iv) Flusjh joint.
For more details of jointing procedure reference may be made to IS:783-1985.
5) Prestressed Pipes
While RCC pipes can cater to the needs where pressures are upto 3 kglsq cm and CI and
steel pipes clater to the needs of higher pressures around 24 kgf1sq.cm the PSC pipes cater to
the intermediate pressure range for which the metallic pipes are expensive while RCC pipes
would not bie suitable.
The strengtH of a PSC pipe is achieved by lielicdy binding high tensile steel wire under
tension arouhd a concrete core thereby putting the core into compression. When the pipe is
pressurized the stresses induced relieve the compressive stress in concrete but they are not
sufficieilt to subject it to tensile stresses. The prestressing wire is protected against corrosion
by a cover of cemeiltatious coat giving at least 25 mm of cover.
PSC comperes economically with steel for pipe diameters of 600 mm and above. It is a
unique combination of durability of concrete and high strength of steel combined with
economy i~i raw materials. The PSC pipes are ideally suited for water supply mains where
pressures ar;e in the range of 6 kgslsq cm to 20 kgslsq ~mare encountered.
Laying an4 Jointing - PSC pressure pipes are provided with flexible joints, the joints being
made by thi: use of rubber gasket. They have socket spigot ends to s u ~ the t rubber ring joint:
For details of laying and jointing refer to IS:784-1978.
6) Plastic Pipes
Plastic pip@ are produced by the extrusion process followed by calibration to ensure
maintenanct of accurate internal diameter, with smooth internal bores. These pipes are of
three kinds for potable water supplies. They are covered by corresponding Indian Standards as
follows.
a) Ldw density polyethylene pipes (IS:3076-1968)
b) I-hph density polyethylene pipes (IS:4984-1978)
c) Ueplasticized PVC pipes (18:4985- 1968).
7) Polyethylene Rpes
These are extended from a compound consisting of virgin polyethylene in which carbon black
and a suitable 11011-toxic antioxidant is evenly dispersed. Low density polyethylene has a
density no! greater than 0.93 grnlml and high density polyethylel~ehas a density greater than
0.94 g m / d ~at 27OC. Both LDPE and HDPE pipes are available with working pressures of 2,
2.5, 4.0, 610, 10 kgflsq cm. The LDPE pipes are generally supplied UI cc?ils of nominal
lengths of 25, 50, 100, 150 and 200 metres. The HDPE pipes are available as coils or in
straight ledgths of 5 to 20 m. The laying and jointing is done hi accordance with IS:7634
(Part-2) - 1975. They are usually joined by welding. Though HDPE pipes are rigid and tough
at the same time they are resistant and confc~rmto the topography of land when laid over
 ground or in trenches. They are easily coilable to be bent in installation, thus eliminating the Water Supply
use of specials like bends, elbows etc. thereby reducing fittings and installation costs. HDPE
pipes are easy to carry and install. They are lighter hi weight and can be carried to heights as
on hills. They can withstand movement of heavy traffic. This would not cause any damage to
the pipes because of their high tlexural strength. HDPE pipes are' resistant to corrosion, have
smooth inner surface, so that there is less friction and pressure'loss is comparatively less.
8) Unplasticized PVC Pipes
These are normally made of PVC pipes with necessary additives for getting good surface
finish, chemical strength and capacity. The pipes are classified according to ratings as in the
case of PE pipes as 2.5, 4.0, 6 and 10 kgflsq cm. Rigid PVC pipes and HDPE pipes are used
for water distribution systems mostly ranging from 15 to 150 mm diameter aid occasionally
upto 350 mm. The PVC pipes are much lighter than metallic pipes such as CI Steel pipes.
They are light weight, easy to handle, transport and install. The chief disadvantage of PVC
pipes is that they are easily affected by ultraviolet light and frequent changes in temperature
which are pcuticularly severe in our country. It is not advisable to use PVC pipes above
ground. The deterioration starts with discolouration, surface aacking 'and ultimately ends with
brittleness and the life of the pipe is reduced to 15 to 20 years.
4
Method of Jointing
PVC pipes are joined by any of the following methods.
a) Solvent Welded Joint
These are permanent in nature and strong in tension. They are used for se~vicepipes of
water mains. These joints are commonly used ald economical for PVC pipe woks. This
technique is used with both spigot aid socket type joints, in which the socket is made
specially to form a close fit on the pipe end with injection moulded fittings.
The solvent welded joint may be achieved either by heat application method or by
non-heat application method. The non-heat application method is easier and is
recommended for water supply installations.
b) Flanged Joints
These are used for jointing of PVC pipes particularly of large sizes to valves and vessels
and large size metal pipes where strength in tension is required. The joint is made by the
compression of a gasket or ring seal set in face of the flange.
c) Union Joint
This is a form of flanged joint in which the faces are held together by a screwed
connection. A composite metal and PVC socket union is a very satisfactory method of
jointing PVC to screwed metallic fittings.
d) Screwed Joints
These are similar k~the joints used with metal pipes. If pipe has to be joined by screw
threads only thick walled pipe should be used aid cut with tape pipe threads. The
threaded pipes shall not be subjected to pressures exceeding two - thirds of the pressure
rating for unthreaded pipes.
e) Rubber Ring Joints
UPVC pipes may be jointed by methods employing a rubber ring to provide the water
tight seal. The ring may be housed in groove formed in a plastic or metallic housing. The
mbber is compressed and makes a seal between the pipe aid the housing. The ring shape
and the method of compressing the ring vary considerably in different types of joints.
Generally rubber ring joints are used for large sized pipes (63 mm and above).
9) Asbestos Cement Pressure Pipes
The AC pipe is made of a mixture of asbestos aid portland cement compressed by steel
rollers to form a laminated material of great strength and density. The advantages of AC
pipes are non-corrosiveness to most nahual soil conditions, good flow characteristics, tight
weights, easy in cutting, drilling, threading and fitting with GI specials, allowance for greater
deflectiol~upto about 20 degree with mechanical joints, ease of ha1dlillg, tight johts and
quid laying md back filling. These pipes are not suitable for Use ins Sulphte soils. AC
h o d conform to
O18!ut laiIptes
,vrablsupph asMbution mains and rising
Building Servlccs - 1 IS:1592-1980. The sizes range from 80 to 600 mm. The le~igtllof pipes for all diameters is 3,
4 and 5 m. Pipes h e classified with respect to the hydraulic test pressure as given in Table
l.6.The working pressure is not to exceed 50 per cent of test pressure.

1.6.3 Hydraulics of Pressure Pipes

The formula populhrly used for the flows of water in conduits under pressure is the Hazen
and Williams f o q u l a given below:
V = 0.849 C . R ~ s ' ~~ . ~ ~ ~ ... (1)
Table 1.6: Classification of AC Pipes

Class Hydraulic Test Pressure, kgflsy. cm

I
5 5
10 10
I I5 IS
I
20 20
25 25
where,
V = Velocity m/s
C = Hazen I Williams coefficient
R = Hydraylic mean radius in metres
S = Slope $f hydraulic gradient
For circulaj pipes hydraulic mean radius R = D14,
Substituting in (1)
We get V = 4.563 x x C x x S0.54
where, D = Diameter of the pipe in mm.
Q = 3.1 x lo4 x C x x ,'i?54
I
where, Q = discharge in Kilolitrestday (KLJ))
The coefficient '4' decreases with increasing surface roughness and age of the pipe. Tlie
recommended valbes for new pipes and the values to be adopted for design purposes are
given in Table 1.?.
Table 1.7: Recommended Value of Hazen and Williams.Coefficient 'C'
- - - - -

Conduit Material Recommended Value of C For New Pipe For

Design
Cast Iron 130 100
Galvanized iron z Sp mm 120 100
Galvanized iron 50 knm and bdow (used for house 120 55
connections)
Steel, riveted joints
S t e l welded joints, lined with cement or hiturninous 140 110
enamel
Steel, welded joints 140 100
Concrete I 140 110
Asbestos cement 150 120
Plastic pipes I 150 120

SAQ f
I ) What ::uc thc basic requircmcnts of dri~lki~igw;iter ?
2) Wliat i s aeration ? How is it bel~cficialin water treahnc~it?
3 ) Whatlare colloids ? What brings about stability of colloids !'
? What are (lie colnlnon coapulanls uscd iu watcr i.t.::;llmcrl! '.'
3 ) What is coagulatio~~
-5, wl~al:ire a r ~ g ~ l m r ? Hurv
aid,$ :m ~,IL;!J ~ ~ ~ill WCf
~ p()j/lli;j,/
~ ~ j, I ~ j ; ~
1.7 SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN WATER TREATMENT Water supply

1.7.1 Hardness
Kudness is defined as the effect of m y psuticular water on soap, the less soap it Lakes to
produce a lather, the softer is the water, The salts of calcium and magnesium react with the
soap a ~ until
d they have k e n neutralised latlier cluinot torm. Thus the greater tlle
concentrations of calcium arid magnesium present in solution, the more soap is needed for
lather formation and the water is said to be "hard". Wlien synthetic detergents are used
~nsteadof soap, inconvenience of a hard water is not so strongly felt because the detergents
do not cause a precipitation of the hardnes,r compounds. III addlt~onto the problem of soap
consumption another problem commonly ssociated with hard water is formation of scales on
the surface of the boiler arid the interior of pipes, when such water is heated.
There are two kinds of liar&iess:
Carbonate Hardness (CH) or temporary hard~less,and
Non Carbonate Hardness (NCH) or permanent hardness
The compounds which cause CH are bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium
Ca ( HC03 )2 and Mg ( HC03 ) 2 . The tempomy hardness precipitates on boiling and causes a
white deposit in kettles.
The compounds which cause NCH are Sulphates and chlorides of hotli calcium and
rmgnesium (CaS04 , MgSO4, CaC 12, MgC 12: nitrates. Hardness is expressed as CaC03
equivalent per litre. The degree of hard!~ess of drir~kiligwater has been classified in tenns of
the equivalent CaCO3 co~icentrationas follows :
soft : 0-50 mgn
Medium : 50-150 mg/l
Hard : 150-300 mg/l
Very hard : greater than 300 mgA
Public acceptability of the degree of hardness may vary considerably, from community to
community, depending on local conditions. The permissible limit for totzl llardness prcscribcd
in IS:10500 is 300 mg/l aid tlle excessive limit 600 mgh.
Means for Removal of Hardness
There are two different methods available for softening hard waters. They are
i) by precipitation by lime-soda ash, and
ii) , by base excharlge (also known as io11-exchange-process)
In the first method the hardness causing compounds are re~novedby additio~~s of chemicals
e.g. - lime atid soda ash, while in the second method they are chx~gedby substitutiilg no11
hardness compounds (usually sodium). As a result of h i s the total dissolved solids are
reduced with the lime and soda process, but they are not reduced by the ion exchange process.
i) Lime-Soda Ash Method
a) In this method. lime is added to remove tlie carbori hardness caused by Ca arid Mg
and soda ash to remove non-carbonate hardness caused by Ca auld Mg.
The reactions with Ca are
Ca ( CHOJ )I + Ca (0H)z
(CH)
* 2 Ca C03 + 2H20
2
CaS04 + Na2 C03 7 .Ca COi + Na2 SO4
(NCH)
Ca Cl2 + N;LZ
C01 $ CaC03 + 2 NaCl
(NCH)

The reactio~~s
wid1 Mg are similar lo Lat of Ca, with formatio~~
of Mg(ONi

precipitate.
b) stabiWtion After Lime-Soda Softening the pH of
prevent undcsbab$ deposition of CaCO? af" ~ ~ '~ml'"
e wfte11i1!g7
s o ~ usu;ill~
8.3 by d h l l g
w_r llad be muSd to less
Buildlnp Services -1 liquid C 0 2 is added to softened water or sulphuric acid is used in some water works.
Sulphuric acid converts - CQ to - S04. Care must be exercised that it does not
reduce the pH too low as Lhis might render the water corrosive. Another method of
avoiding u~idesirableCaCO3 is by adding a suitable polyphosphate such as "Calgon".
ii) Base Exchange Method
The bwe exchange method of softening is most popular in industrid water supplies because it
is simple to operate and is normally purchased as a "package deal' from a specialist firm.
The hbdness producing salts of calcium and magnesium are replaced by salts of sodium
whicli do not cause hard~iess.
Tlle f?llowing reactions occur.
Ca (HCO3)2 + Naz (Zeolite) + Ca (Zeolite) + 2 NaHC(B
Ca SO4 + Na2 (Zeolite) + Ca (Zeolite) + Naz SO4
Mg ( HC03 )2 + Na2 (zeolite) + Mg (Zeolite) + 2 NaHC03
MgSO4 + Na2 (Zeolite) + Mg(Zeo1ite) + Na2 SO4
Aftertlle sodium has been exhausted by base exchange it can be regenerated by washing with
a bride solution. 7

Ca (Zeolite) + 2 NaCl + CaCl2 + 2 Na (Zeolite)

Mg (Zeolite) + 2 NaCl + Mg C12 + 2Na (Zeolite)
The dtrength of brine solution to be used for regeneration is usually furnished by the firm
supplying the equipment. During rege~lerationthe Calcium and Magnesium Chlorides are
dischbged to waste. By base-exchange process, water of "zero hardness" can be obtained.
ZeroAsoftened water is corrosive because of unfavourable pH1alkilinity ratio, hence it is a
s~mdardpractice that by mixing this with untreated water a rawltreated blend is achieved,
which, by retaining put of the hardness-forming salts will be non-corrosive, reasonably soft,
and dheaper than a fully treated supply.
Base exchange treatment does not reduce TDS aid it works well only on clear water with a
low iron content (0.5 ingll). Chlorination should not precede softening. Base exchange will
not reduce high co~~centrations of sulphates or chlorides and all treated water should be
checked to see that these remain at acceptable levels. The advmt'~gesof this method of
softening are its simplicity and the fact that it produces no solid sludge.

1.7.g Removal of Iron and Manganese

Ira1 wld Manganese occur in certain under ground waters and springs, either alone or in
z.ssotiation with organic matter, iron being generally predominant, when they are together.
They could also be found in surface waters occasionally. Iron :u~dMang:uiese are also found
in sOlution in water derived from near the botto~nof deep lakes, where reducing conditions
develop. These are usually seasonal. The presence of iron in water can also be clue to the
cliscl~argeof ir~dustrialefflue~~ts
or mine discharge.
Iron and Manganese in ground waters are attributed to the dissolution of rocks and minerals
chiefly oxides, sulphides, carbonates and silicates of these ~netals.This dissolution is enhanced
by die presence of carbon-dioxide present in ground water.
Iron and Manganese causes discoloratio11 of water, stain laundry, imparc tastes aid encourage
the growth of certain bacteria. If the iron content of water exceeds 0.3 mgll. It 1s regarded as
'
objectionable and efforts sl~ouldbe made to remove it. It exists 111 solution in the ferrous
stat@,often as ferrous carbonate xld can only exists in the absence of oxygen auld generally
where the pH is below 6.5.
Treatment for the removal of iron consists of i~itroducingoxygen :uid raising the pH. This
cha~gesthe iron from the soluble ferrous state to the insoluble ferric state Fe (OH)3. The iron
precipitates and c a i be settled out aid filtered in the usual way. The reaction tune for
conversion from ferrous to ferric state is about 5 rninutes or less at a pH of 7 to 7.5 and 0.14
mg d oxygen is needed to convert 1 mg Fe to Ferric hydroxide a? indicated below.
 Water Supply

1 mg Fe = 0.14 mg 0 2

The rate of oxidation of Fe by aeration is slow under conditiol~sof low pH increa5iug 100%
for every unit rise of pH. Increased aeration tinle would be necess:e for sttippilig the &arbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphidc. Addition of lime can also raise the pH of water.
Maigaiese removal requires a pH adjustment upto 9.4 to 9.6. upto 0.29 mg of oxygen is
needed to convert 1 mg manganese.
2
6~11'+ + 0 2 +6 H2 0 7 2 Mil3 0 4 + 12 H+
2
2 Mn3 O4 + 2 0 2 r 6 Mn 0 2 .(black)

1 mg ~ n "$ 0.29 mg 0 2

Tlie best oxidizing agent for removing manganese is pota.ssium pcrmanlgmate which will
precipitate the manganese when the pH is above 6.5. Prechlorination to free residual values
upto 0.7 to 1.0 mgA will also effect tlie oxidation and precipitation of manganese.
Removal of both iron and manganese is enhaiced in catalytic filters. Water 1s allowed to
trickle over coke or crushed stone. Tlie depositioli of hydrated oxides of iron and.rnu~gancse
and bacteria on the contact media is believed to act as catalysts which accelerate the oxidation
oC iron and miulgaiese. Often a normal sand filter will act as a catalytic filter after the bed
lias become suitably seeded with iron aid manganese.

1.7.3 Removal of Fluorides

Fluorides are sometimes found in natural water. Tlicir ilnportance relates to their effect on
dental decay. In concentrations of about 1 mgll they are wholly beneficial and statistics
indicate that they reduce decay of teeth particularly among children. In concentrations above 3
to 5 mg/l, however, mottlir1g of the teeth occurs and reduction of tlie fluorides becomes
desirable. In Indian conditions wberc the temperatures are high, tl~eoccurrellce and severity of
mottling increases when the fluoride levels exceed 1 mgll. With higher levels skeletal or bone
flurosis witli its crippling effects are observed.
The chief sources of fluorides in nature are :
i) Fluorapatite (Phosphate rocks),
ii) Fluorspar,
iii) Cryolite, and
iv) Igneous rocks containing fluoro silicatas.
Fluorides are present mostly in ground waters and high concentrations are found in the p'ms
of Andllra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kemla, Madhya Pradesh,
Mahxashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu in the country. While majority of values
mnge from 1.5 to 6 mgA some values as high a.s 16 to 18 mg/l and in one instance even 36
mgll have been reported. Fluoride removal can be done using fluoride exchangers like
tricalcium phosphate or bone meal, anion exchangers, activated carbon, magnesium salts or
alumiiiium salts.
E
Aluminium salts like filter alum aid activated aluminium and alum treated cation exclianpers
have shown beneficial effects.
Alum during coagulation brings about some removal of tluorides from water. The ranoval
efficiency is improved when used along with a coagulant aid like activated silica and clay.
Ordi~iarily,300 to 500 mgA of durn is required to bring down fluoride from 4.0 mgll 10
1.0 mgll. wliile with coagulant aid, the fluorides were reported to be reducrc4 from 6 to 1.0
mgll, with alum dose of only 100 mgA.
NEERI has developed a sunple treatment technique knowi as Nalgonda teclinique for tl~e
remnoval of fluoride. It involves the use of aluminium salts for the removal of fluorides. It
consists of either precipitation, settling and filtration or precipitation, flotatior~aid filtration
and can be used for domestic as well as comnrinity yater supply schemes.
Buildfng S4.dces -1 The dorbestic Ueaunent scheme consists of addition of alum, lime, bleaching powder to 40
liues of \raw water in a bucket then mixing for 10 minutes, and allowing the tlocs to settle for
The clarified water is fit for drinking. If the fluoride content in water is 5 mgA and
300 mgn, the quantity of alum required to treat 40 litres of water if 205 mgA.
Manud page 293, Table 9.5 gives details of alum doses-required for various
concendtiulls of fluoride and alkalinity of raw water, for UeaPnent of 40 lims of water by
the Nalgbnda technique.
Fluorides1 clan also be removed by an ion exchange resin - strongly basic formaldehyde resin
quatenlark ammonium type in hydroxide or chloride fonn. But their efiiciency is lowered in
the preseqce of other aiions like bicarbonates, hydroxides, and sulphates in the water.
The ~algbndaTedmique has several advantages over the fixed bed ion exchange processes. It
does not involve regeneration of media and employs chemicals which are readily av,&ble
and easy to operate and maintain using local skills. Colour, odour, turbidity, bacteria and
I
organic cqntaminants also get removed sirnultanec>usly. I

1.7.4 Algae Control

Algae are fnicro~co~ic_~hotos~ithetic pla~tswhich under certain circumstances, may produce
very profube growths called "blooms" in lakes and reservoirs used for water supply. Algae
give rise t i a variety of troubles in water supplies. They impart odours and ti*tes to Ule
water. Synbra causes a petceptible odour. Asterionella meridion and Tabel'aria produce
aromatic oiiour. Algae like Nitells Geratium and Synura give rise to hitter taste while algae
sucli as Chwa, Euglena microcystic, Cryptomonos, Aphanizomenon and Gompl~osphaeria
impact swept taqte to water. In addition some, cyanobacteria can produce neurotoxins or
hepatotoxin(smlich are not effectively removed by ordinary water treatment. These toxins
have been &socialed with liyestock deaths and more recently, hum'm illness.

1
Algae inter ere in the process of flocculation and sediment?tion. They buoy up the flocs aid
carry into f lters. They choke the filters and as a result reduce the filter runs. Some species of
algae an p k s through slow sand and rapid sand filters. These algae in distribution systems
cause biolo$ical corrosion. It is possible to remove the taste-and odour-causing materials and
the toxlns bb activated carbon ,adsorption. However, cost of treatment will be high.

Algae growfl~is illfluet~cedby a number of factors such as :

i) Nutkients like nitrogen and phosphorus,
ii) ~vdilabilit~of sunlight,
iii) Cllqxcter of the reservoir, and
\
iv) ~erdperature.
Algae can bk killed by vialing the water with chemicals. The commonly used algicides are
copper sulfate and chlorine. The dosage of copper sulfate required depends upon tile species
of algae aidlis as low as 0.07 ppm to a$ high as 5.0 ppm. Tlie dosage of chlorine varies
from 0.3 to 4 ppm.
The use of cb~orineto prevent d g d is probably not desirable, since the waters in
reservoirs a16l lakes can be expected to contain the precursors of the THMs (Trihalometllanes). +

Treabnent of !water reservoirs with algicides has several disadvmL?ges viz.

i) The pose of chemical required is greater than needed, if the treatment is adopted at
tlie ihcipient smges of growth,
ii) The bead algae decay and produce acute odour prohlerns.
iii) The dead algae provide a pabulum fix a second crop which are gellerally more
prolihic than the first and also more resiscnt to die action of algicides. It is therefore
prefelable to take all possible measures to discourage tlle growlh of algae :md to'
resede the use of algicides a5 a find treatment.
 Water Supply
1.8 TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL OF SLUDGE AND
WASTE WATER PRODUCED FROM WATER
TREATMENT PLANTS
Disposal of waste waters produced from the water treatment plan& has become iscrea~isply
impomit with tlie r~eedfor protection of environment. Botl~solid and liquid wastes art:
produced from water treatment plants. Clarifiers or settling ta11ks we the source of sludge
resulting from cl~emicalcoagulation. Back wash of RSF and pressure t-dters cc>nlaursdebris.
chemical precipitates, strainings and organic debris etc., constituting a high amount ot
suspended solid5 initially, which progressively reduces with the duration of backwash.
The disposal of sludge and back wash waters from a water treatment piG+ depends on local
fxtors. Generally following methods of disposal are practised:
i) Disposd into municipal sewer, water course, or river
ii) Lagooning,
iii) Reclamation and recirculation after treatment.
In lagooninp, liquid wastes are allowed to clarify 'in a lagoon or settling tank. Water before
\ntering the lagoon or settling tank is pretreated by addition of suitable coagulants. The
clarified water can be then either he reused by mixing it with raw water and suhjwted 10
Credment or disposed into municipal sewer or drain or in a water course downsirelm of die
'water treatment plant.
'lie sludge from the lagoons and or settling mIks are treated so to reduce its water content to
about 60-700X1,using sludge thickeners and applied on said beds (sludge drying hcds). The
dried sludge is generally used as land fills.
Lirne-soda process of softening produces a large amount of sludge tliat results in disposa!
problems. In addition to disposal into water courses, municipal sewers, and lagooning,
recralciuing of sludge is some times practiced in large plants where large quantities of sludge
are produced. Recalcining is the recovery of calcium oxide by burning.
The liquid brine waste obtained after regeneration of base exchanger is rich in magnesium and
calcium chlorides and should not be discharged into any stream which does not provide
atleast 50:1 dilution so that the chloride concentration in the stream does not excoed 500
mgtl. Great care in disposal is required to ensure that Uiere is no pollution of surface or
ground water sources, as the salt conce~ltrationmay be as high as 20,000 mgh in the liquid
waste leavillg the plant. One of the method5 to dispose such wastes with high TDS is
disposal on 'Solar Evaporators'.
Solar evaporators are "pans" or beds, where liquid is applied and allowed to eva,Dorate under
~laturalconditions. The dried salt, then is disposed of in any co~~venie~ltmanner :suitable to
local conditions.
During rainy season also the solar evaporators can perfonn very well, if they cue covere(1 with
glass. The glass roof not only protects the beds from rain but also helps in maintaining w~unl
temperature iliside which helps in evaporation of the liquid.

7-

1.9 MAINTENANCE OF WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Ancient civilizatious had always centred around the vicinity of great rivers wlrich sufipliwl
water to the community. The industrialisatio~~ and tecllnolog~caladvance have ta~lghtmiul lo
develop community living and urbanisation at a particular place not ~lecessarilyguided bv
availability of natural rivers and lakes but by pumping tile water frorn wherever it is av:dlahlr
* to his place of living. The iudustrialisation 11% brought in its wake large stale pllution rrl.
rivers, ground water and air wbicll affect both urban and rural co~nmmities111 sornt. form or
other.
developing counuies the non availBility of wholescjme potfile w a r
a
n z ~ o r i t y01' the population remains a scourge. ~ o i ~ u u oofn water courses aid ground water
which act as drinking water source is pharily rilused by disposd of ~fl&!;ld Or ~mkl')'
weaced 'ewage into water courses a d OII lmd, Water b ~ o m e s
WL'mlsms due to fa%&
m d u scftlucnur.h~ D~ to .i,s~ reaSOexcretions hodl bman pfi&)tf,jjc
' * m u . ne
I % Y

fiere 1s very close hm,ad i l ~ & j r ~ I e

d ?d . .
ngjnee, a
on,s,lb
' mlnlshtori1jCharn, -,
klwe@l Waf~ran,! ,I,
Building Services - I
system has n very respnsible role to play on the health of the coin~nunity.It is not merely
supplying the vvpter within the i~ldividualhouse-hold, the water sllould be wllolesome,
palatable neitller corrosive nor scale-fonning and free from disease-causing org.anisms and
toxic substanys,
1.9.1 Diseases Due to Insanitary Conditions
The vector dikases can be grouped under this category. Dirty water pools and stagnant fresh
water under fqvourable environs support insect vectors like mosquitoes and flies. The
following disejlses are transmitted by mosquitoes.
1) Mala&
2) Various forms of fi!a%asis,
3) Yellow fever,
4) Dengue,

1.9.2 Presenke of Toxic Metals arid Non-Metals in Water

In some cases cel-tain toxic metals and chemicals may be present in the w-'~ter in small
quantities. Such toxic materials can accumulate in the organs of the body and when it exceeds
the limit, may prdduce symptoms of diseae.
It is in this aspect that the routine periodical laboratory testing of the physical, chemical and
bacteriological qugity of water sampled from salient parts of the water supply system,
namely, the source, treatment plant, clear water stomge tanks, distribution system, places of
gatherings like school, hospitals, hostels and selected quarters to represent tl1e entire campus
comes as a handy Wol for the Water Works Engineer to know the healthy condition of the
system itself and tl~Ptof the quality of water supplied.
Most of tl~eabove diseases can be prevented by ensuring water supply of satisfactory quality
and hygienic environment by providing satisfactory sewerage, sewage treatment and disposal
of effluents without contaminating water supplies. Solid waste collection and disposal system
also deserves due c q e to maintain healthy environmental conclitions. The Mainten'ance
Engineer and his stdf have an important role to play to ensure the same.

1.9.3 Preventive )and Remedial Steps for Prevention of Pollution

Wherever an analytid report indicates bacterial contamination, the following remedial steps
are to be taken.
a) Inspection to Locate Points of Pollution
Intensive inspection hati to be carried out by the Maintenance Engineer Incharge of Water
Supply to trace out soarces of pollution if any, causing the bacterial pollution in the water.
Normally, the pollution sources may be
i) shgnant sewage or polluted water around water pipelines,
ii) leakages in pip@lineswhere the polluted water may be sucked in by the pipelines
through joints due to negative pressure in the distribution mains,
iii) sluice valve pits where dirty water is collected and the valve is submerged etc. Lack
of cleaning of overhead (OH) tanks on buildings, and of filters attached to water
coolers may result in bacterial pollution. Pollutions, if my, traced out during
inspection have to be stopped immediately.
b) Cleaning, Disinfectidn and Flushing
Whether any source of pollution is traced out or not, action has to be taken for cleaning and
disinfection cf the clear water storage tanks, individual OH tanks of quarters and office
buildings. Concerned distribution pipelines have to be disinfected and flushed by applying a
high dosage of chlorine. disinfection of a distributioil system needs a dosage of 50 parts per
million (ppm) of chlorine to be applied to the water, retention of water for a period of at least
four hours and' the11 flushing out the high chlorine water coicnpletely. Whenever such
disinfection of water mains1 are undertaken, suitable instruct;ions are to be given to the
comsumers not to use the high chlorinated water. Normally, such disinfection work is to be
ul~dertakenduring sight times only so as not to cause any iK\co~\ve~i~e~~ce to the ~ollSumeTs.
 --

Water Supply
Even after flushing the high chlorine water, the consumers are to be kept informed to run tlie
water to the waste till they get water free from strong smell of chlorine.
c) Confirmative Sample Testing
After completion of the remedial action, a confirmative sample has to be collected in the
place where the earlier sample has indicated bacterial pollution.
d) Preventive Measures
To prevent bacterial pollution of water, it is necessary that preventive periodical cleaning and
disinfection of water supply system is introduced for all housing colonies and also for other
non-residential and office buildings and disinfection of clear water storage tanks, elevatzd
reservoirs, individual OH tanks and dismbution systems may have to be done at least once in
3 to 6 months or more frequently depending 011 tlle test results.

1.9.4 Protection of Sources of Water Supply

i) Infiltration Well
The fresh ground water available in scandy aquifers of shallow depths are used for drinking
and other purposes by constructing infiltration wells. Water that percolates into the wells
through the porous blocks or weep holes in the well straining and through the bottom of well
undergoes natural filtration through the soil or s'andy aquifers. Water abstracted from
idiltration wells constructed in good sandy aquifers provide clear water having turbidity less
than 10 and of reasonably acceptable chemical quality when contamination due to presence of
iron, manganese, fluorides, nitrates etc., are not present and if the soil is not saline. Such well
waters could be chlorinated to ensure satisfactory bacterial quality and can be used for
drinking 'and other purposes without any more treatment. Specific treatment may have to be
provided when the water contains high turbidity, iron, manganese, fluorides etc. Some
precautionary measures are necessary to prevent contamination of the well water and sand
blowing into wells. Timely action has to be taken for regulation of pumping during dry
seasons. Safety precautions are necessary to prevent accidents due to drowning.
ii) Environmental Condition of the Wells
The entire premises of the water works area shall be maintained in a neat, tidy and hygienic
condition. In a protected water supply system care has to be taken to prevent willful,
accidental or natural pollution of water. The area should be fenced and entrance gate shall be
kept always locked and only authorised persoils shall be allowed inside water works. Cattle
should be prevented from entering the water works premises. No person shall be allowed to
get inside a well and come in contact with water. Care should be taken to see that there is no
stagnation of water around the wells. A platform of 1.2 m width may be provided x ~ ~ u nthe d
well using compacted gravel to prevent direct seepage of water from GL ill round tlie sitles
of well. The well must be completely covered and inspection manholes shall be imtnediately
closed after inspection, and kept under lock and key. No refuse or collection of dirt siiall be
disposed near waterworks premises. Usage of cow dung manure, insecticides and chemical
fertilizers are forbidden for [any plants grown in the waler works premises within a radius of
20 meters around the infiltration well. Daily in the morning the inspection manhole cover
shall be opened and the well must be inspected with the aid of a torch for any floating
matter. Disposallapplication of sewage, w s t e waters, effluent from. septic tanks, wa5te oils,
insecticides and pesticides etc. within 100 metres radius; of well should not be allowed.
fii) Prevention of Sand Blow into Wells
Excessive drawal of water from infiltration wells results in sand blow into wells. Therefore it
1s necessary to rest the yield capacity of the well and the rate of drawal of water from the
,i
i
well restricted to the yield of well. However due.to depletion of water table during dry
seasons the yield of well will be further reduced. Hence it is a good practice to restrict drawal
at a single stretch of pumping to about 1.5 m drawdown and stop the pump thus allowing for
1
I recouperation of water in the well. This is desirable:,particularly in respect of wells at
, locations where quick sand conditions are found to occur. A minimum of 1 5 m depth of
water may be always left unpumped in wells.
Periodical inspection of soil around well will show any inflow of sand into well taking place,
which will be revealed by subsidence of soil around the outer surface of well steining.
Unusually high subsidence of soil around well should be immediately investigated for flow of
2;.f
Building Services - sand thrdugli well bottom of my weep holes ald corrective action taken. Such weep holes
permittink sand flow shall be plugged by injecting cement slurry through a GI pipe lowered
to appropriate level below GL adjacent to the well around the outer surface of well steining.
The flow of sand occurring at the bottom of well must be prevented by reducing t l ~ erace of
drawal of water from the well either by throttling the pump discharge or by providing a lower
discliargel capacity pump to suit the yield of the well. About 60 cin depth of graded stone
jelly 15 - 50 mm shall be provided at the well bottom to check ingress of sand.
iv) Safety to Workmen and Other Lives
As a ruld no workman should he allowed to get into the well who does not know swimming.
When ne/xssity arises for a workman to enter into the well to attend to maintenance work,
persons knowing swimming shall only be deployed for such work who should be provided
with a safety rope and two workmen shall be readily available at top of well near the
manhole peeping into the well to rescue the worktnan inside on his signaling for assistance.
The well shall be effectively ventihted prior to sending a workmarl inside.
11
I

Manhole cover on the well roof shall be kept under lock and key at all tunes to prevent
accidents and safety against contamination.
Access t~ well by children and unauthorised persons should be forbidden.
, v) Prevlentive Maintenance
a) Any openings in the well cover shall be properly covered. Ventholes shall be
protected by mosquito proof wire mesh to prevent breeding of mosquitoes.
II
b) MS be'ms, joints supporting the suction piping shall be painted once in a year or

c)
Fore frequently as may be necessary.
Cast Iron suction pipes may not require frequent painting. GI pipes may require
iI
timely replacement. I
d) $oot valves in suction pipes may be of cast iron or brass and checked at least once
in a year by removing the last piece of flanged pipe under water a ~ checking
d the
Condition of valve and the condition of submerged pipe, aid anticorrosive bituminous
paint coating given for the under water piping.

1.9.5 Maintenance of Tube Wells

i) Satisfactory yield of a tube well for a long period of years depends on the correct
inst~lation,provision of strainer of appropriate size in relation to tlie grain size of sandy
aquifer. development of tlie well by surging for removal of fine smd and back washing
the well, testing the yield of the well for the permissible drawdown and installing correct'
capacity of pump to match the yield of well.
ii) Sanitary Sealing
For all drinking water tube wells it is necessary that the annular space between the bore
ald the housing pipe be cement grouted upto at least 5 In below ground level or upto
first impermeable layer like clay bed. 'This prevents vertical seepage of polluted surface
water along the outer surface of the casing of tube well and contami~~ating the ground
water. In gravel packed tube wells, two gravel feeding pipes on either side of the housing
pipe should be provided to the full depth of the foundation.
iii) Faildre of the Wells and the Remedizrl Measures
The clogging of wells by in flow of sand or by corrosio~ior incruskition of the strainer
may reduce the yield very greatly. Wells may be readily cleaned of sand by meals of a
sand pump or bucket. If the c1ogging.i~due to fine sand collecting outside the tube, it
.
may be removed to some extent by forcing water into tlie wells under high pressure, or
by use of a hose or by other suitable means. Sometimes instead of the yield of a well
becoining less tluougli continual operation, it is actually increased owing probably to the
gradjlal removal of the fine material in~mediatelysurroundiilg tlle well.
iv) surgbng of Well
surging is done to dislodge clogging and incrusting material from the screen immediately
after a well has been surged, it should be strongly and continuously pumped until d l *
dislqged material has been removed. Otherwise, the improvement resulting from surging
 Water Supply
will be only temporary. Surging is not always successful aid occasionally it may cause
Dermanent damage.
In surging with a plu~iger,the dmp pipe is removed from the well and a solid pluliger fittiog
the wells casing pipe is lowered beneath the water in b e well. The plunger is attached to a
well rip and is moved violently up aid down as in spudding, wusiag water to ~ushinto iuld
out of the well through the screen. By placing a check valve in the plunger, water can
. - he

forced through the sc&n in one direction only. If the top of the well casing is sealed,
compressed air can be discharged into it to force water violelltly back through the screen. If
air is permitted to flow through the aquifcr, it may cause "air-logging" or clogging of the
aquifer with pockets of air.
Chemicals such as acids, chlorine and sodium hexametaphosphate may be added to a well for
tl~epurpose of dissolving or dislodging clogging material or incrustation on the screen or in
the sand surrounding the screen.

1.9.6 Operation and Maintenance of Pumping Stations

Operation of water pump sets at the specified timings is an important requirement to provide
satisfactory water supplies. Any breakdown to water pump sets affects the water storage and
distribution. Hence the water pumpsets require special efforts for maintaining them in trouble
free co~iditionwhich depends 011 several factors like correct installation aid commissioning,
routilie preventive maintenance of pump and motor, correct method of operational, keeping
ilecessary spare parts in ready stock, timely breakdown maintenance and trained staff elc.
i) If proper care is taken initially in erection of pumpsets many of the operational problems
can be avoided. Alignment of base plate, coupling between pump and motor, method
fixing base plate on the concrete foundation and antivibration mountings in case of large
ciapacity pumpsets ;Ire factors which prolong the life of'a new pump arid idso reduce
maintenance costs.
ii) Using the right lubricant as recommended by the manufacturer will greatly prolong the
life of bearings. Grease lubrication for all bearings or roller bearings will have to he done
during commissionirig and later periodically.

' 1.9.7 Routine Schedule of Preventive Maintenance

Instruction for routine schedule of preventive maintenance to be carried out by the shift
operators and helpers shall be given in advance to tlie operating staff of the plant. Operator in
shift shall be instructed to make routine checks of d l equipment5 and make necessary
adjustments for smooth running of the plant at the comme1icement of his shift duty and aiy
equipment breaking down in a particular shift shall be so recorded in the log book 'and
intimated to the next shift operator and informed to the Engineer-in-cliarge.
Chlorination Practice
a) Free Residual dE Combined Residual Chlorine
The type of available chlorine residual required and the characteristics of the water being
treated determine the process of disinfection to be employed or maintained. In
chlorination practice, irrespective of the point of application, may be classified as free
available residual chlorination (i.e. breakpoint or super-chlorination) or combined residual
chlorinatioii, depending on the nature of the chlorine residual formed.
b) Free Avaihble Residual Chlorination
' (Plain or simple chlorinarion)
This involves the application of chlorine to water as the only type of treament to afford the
necessary public health protection. Plain chlorination c'm be carried out ill situations wllere
i) turbidity and colour of the raw water is low, (not exceeding 5 to 10 JTU) and
chemical characteristics are of acceptable standard.
ii) raw water is drawn from relatively u~ipollutedsources, and
iii) water contains little organic matter and iron and manganese do not exceed 0.3 mgll.
or
Ser
iv) sufiicient contact period between the point of clilorination and tlle consumer end is
available.
'c) Super-chlorination
This is adopteq in cases of an emergency like a break-down or in case of waters which
are heavily polluted or fluctuate rapidly in quality. It can give excellent results in water
where,
i) Plain chlotination produces taste & odour;
ii) The water is coloured; or
iii) Iron and rllranganese have to be oxidized
It may he resorted to on special occasions, wnen available contact time is limited, at the
preclilorination stage. Super-chlorination can effectively destroy the relatively resistant
organisms such as viruses and amoebic cysts. The dose of chlorine may be as high as 10 to
15 mgll with contact period of 10 to 30 minutes. Excess chlori~iewill liave to be
dechlorinated.

Addition of chlorine1to ammonia in water produces clilorami~ieswhicli do not have the same
efficiency as free chlorine. If the chlorine dose in this water is increased, a reductio~iin the
residual chlorine occbrs, due to the destruction of chloramine by the added chlorine.
The elid products do not represent any residual chlorine. This fall in residual chlorine will
continue with further increase of chlorine dose and after a stage, h e resldual chlorine begins
to increase in proporpon to the added dose of chlorine. This point at which free residual
chlorine appears and when all combined chlorines have been completely destroyed is the
break-point and correbponding dosage is the break-point dosage. Break-point chlorination
achieves the same re$ults as super chlorination in a rational manner aid can therefore be
constructed as controlled super chlorination.
e) Dechlorination
When super chlorination is employed, the water usually contains excess of free available
chlorine which must be removed before it becomes acceptable to consumers. Dcchlorillation is
the partial or complete reduction of undesirable excess chlorine in water by any chemical or
physical treatment. ,
Prolonged storage and adsorption on charcoal, granulated carbon and activated carbon are
effective. Also reduciqg compounds like sulphur-di-oxide, sodium thiosulphite and sodium
bisulphite are frequenqy used as dechlorinating agents. Dechlorination by sulphur-dioxide and
its derivates is feasible, rapid and precise. About one part of SO2 (by weight) is required for
each part of chlorixle to be removed, the reaction yielding HC1 or H2 SOa.
f) Combined Availible Residual Chlorination
This method involves the application of chlorine to water to produce with natural or added
ammonia, a combined available chlorine residual and to maintain the residual tl~ouglipart of
all of a water treatmeqt plant or distribution system. They are less effective disinfectaits and
oxidants than free available chlorine forms. The residual, however, will persist much longer
than free available chlbrixie, which has a tendency to diffuse and be lost. A minimum of 30 to
60 minutes contact tinle must be provided before delivery of tile consumer. Depending upon
the characteristics of water this can be accomplished a$ follows:
1) application of chlorine only, if sufficient ammonia is present ill the water;
2) addition of bdth chlorine and ammonia if it contains little aminonia: or
3) addition of a&nonia if free available residual chlorine is already present in water.
This practice is useful ;after filtration for controlling algae and bacterial aftergrowths, for
reducing red water troqbles in distribution systems at dead ends and for providing and
maintaining a stable rwidual throughout the distrihutidn system.
g) Points of Chlorination
The use of chlorine at ]various stages of water supply system right fro~nwater collection to
the distribution network is a common practice and terms like pre post a ~ rechlorination
d have
come into common usage depending upon the points at which chlorine is applied.
I
11) Prechlorination Water Supply

Prechlorination is the application of chlorine to water prior to any unit treatment process. The
point of applicatioi~as well as tl~edosage will be determined by the objectives viz, coi~trolof
biological growths in raw water conduits, promotion of improved coagulation, prevention of
mud ball and slime fonnation in filters, reduction of taste, odour and colour and minimising
the post chlorination dosage when dealing with the heavily polluted water.
i) Post Chlorination
Post chlorination is the application of chlorine to water before it enters the distributio~isystem
to maintain tl~erequired amount of free chlorine.
j) Rechlorination
When the distribution system is long and complex, it may be difficult to maintain the
minimum chlorine residual of 0.2 mgn at the farthest end unless a very high dosage is
applied at the postchlorination stage, which would, apart from being costly m'ake the water
unpalatable, at the reaches close to the point of chlorination. The maintenar~ceof the required
residual in such cases can be accomplished by a stagewise application of cl~lorinein the
distribution system which is called rechlorination. Recldorination is carried out in service
reservoirs, booster pumping st~tionsor at points where the mains supply to distributioii zones.
k) Chlorine Residual
Satisfactory disinfection is obtained by prechlorination to maintain 0.3 to 0.4 mgA free
available residual throughout treatment, or 0.2 to 0.3 mgn free available residual in the plant
effluent at nonnal pH values. At higher pH of 8 to 9, atleast 0.4 mgll a.required for
complete bacterial kill with 10 minutes contact time and for 30 minutes contact time tlie
dosage reduces to 0.2 to 0.3 mgll.
1) Application of Chlorine
i) Chlorine can be applied to water by three methods:
a) by the addition of a weak solution prepared from bleaching powder, calcium
hypochlorite Ca (OCl)2 , 4 H2 0, etc., for disinfecting small quantities of water;
b) by the addition of 'a weak solution of clilorine prepared by electrolysing a
solution of brine, where electricity is cheap; or
c) by the addition of chlorine, either in gaseous fonn or in the form of a solution
made by dissolving gaseous chlorine in a small auxiliary flow of water the
chlorine being obtained from cylinden containing the gas under pressure.
The third method is the common practice i11 public water supplies and the first
method for small systems.

1.9.8 Maintenance of Distribution System

Distribution system has the likelihood of getting contamiiiated causing secondary pollutioii of
once treated water before it reaches the consumers. Hence the distribution system needs and
deserves a careful maintenance.
i) Routine Inspection
A complete inspection of the distribution system and pumping mains shall be made once in a
month and a swvey must be made for leakages in the disuibution system, sluice valves, fire
hydrauts, scour and air valves. Undefground leakages in a distribution system is generally
indicated by dampness, flooding of water and extra growth ot vegetation above the pipe line,
at the place of leak. Leakage frequently occurs in house service ferrule connections. A record
shall be mai~itainedto indicate the major repairs and leakages occurred with reasons for the
same wh~cllcan be used to check unaccounted water loss in the system and to have a close
check on these leakage prone points. Scour valves shall be operated and dirty water let out
once in a month. G h l d packing in sluice valves should be replaced once in 3 to 6 montlls or
more frequently depending on the leakage in gland, frequency of operation of valve etc.
Excess leakages in air valves shall be attended to in time.
Buildillg Services - I ii) Disinfection of Mains
Dead ends of disbbution system-shall be provided with scouring arrangement and the same
shall be scoured (every month. Disinfection of water mains may be carried out atleast once in
six months or mbre frequently when some epidemic is prevalent in and around the area. New
distribution systebs before commissioning should be disinfected as prescribed in specifications
for laying CI pipesIGI pipes.
iii) Maintainin# Updated Plan of Pipelines Laid
A plan showing iunderground cables and underground pipe lines (sewer and water) should be
maintained by d e Engineer-in-charge. While attending to repair work, care has to be taken
not to tamper with the which may result in hazardous acadents. In such cases if
necessary, a power shut down will have to be taken.
iv) Zero or ~ e i a t i v ePressure in Distribution Mains
The practice of providing intermittent water supply hours is not a desirable system as it gives
rise to zero or negative pressure in water mains whenever the outlet valves of elevated service
reservoirs are clpsed and the system is not charged with pressure; when water is continued to
be drawn from b w level points of distribution system negative pressures develop in the i

system. As no distribution system is completely water tight negative pressure in the water
mains leads to the entrance of polluted ground water. When the distribution mains pass
through dirty pdols of water the chances of pollution of the system is enhanced. Unfortunately
intermittent wa@r supply system is forced on tlle authorities due to indiscriminate water use
by the consumers, lack of system to levy charges for the water consumed and in some cases
due to shortage of water.
v) Cross Con~ections
No direct connection should be-made between the piping of distribution systems and
nonpotable water supply, e.g. to cooling systems of machines and AC plants, flushing tanks
of sewers, flusliing valves of water closets, urinals etc., as this will leak to back siphonage
and contaminat$m of potable water supply system at times of creation of negative pressures
in the system. qeence it is necessary to get plumbing work, water and sewer mains in all
buildings and pkemises executed strictly in accordance with construction drawings prepared to
satisfy ISI/National Plumbing Codes.
vi) Dead Ends of Mains
Dead ends of distribution mains prevent the circulation of water in mains and accumulates
dirt and organi4 matter resulting in unhygienic conditions. Hence it is preferable to group the
distribution sysbem into a closed ring systenl. Where it is not possible for reasons of economy
the dead ends *ill be provided with scour valves. The outlet end of scour valve shall be fixed
well above ground to prevent entry of surface water into the system. Scour valves shall also
be installed at kll valley points of distribution system. Scour valves shall be operated on a
routine schedut periodically to let out accumulated dirt and sediments. The periodicity of
letting out water from scour valves may be fixed so as to ensure residual chlorine at dead end
service connections.
vii) Inspecti04 of Interior of Pipes
The inner surf$ce of piping exposed, during attending to repairs in mains, should be inspected
to check the effectiveness or necessity of corrosion prevention measures, presence of slime
organisms, iroe and manganese deposits etc.
viii)The qualit) of water reaching the consumers depends on the supervision, maintenance.
operation bnd laboratory control of the whole supply including the distribution system
. which particularly has a large scope to result in contamination of tlle treated water before
it reaches Ithe consumer if it is not properly maintained.

1.9.9 Maiitenance of Ground Level Tanks and Elevated Tanks

i)
4
To prevel t bacterial contamination of water and to maintain hygienic quality of water, it
is necess y tliat the clear water storage tanks are periodically cleaned and disinfected.
The growid level and elevated tanks may have to be cleaned at least once in 3 montla or
more frequently depending on the test results of water samples.
 ii) Procedure for Cleaning Water Supply

A plugramme for cleaning of various ground level and elevated tanks may be prepared
and display boards exhibited near each tank indicating the date of last cleaning and the
date of next cleaning. The men engaged for cleaning have to be imparted necessary
instructions to ensure cleaning rather than contaminating the talks. Those employed foi
cleaning should be free from contagious diseases and should not be carriers of diseases
like Cholera, Typhoid, TB etc. For this purpose it is necessary that tl1e Inen employed for
drinking water tank cleaning are given periodical medical clleckup at least once in 3
months. Those who are engaged for cleaning of sewage installations should not be
permitted a5 a rule to clean the drinking water tanks.
iii) Implements to be IlJsed
Men entering into the tanks should use clean pair of gum boot5 which are washed just
before entering the water tank. Brushes used also must be in clean condition aid
preferably sterilised before each cleaning operation by soaking in bleaclling powder
solution, for about an hour. It is preferable to use hand gloves which are also kept clean
b
and sterilised.
iv) Cleaning Operation
The water level in the tar& Inay be depleted by consuming the water on the previous day
5
before taking up cleaning, to avoid wastage of water. About 75 m m of water can be kept
in the tank to which decanted, clear bleaching powder solution having concentratio11 of 10
ppm chlorine may be added aid the bottom and side walls of the tank scrubbed well
uslng the brush and thoroughly cleaned. Dirty water may be let out to waste by opening
the scour valve. Some more fresh water can be added to the tank and the bottom and
side walls of the tank cleaned and washed thoroughly. On completion of the clm~ing,it
is necessary that thg side walls aid the bottom of the tau& is disinfected using a strong
solution of decanted clear bleaching powder solution having a strength of 50 ppm of
chlorine. Solution may be splashed on the side walls and bottom of the tank by means of
small cans and the entire wall surface and bottom of the tank drenched by the solution.
About one hour of reaction period may be allowed to complete the didnfection to take
place. The tank may be recommissio~ledafter one hour and put into normal use.
v) Safety Precautions
Proper tools and implements a$ indicated above must be used. Usage of gum boots and llarid
gloves are necessary hl order not to contaminate the tank and also to prevent skin irritation to
workmen due to chlorine solution.
a) Tank must be properly ventilated by keeping all manholes in open position when the
cleaning operation is in progress.
b) Un-trained workmen shall not be engaged for cleaning.
c) Workmen shall not be permitted into tank containing water more than 15 cm depth.
d) Water level should be reduced prior to allowing men inside to prevent accidenL5.
e) Guard bars may be provided at the outlet/scour opening provided at the bottom and
side walls of the tank may be checked frequently and maintained in position to
prevent accidents. After cleaning, the manhole covers are to be replaced in position
A 2nd locked.
vi) Leakage Detection Survey of Storage Tanks, Distribution System and Pumping
Mains and Other Installations:
b
1) Leakage detection in distribution system and taking corrective measures is considered an
essential aspect of preventive maintenance of water distribuuon system as it results in two
a ~ j o benefits.
r
a) Preserving the hygienic quality of water in the distribution mains.
b) Providing conditions for adequate flow through the pipe lines.
Hence conducting periodical leakage detection surveys always pays back more than
the efforts put in. Assessment of waste by way of leakage detection and prevention
of waste are the essential steps of leakage detection survey.

45
Building Services -
2) Possible Areas of Wastage of Water
Wastage of water may be caused due to one or more of d ~ efollowulg reasons:
a) Leal<ages from ground level reservoirs/underground reservoirs.
b) Treqtment units of water treament plants which may be partly underground having
unqoticed leakages below ground level.
c) Le&ages in house service pipes, more frequenltly in u11io11joints, aba~donedservice
pipes, dead ends of distribution mains etc.
d) Ov$rflow of water from overhead tanks on buildings and elevated water tanks.
e) Leakages in water taps and gardening water points, flushing cistenls etc.
f) ~ i h and
l ~nadvertentfailure to turn off taps in public buildings, offices and
g d e n i n g water taps in houses and public buildings.
g) Faiiure to close the stop cock of automatic tlushing cistern ot urinals after office
l~oursin offices and public buildings. Unnoticed continuous overflow of water in
flubhing cisterns of water closets.
b) h o t h e r important source of waste noticed in intermittent water supply systems of
housu~gcolonies, where particularly water metering is no1 enforced aid flat rate
chwges are only levied, is tl~etendency of the house holder to keep the taps open
during supply hours and emptying previously stored water to replace by fresh water
during next supply hours. A systematic waste and leakage deleclio~~ survey followed
by prompt corrective action is of paramount importance in bringing about a reduction
in tl~ewastage.
3) Wastage Preventive Measures
The following measures are suggested for general prevention of wastage and leakage of
water indicated above.
a) Gkound LeveVUnderground Water Tanks and Treutment Units in Water Tr~atment
Plants
These structures may be tested for watertightness at least once a year by tilling with
water at a fixed hour and recording the maximum level of water and finding out the
level after 24 hours. In cases of structures showing leakages, corrective action may
be taken depending upon individual structures.
b) Leakages in Valves
The leakages in sluice valves can be attended to by resorting to a preventive
maintenance schedule at periodicities of 1 to 3 mo11th.s for attending to replacing
gland packing, tightening glands nuts, checking valve spindle in case of excessive
leakage etc., and maintaining records.
c) Leakages in Sewice Connection
It is good to excavate and inspect the ferrule connection aid house service pipc to
individual buildings once in five years and attend to the leakages as a preventive
&easure.
d) Overflow of Water from Elevated Tanks
Overflow of water from elevated tiu~kscould be prevented by main&uning the depth
gauge in working condition and putting off tlie pwnp just before the talk is filled. In
uespect of elevated tanks located far off from the pumping stations communication
gver telephone may be necessary. Electronic liquid level indicators inay be installed
iin the pumping stations to show the level of water in elevated &u&swhere the cost
for such installations are not prohibitive. Where none of these facilities are available
intermittent pumping hours may be tried and pumping hours may be so iixed which
will not give rise to overflow of water in elevated water talks.
e) Overflow of Water from Overhead Tanks on Rr~iIclings
In respect of individual overhead tanks on buildings, plumber must be given
jnstructions to go for rounds with a look out to detect such overflow of water from
overhead tanks and provide ball valves for stopping overflow. In respect of housing
polonies the occupants may be requested to record timely complaints whenever
 Water
wastage of water is noticed by them due to failure of float valve in the overliead
tank, leakage of water taps, flushing cisterns and leakages in service pipes and water
mains. A separate complaint recording book may be maintained in the vicinity of the
housing campus at all hours, exclusively to record such complaints and prompt
corrective actions taken.
- f) Creating Public Awarene.ss
Issue of periodical circulars, display of posters, explaining the need to conserve and
prevent wastage of water etc., will create a sense of awareness among consumers and
will definitely result in obtaining cooperation of consumers to prevent wastage of
water in residences, offices, street mains and public fountains.
g) Over$ow of Water in Flushing Cisterns
To prevent wasteful flow of water in urinal flushing cisterns, instructions may be
I issued to the staff who are incharge of cleaning of toilet and sanitary fittings to turn
off the stop cock in the inlet pipe of flushing cistern at the closure of office. The
implementation of these instructions shall be enforced by the officer incharge of
house keeping of the office by surprise checks at few potnts as a routine every week
b
or fortnight. This will result in a large saving of wasteful consumption of water.
Where the availability of municipal water is scarce and costly, untreatedlrecycled
water could be used for flushing cisterns of urinals and water closets. However this
requires vigilant supervision to ensure prevention of cross connectio~isto drinking
water supply system.
t) Assessment of Leakages in Water Mains
h areas of 24 hour supply in residential districts, it is possible to assess the tot71 wastage
occurring both in the water mains and the consumer's premises when the co~isumptionis at a
minimum which is likely to occur at midnight in purely residential areas. The difference
between the minimum night flow in the system and tl~eaccountable flow at midnight divided
by the average daily flow can provide the percentage of waste in an area. Levels of wastage
upto 10% may be considered as low, 10 to 20% as average, 20 to 50% as excessive and over
50% as alarming. Remedial measures are called for above levels of 10%.
In intermittelit supplies, only leakagcs related to walpr mains are assessed. Waste in mains ui
such cases is assessed in a zone by closing all the taps or stop cocks in the house service
connections. The percentage of wastage in intermittent supplies is the ratio of the flow in the
mains (with stop cocks or tap closed) to the average daily domestic consumption.
In small water supply systems fed by an elevated service reservoir the assessment of waste
could be done relatively easier. The work may be taken up after the days supply to all
quarters and buildings are over. The house service connection ferrules or stop cocks or inlet
valves to overhead tanks may be systematically closed and men to supenvise the same kept at
salient zones by dividing the campus into coiivenient numbers of zones wllicli could be
inspected by a crew of an engineerlor volunteer and a plumber. All sluice valves and other
fittings in the system shall be checked for water tightness and no leakage. After ensuring
closure of all consumer connections the central elevated tank which is already filled to a fixed
level may be opened at a stipulated time and the distribution system kept chilrgcd with
pressure. Any distribution system will have some amount of le'akage. The drop in level of the
elevated tank may be recorded every 15 minutes for a minimum period of 6 horns. The drop
in water level every 15 minutes and quantum of water that has gone out of the tank per hour
can be computed.
In case of long pumping mains leakage can be assessed by metering the water pumped into
the main and again metering at the tail end. The water meters should be &?librated before
hand and the metre errors sliould be correctly estimated.
 OF
1.10 M O ~ I T O R I N ~ TREATED WATER QUALITY
Is this Water Slafe to Drink ? This is the question that a consumer asks. It is to be stated that
accidents can and do happen. Both water sources and the water in the distribution system can
get contaminatGd making the water unsafe to drink. There are a number instances where the
sewage from ttie sewerage system had mixed up with the potable water carrying pipelines and
had resulted in epidemic of water borne diseases, like gastroentritis, cholera, typhoid etc. Even
in developed cbuntries like UK, USA, such accldenL4 contunalation of potable water had
taken place. Tlie Drinking Water Inspectorate in UK reported 34 accide~lts111 1990 which
resulted in the microbial contamination of potable water due to operational problems with the
dislntectant prbcess or due to cont;.unil~~tion
at the service reservoir within the distribution
system. These were swiftly dealt with by the water supply compaiiies aid consumers were
asked to boil heir water while the problem was being resolved. Another 20 acc~dents
involved contamination by pesticides, nitrates, clllorinated solvents. and increased aluminium
levels due to dperational problems at treatment pl'ants. Hence to detect such accidental
contamination of water in distribution system and to judge the perform;llice of the water
treatment plant, it is necessary to monitor the water quality at vcarious stages hll water reaches
the consumer pips. Laboratories with adequate facihties aid manned by qualified personnel
are essenhal t$r inspection and evaluation of water quality.
Tests carried $ut in the laboratory are intended to assess the quality and classify tlie raw
water to be trtpted, to determine the need and extent of treatment, to check whether water has
been properly $preparedfor each phase of treatment process according to plan, and to examine
the finished water to ascertain that it conforms to the standard.
Other objectives of regular testing of water are
i) dete&inatioil of trends in drinking water quality over time
ii) provibion of information to public health authorities for general public health
protection purpose, and
iii) iden4tication of sources of contamination.

1.10.1 Qjality Monitoring of Drinking Water Supplies

1) The pryary objective of water treatment for public water supply is to render the water
safe for human consumption and aesthetically acceptable to the consumer. For water to be
safe for buman consumption it must be free from pathogenic organis~nsand other harmful
chemical subsmlces. For water to be aesthetically acceptable it must be clear, colourless,
odourles$, of pleasant taste, should not form stains or scale and must be no11 corrosive. A
properly (designed water treatment plait which is carefully operated zu~dmaintained can
ensure dl the above aspects. Tlie treated water emerging out from tile plant whicli is of
safe phy~ical,chemical and bacteriological standards may undergo deterioration in quality
by the tihie it reaches the consumer. Tlie deterioration of physical c11:~racteristicsof water
such as turbidity, colour and odour are easily detectable by the consumer. When once a
proper source of water is selected, aid suitable precautioris taken;cli~u~cesof deterioration
of chemical quality of water ill public water supply systems is very remote; whereas the l

imporwit requirement of bacteriological purity of water may undergo deterioration in a

water di)stributio~isystem which cannot be noticed by tile consumer till considerable
damage i s done. Pollutioii of piped water may occur due to several causes. such a?,lack
of disinfection arrangements, leakages in distribution system, pollution by sewage,
biologic$ growths inside pipes, accumulation of dirt aid sedime~itsin deal ends, and
unauthokised tampering of pipe mains etc. The chances of deterioration of bacteriological
standards are more in big cities and every metro pol it:^^ city water supply is dtlicted with
this problem sometime or other resulting in outbreak of water home diseases. In small
water sapply systems this problem can be easily cohtrolled by careful maintenance. The
 important water borne diseases are typlioid fever, paratyphoid fever, dysentery, cholera, Water Supply
amoebic dysentery, jaundice atid poliomyelitis.
The bacteriological 'analysis of water serves as an important tool for the cc?ntrol of safe water
quality. To find out the bacterial quality of water, s'mples will be collected at different
points, such as raw water source, different stages of Weament, service reservoirs, distribution
systems, consumer taps etc.
2) Indicator Organisms
In the routine bacteriological analysis it has been found impracticable to test water for specific
disease causing pathogenic microorganisms. It is because that the methods laiown are too
slow, tedious and expensive to be used ill routine analysis. The harmless microorgaiisms are
large in number than the pathogens. The pathogens which are few in number may escape
detection. Isolation of pathogens is to be done very carefully a it may cause serious health
hazard to the personnel involved.
The indicator organisms used for judging the bacteriological purity of water or determining
whether the water is polluted by sewage are as follows:
i) Colifonn organisms
,
ii) Streptococcus faecalis
iii) Clostridium welchii
iv) Plate Count
i) Coliform Organisms
171e most sensitive and currently used tool for determining the bacteriological purity of water
is the coliform test. Colifom bacteria inhabit the intestinal tract of man and other warm
blooded animals. Since the coliform organisms are abundantly present in sewage their
presence in drinking water is considered indicative of fecal contamination. If these organisms
are not found ill the water it can be inferred that disease producing micro-organisms are also
absent. Coliforms consist of a number of species. The test for Eschericlliu coli is universally
regarded as an indicator of sewage pollution.
ii) 'Stl-eptococcusfaecalis
Though the presence of coliform organisms in water suggest sewage pollution, due to
existence of coliform groups other than faecal coliform a specific confirmative test is
r necessary. "Strrptococcus faecalis" a bacteria of faecal origin occur in f'aeces in varying

1 numbers which are usually considerably smaller than those of faecal coliform. In water they
usually die and disappear at approximately in the same rate as faecal coliform but usually
more rapidly than other members of the coliform group. Therefore when organisms of the
wlifonn group but not faecal streptococci (of which the most characteristic type is
"Streptococcus faecalis") is important confirrnative evidence of the faecal nature of the
pollution.
iii) Clostridi~dmwelchii
This is a spore-forming organism of faecal origin which can survive in water for a longer
i time than the colifonn groups and usually resist chlorination at doses normally used in water
works practice. The presence of clostridium welchii alone in a water suggests that sewage
: pollution h a occurred a long time ago. If E.coli is also present along with C1. welchii the11 it
,indicates recent sewage pollution.
I
Ij - iv) Plate Count
-This gives a general indication of bacterial load in water. An efficiently pretreated and filtered
water may not contain more than 100 colonies per ml.

.t
1.10.2 Types of Examination

Db\em~usio~~
01 water quallv Ithe laboratory comprises of (a) Pllysid, (b) Chanic2d,
(C) ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ i ~ land
~ $(d)$ cBiological
d, examinations.
phyrcd e,mina~ion determines AeStheti~
arequdiv of Water
temperature, me vxi(rs
colour, px""rs
turbidity, taste and
a)
,ed to judge the physicd q ~ d i of
t ~Water

dour.
BuUdlng Services - 1 b) Chemical examination determines concentrations of chemical subsmlces which may affect
i
the quality of water and is indicative of pollution which reflect variations due to
treatment - a requirement for control of water treatment processes. The parameters of
releirance are: i) pH, ii) Total dissolved solids, iii) Electrical conductivity, iv) Alkalinity,
v) Total hardness, vi) Chloride, vii) Sulfate, viii) Calcium, ix) Magnesium, x) Sodium,
xi) @on, xii) Manganese, xiii) Heavy metals e.g. Lead, Zinc, Copper, Chromium,
Merlcury, xiv) Phenol, xv) Fluorides, xvi) Tests for radio-activity.
Bacteriological examination ind~catethe presence of bacterial characteristics of pollution
and hence the safety of water for consumption. Determination of total coliforms, faecal
coliforms are important parameter for bacteriological analysis.
Biolpgical examination helps in providing information on causes of objectionable tastes
and odours in water, for clogging of filters and dictating remedial measures.
Determination of algae, pythoplanktoris, planktons and nematodes are important for
biol~gicalanalysis.

1.10.3 Frequency of Sampling and Number of Samples

The frequency and the minimum number of samples to be collected from a distribution
system rbcommended in CPHEEO Manual are given in Table 1.8.
The sambles should be taken from the hifferent points on each occasion to enable overall
assessme/nt. For bacteriological sampling, which controls the safety of supply of the consumer,
the frequency of sampling and the sampling points at pumping stations treatment plants,
reservoir6 and booster pumping stations, as well as the distribution system, should be such as
to enabld a proper evaluation of the bacteriological quality of the entire water supply. In the
event of an epidemic or immediate danger of pollution, the frequency of sampling for
bacteriolOgical analysis should be increased.
Table 1,8: Frequency and Number of Samples for Examination from Distribution System
I

1
Populgtion Served Max. Interval hetween Minimum Number of samples to be taken from
Successive Sampling entire Distribution System
Upto 20,000 One month
20,000-50,000 Two weeks One sample per 5000 population per month.
50,000-1,00,000 Four days
More thaq 100,000

1.10.4 Laboratory Equipment and Facilities

For details of minimum laboratory equipments needed for a water analysis laboratory, the
reader is requested to refer CPHEEO Manual.

1.10.5 Methods of Examination

The physical, chemical, bacteriological and biological procedures for the analytical laboratory
ex'minatlons, given in the Manual of Methods for the Examination of Water, Sewage and
Industrial Wastes published by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) or IS1 or the
procedureis given in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water
prepared Bnd published by American Public Health Association, WPCF, American Water
Works A$sociation (AWWA) are to followed.

1.11 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM WITHIN THE BUILDING

The design of the pipe system from the point of off-take from the street main to the point of
delivery 8 the fixture is based on the total daily water requirement of the building. For
residences, the daily water requirement is calculated on the basis of five members per family
and per capita water supply of 135 litres/head/day in residence with full flushing system. In
non-residential buildings per capita water supply is given in Table 1.1.

1.11.1 Systems of Supply

Water supyy to buildings can be accomplished 111 hv0 ways.
1) Direct system in which water supply to fixtures in a building can be directly tapped from Water Supply
the extemal distribution system. In this case the extemal distribution system should have
adequate pressure to feed the fixtures. This system is llso known as upward distributioli
system.
2) Downtake system or downfeed distribution system in which the supply from the street
main is drawn through overhead tank provided for the building. In this case supply to all
fixtures is effected only from the overhead talk, under gravity. Alteniatively water from
external supply main is collected in a ground level reservoir and pumped to the overhead
tank and supplied under gravity to all fixtures. This system is adopted when the water
supply is intermittent or is available'at low pressure.

1.11.2 Supply to HighrLse Buildings

BIS:35 (S & T) 1987 recommends any one or combination of tile following systems it1 case
of high rise or multi-storeyed buildings.
i) Overhead Storage System: In this system the tanks are provided on the terrace of
the building. A manifold downtake may be taken out from the storage tank which
should be laid out horizontally in a loop on the terrace to carry a designed peak load
demand. The pressure in the loop at the peak demand should not become negative.
Vertical dowitakes, as many as necessary, may be taken ou&from the loop and
should be linked to one downtake for a zone of four storeys at a time and designed
for the peak demand it has to serve. A pressure reducing valve shall pe provided in
the downtakes to limit the head to a maximum of 25 m and located in easily
accessible place ducts, or catwalks.
ii) Break Pressure Tank System: In tliis system the entire building is to be
conveniently divided into suitable zones of 5 to 8 storeys each. For each such zone a
break pressure tank of capacity of at least 15 minutes supply depending upon the
number of floors it has to feed or a minimum capacity of 2 kilolitres each for
flushing and other domestic purposes separately, is to provided. Tl~edowntake from
the master overhead tank feeds into the break pressure ranks.
iii) Hydro-pneumatic System: In this system, the supply is through a hydro-pneumatic
pressure vessel with necessary accessories like pressure release valve, non-retun1
valve etc.
hi this system three pumps with an air compressor and air vessel are provided. Of
the three pumps, one pump is a standby pump driven by diesel engine, for operation
at the times of power failure. Of the other two pumps, one is called the lead pump
and the second one supplementary pump. The air compressor is used to fill air in the
ait vessel to maintain the required pressure. As soon as the pressure in the air vessel
drops due to withdrawal of water from the system, the lead pump starts automatically
to fill up the air vessel. If the demand exceeds the capacity of lead pump, the
supplementary pump starts automatically.
In this type of system each zone is restricted to about seven storeys or 20 m wllicli
is ever less, for operating convetiience.

1.11.3 Capacities of Underground and Overhead Tanks

If the water supply is intermittent and hours of supply are irregular, it is necessary to provide
storage mks either at ground level tank or overhead tank or both.

.
The capacity of ground level tank is usually 50% of overhead talk capacity. The capacity of
overhead tank is equal to minimum half-a-day's requirement or a maximum of one day's
requirement.
hi addition, for large high rise buildings, it is necessary to provide storage for fire fighting
purpose.
These storage tanks car1 be either underground static stomge tank or overhead storage tank
depending up011 the height of the building.
For details of fire fighting storage requirements, National Building Code of India (Part IV)
and local fire services may be consulted.
1.11.4 Design of Pipelines
The and service pipes we designed depending upon whetller thc syblern is a
or a downtake supply system from 'an overhead talk.
The dat3 requiredlfor the design of pipes are
i ) Tlle rnaxhum rate of discharge required,
ii) The lengtli of pipe,
iii) The head loss by frictio~lin that length including fillings
iv) The roughness of the interior surface of the pipe.
The comztrzt.iniwtipn pipe is the pipe which extends from the ferrule on the street mail1 upto
and i~lcludi~igstcjpcock near the boundary of the premises. Usually it is laid and maintained
by tlle local autljority.
, .
The pipe wl~ichbxtends from the stopcock upto overhead talk or underground talk inside the
premises is call4d the service pipe.
pipes or the supply pipe to the fixtures is based on:
The design of cb~lsumer~s
a) the nunhber and kind of fixtures installed,
b) the fixthre unit flow ratc, and
C) tile pra/bable simulLuieous use of these fixtures.
The fixture units for different sanitary appliances or groups of appliances prescribed in BIS
Kiwd Dook of p a t e r Supply and Dminage : SP:35 ( S &. T) - 1987, are given in Table 1.9.
'~ablk1.9: Fixture Units for Different Sanitary Appliances and the Sizes
of the Fixture Branches
I

S1. Type of Fixture Fixture Unit Value Minimise Normal

No. as Load Factors Size Fixture
Branches
--(1) 1 (2) (3) (4) mm

ii) Bath tuhi (a shower head over a bath tuh doe? not
lncieasc the fixture value)
ih) Bldet 3
iv) Combin~tionsink-and-tray (drain board)
v) 1)rinlunh fountam
vi) Flushlnk tank (water closet inflow into the tank)
v ~ i ) Kitchen1 sink, domestic 2 15
viii) W:ish @sin, ortlinary (wash basin with 32 and 40 r111l1 1 9
trap hahe the sa111e load valve)
iu) Wash dasin, surgeons
X) ~ h o w e fstall domestic
XI) ~howe-1s(group) per head
YII) Unnnl (wall lip or stall)
xiii) Water closet, flush tank operated (inlet and outlet) 4 25

xiv) water1 closet, valve operated 8 25

I
I

~ a d l e1.10: Fixture Units for Fixtures Based on Fixture Drain or Trap Size

S1. No. ' Fixture Drain or 'rap Size (mm) Fixture Unit V;~lue
(1) (2) (3)
i) 1 30 ant! smaller 1
ii) 40
iii) SO
Fixture Unit
The rates at which water is desirably drawn into different types of fixtures are hiown. These
rates become whole numbers of small size when they are expressed in cubic feet per illiilute
(cfm). This unit has therefore been adopted as a matter of conveniei~ceof expression. A rate
of 1 c h or 28.316 litres per minute of flow is called one fixture unit.Fixture Unit Flow Rate:
The total discharge flow in cubic feetlminute of a single fixture which provides the flow rate
of that particular plumbing fixture as a unit of flow is called the fixture wit flow rate or
effective fixture unit.

The fixture units of fixtures not listed above are estimated in accor&ulce with fixture unit
values for t-itures based on drain or trap size (Table 1.10).

Since all the fixtures in a colony will not be in operation at the sane time, a probabili~y
study conducted by Hunter suggests the relationship shown in Figure 1.11 and Table 1.11.

o 90 100 no 160 LW SLO

- 630
-
720 elo
- 900
t \

-- - .-- ->

TOTAL F I X T U R E UNITS

900 1100 3300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900 3166
TOTAL F I X T U R E U N I T S

Figure 1.11: Probable Demand on Water Pipes in Buildings or the Probable

Effective Fixture Units (After Hunter)
In using the curves given in Figure 1.11 and Table 1.11 the followii~gpoints need to be
considered.

i) Dem'mds for service sinks arc ignored in calculating the total fixture demanci
ii) When water supply to airconditioilers and air coolers are continuously rnackt ,ver a
considerable length of time such flows to be added to the probable flow i,~l!,cl.than
the fixture demand.
iii) Fixtures supplied with both hot and cold water exert reduced d~,mmdsU ~ N J I I:n21111 h~9L
water and cold water branches (not fixture branches).
The sizes of pipes feeding various fixtures are fixed by applying &wen - Willi'un ftrnnula for
discharge discussed in Section 1.6.3.

In order to save time on computation, a nomogam based 011 Hazen-Williams foni~uJ:~ give11
in BIS Hand Book - SP:35 (S & T) - 1987, is given in Figure 1.12 can be referred lor design
of pipe lines.
Building Services -I The use of various tables and nomogram for design of plumbing systems for a office building
is demonstrated below:
Table 1.11: Probable Demand Load on Water Pipes in Buildings

No. of Fixtare Units System with Flush Tanks Demand System with Flush Valves Demand
(ESased on Fixture Units) (After Hunter)
Unit Rates of Flow* Litres per minute Unit Rates of Flow Litres per minute
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
20 2 56.6 4.7 132 5
40 3.3 94.6 6.3 177.9
60 4.3 121.1 ' 7.4 208.2
80 5.1 143.8 8.3 234.7
100 5.7 162.8 9.1 257.4
120 6.4 181.7 9.8 276.3
140 7.1 20v 1 , 10.4 295.2
160 7.6 21 5.7 11.0 310.4
180 8.2 230.9 11.6 329.3
200 8.6 242.2 12.3 348.2
220 9.2 261.2 12.7 359.6
240 9.6 272.5 13.1 370.9
300 11.4 321.7 14.7 41 6.4
400 14.0 397.4 17.0 480.7
500 16.7 473.1 19.0 517 5
600 19.4 548.8 21.1 598.0
700 21.4 605.6 23.0 651.0
800 24.1 681.3 24.5 692.7
900 26.1 738.1 26.1 738 1
1000 28.1 794.9 28.1 794.9
1500 36.1 1022.0 36.1 1022.0
2000 43 9 1241.5 43.9 1241.5
2500 51.1 1445.9 5 1.1 1445.9
3000 57.8 1615 1 57.8 1635.1

*Unit rate of flow = Effective fvrture units.

1 unit rate of @ow = I cumin = 28.316 litres per minute
Adapted from BIS Hand Book - SP 35 (S & T) 1987.

Example: Otcupancy : 67 gents, 33 ladies

Fixtures to be provided as per IS 1172-1983. Basic requirements for water supply, drainage
and sanitatioil. Water supply to all fixtures will be from a water talk of 2.5 cum capacity.
Separate toilats for ladies and gents are to be provided.
Fixtures In Geqts Toilet In Ladies Toilet
1) Water Closets
(i) IWC 2 nos 2 nos.
(4 EFyC 1 no 1 no
2) AMutidn taps I m eich WC 1 ~n each WC
3) Urinals 3 nos Nil
4) Wash band basins 3 nos 3 nos
5) Drinkirig water - Water cooler 1 no Nil

It is assumed BU the water closets we provided with flush tanks.

Referring to Table 1.9 Total number of fixture units
1) In gents toilet - (2 x 4 + 1 x 4) + 3(4) + 3(1) = 27.0
2) In ladies milet - (2 x 4 + 1 x 4) + 3(4) = 24.0
3) Water codler point = 0.5
51.5
Refemng to Figure 1.11 and Table I . l l for 51.5 fixture units the unit rate of flow or
effective fixturt unm
 I
Water Supply

I one unit rate of flow

= 3.875 or 3.9
= 28.32 lpm
= 3.9 x 28.32 Ipm
Water supply demand
= 110.45 Ipm
or 6627 Iph
or 159048 Ipd
-. Wd
-- 159
or

From the H-W nomogram the size of common downtake pipe from the water tank is 65 mm
dim GI pipe, for head loss of I m l l w m and velocity of 0.5 d s m .
I s,i of feed pipes to each fixture an be designed on similar lines depending UpOll the
layout of the toilet.
1

S.AQ 3

t " 1) WI11 x e ioinmoi~disi~lfecti?llt.%

used i11 Water Trea~nellt'!
2) .What are hard water and soft water ?
3) 'Why softening of water is necess<uy ?
4) WII:ILare B c mctllds hy which lwd water i;ul be softened '!
5) What is effect of fluoride in dri~kil~g
water ?
61 What is detluoridation of water ?

1.12 SUMMARY
I The primary objective of water treatment is to produce water which is both wholesome and
palatable. Accordingly, it must not only be ffee from disease producillg organisms and toxic
) substances or otherwise physiologically undesirable substances, but also attractive to the senses.

L ?here ate a number of unit operations adopted in rhe treatment of water. It may not be
necessary to adopt all the unit operations for Ueatment of water fn,m a particular source.
Envlronmei\tal engineers should consider the ctwacteristics of water source and various
alternatives that could be used before deciding on the flowsheet of treatment. As the cost of

I
treatment 1s quite high and is increasing day-by-day obviously a judicious cl~oiceis requlted
to be made by the water supply engineers considering the economics of various altenlatives. It
is also to be noted that many of the unit operations require very skilled personnel for
operation, as such availability of skilled personnel should he considered in choosillg a best
ahemative for treatment of a given source of water.

-
1.13 ANSWERS TO SAQs
-

.SAQ 1
1) The basic requirements of drinking water are ;t CI.-.I.I L- --.I--*- - . .
should be free from toxic chemicals. nntt~noenir
I n i c r 0 - 0 f ~ ; ~ l,i ~and.
1.e. ~t snoulU.not have colour, odour, unpleasant taste and-turbidity.
--, r----b"kuu m ~n .
: a l ~ t ~ h-l e
r-------

E 2) Aeration is the addition on Oxygen to water and to expel dissolved gases fmm the
water.
Aeration removes dissolved gases like carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and other
volatile substances which causes taste and odour, thus impmving tbe palatability of
water. Aeration is also used for oxidisiug dissolved iron a11d manganese presalt in
1 anaerobic ground waters.
 Colloids are sub-tnicrc~scopicparticles of size raiping lrol~i10 micrc~sto 1 micrcm
bftnr found in surface watcrs Eg: Clay, Silica. Viruses. orgxlilli~intitter. Siilbility of
Colloids is due to enormous surface area to mass ratio they p > > ~ r a I,J C L ~ L Q . UL
~
qhich they are ahle exist as stable dispersions.
1
Coagulation is Uie process of destabilization of Stable Colloidal disper;iola. is watn.
I
1
F e k c Cblonde (4) Ferrous Sulphate ( 5 ) Clllorinatcd Colt ... .., ....-,v... . .,....,.
Ttie c o m o l i coagulants used in water i r e a e n t x e (i) A l r z ~ n(7\ Fs-r-'. c l . l - h - * -
1
Copgulant aids arc chemicals which whai used :dc>11gwith rr ccagul;mt, iinpro\?es or
xcklerates tlie process tloc formatiai and produces large, rapid srttllng Rocs.

The rfactors which influence the settling of kloccule~llparticles are

i) Furface area of clarifier,
li) oetentio~itime of water in c!: rifier,
iil) Qurface overflow rate,
iv) ~'ize,shape a ~ weight
d of the tloc.
v) viscosity of water a~dtemperature.
vi) Vt%locityof flow.
vii) 1nl'et and outlet design.
111 type \ settlillg, tile surface area (aid hence overflow r:it.e) of seitlinp Link i11id not
I
its deptlq is hnporma whcre a$ in type I1 settling, both overflow rate and depth of
settliiig @ik (i.e detention period) arc impomit.
The purihcation of water in a slow said filter is ~nai~lly
brought by the biological
film krlo4n as Schmutz-decke whicli develops on the top of the sand bed. This
biologic~\filmpromote straiuirlg and adsorption by which impurities iiom water are
remnoved. '
The purifii'ation meclizuiisms in a rapid s:uid filter are:
i
i) Sedimentation,
ii) S ~ $ i i ~ i ~ i g ,
1
iii) Ad$orption,
iv) Moeculatio~l,
' v) Chanicd, and
vi) Biological.
Eflective size'is the pMicular di'uneter, such thiit 10% by weight of tlie filter material
is less thami d i s diameter.
V",,"'."", b-r,,,,.-.- - -
the' filter ;~%tteb-ial.

i) Chlorine
ii) Bleaching powder
iii) ~ o d u r nhypocl~kor~te
beaddition +larille dioxide, ozone are alw used, hut IMt ill our counw)..
t 5" -.fl r% CO. a i\ uilled soft water
, wbeIl uIe llardopSs of water is less es----- -
, d when it is $)-15~ mg/l moderately h;u(I, 130-SOO l n g l L1.u~

tngll vety l~arci1

120 mgn, it is cklled hard water.
) Soitenbg d water is necessary for the following reasons.
ipa]&&ilily of water by reducing totd dlssolvd solids.
i) jmpove ill boilen, hezlters etc.
ii) T~ f o ~ & , i otendency
~ of water
 Water Supbly
iii) To reduce excessive soap consumption.
4) Hard water can be softened by
i) Lime-Soda process
ii) Base excliange process
5) High fluoride content that is greater than the permissible value of 1.5 mgll causes
dental fluorosis, mottling of teeth, skeletal tluorosis in human beings wherea low
concentrations less than 1 mgn causes tooth decay or dental caries.
6 ) Defluoridation of water is the method by which excess fluoride content in water is
brought down to the permissible value, so that the water becomes fit for human
consumption.