(Robert F. Gorman) Great Events From History The (B-Ok - Xyz) PDF

Great Events from History
1941-1970
Great Events from History
1941-1970
Editor
Robert F. Gorman
Texas State
Salem Press
Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey
Editor in Chief: Dawn P. Dawson
Editorial Director: Christina J. Moose Production Editor: Andrea E. Miller
Acquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Design, Layout, and Graphics: James Hutson
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Project Editor: Andy Perry Research Assistant: Keli Trousdale
Manuscript Editor: Desiree Dreeuws Editorial Assistant: Dana Garey
Cover photos (pictured clockwise, from top left): Astronaut Buzz Aldrin walks on the surface of
the moon, 1969. (NASA); Atomic bomb test, Bikini atoll, 1946. (The Granger Collection, New
York); Martin Luther King, Jr., at the Lincoln Memorial for his “I Have a Dream” speech, 1963.
(AP/Wide World Photos); Woodstock festival concert-goers, NY, 1969. (AP/Wide World Photos);
United Nations Headquarters, NY. (Natalia Bratslavsky/iStockphoto); Brasília’s modern cathe-
dral. (Mark Van Overmeire/iStockphoto)
Copyright © 2008, by Salem Press, Inc.

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Some of the essays in this work originally appeared in the following Salem Press sets: Chronology of European His-
tory: 15,000 B.C. to 1997 (1997, edited by John Powell; associate editors, E. G. Weltin, José M. Sánchez, Thomas P.
Neill, and Edward P. Keleher); Great Events from History: North American Series, Revised Edition (1997, edited by
Frank N. Magill); Great Events from History II: Science and Technology (1991, edited by Frank N. Magill); Great
Events from History II: Human Rights (1992, edited by Frank N. Magill); Great Events from History II: Arts and Culture
(1993, edited by Frank N. Magill); Great Events from History II: Business and Commerce (1994, edited by Frank N.
Magill), and Great Events from History II: Ecology and the Environment (1995, edited by Frank N. Magill). New mate-
rial has been added.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Great events from history. The 20th century, 1941-1970 / editor, Robert F. Gorman.
p. cm.
Some of the essays originally appeared in other Salem Press sets. New material has been added.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-58765-331-5 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-332-2 (v. 1: alk. paper) —
ISBN 978-1-58765-333-9 (v. 2 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-334-6 (v. 3 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-335-3
(v. 4 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-336-0 (v. 5 : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-337-7 (v. 6 : alk. paper)
1. Twentieth century. I. Gorman, Robert F. II. Title: 20th century, 1941-1970. III. Title: Twentieth century,
1941-1970.
D421.G6295 2007
909.82′5—dc22
2007037204
First Printing
printed in the united states of america

Contents, Volume 1: 1941 - 1947
Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Keyword List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii
List of Maps, Tables, and Sidebars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xci
Maps of the mid-Twentieth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ciii
1941
July, 1937-September 2, 1945, World War II: Pacific Theater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

September 3, 1939-May 7, 1945, World War II: European Theater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1941, Bultmann Offers a Controversial Interpretation of the Christian Scriptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1941, New Criticism Arises in American Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1941, Portable Aerosol Containers Are Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1941, Shirer Examines the Rise of Nazi Ideology in Berlin Diary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1941-August 25, 1944, French Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1941-1945, 6.6 Million Women Enter the U.S. Labor Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1941-1945, U.S. Censorship and War Propaganda During World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
January, 1941, Nationalist Chinese Forces Battle Communists as Japan Advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
January, 1941, Thai Forces Attack French Troops Near Battambang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
January 15, 1941, Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time Is Performed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
February 23, 1941, Seaborg and McMillan Make Plutonium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
March, 1941-January, 1943, Niebuhr Extols a Theory of Christian Realism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
March 1, 1941, Bulgaria Joins the Tripartite Pact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
March 1, 1941, United States Enters the Battle of the Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
March 11, 1941, Roosevelt Signs the Lend-Lease Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
April 6-30, 1941, Germany Mounts the Balkan Offensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
May, 1941, Ho Chi Minh Organizes the Viet Minh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
May 1, 1941, Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks with Traditional Filmmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
May 2, 1941, FCC Licenses Commercial Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
May 2, 1941, NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself of a Radio Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
May 2-June 13, 1941, Anglo-Iraqi War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
May 15, 1941, Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First Jet Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
May 20-June 1, 1941, Germany Invades Crete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
May 26-27, 1941, Sinking of the German Battleship Bismarck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
June 2, 1941, Yankee Baseball Great Lou Gehrig Dies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
June 22, 1941-January 8, 1942, Germany Invades Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
June 25, 1941, Roosevelt Bans Discrimination in Defense-Industry Employment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
August 14, 1941, Atlantic Charter Declares a Postwar Right of Self-Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
August 23, 1941, Nazis Ban Nolde’s Paintings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
October, 1941, Davies Reflects on His Post to Moscow in Mission to Moscow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
October 3, 1941, The Maltese Falcon Establishes a New Style for Crime Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
October 31, 1941, Mount Rushmore National Memorial Is Completed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
December 7, 1941, Bombing of Pearl Harbor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
December 7, 1941, Canada Declares War on Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
v
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
December 7, 1941, Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

December 10, 1941-May, 1942, Japan Invades the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
December 11, 1941, Germany and Italy Declare War on the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
December 29-31, 1941, Churchill Visits Canada as World War II Ally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1942
1942, International League for the Rights of Man Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

1942-1961, Italian New Wave Gains Worldwide Acclaim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
January 20, 1942, Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
January 30, 1942, Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
February, 1942, Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil in The Screwtape Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
February 19, 1942-1945, United States Interns Japanese Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
February 24, 1942, Voice of America Begins Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
February 27-March 1, 1942, Battle of the Java Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Spring, 1942, Congress of Racial Equality Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
April 18, 1942, Doolittle Mission Bombs Tokyo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
May 7-8, 1942, Battle of the Coral Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
May 11, 1942, Faulkner Publishes Go Down, Moses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
June 3-5, 1942, Battle of Midway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945, United States Develops the First Nuclear Weapon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
August 4, 1942, United States Begins the Bracero Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
August 7, 1942-February 9, 1943, Battle of Guadalcanal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
August 9, 1942, Stein Is Killed by the Nazis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
August 19, 1942-February 2, 1943, Battle of Stalingrad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
August 27, 1942, Legal Slavery Ends in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
October, 1942, Lindeman’s “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” Is Published. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
October 5, 1942, Oxford Committee for Famine Relief Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
October 15, 1942-1961, Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
October 16, 1942, Agnes de Mille Choreographs Rodeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
October 20, 1942, Peggy Guggenheim’s Gallery Promotes New American Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
October 23-November 3, 1942, Second Battle of El Alamein. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
November 8, 1942, Invasion of North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
November 26, 1942, Casablanca Marks the Artistic Apex of 1940’s War-Themed Films . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
November 28, 1942, Fire in Boston’s Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Proves Deadly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
December 2, 1942, Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
1943
1943, Saroyan Offers a Compelling Story of Hope in The Human Comedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
1943, Von Weizsäcker Forms His Quantitative Theory of Planetary Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
1943-1944, Famine Decimates Bengal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
1943-1948, Soviets Take Control of Eastern Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
January 14-24, 1943, Casablanca Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
March 15, 1943, Roosevelt Creates Jackson Hole National Monument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Spring, 1943, Cousteau and Gagnan Develop the Aqualung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
vi
Contents
March 31, 1943, Oklahoma! Opens on Broadway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

April, 1943-1946, Eckert and Mauchly Develop the ENIAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
April 8, 1943-June 23, 1947, Inflation and Labor Unrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
April 19-May 16, 1943, Warsaw Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
May 18-June 3, 1943, United Nations Holds Its First Conference on Food and Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
June 3-9, 1943, Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
June 14, 1943, Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Compel Flag Salutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
June 20-21, 1943, and August 1, 1943, Race Riots Erupt in Detroit and Harlem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
June 25, 1943, Sartre’s Being and Nothingness Expresses Existential Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
July 4-12, 1943, Tank Battle at Kursk Devastates German Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
July 6, 1943, Battle of Kula Gulf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
July 9-August 17, 1943, Allied Forces Invade Sicily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
July 21, 1943, Stormy Weather Offers New Film Roles to African Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
September, 1943, Australians Elect First Women to Parliament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
September, 1943, Sinatra Establishes Himself as a Solo Performer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
September, 1943-March, 1944, Waksman Discovers the Antibiotic Streptomycin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
September 3-18, 1943, Western Allies Invade Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
September 8, 1943, Black Wednesday Demonstrates Dangers of Smog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
September 30-October 1, 1943, Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from Germans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
October, 1943, Alaska Highway Is Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
October 25, 1943, Thai-Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
November 4, 1943, World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
November 20, 1943-November 27, 1944, Central Pacific Offensive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
November 23-30, 1943, Cairo Conference and Declaration Addresses War in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
November 28-December 1, 1943, Tehran Conference Promotes Allied Cooperation in Iran. . . . . . . . . . . . 318
December, 1943, Secret English Team Develops Colossus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
December 17, 1943, Magnuson Act Repeals the Chinese Exclusion Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
1944
1944, Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Determine That DNA Carries Hereditary Information . . . . . . . . . . . 327
1944, Borges’s Ficciones Transcends Traditional Realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
1944-1949, Hodgkin Solves the Structure of Penicillin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
1944-1953, Sanger Determines the Structure of Insulin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
1944-1957, Kelly Forges New Directions in Cinematic Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
1944-1960, Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic Voice to Existential Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
January 29, 1944, Kuiper Discovers That Titan Has an Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
March, 1944, Hayek Opposes Centralized Economic Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
March 15, 1944, France Grants Suffrage to Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
April 3, 1944, Supreme Court Rules African American Disenfranchisement Unconstitutional . . . . . . . . . . 354
April 18, 1944, Robbins’s Fancy Free Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
April 22, 1944, U.S. Highball Premieres in New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
June 6, 1944, Invasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
June 12-20, 1944, Battle of the Philippine Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
June 13 and September 8, 1944, German V-1 and V-2 Weapons Are Deployed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
June 15, 1944, Superfortress Bombing of Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
June 22, 1944, Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
July 1-22, 1944, Bretton Woods Agreement Encourages Free Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
vii
July 25, 1944, Allied Forces Break German Front in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
August 15, 1944, Operation Dragoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
September, 1944, Borlaug Begins Work on High-Yield Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
September 12, 1944, Allied Forces Begin the Battle for Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
October 20, 1944, Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
October 23-26, 1944, Battle for Leyte Gulf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
October 30, 1944, Graham Debuts Appalachian Spring with Copland Score. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
November, 1944-October, 1948, Reber Publishes the First Radio Maps of the Galaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
November 7, 1944, Franklin D. Roosevelt Wins a Fourth Presidential Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
November 22, 1944, Canada Implements Conscription After Months of Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
November 29, 1944, Blalock and Taussig Perform the First “Blue Baby” Surgery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
December 16, 1944-January, 1945, Battle of the Bulge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
1945
Mid-1940’s, First Modern Herbicide Is Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

1945, Africans Return Home After World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
1945, Billy Graham Becomes a Traveling Evangelist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
January, 1945, Arts and Architecture Magazine Initiates the Case Study Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
January 25, 1945, Fluoride Is Introduced into the U.S. Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
February 4-11, 1945, Yalta Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
February 11, 1945, Soviet Exiles and Prisoners of War Are Forced into Repatriation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
February 23, 1945, American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
March 12, 1945, Alcoa Is Convicted of Violating the Sherman Antitrust Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
March 15, 1945, Going My Way Wins Best Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
April 1-July 2, 1945, Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
April 9, 1945, Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the Nazis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
April 18, 1945, War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
April 25-June 26, 1945, United Nations Charter Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
May 8, 1945, Algerian Nationalists Riot at Sétif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
May 8, 1945, V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
May 28, 1945, Evelyn Waugh Captures Prewar English Life in Brideshead Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
June 7, 1945, Britten Completes Peter Grimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Summer, 1945, Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
July 16, 1945, First Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
July 17-August 2, 1945, Potsdam Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
July 26, 1945, Labour Party Forms Britain’s Majority Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
August 6 and 9, 1945, Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
September 28, 1945, Truman Proclamation on the Continental Shelf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
October 24, 1945, Norwegians Execute Nazi Collaborator Quisling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
October 29, 1945-February 23, 1946, Japanese General Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes . . . . . . . . . 495
November 20, 1945-October 1, 1946, Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
December 28, 1945, War Brides Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
viii
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1946
1946, British and Australian Tribunals Impose Death Sentences for War Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
1946, Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective Responsibility for War Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
1946-1960, Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
1946-1962, Westerns Dominate Postwar American Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
February 1, 1946, First U.N. Secretary-General Is Selected. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
February 5, 1946, Establishment of the International Court of Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
February 20, 1946, Employment Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
February 24, 1946, Perón Creates a Populist Political Alliance in Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
March 5, 1946, Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
March 17, 1946, France Launches the Monnet Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
March 28, 1946, Parker’s Playing Epitomizes Bebop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
May 17-25, 1946, Truman Orders Seizure of the Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
July 1, 1946, Canada’s Citizenship Act Is Passed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
July 4, 1946, Philippines Regains Its Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
July 5, 1946, Bikini Swimsuit Is Introduced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
July 7, 1946, Mother Cabrini Becomes the First U.S. Citizen Canonized as a Saint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
July 16, 1946, Truman Creates the Bureau of Land Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
July 22, 1946, World Health Organization Proclaims Health a Basic Human Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
August, 1946, Hiroshima Recounts the Story of Surviving a Nuclear Explosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
August 1, 1946, Atomic Energy Commission Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
August 1, 1946, Congress Creates the Fulbright Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
October 3, 1946, Mahalia Jackson Begins Her Recording Career. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
November, 1946, Physicists Develop the First Synchrocyclotron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
November, 1946-July, 1954, Nationalist Vietnamese Fight French Control of Indochina . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
November 6, 1946, United Kingdom Passes the National Health Service Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
November 9-December 15, 1946, United Nations Admits Its First New Member States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
November 13, 1946, First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
November 20, 1946, First Performance by Balanchine and Kirstein’s Ballet Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
December 2, 1946, International Whaling Commission Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
December 11, 1946, UNICEF Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
December 12, 1946, Spain Is Denied Entrance into the United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
December 20, 1946, Capra Releases It’s a Wonderful Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
1947
1947, Construction Starts on Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608

1947, Gabor Develops the Concept of Holography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
1947, Lamb and Retherford Discover the Lamb Shift. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
1947, Simon Publishes Administrative Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
1947-1951, Blacklisting Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
February 21, 1947, Land Demonstrates the Polaroid Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
March 12, 1947, Truman Doctrine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Spring, 1947, Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps Europe and America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
April 9-23, 1947, Congress of Racial Equality Holds Its Journey of Reconciliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
April 15, 1947, Robinson Breaks the Color Line in Major-League Baseball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
ix
1947 (continued)
April 28-August 7, 1947, Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641

May 3, 1947, Japan Becomes a Constitutional Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
May 3, 1947, Japanese Constitution Grants New Rights to Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
May 7, 1947, Construction of Levittown Is Announced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
June 23, 1947, Taft-Hartley Act Passes over Truman’s Veto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
July, 1947, Great Books Foundation Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
July 26, 1947, National Security Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
August 15, 1947, India Gains Independence from the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
September, 1947, German Writers Form Group 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
September 30-October 6, 1947, NBC Broadcasts the Baseball World Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
October 14, 1947, Yeager Breaks the Sound Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
October 20, 1947, HUAC Investigates Hollywood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
October 27, 1947-December 31, 1948, India and Pakistan Clash over Kashmir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
October 30, 1947, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Is Signed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
November, 1947, First Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
November 29, 1947-July, 1949, Arab-Israeli War Creates Refugee Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
December 23, 1947, Invention of the Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
1948
1948, Aversion Drug Found for the Treatment of Alcoholism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

1948, Fender Introduces the Broadcaster Guitar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
1948, Greene’s The Heart of the Matter Is Published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
1948, Mailer Publishes The Naked and the Dead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
1948, Merton Publishes His Spiritual Autobiography, The Seven Storey Mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
1948, Morgenthau Advances Realist School of Power Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
1948, Osborn Publishes Our Plundered Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
1948, Roberts Starts the Healing Waters Ministry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
1948, Simons Articulates the Chicago School of Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
1948, Soviets Escalate Persecution of Jews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
1948, Steady-State Theory of the Universe Is Advanced by Bondi, Gold, and Hoyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
1948, Vogt’s Road to Survival Warns of Overpopulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
1948-1951, Ryle’s Radio Telescope Locates the First Known Radio Galaxy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
1948-1953, Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
January 1, 1948, Benelux Customs Union Enters into Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
January 30, 1948, Gandhi Is Assassinated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
February, 1948, Paton Explores South Africa’s Racial Divide in Cry, the Beloved Country . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
February 4, 1948, Ceylon Becomes an Independent Dominion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
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February 10, 1948, Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

February 25, 1948, Communists Seize Power in Czechoslovakia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
March 12-April 19, 1948, Costa Rica Endures Its Bloodiest Civil War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
April 3, 1948, Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
April 9, 1948, La Violencia Begins in Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
April 19, 1948, ABC Begins Its Own Network Television Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
April 26, 1948, Dead Sea Scrolls Are Unearthed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
April 30, 1948, Organization of American States Is Founded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
May 2, 1948, American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man Is Adopted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
May 3, 1948, Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios to Divest Theaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
May 4, 1948, Olivier’s Hamlet Is Released to Acclaim and Controversy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
May 14, 1948, Israel Is Created as a Homeland for Jews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
May 25, 1948, General Motors and the UAW Introduce the COLA Clause. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
June, 1948-1964, Variety Shows Dominate Television Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
June 3, 1948, Hale Constructs the 200-Inch Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
June 8, 1948-Spring, 1953, “Mr. Television” Hosts the Texaco Star Theater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
June 24, 1948-May 11, 1949, Berlin Blockade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
June 30, 1948, First Water Pollution Control Act Is Passed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
July 8, 1948, Textron Initiates the Trend Toward Conglomeration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
July 20, 1948, Rhee Is Elected President of South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
July 26, 1948, Truman Orders Desegregation of U.S. Armed Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
August 6, 1948, Mathias Is Dubbed the “World’s Greatest Athlete” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
August 22, 1948, World Council of Churches Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
September 12, 1948, India Invades Hyderabad State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
October 5, 1948, World Conservation Union Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
October 6, 1948, Earthquake Devastates Ashgabat and Kills Up to 100,000 People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
October 26-31, 1948, Pennsylvania Town Suffers Deadly Temperature Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
October 30, 1948, Gamow Develops the Big Bang Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
November 2, 1948, Truman Is Elected President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
November 15, 1948, St. Laurent Becomes Canadian Prime Minister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
November 29, 1948-August 31, 1957, Kukla, Fran, and Ollie Pioneers Children’s Television Programming. . . 846
December 9, 1948, United Nations Adopts Convention on Genocide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
December 10, 1948, United Nations Adopts the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
December 26, 1948, Hungary’s Communist Government Arrests Cardinal Mindszenty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
December 30, 1948, Porter Creates an Integrated Score for Kiss Me, Kate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
1949
1949, Beauvoir’s The Second Sex Anticipates the Women’s Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
1949, Community Antenna Television Is Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
1949, Diners Club Begins a New Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
Beginning 1949, Hanford Nuclear Reservation Becomes a Health Concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
1949, Leopold Publishes A Sand County Almanac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
1949, Soviet Union Adopts Measures to Reduce Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
1949, X Rays from a Synchrotron Are First Used in Medical Diagnosis and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
1949-1951, Ealing Comedies Mark a High Point in British Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
1949-1961, East Germans Flee to West to Escape Communist Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
January, 1949, Brecht Founds the Berliner Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
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Contents
January 21, 1949-March 9, 1950, Davis Develops 1950’s Cool Jazz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
January 25, 1949, Soviet Bloc States Establish Council for Mutual Economic Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
February 20, 1949, Pound Wins the Bollingen Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
February 24, 1949, HERMES Builds the First Multistage Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
March 4, 1949, Libby Introduces the Carbon-14 Method of Dating Ancient Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
March 8, 1949, Vietnam Is Named a State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
March 31, 1949, Newfoundland Becomes Canada’s Tenth Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
April 4, 1949, North Atlantic Treaty Organization Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
April 17, 1949, Brothers at Taizé Take Permanent Vows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
June, 1949, Nineteen Eighty-Four Portrays Totalitarianism and Mind Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
June 11, 1949, Hank Williams Performs on The Grand Ole Opry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
August, 1949, First Electronic Stored-Program Computer Is Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
August 3, 1949, National Basketball Association Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
August 6, 1949, Spanish Becomes the Language of Instruction in Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
August 12, 1949, Geneva Conventions Establish Norms of Conduct in War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
September 3, 1949, The Third Man Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
September 21-October 7, 1949, Germany Splits into Two Republics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong Proclaims a Communist People’s Republic in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
November 26, 1949, Indian Government Bans Discrimination Against Untouchables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
December 2, 1949, United Nations Convention Suppressing Human Trafficking Is Adopted . . . . . . . . . . . 954
December 9, 1949, United Nations Creates an Agency to Aid Palestinian Refugees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
1950
Early 1950’s, De Vaucouleurs Identifies the Local Supercluster of Galaxies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961

1950’s, “Angry Young Men” Express Working-Class Views. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
1950’s, Beat Generation Rejects Mainstream Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
1950’s, Family Comedies on Television Rise in Popularity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
1950’s, Golden Age of Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
1950’s-mid-1960’s, Acid Rain Changes Lake and Riverine Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
1950, Boyd Defines Human “Races” by Blood Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
1950, Oort Offers a Theory of Comets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
1950, Robinson’s The Cardinal Tops Best-Seller List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
1950, U.S. Government Encourages American Indians to Settle in Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
1950-1956, Children Delight in The Chronicles of Narnia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
February 14, 1950, Stalin and Mao Pen a Defense Pact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
February 16, 1950, AP Names Didrikson Woman Athlete of the Half Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
April, 1950, Meteorologists Make the First Computerized Weather Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
April 24, 1950, Jordan Annexes the West Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
June, 1950, Artificial Sweetener Cyclamate Is Introduced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
June 25, 1950-July 27, 1953, Korean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
July 1, 1950, European Payments Union Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
July 5, 1950, Israel Enacts the Law of Return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
August 10, 1950, Sunset Boulevard Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
August 17, 1950, Indonesia Regains Its Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
September, 1950, First Home Owner’s Insurance Policies Are Offered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
October 7, 1950, China Invades and Begins Rule of Tibet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
October 7, 1950, Mother Teresa Founds the Missionaries of Charity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
vii/2
November 1, 1950, Pius XII Proclaims the Doctrine of the Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
November 1, 1950, President Truman Escapes Assassination Attempt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
November 3, 1950, United Nations General Assembly Passes the Uniting for Peace Resolution . . . . . . . . . 1038
November 4, 1950, European Convention on Human Rights Is Signed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
November 29, 1950, National Council of Churches Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
December 1, 1950, United Nations Korean Relief Agency Is Formed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
December 14, 1950, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Statute Is Approved . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
December 29, 1950, Celler-Kefauver Act Amends Antitrust Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
1951
1951, Hofstadter Discovers That Protons and Neutrons Have Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
1951, Lipmann Discovers Coenzyme A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
1951, Rise of the New Novel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
1951-1952, Teller and Ulam Develop the First Hydrogen Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
1951-1953, Beckett’s Trilogy Expands the Frontiers of Fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
1951-1963, Le Corbusier Designs and Builds Chandigarh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
1951-1975, Powell Publishes the Epic A Dance to the Music of Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
February 26, 1951, From Here to Eternity Wins Wide Readership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
March, 1951-August, 1953, Iran Nationalizes Its Oil Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
March 1, 1951, U.S. Presidents Are Limited to Two Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
March 24-April 11, 1951, Truman-MacArthur Confrontation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
March 31, 1951, UNIVAC I Becomes the First Commercial Electronic Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
April, 1951, Tupper Adopts Home-Sales Strategy for Tupperware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
April 10, 1951, Bundestag Passes Legislation on Codetermination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
April 18, 1951, European Coal and Steel Community Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
June 21, 1951, South Africa Begins Separate Development System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
July 16, 1951, Young Readers Embrace The Catcher in the Rye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
July 28, 1951, Adoption of the U.N. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112
September 1, 1951, Security Pact Is Signed by Three Pacific Nations Against Communist Encroachment. . . . 1115
September 8, 1951, Treaty of Peace with Japan Is Signed in San Francisco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
September 10, 1951, Kurosawa’s Rashomon Wins the Grand Prize at Venice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
September 11, 1951, Stravinsky’s The Rake’s Progress Premieres in Venice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
September 20, 1951, A Streetcar Named Desire Brings Method Acting to the Screen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128
September 30, 1951-August 29, 1971, The Red Skelton Show Becomes a Landmark on Network Television . . . 1132
October 15, 1951-September 24, 1961, I Love Lucy Dominates Television Comedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135
October 22, 1951, Nature Conservancy Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139
October 22, 1951, United States Inaugurates Mutual Security Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
December 10, 1951, Jouhaux Is Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
December 16, 1951, Dragnet Airs as the First Widely Popular Police Show . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
December 20, 1951, World’s First Breeder Reactor Produces Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152
December 24, 1951, Amahl and the Night Visitors Premieres on American Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
1952
Early 1952, Voest Develops the Basic Oxygen Process for Steelmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
1952, Ellison’s Invisible Man Is Published. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162
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1952, Peale Promotes the Power of Positive Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165

1952, Tillich Examines Modern Anxiety in The Courage to Be . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167
1952, Wilkins Introduces Reserpine for the Treatment of High Blood Pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170
1952-1956, Müller Develops the Field Ion Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
January 19, 1952, Day Publishes Her Autobiography, The Long Loneliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
February 12, 1952-1957, and 1961-1968, Sheen Entertains and Instructs on American Television. . . . . . . . 1179
February 23, 1952, Bevis Describes Amniocentesis as a Method to Check Fetal Genetic Traits . . . . . . . . . 1181
February 28, 1952, Massey Becomes Canada’s First Native-Born Governor-General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
April, 1952, Revolution Grips Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
April 8, 1952, Truman Orders Seizure of Steel Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188
June 27, 1952, McCarran-Walter Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
July 2, 1952, Salk Develops a Polio Vaccine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196
July 23, 1952, King Farouk of Egypt Is Overthrown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
July 24, 1952, Premiere of High Noon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202
July 25, 1952, Puerto Rico Becomes a Commonwealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205
August, 1952, Baade Corrects an Error in the Cepheid Luminosity Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208
August 29, 1952, Cage’s 4′ 33″ Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211
September 10, 1952, Germany Agrees to Pay Reparations to Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
Fall, 1952, Hasbro Advertises Toys on Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217
September 23, 1952, Marciano Wins His First Heavyweight Boxing Championship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
October 20, 1952-1957, Mau Mau Uprising Creates Havoc in Kenya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
November, 1952, Brower Becomes Executive Director of the Sierra Club . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
November 4, 1952, Eisenhower Is Elected President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1230
November 7, 1952, Rockefeller Founds the Population Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233
November 25, 1952, The Mousetrap Begins a Record-Breaking Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
December, 1952, Rosenberg Defines “Action Painting” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
December 4-8, 1952, Smog Kills Thousands of Londoners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243
December 10, 1952, Mauriac Accepts the Nobel Prize in Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
December 12, 1952, Chalk River Nuclear Reactor Explosion and Meltdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
December 20, 1952, United Nations Convention on the Political Rights of Women Is Approved . . . . . . . . 1251
1953
1953, Keep America Beautiful Is Founded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255

1953, Morita Licenses Transistor Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1258
1953, Skinner Develops the Behaviorist School of Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261
1953-1955, Marilyn Monroe Climbs to Stardom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
1953-1959, Liquid Bubble Chamber Is Developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267
January, 1953, China Begins Its First Five-Year Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
January 5, 1953, Waiting for Godot Expresses the Existential Theme of Absurdity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1274
January 15, 1953-December 2, 1954, McCarthy Hearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
January 22, 1953, The Crucible Allegorizes the Red Scare Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
January 31-February 1, 1953, North Sea Flood Kills Nearly Two Thousand People in Holland . . . . . . . . . 1284
March 5, 1953, Death of Stalin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
April, 1953, Fuller Builds First Industrial Geodesic Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
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1953 (continued)
April 2, 1953, Watson and Crick Announce the Double-Helix Model for DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293
April 10, 1953, Hammarskjöld Is Elected U.N. Secretary-General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
April 23, 1953, Shane Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299
May 15, 1953, Miller Reports the Synthesis of Amino Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1301
May 29, 1953, Hillary and Tenzing Reach the Top of Mount Everest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
June 19, 1953, Rosenbergs Are Executed for Peacetime Espionage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1307
July 30, 1953, Congress Creates the Small Business Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1310
August 1, 1953, Native Americans Lose Government Special Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1313
August 1, 1953-December 31, 1963, Formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland . . . . . . . . . 1316
August 7, 1953, Refugee Relief Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1319
September 4, 1953, Aserinsky Discovers REM Sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321
September 16, 1953, Premiere of the First CinemaScope Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
September 25, 1953-October 26, 1956, Polish Communist Government Arrests the Primate of Poland . . . . . 1328
October 5, 1953, Du Vigneaud Synthesizes the First Peptide Hormone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330
October 23, 1953-September 4, 1956, United Nations Amends Its International Slavery Treaty . . . . . . . . . 1333
November 9, 1953, Cambodia Gains Independence from France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337
November 20, 1953, Test Aircraft Exceeds Twice the Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1340
December 10, 1953, Schweitzer Is Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
1954
1954, Drucker Examines Managerial Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1346

1954, Golding’s Lord of the Flies Spurs Examination of Human Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349
1954-1955, Jasper Johns Paints the American Flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1352
January 21, 1954, First Nuclear-Powered U.S. Submarine Is Launched. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356
February 15, 1954, Canada and the United States Establish the DEW Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359
February 18, 1954, Hubbard Founds the Church of Scientology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362
March 1, 1954, Nuclear Bombing of Bikini Atoll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365
March 19, 1954, Laura Ashley Fashion Company Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1368
Spring, 1954, Catton Wins a Pulitzer Prize for A Stillness at Appomattox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371
April, 1954, ABC Makes a Landmark Deal with Disney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373
April 10, 1954, Value-Added Taxes Begin in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377
April 30, 1954, Barghoorn and Tyler Discover 2-Billion-Year-Old Microfossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1380
April 30, 1954, Wilkins and Kline Discover the First Tranquilizer for Psychosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1383
May, 1954, Bell Scientists Develop the Photovoltaic Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386
May, 1954, Military Coup Begins Thirty-Five Years of Dictatorship in Paraguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1389
v/3
May 1, 1954, Moon Founds the Unification Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391

May 6, 1954, Bannister Beats the Four-Minute Mile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393
May 17, 1954, Supreme Court Ends Public School Segregation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396
May 30, 1954, Taylor Establishes His Own Dance Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1400
June, 1954-October, 1955, Tolkien Publishes The Lord of the Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1402
June 10, 1954, U.S. Government Program Begins Deporting Mexican Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1406
June 18-27, 1954, United Fruit Company Instigates a Coup in Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1408
June 24, 1954, The Caine Mutiny Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1412
June 27, 1954, Soviet Union Completes Its First Nuclear Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1414
July 7, 1954, Julius Nyerere Emerges as Leader in Tanganyika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417
July 10, 1954, Eisenhower Begins the Food for Peace Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420
July 17-18, 1954, First Newport Jazz Festival Is Held . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423
August, 1954-May, 1955, Operation Passage to Freedom Evacuates Refugees from North Vietnam. . . . . . . 1427
August 16, 1954, U.S. Tax Laws Allow Accelerated Depreciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
August 30, 1954, Atomic Energy Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1432
September 6, 1954, La Strada Solidifies Fellini’s Renown as a Brilliant Director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1435
September 8, 1954, SEATO Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
September 27, 1954, The Tonight Show Becomes an American Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1442
September 28, 1954, United Nations Drafts a Convention on Stateless Persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445
October 23, 1954, Western European Union Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
November 22, 1954, Humane Society of the United States Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1452
December 2, 1954, Varèse Premieres Déserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1456
1955
Mid-1950’s, Li Isolates Human Growth Hormone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459

Early 1955, Franklin and Burke Discover Radio Emissions from Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
1955, Diquat Herbicide Is Developed for Weed Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465
1955, Ochoa Creates Synthetic RNA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1467
1955, O’Connor Publishes A Good Man Is Hard to Find . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
1955, Ryle Constructs the First Radio Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
1955, Teilhard de Chardin Attempts to Reconcile Religion and Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1478
1955-1956, Indian Parliament Approves Women’s Rights Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
1955-1964, Brezhnev Rises in Communist Ranks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1484
1955-1970, Latin American Fiction “Boom” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1486
January 29, 1955, Formosa Resolution Is Signed into Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1490
March 2, 1955, McDonald’s Fast Food Is Incorporated and Franchised. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
March 19, 1955, Poitier Emerges as a Film Star in The Blackboard Jungle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497
Spring, 1955, Berry’s “Maybellene” Popularizes Rock and Roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500
March 30, 1955, On the Waterfront Wins Best Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503
April 18-24, 1955, Afro-Asian Conference Considers Nonalignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1506
May, 1955-May, 1956, Presbyterian and Methodist Churches Approve Ordination of Women . . . . . . . . . 1509
May 14, 1955, Warsaw Pact Is Signed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1512
May 15, 1955, Austria Regains Its Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516
June 11, 1955, Le Mans Auto-Racing Accident Kills More than Eighty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518
June 18, 1955, Boulez’s Le Marteau sans maître Premieres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1520
July 9, 1955-early 1960’s, Scientists Campaign Against Nuclear Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1524
July 11, 1955, Air Force Academy Is Dedicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1529
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July 14, 1955, Congress Passes the Air Pollution Control Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531
July 17, 1955, Disneyland Amusement Park Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1534
August 18-September 6, 1955, First Sudanese Civil War Erupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538
August 22-September 3, 1955, United Nations Sets Rules for Treatment of Prisoners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1542
September, 1955, First Full Edition of Dickinson’s Poems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545
September 9, 1955-September 18, 1959, United States Launches Vanguard Satellite Program. . . . . . . . . . 1549
September 10, 1955, Debut of Gunsmoke Launches the Adult Western Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552
October 1, 1955-September, 1956, The Honeymooners Defines Situation Comedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1555
October 3, 1955, Captain Kangaroo Expands Children’s Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559
October 29, 1955, Dean Becomes a Legend in Rebel Without a Cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562
November, 1955, Buckley Founds National Review Magazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
November 29, 1955, Meltdown Occurs in the First Breeder Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569
December 5, 1955, AFL and CIO Merge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1572
December 5, 1955-December 21, 1956, Montgomery Bus Boycott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1576
December 14, 1955, United Nations Admits Sixteen New Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1580
1956
1956, Fromm Publishes The Art of Loving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1582

1956, Heezen and Ewing Discover the Midoceanic Ridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1584
1956, Mills Analyzes Political Power in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587
1956, Wiesel’s Night Recalls the Holocaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589
1956-1957, Presley Becomes a Rock-and-Roll Sensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592
1956-1960, French New Wave Ushers in a New Era of Cinema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596
1956-1962, Saarinen Designs Kennedy Airport’s TWA Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600
January 27, 1956-1966, Mission 66 Plan Is Implemented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1603
February 25, 1956, Khrushchev Denounces Stalinist Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1607
March 13, 1956, Premiere of The Searchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
April, 1956, Minamata Bay Mercury Poisoning Begins to Claim Victims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1613
April, 1956-1957, Birth Control Pills Are Tested in Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617
April 11, 1956, Echo Park Dam Proposal Is Defeated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620
April 18, 1956-April 21, 1960, Brazil Builds a New Capital City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623
May 8, 1956, Osborne’s Look Back in Anger Opens in London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
June 5, 1956, Oil Is Discovered in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1629
June 27, 1956, Congress Amends the Water Pollution Control Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631
July 19-20, 1956, Foreign Aid Is Withdrawn from Egypt’s Aswan High Dam Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1633
July 26, 1956, Egypt Attempts to Nationalize the Suez Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1636
July 26, 1956-January 8, 1959, Cuban Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1640
September 25, 1956, First Transatlantic Telephone Cable Begins Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1645
October, 1956, Joffrey Founds His Ballet Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648
October 8, 1956, First Two-Story, Fully Enclosed Shopping Mall Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1652
October 8, 1956, Larsen Pitches a Perfect Game in Baseball’s World Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
October 17, 1956, First Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658
October 23-November 10, 1956, Soviets Crush Hungarian Uprising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661
November 7, 1956, Long Day’s Journey into Night Revives O’Neill’s Reputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665
November 22-December 8, 1956, Cold War Politics Mar the Melbourne Summer Olympics . . . . . . . . . . 1668
vii/3
1957
Late 1950’s, Firms Begin Replacing Skilled Laborers with Automated Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1671
1957, Dioxin Causes Chloracne in West German Chemical Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674
1957, Isaacs and Lindenmann Discover Interferons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1676
1957, Sabin Develops the Oral Polio Vaccine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1679
1957, Sony Develops the Pocket-Sized Transistor Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682
January 5, 1957, Eisenhower Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1685
January 10, 1957, SCLC Forms to Link Civil Rights Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
February, 1957, Asian Flu Pandemic Kills Millions Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1692
February-August, 1957, Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer Explain Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1694
March 6, 1957, Ghana Gains Independence from the United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1698
Spring, 1957, Mao’s Hundred Flowers Campaign Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1701
March 25, 1957, European Common Market Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1705
April, 1957, IBM Develops the FORTRAN Computer Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709
May 17, 1957, Bergman Wins International Fame with The Seventh Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1712
June 10, 1957-February 5, 1963, Diefenbaker Serves as Canadian Prime Minister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1715
June 25, 1957, United Nations Adopts the Abolition of Forced Labor Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1718
July 29, 1957, International Atomic Energy Agency Begins Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1722
August, 1957, Price-Anderson Act Limits Nuclear Liability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
August 2, 1957, Jodrell Bank Radio Telescope Is Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
Late 1957, Nuclear Waste Explodes in the Ural Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
September 4, 1957, Ford Introduces the Edsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1734
September 4, 1957, Wolfenden Report Recommends Decriminalizing Consensual Sex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1738
September 9, 1957, Congress Creates the Commission on Civil Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741
September 17, 1957, Thai Military Coup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1744
Fall, 1957, Brooklyn Dodgers Move to Los Angeles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747
Fall, 1957, Ford Foundation Begins to Fund Nonprofit Theaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750
September 25, 1957, Eisenhower Sends Troops to Little Rock, Arkansas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753
September 26, 1957, Bernstein Joins Symphonic and Jazz Elements in West Side Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1758
October, 1957, Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago Is Published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
October 4, 1957, Soviet Union Launches the First Artificial Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1765
October 10, 1957, England’s Windscale Reactor Releases Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
October 14, 1957-December 10, 1963, Dyna-Soar Space Plane Is Developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1771
October 22, 1957, Duvalier Takes Power in Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1774
November 15, 1957, Cousins Founds SANE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
December 2, 1957, First U.S. Commercial Nuclear Plant Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783
December 5, 1957, AFL-CIO Expels the Teamsters Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1786
December 19, 1957, Willson’s The Music Man Presents Musical Americana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790
1958
1958, Burdick and Lederer Explore the Image of the “Ugly American”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
1958, Congress Sets Standards for Chemical Additives in Food. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
1958, Donald Uses Ultrasound to Examine Human Fetuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798
1958, Galbraith Critiques the Creation of a Society of Mass Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
Beginning 1958, Mao’s Great Leap Forward Brings Chaos to China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
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Contents
1958, Theatre Workshop Presents Behan’s The Hostage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807

1958, Things Fall Apart Depicts the Destruction of Ibo Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
1958-1959, Seven of the Top Ten Television Series Are Westerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
January 15, 1958, Esaki Demonstrates Electron Tunneling in Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818
January 31, 1958, United States Launches Its First Orbiting Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822
February 1, 1958, Syria and Egypt Form the United Arab Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826
March 30, 1958, Ailey Founds His Dance Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
April 27-May 15, 1958, Nixon Faces Riots on Tour of Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832
May 12, 1958, Canada and the United States Create NORAD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834
June 11-December, 1958, Middle East Turmoil Leads to U.N. Action in Lebanon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
Summer, 1958, Hula Hoop Is Marketed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839
July-September, 1958, Race Riots Erupt in London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842
July 4, 1958, Karol Wojtyua Is Named Poland’s Youngest Bishop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844
July 14, 1958, Iraq’s Monarchy Is Toppled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847
July 26, 1958, Van Allen Discovers the Earth’s Radiation Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
July 29, 1958, Congress Creates the National Aeronautics and Space Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1852
August 21, 1958, Congress Gives Tax Breaks to Financiers of Small Businesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855
October 2, 1958, Guinea Gains Independence from France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
October 11, 1958, Pioneer Space Program Is Launched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861
October 26, 1958, Boeing 707 Begins Commercial Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
November, 1958, Parker Predicts the Existence of the Solar Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868
December 3, 1958, Deep Space Network Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1871
December 10, 1958, Pire Is Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1874
1959
Early 1959, Radio Astronomers Transmit Radar Signals to and from the Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877
1959, Drury Sets a Novel of Political Intrigue in Washington, D.C.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1880
1959, Grass Publishes The Tin Drum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1882
1959, Mattingly Documents the Spanish Armada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885
1959-1961, Famine Decimates China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888
January, 1959, First Successful Synthesizer Is Completed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890
January, 1959, Gordy Founds Motown Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1894
January 3 and August 21, 1959, Alaska and Hawaii Gain Statehood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897
March 3, 1959, Nyasaland Independence Leader Banda Is Arrested by British Colonials . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902
March 4, 1959, Cuba Begins Expropriating Foreign Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904
March 11, 1959, Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun Debuts on Broadway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907
March 28, 1959, Some Like It Hot Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1911
April, 1959-November 15, 1966, NASA Launches Project Gemini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913
June, 1959, Price Identifies an Ancient Astronomical Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1916
June 8, 1959-December 31, 1968, X-15 Rocket Aircraft Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
June 26, 1959, St. Lawrence Seaway Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1922
July 17, 1959, Leakeys Find a 1.75-Million-Year-Old Fossil Hominid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1926
July 31, 1959, Basque Separatist Organization Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929
August 12-18, 1959, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Is Created . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1932
September 12, 1959-January 16, 1973, Bonanza Becomes an American Television Classic . . . . . . . . . . . 1936
September 14, 1959, Landrum-Griffin Act Targets Union Corruption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940
September 14, 1959, Luna 2 Becomes the First Human-Made Object to Impact on the Moon . . . . . . . . . . 1944
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1959 (continued)
October 7, 1959, Luna 3 Provides the First Views of the Far Side of the Moon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947
October 21, 1959, Wright-Designed Guggenheim Museum Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950
October 31, 1959, Ionesco’s Rhinoceros Receives a Resounding Worldwide Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1954
November, 1959, Rwandan Hutus Overthrow Tutsi Monarchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957
November 17, 1959, Death of Villa-Lobos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960
November 20, 1959, United Nations Adopts the Declaration of the Rights of the Child . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1964
December 17, 1959, Hopper Invents the Computer Language COBOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968
1960
Early 1960’s, Quant Introduces the Miniskirt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971

Early 1960’s, Sperry Discovers That Sides of the Human Brain Can Function Independently . . . . . . . . . . 1974
1960’s, Cubans Flee to Florida and Receive Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977
1960’s, Kurds Suffer Genocide in Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1980
1960’s, Mumford Warns of the Dangers of Growing Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1985
1960’s, Service Economy Emerges in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988
1960’s, Situation Comedies Dominate Television Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991
1960’s, Sixties Culture in the United States Rediscovers the Works of Hesse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1995
1960’s, SoHo Emerges as a Center for Contemporary Art. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1999
1960’s, Soviet Jews Demand Cultural and Religious Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002
1960, Africa’s Year of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2005
1960, Hess Identifies the Cause of Continental Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2010
1960, Mössbauer Effect Is Used to Detect Gravitational Redshifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014
1960, Quebec Sovereignist Movement Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2018
January 4, 1960, European Free Trade Association Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021
February 1-July 25, 1960, Greensboro Sit-Ins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2023
March 16, 1960, Godard’s Breathless Revolutionizes Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2027
Spring, 1960, Scientists Develop a Technique to Date Ancient Obsidian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2031
March 21, 1960, Sharpeville Massacre Focuses Global Awareness on Apartheid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2034
April 1, 1960, Consumers International Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2037
April 1-June 14, 1960, TIROS 1 Becomes the First Experimental Weather Reconnaissance Satellite . . . . . . 2040
April 4, 1960, Ben-Hur Wins Best Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2043
April 27, 1960, Pinter’s The Caretaker Opens in London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2046
May 1, 1960, U-2 Incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2049
May 6, 1960, Civil Rights Act of 1960. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052
June, 1960, Oró Detects the Formation of Adenine from Cyanide Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2054
June 12, 1960, Congress Passes the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2057
v/4
June 16, 1960, Psycho Becomes Hitchcock’s Most Famous Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062
June 23, 1960, FDA Approves the Birth Control Pill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2065
July, 1960, Invention of the Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2068
July, 1960, Katanga Province Secedes from Congo and Riots Ensue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2071
July, 1960, United Nations Intervenes in the Congolese Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2075
July 1, 1960, A Man for All Seasons Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2078
July 11, 1960, Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird Calls for Social Justice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2081
July 12, 1960, Hazardous Substances Labeling Act Is Signed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2084
August 4, 1960, Canadian Bill of Rights Prohibits Sex Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2087
August 12, 1960, First Passive Communications Satellite Is Launched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2090
August 16, 1960, Cyprus Gains Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2093
September 7, 1960, Rudolph Becomes the Fastest Woman in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2097
September 13, 1960, Radio’s Payola Scandal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2099
September 14, 1960, First OPEC Meeting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2102
Fall, 1960, Plath’s The Colossus Voices Women’s Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2106
September 30, 1960, The Flintstones Popularizes Prime-Time Cartoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
November 8, 1960, Kennedy Is Elected President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113
December 9, 1960, Collapse of the Laotian Government Leads to Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116
1961
Early 1961, Disposable Diapers Are Introduced to U.S. Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2118

1961, Catch-22 Illustrates Antiwar Sentiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2121
1961, Esslin Publishes The Theatre of the Absurd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2124
1961, Foucault’s Madness and Civilization Is Published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2127
1961, Horsfall Detects the Link Between Cancer and Altered DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
1961, Percy Begins His Literary Career with The Moviegoer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133
1961, Royal Shakespeare Company Adopts a New Name and Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2136
1961, Stone Documents the Life of Michelangelo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2140
1961-1962, Al-Hakim Introduces Absurdism to the Arab Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2142
January 17, 1961, Eisenhower Warns of the Military-Industrial Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145
January 24, 1961, The American Dream Establishes Albee as the Voice of Pessimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2148
February, 1961, Tamils Protest Discrimination in Ceylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2151
February 20, 1961, Negotiable Certificate of Deposit Is Introduced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2155
February 23, 1961-March 24, 1965, Ranger Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2157
February 24, 1961, National Council of Churches Supports Birth Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160
March 1, 1961, Peace Corps Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2162
March 29, 1961, District of Columbia Receives Representation in Presidential Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . 2166
April 11-August 14, 1961, Eichmann Is Tried for War Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2169
April 12, 1961, First Human Orbits the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2172
April 17-19, 1961, Bay of Pigs Invasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2175
May 5, 1961, United States Places Its First Astronaut in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2179
May 15, 1961, and April 11, 1963, Pope John XXIII Issues Mater et Magistra and Pacem in Terris. . . . . . . 2183
May 22, 1961, U.S. Supreme Court Orders Du Pont to Disburse GM Holdings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2186
May 28, 1961, Amnesty International Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2189
May 30, 1961, Dominican Dictator Rafael Trujillo Is Assassinated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2193
June 1, 1961, Heinlein Publishes Stranger in a Strange Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2195
Summer, 1961, Nirenberg Cracks the Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2198
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June 23, 1961, Antarctic Treaty Goes into Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2201

August 13, 1961, Communists Raise the Berlin Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2204
September 1, 1961, Eritrea Begins Its War for Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2209
September 1-5, 1961, Nonaligned Movement Meets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2211
September 11, 1961, World Wildlife Fund Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2214
September 18, 1961, United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld Dies in a Plane Crash . . . . . . . 2217
September 30, 1961, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2220
October, 1961, Webster’s Third New International Dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2223
October 3, 1961-June 1, 1966, The Dick Van Dyke Show Popularizes Situation Comedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2226
October 18, 1961, European Social Charter Is Signed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2229
November 3, 1961, Agency for International Development Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2233
November 14, 1961, Kennedy Expands U.S. Involvement in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2236
December 10, 1961, Calvin Wins the Nobel Prize for His Work on Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2239
December 10, 1961, Lutuli Wins the Nobel Peace Prize. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2242
1962
1962, Bookchin Warns of Health Hazards of Artificial Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2246

1962, Gibbons Publishes Stalking the Wild Asparagus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2249
Beginning 1962, Kahn Blends Architecture and Urban Planning in Dacca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2252
1962, Kuhn Explores Paradigm Shifts in Scientific Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2255
1962-1965, Council of Federated Organizations Registers African Americans to Vote. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2258
January 1, 1962, Western Samoa Gains Independence from New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2262
January 12, 1962-1971, United States Sprays Agent Orange in Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2265
February, 1962, United Nations World Food Programme Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2268
February 4, 1962, St. Jude Children’s Hospital Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2271
February 14 and 18, 1962, Jacqueline Kennedy Leads a Televised Tour of the White House . . . . . . . . . . 2273
February 20, 1962, Glenn Becomes the First American to Orbit Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2275
March 2, 1962, Chamberlain Scores 100 Points in a Professional Basketball Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2279
March 26, 1962-February 17, 1964, Supreme Court Requires Population to Determine Voting Districts . . . . 2282
April, 1962, Brazil Nationalizes U.S. Businesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2284
June 18-19, 1962, Discovery of the First X-Ray Source Outside the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2287
July 5, 1962, Algeria Gains Independence from France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2290
July 10, 1962, First Commercial Communications Satellite Is Launched . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2294
August 9, 1962, Britain Establishes the Royal National Theatre. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2298
August 27, 1962-January 2, 1963, Mariner 2 Becomes the First Spacecraft to Study Venus . . . . . . . . . . . 2301
September 27, 1962, Carson Publishes Silent Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2304
September 28, 1962, Canada Becomes the Third Nation to Orbit a Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2309
September 30, 1962, and September 16, 1965, Chávez and Huerta Form Farmworkers’ Union and Lead
Grape Pickers’ Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2311
October 1, 1962, Meredith Registers at the University of Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314
October 5, 1962, Dr. No Launches the Hugely Popular James Bond Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2318
October 9, 1962, Uganda Gains Independence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2321
October 10, 1962, Thalidomide Tragedy Prompts Passage of the Kefauver-Harris Amendment . . . . . . . . . 2323
October 11, 1962-December 8, 1965, Second Vatican Council Meets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2327
October 22-28, 1962, Cuban Missile Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2329
November, 1962, Solzhenitsyn Depicts Life in a Soviet Labor Camp in One Day in the Life of Ivan
Denisovich. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2333
vii/4
1963
1963, Arendt Speculates on the Banality of Evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2335

1963, Audiocassette Is Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2338
1963, Baldwin Voices Black Rage in The Fire Next Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2341
1963, Le Carré Rejects the Fantasy World of Secret Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2345
1963, Schmidt Identifies Quasars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2348
1963, Udall Publishes The Quiet Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2351
1963, Vonnegut’s Cat’s Cradle Expresses 1960’s Alienation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2354
1963-1965, Crisis in U.N. Financing Emerges Over Peacekeeping Expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2358
1963-1965, Penzias and Wilson Discover Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2360
January, 1963-1965, Beatles Revolutionize Popular Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2364
January 29, 1963, Professional Football Names First Inductees to the Pro Football Hall of Fame . . . . . . . . 2368
February, 1963-1968, Minimalism Emphasizes Objects as Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2370
February 20, 1963, Hochhuth Stages a Critique of Pope Pius XII’s Silence During the Holocaust . . . . . . . . 2373
March 11-20, 1963, Nam June Paik Exhibits Video and Television as Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2376
March 12, 1963, Nureyev and Fonteyn Debut Ashton’s Marguerite and Armand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2380
March 18, 1963, Supreme Court Establishes Defendants’ Right to an Attorney. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2383
April 3-May 8, 1963, Civil Rights Protesters Attract International Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2387
April 8, 1963, Lawrence of Arabia Wins Best Picture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2391
April 22, 1963, Pearson Becomes Canada’s Prime Minister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2394
May 25, 1963, Organization of African Unity Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396
June 10, 1963, Congress Passes the Equal Pay Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2401
June 17, 1963, Supreme Court Limits Bible Reading in Public Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2404
June 20, 1963, Hotline Is Adopted Between the United States and the Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2407
August, 1963, Lasers Are First Used in Eye Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2409
August 5, 1963, Nuclear Powers Sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2412
August 28, 1963, King Delivers His “I Have a Dream” Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2415
September 13, 1963, Controversial Glen Canyon Dam Is Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2419
October 4-8, 1963, Hurricane Flora Devastates Haiti and Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2423
October 31, 1963, People with Mental Disabilities and Illnesses Assisted by Federal Act . . . . . . . . . . . . 2426
November 1-2, 1963, Vietnamese Generals Overthrow Diem Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2429
November 20, 1963, United Nations Condemns Racial Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2432
November 22, 1963, President Kennedy Is Assassinated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2436
December 3, 1963, Havel’s The Garden Party Satirizes Life Under Communism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2440
December 9, 1963, Studebaker Announces Plans to Abandon U.S. Auto Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2443
December 12, 1963, General Public Utilities Announces Plans for a Commercial Nuclear Reactor . . . . . . . 2447
December 17, 1963, Clean Air Act Grants Federal Authority to Regulate Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2450
December 22, 1963, Greek and Turkish Cypriots Clash over Political Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2453
1964
1964, Gell-Mann and Zweig Advance Quark Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457

1964, Green Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2460
1964, Israel Brings Water to the Negev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2463
1964, McLuhan Probes the Impact of Mass Media on Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2467
1964, Plastic IUD Developed for Birth Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2471
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1964, Renfrew, Dixon, and Cann Reconstruct Ancient Near Eastern Trade Routes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2474
1964, Riley Completes In C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2477
1964-1969, Lady Bird Johnson Begins the America Beautiful Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2480
1964-1969, Leone Renovates the Western Film Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2484
1964-1970, Frei “Chileanizes” Chile’s Copper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2488
1964-1971, Lévi-Strauss Identifies Common Structures in World Myths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2492
1964-1972, Marcuse Publishes Foundational New Left Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2495
January 4-6, 1964, Paul VI Visits the Holy Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2498
January 8, 1964, Johnson Announces War on Poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2500
January 16, 1964, Hoffa Negotiates a National Trucking Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2504
January 23, 1964, Poll Taxes Are Outlawed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2507
January 30, 1964-1971, Kubrick Becomes a Film-Industry Leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2510
February 25, 1964, Clay Defeats Liston to Gain World Heavyweight Boxing Title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2514
February 26, 1964, Kennedy-Johnson Tax Cuts Stimulate the U.S. Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2517
Spring, 1964, Sara Lee Opens an Automated Factory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2520
March 24, 1964, Dutchman Dramatizes Racial Hatred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2524
March 27, 1964, United Nations Peace Force Is Deployed in Cyprus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2527
April 6, 1964, Confirmation of Asbestos Hazards Sparks Widespread Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2530
April 17, 1964, Ford Introduces the Mustang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2533
April 26, 1964, Zanzibar and Tanganyika Unite to Form Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2536
April 29, 1964, Weiss’s Absurdist Drama Marat/Sade Is Produced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2539
May 1, 1964, Kemeny and Kurtz Develop the BASIC Computer Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2543
May 28, 1964, Palestinian Refugees Form the Palestine Liberation Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2546
May 29, 1964, Great Swamp Wildlife Refuge Is Dedicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2550
Summer, 1964, Reston, Virginia, Exemplifies the Planned Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2553
June 21-22, 1964, Three Civil Rights Workers Are Murdered. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2556
June 24, 1964, Cunningham Stages His First Dance “Event” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2560
July 2, 1964, Congress Passes the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2564
July 17, 1964, Congress Passes the Water Resources Research Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569
July 20, 1964-October, 1965, Navy Conducts Sealab Expeditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2572
August 7, 1964-January 27, 1973, United States Enters the Vietnam War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2576
August 18, 1964, South Africa Is Banned from the Olympic Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2580
September, 1964, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Is Published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2583
September 2, 1964, Johnson Signs the Interest Equalization Tax Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2585
September 3, 1964, Wilderness Act Is Passed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2589
September 14, 1964, Berkeley Free Speech Movement Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2592
September 15, 1964-June 2, 1969, Peyton Place Brings Serial Drama to Nighttime Television . . . . . . . . . 2596
September 19, 1964-December 31, 1970, Congress Establishes the Public Land Law Review Commission . . . 2599
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1964 (continued)
October 13-14, 1964, Khrushchev Falls from Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2603

October 16, 1964, China Explodes Its First Nuclear Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2606
October 24, 1964, Kaunda Becomes Zambia’s First President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2609
November 3, 1964, Johnson Is Elected President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2611
November 3, 1964, Reformist Bolivian President Paz Estenssoro Is Toppled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2614
November 21, 1964, Verrazano-Narrows Bridge Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2616
December 10, 1964, King Wins the Nobel Peace Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2619
December 14, 1964, Supreme Court Prohibits Racial Discrimination in Public Accommodations . . . . . . . . 2622
December 31, 1964-January 7, 1965, Fatah Launches Its First Terrorist Strike on Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2625
1965
1965, Anthropologists Claim That Ecuadorian Pottery Shows Transpacific Contact in 3000 b.c.e. . . . . . . . 2628
1965, Bookchin Publishes Crisis in Our Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2632
1965, U.S. and Mexican Companies Form Maquiladoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2634
February 21, 1965, Assassination of Malcolm X. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2637
March 2, 1965, The Sound of Music Captivates Audiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2640
March 18, 1965, Soviet Cosmonaut Conducts First Space Walk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2643
March 21-25, 1965, Selma-Montgomery March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2647
April 28, 1965, U.S. Troops Occupy the Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2651
May 18, 1965, Head Start Is Established to Aid Poor Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2654
June, 1965, Michener’s Best Seller The Source Explores Jewish History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2657
June 7, 1965, Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Ban Contraceptives in Griswold v. Connecticut . . . . 2659
June 19, 1965, Boumédienne Seizes Power from Dictator in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2663
July 14, 1965-August 5, 1969, Mariner Missions Conduct Mars Flybys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2665
July 16, 1965, Mont Blanc Tunnel Between France and Italy Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2669
July 25, 1965, Dylan Performs with Electric Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2671
July 26 and September 24, 1965, Rolling Stones Release Out of Our Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2675
July 30, 1965, Johnson Signs the Medicare and Medicaid Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2679
August, 1965, Congress Limits the Use of Highway Billboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2682
August 6, 1965, Congress Passes the Voting Rights Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2685
August 11-17, 1965, Watts Riot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2688
August 12, 1965, Five States Take Steps to Halt Lake Erie Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2691
September 8, 1965-July 29, 1970, Delano Grape Strike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2695
September 15, 1965, I Spy Debuts to Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2698
September 20, 1965-March 22, 1966, India-Pakistan Conflict Prompts U.N. Peacekeeping Response . . . . . . 2701
v/5
September 24, 1965, Affirmative Action Is Expanded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2703

September 29, 1965, National Endowment for the Arts Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2706
September 30, 1965, Indonesia’s Government Retaliates Against a Failed Communist Coup . . . . . . . . . . 2709
October 2, 1965, Congress Strengthens Water Laws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2712
October 3, 1965, Hart-Celler Act Reforms U.S. Immigration Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715
October 20, 1965, Congress Passes the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2718
October 20, 1965, Solid Waste Disposal Act Is Passed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2722
October 28, 1965, Paul VI Renounces the “Collective Guilt” of Jews in Christ’s Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2725
November, 1965, The Autobiography of Malcolm X Is Published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2727
November, 1965, Civil War Begins in Chad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2731
November 4, 1965, Doell and Dalrymple Discover the Magnetic Reversals of Earth’s Poles. . . . . . . . . . . 2735
November 8, 1965, British Parliament Abolishes the Death Penalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2738
November 9-10, 1965, Power Failure Blacks Out New York City and the Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2741
November 16, 1965-March 1, 1966, Venera 3 Is the First Spacecraft to Impact Another Planet . . . . . . . . . 2745
November 25, 1965, Military Coup Places Mobutu in Control of Congo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2748
November 29, 1965, Nader Launches the Consumer Rights Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2750
December 4, 1965, Asian Development Bank Is Chartered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2754
December 15, 1965, Gemini VI and VII Complete an Orbital Rendezvous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2758
December 29, 1965, Scenic Hudson Case Stops Storm King Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2761
1966
1966, Ardrey Argues That Humans Are Naturally Territorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2764

1966-1975, Mandelbrot Develops Non-Euclidean Fractal Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2768
January, 1966, Simons Identifies a 30-Million-Year-Old Primate Skull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2771
January 1, 1966, Federal Law Requires Cigarette Warning Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2775
January 1, 1966, Military Coup Brings Dictatorship to Central African Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2778
January 3, 1966, Upper Volta Coup Leads to Military Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2780
January 24, 1966, Gandhi Serves as India’s First Female Prime Minister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2782
January 31-February 6, 1966, Luna 9 Makes the First Successful Lunar Soft Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2785
February 11, 1966, Cuba Signs a Commercial Agreement with the Soviet Union. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2789
February 24, 1966, Overthrow of Nkrumah in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2792
March 2, 1966, Goldman’s The Lion in Winter Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2796
March 7, 1966, France Withdraws from NATO’s Military Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2798
March 15, 1966, Brown Introduces Funk Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2800
April 28, 1966, Southern Rhodesian Freedom Fighters Begin Toppling White Supremacist Government . . . . 2803
May, 1966, Cultural Revolution Begins in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2807
May 4, 1966, Fiat Builds a Factory in the Soviet Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2811
May 30, 1966-February 21, 1968, Surveyor Program Prepares NASA for Piloted Moon Landings . . . . . . . 2814
June 8, 1966, NFL-AFL Merger Creates a Sports-Industry Giant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2817
June 13, 1966, Police Required to Inform Arrested Persons of Their Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2820
August 10, 1966, Lunar Orbiter 1 Sends Photographs of the Moon’s Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2823
August 24, 1966, Animal Welfare Act Regulates Research Using Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2827
September 15, 1966, Warhol’s Underground Film The Chelsea Girls Finds Mainstream Audience . . . . . . . 2829
September 28, 1966, Breuer Designs a Building for the Whitney Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2833
September 30, 1966, Khama Leads a Stable Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2836
October 15, 1966, Black Panther Party Is Organized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2839
October 15, 1966, Congress Passes the Endangered Species Preservation Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2843
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October 21, 1966, Mining Debris Buries Welsh Village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2846

October 27, 1966, United Nations Revokes South African Mandate over South-West Africa . . . . . . . . . . 2849
October 29-30, 1966, National Organization for Women Forms to Protect Women’s Rights. . . . . . . . . . . 2852
November 26, 1966, First Tidal Power Station Begins Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2856
December, 1966, Jensen Finds PCBs in Animal Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2859
December 16, 1966, United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Is Adopted . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2863
December 19, 1966, Canada Implements Its National Health Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2866
1967
Early 1967, Davis Constructs a Solar Neutrino Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2869

1967, Celan Introduces the Concept of Poetic “Breath-Measure” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2873
1967, Derrida Enunciates the Principles of Deconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2876
1967, Favaloro Develops the Artery Bypass Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2879
1967, Soviet Intellectuals Begin to Rebel Against Party Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2882
1967, World Health Organization Intensifies Its Campaign to Eradicate Smallpox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2885
1967-1970, Floppy Disks Are Developed for Computer Data Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2887
1967-1973, Development of Very Long Baseline Interferometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2890
January 10, 1967, Brooke Becomes the First African American U.S. Senator Since Reconstruction . . . . . . . 2894
January 15, 1967, National Football League Holds Its First Super Bowl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2896
February 5, 1967, Nyerere Outlines Socialist Policy in the Arusha Declaration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2899
February 23, 1967, Constitution Provides for the Incapacity of the President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2902
March 10, 1967, White Explores the Judeo-Christian Roots of Environmental Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 2905
March 18, 1967, Oil Tanker Torrey Canyon Runs Aground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2909
April 11, 1967, Supreme Court Rules Against a Procter & Gamble Merger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2912
April 21, 1967, Greek Coup Leads to Military Dictatorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915
April 28, 1967, McDonnell and Douglas Aircraft Companies Merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2919
April 28-October 27, 1967, Expo 67 Features Innovative Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2922
May, 1967, García Márquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude Is Published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2925
May, 1967, Greenhouse Effect Is First Predicted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2929
May 12, 1967, Hendrix Releases Acid Rock Album Are You Experienced? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2932
May 30, 1967-January 15, 1970, Biafra’s Secession Triggers Nigerian Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2936
June, 1967, Beatles Release Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2939
June, 1967, Scientists Debate the Addition of Antibiotics to Animal Feed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2943
June 5-10, 1967, Israel Defeats Arab States in the Six-Day War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2947
June 8, 1967, Israel Attacks the USS Liberty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2951
June 16-18, 1967, Monterey Pop Festival Inaugurates the “Summer of Love” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2953
July 1, 1967, European Economic Community Adopts the Common Agricultural Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . 2957
July 1, 1967, United States Joins the International Biological Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2960
July 4, 1967, Freedom of Information Act Goes into Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2964
July 5, 1967, AT&T Is Ordered to Reduce Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2966
July 23-July 30, 1967, Race Rioting Erupts in Detroit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2969
August-September, 1967, Kornberg and Colleagues Synthesize Biologically Active DNA . . . . . . . . . . . 2973
August 8, 1967, Association of Southeast Asian Nations Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2976
September, 1967, Environmental Defense Fund Is Founded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2979
September 3, 1967, Thieu Is Elected President of South Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2982
September 9, 1967-May 14, 1973, Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In Satirizes Social Upheaval . . . . . . . . . . 2984
October 2, 1967, Marshall Becomes the First African American Supreme Court Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2988
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October 9, 1967, Execution of Che Guevara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2991

October 10, 1967, Outer Space Treaty Takes Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2994
November, 1967, Zero Population Growth Movement Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2996
November 7, 1967, United Nations Issues a Declaration on Equality for Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2999
November 16, 1967, Barghoorn and Colleagues Find Amino Acids in 3-Billion-Year-Old Rocks . . . . . . . . 3002
November 22, 1967, United Nations Security Council Adopts Resolution 242 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3005
December 2, 1967, Barnard Performs the First Human Heart Transplant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3008
December 9, 1967, Ceaulescu Is Elected President of Romania. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3012
December 11, 1967, Habash Founds the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3015
December 15, 1967, Congress Enacts the Age Discrimination in Employment Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3018
1968
1968, Canada Establishes the Experimental Lakes Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3021

1968, Friedman, Kendall, and Taylor Discover Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3024
1968, Glaser Proposes an Orbiting Solar Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3027
1968, Huntington Examines Processes of Change in Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3030
1968, Mitchell and Shook Found the Dance Theatre of Harlem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3032
1968, The Population Bomb Is Published . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3034
1968-1973, Drought Extends the Reach of the Sahara Desert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3037
January 1, 1968, Johnson Restricts Direct Foreign Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3040
January 2, 1968, Congress Enacts the Bilingual Education Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3044
January 15, 1968, British Leyland Motor Corporation Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3047
January 23, 1968, North Korea Seizes the USS Pueblo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3050
January 30, 1968, Tet Offensive Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3053
February, 1968, Kerner Commission Explores the Causes of Civil Disorders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3056
February 16, 1968, First 911 Call in the United States Is Made . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3060
February 24, 1968, Bell Discovers Pulsars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3062
March, 1968, Alaskan Oil Discovery Sparks Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3065
Spring, 1968, Wheeler Refers to Collapsed Stars as “Black Holes” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3069
April 4, 1968, Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3072
April 11, 1968, Fair Housing Act Outlaws Discrimination in Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3076
April 11, 1968, Indian Civil Rights Act Is Passed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3079
April 23, 1968, United Methodist Church Is Formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3082
April 29, 1968, Radical Musical Hair Opens on Broadway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3085
May-June, 1968, French Students and Workers Rebel Against the Political Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3088
May 11, 1968, Handke’s Kaspar Dramatizes Language Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3092
May 13, 1968, Proclamation of Tehran Sets Human Rights Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3095
May 29, 1968, Congress Passes the Consumer Credit Protection Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3098
June 5, 1968, Robert F. Kennedy Is Assassinated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3102
June 17, 1968, Supreme Court Upholds Ban on Housing Discrimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3104
June 25, 1968-June 30, 1984, Trudeau Serves as Canadian Prime Minister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3107
July 21, 1968, Congress Acts to Control Noise Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3110
July 25, 1968, Roman Catholic Church Reaffirms Its Position Against Birth Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3114
July 26, 1968, Theatres Act Ends Censorship of British Drama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3117
August 11, 1968, Glomar Challenger Begins Collecting Ocean-Floor Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3120
August 12, 1968, Congress Passes the Architectural Barriers Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3123
August 18, 1968, Wholesome Poultry Products Act Is Passed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3127
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August 20-21, 1968, Soviet Union Invades Czechoslovakia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3130

August 24-30, 1968, Chicago Riots Mar the Democratic National Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3134
September 17, 1968, Carroll Becomes the First African American Woman to Star as a Non-domestic on
Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3138
September 24, 1968, 60 Minutes Becomes the First Televised Newsmagazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3141
September 27, 1968, Caetano Becomes Prime Minister of Portugal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3144
October 2, 1968, Johnson Establishes North Cascades National Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3147
October 2, 1968, Tlatelolco Massacre Stuns Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3150
October 2, 1968, Wild and Scenic Rivers and Trails System Acts Are Passed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3152
October 11, 1968, Omar Torrijos Ousts Arias in Panama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3156
October 18, 1968, Lauren Creates the Polo Clothing Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3158
November, 1968, and January, 1970, The Whole Earth Catalog and Mother Earth News Appear . . . . . . . . 3161
November 5, 1968, Chisholm Becomes the First African American Woman Elected to Congress . . . . . . . . 3164
November 5, 1968, Nixon Is Elected President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3168
November 12, 1968-December, 1989, Brezhnev Doctrine Mandates Soviet Control of Satellite Nations . . . . 3171
November 26, 1968, Statutes of Limitations Are Rendered Inapplicable to War Crimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3175
December, 1968, Soviet Union Opens a Tidal Power Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3178
December 10, 1968, Cassin Is Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3181
December 12, 1968, Kawabata Wins the Nobel Prize in Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3184
December 13, 1968, Brazil Begins Era of Intense Repression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3188
December 13, 1968, Hardin Argues for Population Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3191
1969
1969, German Measles Vaccine Is Developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3195

1969, Halberstam Reflects on American Involvement in Vietnam in The Best and the Brightest. . . . . . . . . 3200
1969, Parents Anonymous Is Established to Treat Abusive Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3203
1969, Puzo Chronicles Organized Crime in The Godfather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3206
1969, Roth Publishes Portnoy’s Complaint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3208
January, 1969, Soviet Union Declares Lake Baikal a Protected Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3211
January 16, 1969, Soyuz 4 and 5 Spacecraft Dock in Orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3215
January 20, 1969, Sierra Club Helps Block Dams on the Colorado River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3219
January 28, 1969, Offshore Oil Well Spill Blankets Santa Barbara Coastline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3223
February 8, 1969, The Saturday Evening Post Publishes Its Final Issue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3226
February 27, 1969, Hafez al-Assad Takes Control of Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3229
March 2-October 20, 1969, Sino-Soviet Tensions Mount Along the Ussuri River Border . . . . . . . . . . . . 3231
March 4, 1969, Union of Concerned Scientists Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
March 17, 1969, Meir Becomes Prime Minister of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3237
April 28, 1969, De Gaulle Steps Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3239
May, 1969, Brower Forms Friends of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3242
May 5, 1969, Russell Retires as the Celtics Take an Eleventh NBA Title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3245
May 25, 1969, Nimeiri Takes Charge in Khartoum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3248
June 18-26, 1969, Pesticide Poisons the Rhine River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3250
June 22, 1969, Polluted Cuyahoga River Bursts into Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3253
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Contents, Volume 6: 1969-1970
1969 (continued)
June 23, 1969, Supreme Court Extends Protection Against Double Jeopardy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3257
June 27-July 2, 1969, Stonewall Rebellion Ignites Modern Lesbian and Gay Rights Movement . . . . . . . . . 3260
July 9, 1969, Canada’s Official Languages Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3264
July 14, 1969, Easy Rider Captures the Spirit of 1960’s Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3266
July 14-20, 1969, Soccer War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3270
July 20, 1969, First Humans Land on the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3272
July 25, 1969, Nixon Doctrine Is Unveiled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3276
August, 1969, British Troops Restore Order in Northern Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3279
August, 1969, Davis Introduces Jazz-Rock Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3282
August 8, 1969, First Use of Bubble Memory in Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3285
August 15-18, 1969, Woodstock Music Festival Marks the Climax of 1960’s Youth Culture . . . . . . . . . . 3288
August 17-18, 1969, Hurricane Camille Devastates the U.S. Gulf Coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3292
September 1, 1969, Military Takes Charge in Libya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3294
September 3, 1969, Congress Begins Hearings on Overspending for the C-5A Galaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3296
September 10, 1969, African Convention Expands the Definition of Refugees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3300
September 25, 1969, Organization of the Islamic Conference Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3303
October 5, 1969, Monty Python’s Flying Circus Prompts a Cult Following. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3306
October 5, 1969-March 29, 1970, The Forsyte Saga Anticipates the Television Miniseries . . . . . . . . . . . 3309
October 10, 1969, National Institute of Mental Health Report “Normalizes” Homosexuality . . . . . . . . . . 3313
October 15, 1969, Canada Announces Ban on Hunting Baby Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3315
October 20, 1969, Pittsburgh Residents Form the Group Against Smog and Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3318
October 21, 1969, Artificial Sweetener Cyclamate Is Banned from U.S. Consumer Markets. . . . . . . . . . . 3322
October 21, 1969, Somali Democracy Ends in a Military Coup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3325
November 10, 1969, Sesame Street Revolutionizes Children’s Programming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3327
November 19-20, 1969, Apollo 12 Mission Marks Second Moon Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3331
November 20, 1969-June 11, 1971, American Indians Occupy Alcatraz Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3334
November 20, 1969-December 31, 1972, DDT Ban Signals New Environmental Awareness . . . . . . . . . . 3337
November 22, 1969, Inter-American Court of Human Rights Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3341
December, 1969, Birth of the European Monetary Union Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3344
December 10, 1969, Barton and Hassel Share the Nobel Prize for Determining the Three-Dimensional
Shapes of Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3347
December 10, 1969, International Labor Organization Wins the Nobel Peace Prize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3350
December 11, 1969, Arafat Becomes Chair of the Palestine Liberation Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3353
December 13, 1969, First Jumbo Jet Is Delivered to Airlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3355
December 30, 1969, Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act Is Approved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3358
v/6
1970
1970, Design for the Real World Calls for Industrial Design Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3362
1970, Reich Publishes The Greening of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3365
1970-1971, U.S. Voting Age Is Lowered to Eighteen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3368
January 1, 1970, National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 Is Signed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3372
January 16, 1970, Flood Tests Baseball’s Reserve Clause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3376
January 25, 1970, M*A*S*H Satirizes Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3379
February, 1970, Natural Resources Defense Council Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3381
February 4, 1970, Patton’s Historical Realism Leads to Best Picture and Actor Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3385
February 10-April 16, 1970, Alpine Avalanches Prompt Snow-Management Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3387
March 5, 1970, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Goes into Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3390
March 19, 1970, Brandt Meets Stoph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3394
March 31, 1970, Canada Bans Commercial Fishing in Lakes St. Clair and Erie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3397
April 1, 1970, Cigarette Ads Are Banned from Broadcast Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3400
April 3, 1970, Congress Mandates Oil-Spill Liabilities and Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3404
April 11-17, 1970, Apollo 13 Crew Survives Onboard Explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3407
April 22, 1970, First Earth Day Is Celebrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3410
April 26, 1970, Broadway’s First “Concept” Musical Premieres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3413
April 29, 1970, United States Invades Cambodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3416
May 4, 1970, Kent State Massacre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3419
May 29, 1970, British Parliament Passes the Equal Pay Act of 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3423
May 31, 1970, Earthquake and Avalanche in Peru Kill More than Sixty Thousand People . . . . . . . . . . . . 3425
June 16, 1970, Trans-Amazon Highway Is Announced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3428
July, 1970, Future Shock Explores the Impact of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3431
August, 1970, Congress Ratifies the National Council on Indian Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3433
September, 1970, Cousteau Announces Large Decline in Ocean Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3437
September 4, 1970, Allende Wins a Close Election in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3440
September 19, 1970-September 3, 1977, The Mary Tyler Moore Show Examines Women’s Roles. . . . . . . . 3443
September 28, 1970, Sadat Becomes President of Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3447
October, 1970, Pollution Fears Prompt Invention of Phosphate-Free Detergent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3449
October 5, 1970, Public Broadcasting Service Airs Its First Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3452
October 15, 1970, Congress Passes the RICO Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3455
October 16, 1970-April 30, 1971, Canada Invokes War Measures Act Against Quebec Separatists . . . . . . . 3458
October 26, 1970, Congress Passes the Fair Credit Reporting Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3462
October 26, 1970, Resource Recovery Act Is Passed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3465
October 30, 1970, Congress Creates Amtrak to Save Passenger Rail Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3467
November 10, 1970-October 1, 1971, Soviet Rover Lunokhod 1 Lands on the Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3471
November 11, 1970, Moscow Human Rights Committee Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3475
November 12, 1970, Bhola Cyclone Devastates East Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3479
November 17, 1970-March 29, 1971, Calley Is Court-Martialed for My Lai Massacre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3483
December 2, 1970, Environmental Protection Agency Is Created . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3487
December 4, 1970, Chávez Is Jailed for Organizing a National Lettuce Boycott . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3491
December 7, 1970, United Nations Volunteers Program Is Established . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3495
December 10, 1970, Borlaug Receives the Nobel Prize for His Work on World Hunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3496
December 15, 1970, New Mexico’s Blue Lake Region Is Returned to the Taos Pueblo . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3500
December 18, 1970, European Consortium Creates Airbus Industrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3505
December 28, 1970, Family Planning Services and Population Research Act Extends Reproductive
Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3508
vi/6
Contents
December 29, 1970, Nixon Signs the Occupational Safety and Health Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3512
December 31, 1970, Congress Amends the Clean Air Act. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3515
December 31, 1970, Congress Approves the Mining and Minerals Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3518
Appendixes
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3523
Electronic Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3581
Chronological List of Entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3593
Geographical Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3616
Category Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3668
Indexes
Personages Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XLIII
vii/6
Publisher’s Note
Great Events from History: The Twentieth Century, Scope of Coverage
1941-1970, is the ninth installment in Salem Press’s on- In this set, the mid-twentieth century receives world-
going Great Events from History series, which was initi- wide coverage that prioritizes the needs of students at the
ated in 2004 with the two-volume Great Events from His- high school and undergraduate levels. The events cov-
tory: The Ancient World, Prehistory-476, followed by ered include the curriculum-oriented geopolitical events
The Middle Ages, 477-1453 (2 vols., 2005), The Renais- of the era—from World War II (1939-1945) and the Ho-
sance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600 (2 vols., 2005), locaust to the formation of the United Nations and the
The Seventeenth Century, 1601-1700 (2 vols., 2006), start of the Cold War in 1945, from the Korean War
The Eighteenth Century, 1701-1800 (2 vols., 2006), The (1950-1953) to the war in Vietnam (1959-1975). Essays
Nineteenth Century, 1801-1900 (4 vols., 2007), The also address important social and cultural developments
Twentieth Century, 1901-1940 (6 vols., 2007), and Gay, in literature, the arts, music, law, and social and civil
Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender Events: 1848-2006 (2 rights legislation. Among the many broad subjects re-
vols., 2007). When completed, the series will extend ceiving extensive coverage are the emerging environ-
through the twentieth century and contain more than mental movement and the growing awareness of pollu-
5,000 essays covering the milestones of world history. tion; Europe’s changing political divisions and shifting
alliances; global human rights struggles, including those
Expanded Coverage of women, children, minority groups, and political refu-
The present set incorporates material from Salem’s pre- gees; the nuclear age; space exploration; postcolonial
viously published events series, including heavily updated struggles and revolutionary political movements; dicta-
revisions of all the mid-twentieth century events covered torships; and famine and natural disasters.
in Chronology of European History: 15,000 B.C. to 1997 This set also covers major advances in medicine and
(3 vols., 1997), Great Events from History: North American in science and technology, including those discoveries
Series, Revised Edition (4 vols., 1997), and Great Events and innovations that brought fundamental changes to
from History II (20 vols., 1991-1995). These volumes form daily life beginning in the early 1940’s. Medical scien-
the foundation on which the new and greatly expanded se- tists learned that DNA carries hereditary information and
ries is built. However, that foundation now forms only a that its structure is in the form of a double-helix; they de-
fraction of the whole. Across the entire new series, more veloped the polio vaccine and determined the structure of
than one-third of the text is completely new. In addition, insulin and penicillin; and they advanced x-ray photogra-
the new series adds hundreds of maps, photographs, illus- phy for medical purposes. Milestones were reached in
trations, tables and lists, primary source documents, ap- computer technology, aviation, physics, astronomy, ge-
pendixes, and finding aids in the form of keyword, geo- ology, and telecommunications.
graphic, categorized, personage, and subject indexes. No history would be complete without discussion of
The new content in the current installment, The Twen- the everyday objects that became commonplace in the
tieth Century, 1941-1970, constitutes more than one- mid-twentieth century. The period between 1941 and
quarter of the set: To the 799 original essays we have 1970 saw the invention of aerosol containers, disposable
added 313 completely new essays—commissioned espe- diapers, Tupperware, the bikini and the miniskirt, and
cially for the new series and appearing here for the first birth control pills, among other things. Further coverage
time—for a total of 1,112 essays. Bibliographies for all looks at the growth of the film and television industries,
the old essays have been expanded and updated, and all and radio’s consequent demise as the medium of choice
essays are cross-referenced internally. A section contain- for family entertainment, especially in the United States.
ing maps of world regions in the mid-twentieth century is By category, the contents of the set include events that
included, plus new appendixes, sidebars, time lines, ta- fall into one or more of the following areas: Agriculture
bles, quotations from primary source documents, lists, (22 essays), Animals and endangered species (2), An-
maps, photographs, and illustrations. thropology (8), Archaeology (8), Architecture (17), Arts
xi
(13), Astronomy (34), Atrocities and war crimes (29), France (48), Gabon (1), Germany (36), Ghana (2), Greece
Banking and finance (16), Biology (26), Business and la- (6), Guatemala (1), Guinea (1), Haiti (2), Honduras (1),
bor (67), Chemistry (16), Civil rights and liberties (66), Hungary (6), Iceland (4), India (11), Indochina (1), Indo-
Cold War (86), Colonialism and occupation (42), Com- nesia (6), Iran (3), Iraq (4), Ireland (1), Israel (14), Italy
munications and media (24), Computers and computer (28), Ivory Coast (1), Japan (20), Jordan (3), Kenya (1),
science (14), Crime and scandal (8), Cultural and intel- Laos (2), Latin America (29), Lebanon (1), Libya (2),
lectual history (22), Dance (14), Diplomacy and interna- Luxembourg (6), Madagascar (1), Malawi (2), Malaysia
tional relations (128), Disasters (27), Earth science (13), (1), Mali (1), Mauretania (1), Mediterranean (1), Mela-
Economics (40), Education (14), Energy (30), Engi- nesia (3), Mexico (3), Micronesia (6), Middle East (35),
neering (47), Entertainment (5), Environmental issues Morocco (3), Myanmar (1), Namibia (1), Nepal (2),
(109), Expansion and land acquisition (14), Exploration Netherlands (12), New Zealand (3), Niger (1), Nigeria
and discovery (7), Fashion and design (6), Genetics (7), (3), North Africa (2), North America (645), North Atlan-
Geography (11), Geology (5), Government and politics tic (2), North Korea (3), Norway (14), Nyasaland (3), Pa-
(189), Health and medicine (66), Historiography (5), Hu- cific (15), Pakistan (5), Palestine (14), Panama (1), Para-
man rights (50), Humanitarianism and philanthropy (15), guay (2), Peru (3), Philippines (10), Poland (7), Polynesia
Immigration, emigration, and relocation (25), Indepen- (6), Portugal (4), Rhodesia (4), Romania (5), Rwanda (1),
dence movements (40), Indigenous peoples’ rights (11), Senegal (1), Singapore (1), Somalia (2), South Africa
Inventions (25), Language, linguistics, and philology (7), South Asia (15), South Korea (5), South Pacific (5),
(6), Laws, acts, and legal history (131), Literature (63), Southeast Asia (32), South-West Africa (1), Soviet Union
Manufacturing and industry (47), Marketing and adver- (44), Spain (3), Sri Lanka (3), Sudan (2), Sweden (12),
tising (11), Mathematics (1), Military history (40), Mon- Switzerland (12), Syria (3), Tanganyika (3), Tanzania (4),
uments (1), Motion pictures and video (49), Music (42), Thailand (5), Tibet (2), Togo (1), Trinidad and Tobago
Mythology and folklore (1), Natural resources (27), Or- (1), Tunisia (1), Turkey (1), Turkmenistan (1), Uganda
ganizations and institutions (109), Philosophy (19), Pho- (1), United Arab Republic (1), United Kingdom (77),
tography (3), Physics (21), Political science (8), Popular United States (634), Upper Volta (2), Uruguay (1), Ven-
culture (22), Prehistory and ancient cultures (3), Psy- ezuela (1), Vietnam (10), West Germany (15), West In-
chology and psychiatry (10), Publishing and journalism dies (13), Western Europe (3), Western Samoa (1), World
(28), Radio and television (44), Religion, theology, and (5), Yugoslavia (3), Zambia (3), and Zimbabwe (3).
ethics (43), Science and technology (170), Social issues
and reform (121), Sociology (4), Space and aviation Essay Length and Format
(46), Sports (22), Terrorism (11), Theater (40), Trade The essays have an average length of 1,850 words
and commerce (52), Transportation (22), Travel and rec- (3-4 pages) and adhere to a uniform format. The ready-
reation (9), United Nations (43), Urban planning (13), reference top matter of every essay prominently displays
Vietnam War (15), Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest the following information:
(127), Women’s issues (33), and World War II (92).
• the most precise date (or date range) of the event
The scope of this set is equally broad geographically,
• the common name of the event
with essays on events associated with the following
countries and world regions: Afghanistan (1 essay), Af- • a summary paragraph that identifies the event and en-
rica (57), Albania (2), Algeria (4), Antarctica (1), Argen- capsulates its significance
tina (6), Asia (39), Atlantic (4), Australia (8), Austria (9), • where appropriate, any also-known-as name for the
Bangladesh (2), Belgium (9), Benin (1), Bolivia (4), Bot- event
swana (1), Brazil (5), Bulgaria (5), Burkina Faso (2), • the locale where the event occurred, including both
Burma (3), Cambodia (3), Cameroon (1), Canada (31), mid-twentieth century and, as relevant, modern place-
Caribbean (13), Central African Republic (2), Ceylon names
(3), Chad (2), Chile (4), China (14), Colombia (4), Congo, • the categories, or the type of event covered, from Arts
Democratic Republic of the (4), Congo, Republic of the to Government and Politics to Military History to
(1), Costa Rica (2), Cuba (7), Cyprus (3), Czechoslova- Transportation
kia (6), Denmark (4), Dominican Republic (2), East Ger- • Key Figures, a list of the major people involved in the
many (5), Ecuador (3), Egypt (10), El Salvador (1), event, with birth and death dates, brief descriptors,
Eritrea (1), Ethiopia (3), Europe (265), Finland (1), and regnal dates or terms of office where applicable
xii
Publisher’s Note
The text of each essay is divided into these sections: Usage Notes
The worldwide scope of Great Events from History
• Summary of Event, devoted to a chronological de-
often results in the inclusion of names and words that
scription of the facts of the event
must be transliterated from languages that do not use the
• Significance, assessing the event’s historical impact Roman alphabet, and in some cases more than one sys-
• Further Reading, an annotated list of sources for fur- tem of transliteration exists. In many cases, transliterated
ther study words in this set follow the American Library Associa-
• See also, cross-references to other essays within this tion and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) transliteration
Great Events set format for that language. However, if another form of a
name or word is judged to be more familiar to the general
Special Features audience, it is used instead. Pinyin transliterations are
A section of historical maps appears in the front mat- used for Chinese topics, with Wade-Giles variants pro-
ter of each volume, displaying world regions in the mid- vided for major names and dynasties; in a few cases,
twentieth century to assist readers in placing events, in- common names that are not Pinyin are used. Sanskrit and
cluding events with a clear global reach (such as political other South Asian names generally follow the ALA-LC
divisions wrought by the Cold War). Accompanying in- transliteration rules, although more familiar forms of
dividual essays are an additional 84 maps, as well as 235 names are used when deemed appropriate for general
quotations from primary source documents, lists, and readers.
time lines. Also included are 500 photographs and illus- Titles of books and other literature appear, upon first
trations: images of buildings, people, battles, and other mention in each essay, with their full publication and
icons of the period. translation data as known: an indication of the first date
Because the set is ordered chronologically, a Keyword of publication or appearance, followed by the English ti-
List of Contents appears in the front matter to each vol- tle in translation and its first date of appearance in En-
ume, listing all essays alphabetically, permuted by all glish. If no translation has been published in English, and
keywords in the essays’ titles, to assist readers in locating if the context of the discussion does not make the mean-
events by name. ing of the title obvious, a “literal translation” appears in
In addition, research aids appear as appendixes at the roman type.
end of Volume 6: In the listing of Key Figures and in parenthetical ma-
• The Bibliography cites major sources on the period. terial within the text, “r.” stands for “reigned,” “b.” for
• Electronic Resources provides URLs and descrip- “born,” “d.” for “died,” and “fl.” for flourished. Wher-
tions of Web sites and other online resources devoted ever date ranges, such as “1920-1997,” appear appended
to period studies. to names with none of these designators, readers may as-
sume that they signify birth and death dates or, where the
• The Chronological List of Entries organizes the con-
contexts indicate, terms of office not considered “reigns.”
tents chronologically in one place for ease of refer-
ence.
The Contributors
Salem Press would like to extend its appreciation to
Four indexes round out the set:
all who have been involved in the development and pro-
• The Geographical Index lists essays by regions and duction of this work. Special thanks go to Professor Rob-
countries. ert F. Gorman at Texas State, who developed the con-
• The Category Index lists essays by types of event, tents list and coverage notes for contributing writers to
such as Agriculture, Architecture, and Arts. ensure the set’s relevance to the high school and under-
• The Personages Index includes major personages dis- graduate curricula. The essays were written and signed
cussed throughout. by 629 historians, political scientists, scholars of re-
• The Subject Index includes persons, concepts, terms, gional studies, and other experts. Without their contribu-
battles, works of literature, inventions, organizations, tions, a project of this nature would not be possible. A full
artworks, musical compositions, and many other top- list of their names and affiliations appears in the front
ics of discussion. matter of this volume.
xiii
Contributors
McCrea Adams Carolyn Anderson JoAnn Balingit
Reseda, California University of Massachusetts, Amherst Bancroft Intermediate School
Michael Adams Frank W. Andritzky Mary Pat Balkus

CUNY Graduate Center Concordia University Radford University
Bland Addison George P. Antone Jane L. Ball

Worcester Polytechnic Institute Appalachian State University Wilberforce University
Olutayo C. Adesina Stanley Archer Grace A. Banks

University of Ibadan, Nigeria Texas A&M University Chestnut Hill College
Rebekah Jane Adler Frank Ardolino Art Barbeau

Ypsilanti, Michigan University of Hawaii at Manoa West Liberty State College
Richard Adler Gerald S. Argetsinger Russell J. Barber

University of Michigan—Dearborn Rochester Institute of Technology California State University,
San Bernardino
Margaret I. Aguwa Richard W. Arnseth
Michigan State University Tetra Tech NUS Michele Barker-Bridgers
University of North Carolina—
Pegeen H. Albig Nancy P. Arny Pembroke
Radford University University of Florida—Gainesville
A. James Barnes
David E. Alexander Paul Ashin Indiana University
University of Massachusetts Stanford University
David Barratt
Steve K. Alexander Anne Atwell-Zoll Farnsfield, England
University of Mary Hardin-Baylor Los Angeles, California
Carole A. Barrett
Patricia Alkema Bryan Aubrey University of Mary
Independent Scholar Fairfield, Iowa
Thomas F. Barry
David W. Allard James A. Baer Himeji Dokkyo University, Japan
Texarkana College Northern Virginia Community
College Maryanne Barsotti
Patrick Allitt Warren, Michigan
Emory University Ann Marie B. Bahr
South Dakota State University Charles A. Bartocci
Emily Alward Dabney S. Lancaster Community
Henderson, Nevada, District Amanda J. Bahr-Evola College
Libraries Southern Illinois University,
Edwardsville Paul Barton-Kriese
Stephen E. Ambrose Indiana University East
Louisiana State University, New Nancy R. Bain
Orleans Ohio University Jonathan Bean
Southern Illinois University
Michael S. Ameigh Jim Baird
SUNY, College at Oswego University of North Texas Erving E. Beauregard
University of Dayton
G. Anandalingam Susan Benforado Bakewell
Independent Scholar Kennesaw State University Patricia A. Behlar
Pittsburg State University
Robert B. Andersen Siva Balasubramanian
Bridgewater College Southern Illinois University Felicia Bender
Columbia, Missouri
xv
Alvin K. Benson Michael R. Bradley Charles Cameron

Utah Valley State College Motlow State Community College Los Angeles, California
Richard P. Benton John Braeman Gary A. Campbell

Trinity College University of Nebraska Michigan Technological University
Charles Merrell Berg Anthony Branch Edmund J. Campion

University of Kansas Golden Gate University University of Tennessee
Milton Berman Thomas C. Breslin Byron Cannon

University of Rochester California State University, University of Utah
Northridge
Jack Bermingham Glenn Canyon
Pacific Lutheran University Elise M. Bright Independent Scholar
University of Texas at Arlington
Anthony J. Bernardo, Jr. Richard K. Caputo
Wilmington, Delaware John A. Britton Yeshiva University
Francis Marion University
John W. Biles Sheila Carapico
Sam Houston State University William S. Brockington, Jr. University of Richmond
University of South Carolina—Aiken
Robert E. Biles Russell N. Carney
Sam Houston State University Keith H. Brower Missouri State University
Salisbury State University
Regina Birchem Sharon Carson
Seton Hill College Alan Brown University of North Dakota
Livingston University
Nicholas Birns Jack Carter
Eugene Lang College, New School Kendall W. Brown University of New Orleans
Brigham Young University
Arthur Blaser R. O’Brian Carter
Chapman University Anthony R. Brunello Berry College
Eckerd College
Kent Blaser Nicholas A. Casner
Wayne State University Thomas W. Buchanan Boise State University
Ancilla Domini College
Devon Boan Thomas J. Cassidy
Belmont University David D. Buck South Carolina State University
University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee
Paul R. Boehlke Gilbert T. Cave
Wisconsin Lutheran College Michael H. Burchett Lakeland Community College
Limestone College
Steve D. Boilard Elisabeth A. Cawthon
Western Kentucky University William H. Burnside University of Texas, Arlington
John Brown University
Julia B. Boken Dennis Chamberland
SUNY, College at Oneonta Susan Butterworth Independent Scholar
Salem State College
Lucy Jayne Botscharow Paul Chandler
Northeastern Illinois University Joseph P. Byrne Ball State University
Belmont University
Gordon L. Bowen Paul J. Chara, Jr.
Mary Baldwin College Charles R. Caldwell Northwestern College
Santa Barbara, California
John Boyd Frederick B. Chary
Appalachian State University Laura M. Calkins Indiana University Northwest
Oglethorpe University
William Boyle Nan K. Chase
SUNY, College at New Paltz Appalachian State University
xvi
Contributors
Victor W. Chen Stephen Cresswell David M. Diggs

Chabot College West Virginia Wesleyan College Central Missouri State University
Peng-Khuan Chong Ralph D. Cross Lesa Dill

Plymouth State University University of Southern Mississippi Western Kentucky University
Eric Howard Christianson Edward R. Crowther Marcia B. Dinneen

University of Kentucky Adams State College Bridgewater State College
Ronald J. Cima Jennifer L. Cruise Fredrick J. Dobney

Library of Congress University of St. Thomas St. Louis University
Lawrence I. Clark Jim Cullen Stephen B. Dobrow

Delaware, Ohio Yonkers, New York Fairleigh Dickinson University
B. Mawiyah Clayborne LouAnn Faris Culley J. R. Donath

Maharishi International University Kansas State University California State University,
Sacramento
Douglas Clouatre Merrilee Cunningham
Mid-Plains Community College University of Houston, Downtown Jack Donnelly
University of North Carolina at
Robert Cole Jeff Cupp Chapel Hill
Utah State University University Charleston
David Leonard Downie
Jaime S. Colome Frederick E. Danker Columbia University
California Polytechnic State University of Massachusetts, Boston
University, San Luis Obispo Thomas Du Bose
Jennifer Davis Louisiana State University, Shreveport
Bernard A. Cook University of Dayton
Loyola University Joyce Duncan
Frank Day East Tennessee State University
James J. Cooke Clemson University
University of Mississippi Victor Manuel Durán
Bruce J. DeHart University of South Carolina—Aiken
Richard G. Cormack University of North Carolina,
Ventura, California Pembroke Steven I. Dutch
University of Wisconsin—Green Bay
Ralph L. Corrigan, Jr. Bill Delaney
Sacred Heart University San Diego, California Jennifer Eastman
Clark University
Albert B. Costa Francine Dempsey
Duquesne University College of Saint Rose Robert R. Ebert
Baldwin-Wallace College
Charles E. Cottle Mark DeStephano
University of Wisconsin Saint Peter’s College Craig M. Eckert
Eastern Illinois University
Arlene R. Courtney Michael S. DeVivo
Western Oregon University Bloomsburg University of Christopher H. Efird
Pennsylvania Sam Houston State University
Mark S. Coyne
University of Kentucky M. Casey Diana Jessica M. Efron
University of Illinois at Urbana- Appalachian State University
David A. Crain Champaign
South Dakota State University Satch Ejike
Dixie Dean Dickinson Columbus, Ohio
John R. Crawford Tidewater Community College
Kent State University Robert P. Ellis
Thomas I. Dickson Worcester State College
Auburn University
xvii
Loring Emery Dale L. Flesher Mitchel Gerber

Hamburg, Pennsylvania University of Mississippi Southeast Missouri State University
Suzanne Knudson Engler Richard A. Flom Judith R. Gibber

University of Southern California Playa del Rey, California New York University
Victoria Erhart Donald W. Floyd Karl Giberson

Strayer University SUNY, College of Environmental Eastern Nazarene College
Science and Forestry
Thomas L. Erskine Jane M. Gilliland
Salisbury University George J. Flynn Butler County Community College
SUNY, College at Plattsburgh
Chiarella Esposito Sheldon Goldfarb
University of Mississippi George Q. Flynn University of British Columbia
University of Miami
Elisabeth Faase Douglas Gomery
Athens Regional Medical Center Rory Flynn University of Maryland
Hilo, Hawaii
Daniel C. Falkowski Nancy M. Gordon
Canisius College John C. Foltz Amherst, Massachusetts
University of Idaho
John L. Farbo Robert F. Gorman
University of Idaho Michael J. Fontenot Texas State
Southern University at Baton Rouge
James Feast Sidney Gottlieb
CUNY, Baruch College Charles H. Ford Sacred Heart University
Norfolk State University
Elizabeth Fee Lewis L. Gould
Johns Hopkins University Howard L. Ford University of Texas at Austin
University of North Texas
Randall Fegley Hans G. Graetzer
Pennsylvania State University Donald R. Franceschetti South Dakota State University
University of Memphis
David G. Fenton D. Douglas Graham
Connecticut College David Francis Columbia, Missouri
University of Washington
John W. Fiero Elizabeth B. Graham
University of Louisiana at Lafayette John K. Franklin Clarion County Adult Probation
Graceland University Office
K. Thomas Finley
SUNY, College at Brockport Michael S. Frawley Kelley Graham
Edinboro University of Pennsylvania Butler University
Alan M. Fisher
California State University, Gregory Freeland Lloyd J. Graybar
Dominguez Hills California Lutheran University Eastern Kentucky University
David G. Fisher Susan Frischer Noreen A. Grice

Lycoming College Oakhurst, California You Can Do Astronomy LLC
Linda E. Fisher Keith Garebian Johnpeter Horst Grill

University of Michigan—Dearborn Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Mississippi State University
Richard D. Fitzgerald Roberto Garza Jimmie F. Gross

Onondaga Community College San Antonio College Armstrong Atlantic State University
George J. Fleming Elizabeth Gaydou-Miller Manfred Grote

Calumet College Jordan College Purdue University—Calumet
xviii
Contributors
Scot M. Guenter Glenn Hastedt David Wason Hollar, Jr.

San Jose State University James Madison University Rockingham Community College
Robert E. Haag P. Graham Hatcher Donald Holley

Naugatuck Valley Community College University of Mary Hardin-Baylor University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill
Nancy N. Haanstad David Haugen
Weber State University Western Illinois University Kimberley M. Holloway
King College
Larry Haapanen A. W. R. Hawkins
Lewis-Clark State College Texas Tech University John R. Holmes
Franciscan University of Steubenville
Michael Haas Robert M. Hawthorne, Jr.
College of the Canyons Marlboro, Vermont Sarah Holmes
University of Connecticut
William J. Hagan, Jr. Bernadette Zbicki Heiney
St. Anselm College Lock Haven University of Earl G. Hoover
Pennsylvania Independent Scholar
W. M. Hagen
Oklahoma Baptist University John A. Heitmann Glenn Hopp
University of Dayton Howard Payne University
Sam Ramsey Hakim
University of Nebraska Peter B. Heller Gerald Horne
Manhattan College University of California,
Irwin Halfond Santa Barbara
McKendree College Arthur W. Helweg
Western Michigan University Ruth H. Howes
Celia Hall-Thur Ball State University
Wenatchee Valley College Mary A. Hendrickson
Wilson College Frederick B. Hoyt
Glenn S. Hamilton Illinois Wesleyan University
University of Central Oklahoma Richard A. Hendry
Westminster College Mary Hrovat
Mark D. Hanna Indiana University
Miami University Joyce E. Henry
Ursinus College Marsha Huber
Randall Hannum Otterbein College
CUNY, New York City College of Howard M. Hensel
Technology U.S. Air Force—Air War College Ronald K. Huch
Eastern Kentucky University
Claude Hargrove Charles E. Herdendorf
Fayetteville State University Ohio State University William Hutchings
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Susan Tetlow Harrington Joseph W. Hinton
University of South Florida, Sarasota/ Portland State University Raymond Pierre Hylton
Manatee Virginia Union University
Kay Hively
Jason T. Harris Neosho, Missouri Mahmood Ibrahim
University of Central Oklahoma California Polytechnic State
Carl W. Hoagstrom University, Pomona
Jasper L. Harris Ohio Northern University
North Carolina Central University Robert Jacobs
Paul Hodge Central Washington University
Fred R. van Hartesveldt University of Washington
Fort Valley State University Shakuntala Jayaswal
Samuel B. Hoff University of New Haven
Baban Hasnat Delaware State University
SUNY, College at Brockport Allan Jenkins
University of Nebraska—Kearney
xix
Robert L. Jenkins Nancy D. Kersell Douglas A. Lea

Mississippi State University Northern Kentucky University Kutztown University
Jeffry Jensen Leigh Husband Kimmel Martin J. Lecker

Pasadena, California Indianapolis, Indiana Rockland Community College
K. Sue Jewell Richard D. King Joseph Edward Lee

Ohio State University Ursinus College Winthrop University
Jeffrey A. Joens Vernon N. Kisling, Jr. Richard M. Leeson

Florida International University University of Florida Fort Hays State University
Charles W. Johnson Barry L. Knight Ann M. Legreid

University of Tennessee Northern Michigan University Central Missouri State University
Sheila Golburgh Johnson Bill Knight Jean-Robert Leguey-Feilleux

Santa Barbara, California Western Illinois University St. Louis University
Yvonne Johnson Grove Koger Steven Lehman

Central Missouri State University Boise State University John Abbott College
Eunice Pedersen Johnston Kevin B. Korb Denyse Lemaire

North Dakota State University Indiana University Rowan University
Phillip Dwight Jones Theodore P. Kovaleff Van M. Leslie

Bradley University Center for the Study of the Presidency Union College
Richard C. Jones Steven C. Kowall Leon Lewis

Texas Woman’s University West Hollywood, California Appalachian State University
Joseph S. Joseph Gregory C. Kozlowski Scott M. Lewis

University of Cyprus DePaul University Independent Scholar
Rajiv Kalra Rebecca Kuzins Thomas T. Lewis

Minnesota State University, Moorhead Pasadena, California St. Cloud State University
Charles L. Kammer III Sumner J. La Croix D. Tulla Lightfoot

College of Wooster University of Hawaii University of Wisconsin—LaCrosse
Mathew Kanjirathinkal Craig B. Lagrone Victor Lindsey

Park University O. I. Analytical East Central University
David Kasserman Wendy Alison Lamb Chris Lippard

Rowan University South Pasadena, California University of Southern California
Christopher J. Kauffman Mitchell Langbert Alar Lipping

Marillac College Clarkson University Northern Kentucky University
Edward P. Keleher P. R. Lannert Guoli Liu

Purdue University—Calumet Austin, Texas College of Charleston
Dan Kennedy Victor J. LaPorte, Jr. James Livingston

Phoenix, Arizona University of Central Florida Northern Michigan University
William B. Kennedy Eugene S. Larson Sandra Loeb

Clarion University Los Angeles Pierce College University of South Dakota
Sally J. Kenney William Laskowski Roger D. Long

University of Minnesota Jamestown College Eastern Michigan University
xx
Contributors
Ronald W. Long David W. Madden James I. Matray

West Virginia University Institute of California State University, California State University, Chico
Technology Sacramento
Joseph M. Maturo III
R. M. Longyear Paul Madden C. W. Post College
University of Kentucky Hardin-Simmons University
Grace Dominic Matzen
Edward J. Lordan Robert Franklin Maddox Molloy College
Villanova University Marshall University
Maureen S. May
Pietro Lorenzini Paul D. Mageli Rochester Institute of Technology
Saint Xavier University Kenmore, New York
Laurence W. Mazzeno
Reneé Love Frank N. Magill Alvernia College
Lander University University of Southern California
Jonathan Mendilow
Robert Lovely Anne Magnuson Rider University
University of Wisconsin—Madison Clifton Park, New York
Michael W. Messmer
William C. Lowe David W. Maguire Virginia Commonwealth University
Mount St. Clare College C. S. Mott Community College
Joan E. Meznar
Eric v.d. Luft Joseph T. Malloy Eastern Connecticut State University
SUNY, Upstate Medical University Hamilton College
Andre Millard
David C. Lukowitz Nancy Malloy University of Alabama at Birmingham
Hamline University Smithsonian Institution
Esmorie J. Miller
R. C. Lutz Lewis Mandell Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
CII, Jüterbog, Germany University of Connecticut
Gordon L. Miller
Lawrence J. McAndrews Dinford Gray Maness Mercer Island, Washington
St. Norbert College University of South Carolina at
Sumter Steven P. Millies
Janet McCann University of South Carolina—Aiken
Texas A&M University Barry Mann
Alliance Theatre Susan W. Mills
Joanne McCarthy Appalachian State University
Tacoma, Washington Nancy Farm Mannikko
National Park Service Ellen F. Mitchum
Michael McCaskey Space Center
Georgetown University Martin J. Manning
U.S. Department of State Susan J. Mole
Scott McElwain Avingdon, Virginia
University of San Francisco Carl Henry Marcoux
University of California, Riverside Elliot S. Moore
Robert R. McKay University of South Florida
Clarion University Nancy E. Marion
University of Akron William V. Moore
William J. McKinney College of Charleston
Indiana University Christopher T. Mark, Jr.
Brooklyn, New York Christina J. Moose
Tony Macklin Pasadena, California
Dayton, Ohio John Markert
Cumberland University Gordon R. Mork
John L. McLean Purdue University
Missouri Valley College Rubén O. Martinez
University of Colorado Rodney C. Mowbray
University of Wisconsin—La Crosse
xxi
Maya Muir Kathleen K. O’Mara Alan Prescott Peterson

Portland, Oregon SUNY, College at Oneonta Gordon College
Otto H. Muller Ebere Onwudiwe Douglas A. Phillips

Alfred University Central State University Center for Civic Education
Turhon A. Murad Maria A. Pacino John R. Phillips

California State University, Chico Azusa Pacific University Purdue University—Calumet
Alice Myers William A. Paquette Julio César Pino

Simon’s Rock College of Bard Tidewater Community College Kent State University
John Myers Robert J. Paradowski Troy Place

Simon’s Rock College of Bard Rochester Institute of Technology Western Michigan University
Gregory Nehler Gordon A. Parker George R. Plitnik

Indiana University University of Michigan—Dearborn Frostburg State University
William Nelles Keith Krom Parker Marguerite R. Plummer

University of Massachusetts, University of Montana Louisiana State University, Shreveport
Dartmouth
David B. Parsell Kasia Polanska
Byron Nelson Furman University University of Minnesota
West Virginia University
Virginia Ann Paulins Michael Polley
Bryan D. Ness Ohio University Columbia College of Missouri
Pacific Union College
Darryl Paulson David L. Porter
Joseph L. Nogee University of South Florida William Penn University
University of Houston
Steven K. Paulson Victoria Price
Cathal J. Nolan University of North Florida Lamar University
Boston University
D. G. Paz George F. Putnam
Norma C. Noonan University of North Texas University of Missouri, Saint Louis
Augsburg College
Thomas R. Peake John Radzilowski
Paul G. Nyce King College University of St. Thomas
Hingham, Massachusetts
Jeremy K. Pearl Cat Rambo
George O’Brien San Diego, California Redmond, Washington
Georgetown University
William A. Pelz Steven J. Ramold
John F. O’Connell Institute of Working Class History Eastern Michigan University
College of the Holy Cross
William E. Pemberton Eugene L. Rasor
Annette O’Connor University of Wisconsin—La Crosse Emory & Henry College
La Salle University
Jan Pendergrass Marc D. Rayman
Austin Ogunsuyi University of Georgia Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Fairleigh Dickinson University
Matthew Penney Patrick D. Reagan
Deepa Mary Ollapally Concordia University Tennessee Technological University
Swarthmore College
Robert T. Pennock E. A. Reed
Wendy T. Olmstead University of Pittsburgh Saint Mary’s College of California
Purdue University
Nis Petersen Robert Reeves
New Jersey City University San Antonio, Texas
xxii
Contributors
Kevin B. Reid Susan Rusinko Elaine Sherman

Henderson Community College Bloomsburg University Hofstra University
Dennis Reinhartz José M. Sánchez Martha A. Sherwood

University of Texas at Arlington Saint Louis University University of Oregon
Rosemary M. Canfield Reisman Eve N. Sandberg L. B. Shriver

Charleston Southern University Oberlin College Fairfield, Iowa
John S. Reist, Jr. Richard H. Sander Stephen J. Shulik

Hillsdale College Northwestern University School Clarion University
of Law
Thomas Renna R. Baird Shuman
Saginaw Valley State University Vicki A. Sanders University of Illinois at Urbana-
Riverside Military Academy Champaign
Paul August Rentz
South Dakota State University Richard Sax Patricia J. Siegel
Fort Lewis College SUNY, College at Brockport
H. William Rice
Kennesaw State University Elizabeth D. Schafer Narasingha P. Sil
Loachapoka, Alabama Western Oregon University
Betty Richardson
Southern Illinois University, Helmut J. Schmeller Catherine Sim
Edwardsville Fort Hays State University College of Marin-Kentfield
Edward J. Rielly John Richard Schrock L. Moody Simms, Jr.

Saint Joseph’s College of Maine Emporia State University Illinois State University
Brian L. Roberts Larry Schweikart Sanford S. Singer

Northeast Louisiana University University of Dayton University of Dayton
Russell Roberts Catherine V. Scott Paul P. Sipiera

Bordertown, New Jersey Agnes Scott College Harper College
Charles W. Rogers Robert M. Seiler Andrew C. Skinner

Southwestern Oklahoma State University of Calgary Brigham Young University
University
Nancy J. Sell Genevieve Slomski
Jill Rollins University of Wisconsin—Green Bay New Britain, Connecticut
Trafalgar College
Asit Kumar Sen Caroline M. Small
Carl Rollyson Texas Southern University Burtonsville, Maryland
CUNY, Baruch College
Roger Sensenbaugh Christopher E. Smith
Kirsten M. Rosacker Indiana University—Bloomington Michigan State University
University of South Dakota
Heather L. Shaffer Clyde J. Smith
Courtney B. Ross Temple University South Carolina Governor’s School for
Louisiana State University, Baton Science & Mathematics
Rouge Arthur G. Sharp
Rocky Hill, Connecticut Gary Scott Smith
Joseph R. Rudolph, Jr. Grove City College
Towson University John M. Shaw
Education Systems Incorporated Michael S. Smith
Jack Ruhl University of South Carolina
Western Michigan University Cody W. Sherman
Edinboro University of Pennsylvania Roger Smith
Frank Louis Rusciano Willamette University
Rider College
xxiii
Ira Smolensky Anthony N. Stranges Nicholas C. Thomas

Monmouth College Texas A&M University Auburn University at Montgomery
Marjorie Smolensky Geralyn Strecker Randal Joy Thompson

Carl Sandburg College Ball State University U.S. Agency for International
Development
Larry Smolucha Fred Strickert
Aurora University Wartburg College Jonathan L. Thorndike
Belmont University
Mary Ellen Snodgrass Patricia A. Struebig
Hickory, North Carolina University of Texas at San Antonio Larry Thornton
Hanover College
Robert Sobel Irene Struthers
New College of Hofstra University Independent Scholar Leslie V. Tischauser
Prairie State College
Alan Sorkin Taylor Stults
University of Maryland—Baltimore Muskingum College Russell R. Tobias
County Santa Rosa, California
Charles R. Sullivan
Paul G. Spitzer University of Dallas Evelyn Toft
Boeing Company Fort Hays State University
Donald Sullivan
Joseph L. Spradley University of New Mexico Ryan M. Touhey
Wheaton College University of Waterloo, Canada
Patricia Summers
Grace Marmor Spruch Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Alecia C. Townsend
Rutgers University State University Price Waterhouse
Alene Staley Charles E. Sutphen Kenneth William Townsend

Saint Joseph’s College Blackburn College Coastal Carolina University
Gretta Stanger Cynthia J. W. Svoboda Anh Tran

Tennessee Tech University Bridgewater State College Wichita State University
Barbara C. Stanley Larry N. Sypolt Robin S. Treichel

East Tennessee State University West Virginia University Oberlin College
N. J. Stanley James Tackach Paul B. Trescott

Agnes Scott College Roger Williams University Southern Illinois University
August W. Staub Gerardo G. Tango Marcella Bush Trevino

University of Georgia Consulting Geophysicist Barry University
Leon Stein John R. Tate Mfanya D. Tryman

Roosevelt University New Jersey Institute of Technology Mississippi State University
William F. Steirer, Jr. Thomas J. Taylor Spencer C. Tucker

Clemson University University of Akron Virginia Military Institute
Barry M. Stentiford Nancy Conn Terjesen William M. Tuttle

Grambling State University Kent State University University of Kansas
David L. Sterling Maxine S. Theodoulou Robert D. Ubriaco, Jr.

University of Cincinnati Union Institute Illinois Wesleyan University
Joan C. Stevenson Emory M. Thomas Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur

Western Washington University University of Georgia Eastern Michigan University
xxiv
Contributors
Charles F. Urbanowicz Gregory Weeks Sharon K. Wilson

California State University, Chico Webster University, Vienna Fort Hays State University
Jonathan G. Utley Ivan Weinel Theodore A. Wilson

University of Tennessee Kansas City, Missouri University of Kansas
Garrett L. Van Wicklen Jessica Weiss Kenneth L. Wise

University of Georgia California State University, Hayward Creighton University
Daniel R. Vogel Marcia J. Weiss Stacy Wolf

Edinboro University of Pennsylvania Point Park University University of Wisconsin—Madison
Indu Vohra Ashton Wesley Welch Shawn Woodyard

DePauw University Creighton University Santa Fe, New Mexico
Laurie Voice T. K. Welliver Scott Wright

Sam Houston State University Clarion University University of St. Thomas
Thomas J. Edward Walker Lucille Whalen Frank Wu

Pennsylvania College of Technology Glendale Community College University of Wisconsin—Madison
William T. Walker Timothy R. Whisler Susan J. Wurtzburg

Chestnut Hill College Saint Francis College University of Utah
Bennett H. Wall Thomas Whissen Jot Yau

Tulane University Wright State University George Mason University
William C. Ward III Nancy A. White Cynthia Gwynne Yaudes

Kent State University Mississippi State University Indiana University
Mary C. Ware Richard Whitworth Clifton K. Yearley

SUNY, College at Cortland Ball State University SUNY, Buffalo
Richard L. Warms Thomas A. Wikle Jay R. Yett

Southwest Texas State University Oklahoma State University Orange Coast College
William E. Watson Cynthia J. Williams Ivan L. Zabilka

Immaculata University Hobart & William Smith Colleges Lexington, Kentucky, Public Schools
Donald A. Watt Donald H. Williams Kristen L. Zacharias

Dakota Wesleyan University Hope College Albright College
Willis M. Watt Philip F. Williams Paul J. Zbiek

Manhattan Christian College Arizona State University King’s College
Donald V. Weatherman Bradley R. A. Wilson Debra Zehner

Lyon College University of Cincinnati Wilkes College
Martha Ellen Webb Raymond Wilson Charles Zelden

University of Nebraska—Lincoln Fort Hays State University University of Texas at Arlington
Shawncey Webb Richard L. Wilson Edward A. Zivich

Taylor University University of Tennessee at Calumet College
Chattanooga
xxv
Keyword List of Contents
ABC Begins Its Own Network Television Service Act, Congress Passes the Motor Vehicle Air
(Apr. 19, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766 Pollution Control (Oct. 20, 1965). . . . . . . . . 2718
ABC Makes a Landmark Deal with Disney Act, Congress Passes the RICO
(Apr., 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373 (Oct. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3455
Abolition of Forced Labor Convention, United Act, Congress Passes the Voting Rights
Nations Adopts the (June 25, 1957) . . . . . . . 1718 (Aug. 6, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2685
Absurdism to the Arab Stage, Al-Hakim Act, Congress Passes the Water Resources
Introduces (1961-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2142 Research (July 17, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569
Absurdist Drama Marat/Sade Is Produced, Act, Employment (Feb. 20, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . 523
Weiss’s (Apr. 29, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2539 Act, Johnson Signs the Interest Equalization
Absurdity, Waiting for Godot Expresses the Tax (Sept. 2, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2585
Existential Theme of (Jan. 5, 1953). . . . . . . . 1274 Act, McCarran-Walter (June 27, 1952) . . . . . . . 1193
Abusive Parents, Parents Anonymous Is Act, National Security (July 26, 1947) . . . . . . . . 660
Established to Treat (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3203 Act, Nixon Signs the Occupational Safety
Academy Is Dedicated, Air Force and Health (Dec. 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3512
(July 11, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1529 Act, People with Mental Disabilities and Illnesses
Accident Kills More than Eighty, Le Mans Assisted by Federal (Oct. 31, 1963) . . . . . . . 2426
Auto-Racing (June 11, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . 1518 Act, Refugee Relief (Aug. 7, 1953) . . . . . . . . . 1319
Acclaim and Controversy, Olivier’s Hamlet Is Act, Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control
Released to (May 4, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 (Jan. 30, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Acid Rain Changes Lake and Riverine Ecology Act, Roosevelt Signs the Lend-Lease
(1950’s-mid-1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 (Mar. 11, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Acid Rock Album Are You Experienced?, Act, United Kingdom Passes the National Health
Hendrix Releases (May 12, 1967) . . . . . . . . 2932 Service (Nov. 6, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Acids, Miller Reports the Synthesis of Amino Act, War Brides (Dec. 28, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . 502
(May 15, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1301 Act Against Quebec Separatists, Canada
Act, Alcoa Is Convicted of Violating the Sherman Invokes War Measures
Antitrust (Mar. 12, 1945). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 (Oct. 16, 1970-Apr. 30, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3458
Act, Atomic Energy (Aug. 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . 1432 Act Amends Antitrust Legislation,
Act, Canada’s Official Languages Celler-Kefauver (Dec. 29, 1950) . . . . . . . . . 1053
(July 9, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3264 Act Extends Reproductive Rights, Family
Act, Congress Amends the Clean Air Planning Services and Population Research
(Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3515 (Dec. 28, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3508
Act, Congress Amends the Water Pollution Act Goes into Effect, Freedom of Information
Control (June 27, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631 (July 4, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2964
Act, Congress Approves the Mining and Act Grants Federal Authority to Regulate
Minerals (Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3518 Air Pollution, Clean Air (Dec. 17, 1963) . . . . . 2450
Act, Congress Enacts the Age Discrimination Act Is Approved, Federal Coal Mine Health
in Employment (Dec. 15, 1967) . . . . . . . . . 3018 and Safety (Dec. 30, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3358
Act, Congress Passes the Air Pollution Control Act Is Passed, Canada’s Citizenship
(July 14, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531 (July 1, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Act, Congress Passes the Endangered Species Act Is Passed, First Water Pollution Control
Preservation (Oct. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . 2843 (June 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
Act, Congress Passes the Equal Pay Act Is Passed, Resource Recovery
(June 10, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2401 (Oct. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3465
Act, Congress Passes the Fair Credit Reporting Act Is Passed, Solid Waste Disposal
(Oct. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3462 (Oct. 20, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2722
xxvii
Act Is Passed, Wilderness (Sept. 3, 1964) . . . . . . 2589 African American Woman Elected to
Act Is Signed, Hazardous Substances Labeling Congress, Chisholm Becomes the First
(July 12, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2084 (Nov. 5, 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3164
Act Limits Nuclear Liability, Price-Anderson African American Woman to Star as a
(Aug., 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725 Non-domestic on Television, Carroll
Act of 1964, Congress Passes the Civil Rights Becomes the First (Sept. 17, 1968) . . . . . . . . 3138
(July 2, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2564 African Americans, Stormy Weather Offers New
Act of 1969 Is Signed, National Environmental Film Roles to (July 21, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Policy (Jan. 1, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3372 African Americans to Vote, Council of Federated
Act of 1970, British Parliament Passes the Equal Organizations Registers (1962-1965). . . . . . . 2258
Pay (May 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3423 African Convention Expands the Definition of
Act Passes over Truman’s Veto, Taft-Hartley Refugees (Sept. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3300
(June 23, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 African Unity Is Founded, Organization of
Act Reforms U.S. Immigration Law, Hart-Celler (May 25, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396
(Oct. 3, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715 Africans Return Home After World War II
Act Regulates Research Using Animals, Animal (1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Welfare (Aug. 24, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2827 Africa’s Year of Independence (1960). . . . . . . . 2005
Act Repeals the Chinese Exclusion Act, Afro-Asian Conference Considers Nonalignment
Magnuson (Dec. 17, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 (Apr. 18-24, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1506
Acting to the Screen, A Streetcar Named Desire Age Discrimination in Employment Act,
Brings Method (Sept. 20, 1951) . . . . . . . . . 1128 Congress Enacts the (Dec. 15, 1967) . . . . . . . 3018
“Action Painting,” Rosenberg Defines Age Is Lowered to Eighteen, U.S. Voting
(Dec., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239 (1970-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3368
Actor Awards, Patton’s Historical Realism Leads Agency for International Development Is
to Best Picture and (Feb. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . 3385 Established (Nov. 3, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2233
Additives in Food, Congress Sets Standards for Agency Is Created, Environmental Protection
Chemical (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795 (Dec. 2, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3487
Adenine from Cyanide Solution, Oró Detects the Agency Is Formed, United Nations Korean
Formation of (June, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2054 Relief (Dec. 1, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Administrative Behavior, Simon Publishes Agency to Aid Palestinian Refugees, United
(1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Nations Creates an (Dec. 9, 1949) . . . . . . . . . 956
Adoption of the U.N. Convention Relating to Agent Orange in Vietnam, United States Sprays
the Status of Refugees (July 28, 1951) . . . . . . 1112 (Jan. 12, 1962-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2265
Ads Are Banned from Broadcast Media, Agnes de Mille Choreographs Rodeo
Cigarette (Apr. 1, 1970). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3400 (Oct. 16, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Aeronautics and Space Administration, Congress Agreement Encourages Free Trade, Bretton
Creates the National (July 29, 1958) . . . . . . . 1852 Woods (July 1-22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Aerosol Containers Are Introduced, Portable Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Is Signed,
(1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 General (Oct. 30, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Affirmative Action Is Expanded Agricultural Policy, European Economic
(Sept. 24, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2703 Community Adopts the Common
AFL and CIO Merge (Dec. 5, 1955) . . . . . . . . . 1572 (July 1, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2957
AFL-CIO Expels the Teamsters Union Agriculture, United Nations Holds Its First
(Dec. 5, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1786 Conference on Food and
African American Disenfranchisement (May 18-June 3, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Unconstitutional, Supreme Court Rules Aid to Europe, Marshall Plan Provides
(Apr. 3, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 (Apr. 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
African American Supreme Court Justice, Ailey Founds His Dance Company
Marshall Becomes the First (Oct. 2, 1967) . . . . 2988 (Mar. 30, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
African American U.S. Senator Since Air Act, Congress Amends the Clean
Reconstruction, Brooke Becomes the First (Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3515
(Jan. 10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2894
xxviii
Air Act Grants Federal Authority to Regulate Allied Forces Begin the Battle for Germany
Air Pollution, Clean (Dec. 17, 1963) . . . . . . . 2450 (Sept. 12, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Air Force Academy Is Dedicated Allied Forces Break German Front in France
(July 11, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1529 (July 25, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Air Pollution, Soviet Union Adopts Measures to Allied Forces Invade Sicily
Reduce (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 (July 9-Aug. 17, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Air Pollution Control Act, Congress Passes the Allies Invade Italy, Western (Sept. 3-18, 1943). . . . 294
(July 14, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531 Ally, Churchill Visits Canada as World War II
Air Pollution Control Act, Congress Passes the (Dec. 29-31, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Motor Vehicle (Oct. 20, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . 2718 Alpine Avalanches Prompt Snow-Management
Airbus Industrie, European Consortium Creates Programs (Feb. 10-Apr. 16, 1970) . . . . . . . . 3387
(Dec. 18, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3505 Amahl and the Night Visitors Premieres on
Aircraft Companies Merge, McDonnell and American Television (Dec. 24, 1951). . . . . . . 1155
Douglas (Apr. 28, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2919 Amazon Highway Is Announced, Trans-
Aircraft Exceeds Twice the Speed of Sound, (June 16, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3428
Test (Nov. 20, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1340 Amendment, Thalidomide Tragedy Prompts
Aircraft Program, X-15 Rocket Passage of the Kefauver-Harris
(June 8, 1959-Dec. 31, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . 1919 (Oct. 10, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2323
Airlines, First Jumbo Jet Is Delivered to Amendments, Johnson Signs the Medicare
(Dec. 13, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3355 and Medicaid (July 30, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2679
Airport’s TWA Terminal, Saarinen Designs America, Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps Europe
Kennedy (1956-1962). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600 and (Spring, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Alaska and Hawaii Gain Statehood America Beautiful Is Founded, Keep (1953) . . . . 1255
(Jan. 3 and Aug. 21, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897 America Beautiful Program, Lady Bird Johnson
Alaska Highway Is Completed Begins the (1964-1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2480
(Oct., 1943). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 American,” Burdick and Lederer Explore the
Alaskan Oil Discovery Sparks Controversy Image of the “Ugly (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
(Mar., 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3065 American Commission on Human Rights Is
Albee as the Voice of Pessimism, The American Created, Inter- (Aug. 12-18, 1959) . . . . . . . . 1932
Dream Establishes (Jan. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . 2148 American Declaration on the Rights and Duties
Alcatraz Island, American Indians Occupy of Man Is Adopted (May 2, 1948) . . . . . . . . . 777
(Nov. 20, 1969-June 11, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3334 American Dream Establishes Albee as the Voice
Alcoa Is Convicted of Violating the Sherman of Pessimism, The (Jan. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . 2148
Antitrust Act (Mar. 12, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . 441 American Film, Westerns Dominate Postwar
Alcoholism, Aversion Drug Found for the (1946-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Treatment of (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 American Flag, Jasper Johns Paints the
Algeria, Boumédienne Seizes Power from (1954-1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1352
Dictator in (June 19, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2663 American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima
Algeria Gains Independence from France (Feb. 23, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
(July 5, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2290 American Indians Occupy Alcatraz Island
Algerian Nationalists Riot at Sétif (Nov. 20, 1969-June 11, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3334
(May 8, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 American Indians to Settle in Cities, U.S.
Alienation, Vonnegut’s Cat’s Cradle Expresses Government Encourages (1950) . . . . . . . . . . 989
1960’s (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2354 American Institution, The Tonight Show
Allen Discovers the Earth’s Radiation Belts, Becomes an (Sept. 27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . 1442
Van (July 26, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849 American Involvement in Vietnam in The Best
Allende Wins a Close Election in Chile and the Brightest, Halberstam Reflects on
(Sept. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3440 (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3200
Alliance in Argentina, Perón Creates a Populist American States Is Founded, Organization of
Political (Feb. 24, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 (Apr. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Allied Cooperation in Iran, Tehran Conference American Television, Amahl and the Night Visitors
Promotes (Nov. 28-Dec. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . . . 318 Premieres on (Dec. 24, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
xxix
American Television, Sheen Entertains and Antibiotic Streptomycin, Waksman Discovers the
Instructs on (Feb. 12, 1952-1957, (Sept., 1943-Mar., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
and 1961-1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179 Antibiotics to Animal Feed, Scientists Debate the
American Television Classic, Bonanza Addition of (June, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2943
Becomes an (Sept. 12, 1959-Jan. 16, 1973) . . . 1936 Antitrust Act, Alcoa Is Convicted of Violating the
American to Orbit Earth, Glenn Becomes Sherman (Mar. 12, 1945). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
the First (Feb. 20, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2275 Antitrust Legislation, Celler-Kefauver Act Amends
American Universities, New Criticism (Dec. 29, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Arises in (1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios to Divest
Americana, Willson’s The Music Man Presents Theaters (May 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Musical (Dec. 19, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790 Antiwar Sentiment, Catch-22 Illustrates
Amino Acids in 3-Billion-Year-Old Rocks, (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2121
Barghoorn and Colleagues Find Anxiety in The Courage to Be, Tillich Examines
(Nov. 16, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3002 Modern (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167
Amnesty International Is Founded AP Names Didrikson Woman Athlete of the Half
(May 28, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2189 Century (Feb. 16, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
Amniocentesis as a Method to Check Fetal Apartheid, Sharpeville Massacre Focuses Global
Genetic Traits, Bevis Describes Awareness on (Mar. 21, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . 2034
(Feb. 23, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1181 Apollo 12 Mission Marks Second Moon Landing
Amtrak to Save Passenger Rail Service, (Nov. 19-20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3331
Congress Creates (Oct. 30, 1970). . . . . . . . . 3467 Apollo 13 Crew Survives Onboard Explosion
Amusement Park Opens, Disneyland (Apr. 11-17, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3407
(July 17, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1534 Appalachian Spring with Copland Score, Graham
Ancient Astronomical Computer, Price Debuts (Oct. 30, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Identifies an (June, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1916 Aqualung, Cousteau and Gagnan Develop the
Ancient Near Eastern Trade Routes, Renfrew, (Spring, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Dixon, and Cann Reconstruct (1964) . . . . . . . 2474 Arab-Israeli War Creates Refugee Crisis
Ancient Objects, Libby Introduces the (Nov. 29, 1947-July, 1949). . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Carbon-14 Method of Dating Arab Republic, Syria and Egypt Form the United
(Mar. 4, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906 (Feb. 1, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826
Ancient Obsidian, Scientists Develop a Technique Arab Stage, Al-Hakim Introduces Absurdism
to Date (Spring, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2031 to the (1961-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2142
Anderson Act Limits Nuclear Liability, Price- Arab States in the Six-Day War, Israel Defeats
(Aug., 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725 (June 5-10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2947
Anglo-Iraqi War (May 2-June 13, 1941) . . . . . . . . 74 Arafat Becomes Chair of the Palestine Liberation
“Angry Young Men” Express Working-Class Organization (Dec. 11, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3353
Views (1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 Architectural Barriers Act, Congress Passes the
Animal Feed, Scientists Debate the Addition of (Aug. 12, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3123
Antibiotics to (June, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2943 Architecture, Expo 67 Features Innovative
Animal Tissues, Jensen Finds PCBs in (Apr. 28-Oct. 27, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2922
(Dec., 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2859 Architecture and Urban Planning in Dacca,
Animal Welfare Act Regulates Research Kahn Blends (Beginning 1962) . . . . . . . . . . 2252
Using Animals (Aug. 24, 1966) . . . . . . . . . 2827 Ardrey Argues That Humans Are Naturally
Antarctic Treaty Goes into Force Territorial (1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2764
(June 23, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2201 Are You Experienced?, Hendrix Releases Acid
Anthropologists Claim That Ecuadorian Pottery Rock Album (May 12, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . 2932
Shows Transpacific Contact in 3000 b.c.e. Arendt Speculates on the Banality of Evil
(1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2628 (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2335
Antibiotic, Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Argentina, Perón Creates a Populist Political
(Summer, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Alliance in (Feb. 24, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Antibiotic Is Discovered, First Broad-Spectrum Arias in Panama, Omar Torrijos Ousts
(Nov., 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 (Oct. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3156
xxx
Arkansas, Eisenhower Sends Troops to Little Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Rock, (Sept. 25, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753 (Apr. 4, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3072
Armada, Mattingly Documents the Spanish Association of Southeast Asian Nations Is Formed
(1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885 (Aug. 8, 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2976
Armed Forces, Truman Orders Desegregation Assumption, Pius XII Proclaims the Doctrine
of U.S. (July 26, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818 of the (Nov. 1, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Arrested by British Colonials, Nyasaland Astronaut in Space, United States Places Its First
Independence Leader Banda Is (May 5, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2179
(Mar. 3, 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902 Astronomers Transmit Radar Signals to and from
Arrested Persons of Their Rights, Police the Sun, Radio (Early 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . 1877
Required to Inform (June 13, 1966) . . . . . . . 2820 Astronomical Computer, Price Identifies an
Art, Minimalism Emphasizes Objects as Ancient (June, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1916
(Feb., 1963-1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2370 Aswan High Dam Project, Foreign Aid Is
Art, Nam June Paik Exhibits Video and Withdrawn from Egypt’s
Television as (Mar. 11-20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . 2376 (July 19-20, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1633
Art, Peggy Guggenheim’s Gallery Promotes AT&T Is Ordered to Reduce Charges
New American (Oct. 20, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . 204 (July 5, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2966
Art, SoHo Emerges as a Center for Contemporary Athlete,” Mathias Is Dubbed the “World’s Greatest
(1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1999 (Aug. 6, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
Art of Loving, Fromm Publishes The (1956). . . . . 1582 Athlete of the Half Century, AP Names Didrikson
Artery Bypass Surgery, Favaloro Develops the Woman (Feb. 16, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
(1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2879 Atlantic, United States Enters the Battle of the
Artificial Sweetener Cyclamate Is Banned from (Mar. 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
U.S. Consumer Markets (Oct. 21, 1969) . . . . . 3322 Atlantic Charter Declares a Postwar Right of Self-
Artificial Sweetener Cyclamate Is Introduced Determination (Aug. 14, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . 95
(June, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 Atmosphere, Kuiper Discovers That Titan Has an
Arts and Architecture Magazine Initiates the (Jan. 29, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Case Study Program (Jan., 1945) . . . . . . . . . 425 Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Arts Is Established, National Endowment for the (Aug. 6 and 9, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
(Sept. 29, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2706 Atomic Energy Act (Aug. 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . . 1432
Asbestos Hazards Sparks Widespread Litigation, Atomic Energy Agency Begins Operations,
Confirmation of (Apr. 6, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . 2530 International (July 29, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . 1722
Aserinsky Discovers REM Sleep Atomic Energy Commission Is Established
(Sept. 4, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321 (Aug. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Ashgabat and Kills Up to 100,000 People, Attacks, Japan Orders Kamikaze
Earthquake Devastates (Oct. 6, 1948) . . . . . . . 832 (Oct. 20, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Ashley Fashion Company Is Founded, Laura Attacks on Southeast Asia, Japan Begins
(Mar. 19, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1368 (Dec. 7, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Ashton’s Marguerite and Armand, Nureyev and Attorney, Supreme Court Establishes Defendants’
Fonteyn Debut (Mar. 12, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . 2380 Right to an (Mar. 18, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2383
Asian Development Bank Is Chartered Audiences, The Sound of Music Captivates
(Dec. 4, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2754 (Mar. 2, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2640
Asian Flu Pandemic Kills Millions Worldwide Audiocassette Is Introduced (1963) . . . . . . . . . 2338
(Feb., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1692 Australian Tribunals Impose Death Sentences
Assad Takes Control of Syria, Hafez al- for War Crimes, British and (1946) . . . . . . . . 505
(Feb. 27, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3229 Australians Elect First Women to Parliament
Assassinated, Robert F. Kennedy Is (Sept., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
(June 5, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3102 Austria Regains Its Independence
Assassination Attempt, President Truman Escapes (May 15, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516
(Nov. 1, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 Auto Production, Studebaker Announces Plans
Assassination of Malcolm X (Feb. 21, 1965) . . . . 2637 to Abandon U.S. (Dec. 9, 1963) . . . . . . . . . 2443
xxxi
Auto-Racing Accident Kills More than Eighty, Barghoorn and Tyler Discover 2-Billion-Year-Old
Le Mans (June 11, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518 Microfossils (Apr. 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . 1380
Autobiography, The Long Loneliness, Day Barnard Performs the First Human Heart
Publishes Her (Jan. 19, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . 1176 Transplant (Dec. 2, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3008
Autobiography of Malcolm X Is Published, The Barton and Hassel Share the Nobel Prize for
(Nov., 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2727 Determining the Three-Dimensional Shapes
Autobiography The Seven Storey Mountain, of Organic Compounds (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . 3347
Merton Publishes His Spiritual (1948) . . . . . . . 709 Baseball, Robinson Breaks the Color Line in
Automated Factory, Sara Lee Opens an Major-League (Apr. 15, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . 637
(Spring, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2520 Baseball Great Lou Gehrig Dies, Yankee
Automated Tools, Firms Begin Replacing (June 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Skilled Laborers with (Late 1950’s) . . . . . . . 1671 Baseball World Series, NBC Broadcasts the
Avalanche in Peru Kill More than Sixty (Sept. 30-Oct. 6, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Thousand People, Earthquake and Baseball’s Reserve Clause, Flood Tests
(May 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3425 (Jan. 16, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3376
Avalanches Prompt Snow-Management Baseball’s World Series, Larsen Pitches a Perfect
Programs, Alpine (Feb. 10-Apr. 16, 1970) . . . . 3387 Game in (Oct. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
Aversion Drug Found for the Treatment of BASIC Computer Language, Kemeny and Kurtz
Alcoholism (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 Develop the (May 1, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2543
Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Determine That Basic Oxygen Process for Steelmaking, Voest
DNA Carries Hereditary Information (1944) . . . 327 Develops the (Early 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
Basketball Association Is Formed, National
Baade Corrects an Error in the Cepheid (Aug. 3, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
Luminosity Scale (Aug., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . 1208 Basketball Game, Chamberlain Scores 100
Baby Seals, Canada Announces Ban on Hunting Points in a Professional (Mar. 2, 1962) . . . . . . 2279
(Oct. 15, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3315 Basque Separatist Organization Is Formed
Balanchine and Kirstein’s Ballet Society, First (July 31, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929
Performance by (Nov. 20, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . 589 Battambang, Thai Forces Attack French Troops
Baldwin Voices Black Rage in The Fire Next Time Near (Jan., 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
(1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2341 Battle at Kursk Devastates German Forces, Tank
Balkan Offensive, Germany Mounts the (July 4-12, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
(Apr. 6-30, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Battle for Germany, Allied Forces Begin the
Ballet Company, Joffrey Founds His (Sept. 12, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
(Oct., 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648 Battle for Leyte Gulf (Oct. 23-26, 1944) . . . . . . . 396
Ballet Society, First Performance by Balanchine Battle of El Alamein, Second
and Kirstein’s (Nov. 20, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 589 (Oct. 23-Nov. 3, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Ban on Hunting Baby Seals, Canada Announces Battle of Guadalcanal
(Oct. 15, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3315 (Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. 9, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Ban Signals New Environmental Awareness, Battle of Kula Gulf (July 6, 1943). . . . . . . . . . . 276
DDT (Nov. 20, 1969-Dec. 31, 1972) . . . . . . . 3337 Battle of Midway (June 3-5, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . 168
Banality of Evil, Arendt Speculates on the Battle of Stalingrad
(1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2335 (Aug. 19, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Banda Is Arrested by British Colonials, Nyasaland Battle of the Atlantic, United States Enters the
Independence Leader (Mar. 3, 1959) . . . . . . . 1902 (Mar. 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Bank Is Chartered, Asian Development Battle of the Bulge (Dec. 16, 1944-Jan., 1945) . . . . 415
(Dec. 4, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2754 Battle of the Coral Sea (May 7-8, 1942) . . . . . . . 163
Bannister Beats the Four-Minute Mile Battle of the Java Sea (Feb. 27-Mar. 1, 1942). . . . . 154
(May 6, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393 Battle of the Philippine Sea
Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer Explain (June 12-20, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Superconductivity (Feb.-Aug., 1957) . . . . . . . 1694 Battleship Bismarck, Sinking of the German
Barghoorn and Colleagues Find Amino Acids in (May 26-27, 1941). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3-Billion-Year-Old Rocks (Nov. 16, 1967) . . . . 3002 Bay of Pigs Invasion (Apr. 17-19, 1961) . . . . . . 2175
xxxii
Beat Generation Rejects Mainstream Values Best-Seller List, Robinson’s The Cardinal
(1950’s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968 Tops (1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Beatles Release Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Bevis Describes Amniocentesis as a Method to
Club Band (June, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2939 Check Fetal Genetic Traits (Feb. 23, 1952). . . . 1181
Beatles Revolutionize Popular Music Bhola Cyclone Devastates East Pakistan
(Jan., 1963-1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2364 (Nov. 12, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3479
Beauvoir’s The Second Sex Anticipates the Biafra’s Secession Triggers Nigerian Civil War
Women’s Movement (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . 861 (May 30, 1967-Jan. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 2936
Bebop, Parker’s Playing Epitomizes Bible Reading in Public Schools, Supreme Court
(Mar. 28, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 Limits (June 17, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2404
Beckett’s Trilogy Expands the Frontiers of Big Bang Theory, Gamow Develops the
Fiction (1951-1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071 (Oct. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
Behan’s The Hostage, Theatre Workshop Bikini Atoll, Nuclear Bombing of
Presents (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807 (Mar. 1, 1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365
Behaviorist School of Psychology, Skinner Bikini Swimsuit Is Introduced (July 5, 1946) . . . . . 548
Develops the (1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261 Bilingual Education Act, Congress Enacts the
Being and Nothingness Expresses Existential (Jan. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3044
Philosophy, Sartre’s (June 25, 1943). . . . . . . . 270 Bill, Roosevelt Signs the G.I. (June 22, 1944) . . . . 375
Bell Discovers Pulsars (Feb. 24, 1968) . . . . . . . 3062 Bill of Rights Prohibits Sex Discrimination,
Bell Scientists Develop the Photovoltaic Cell Canadian (Aug. 4, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2087
(May, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386 Billboards, Congress Limits the Use of Highway
Ben-Hur Wins Best Picture (Apr. 4, 1960) . . . . . 2043 (Aug., 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2682
Benelux Customs Union Enters into Force Billy Graham Becomes a Traveling Evangelist
(Jan. 1, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 (1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Bengal, Famine Decimates (1943-1944) . . . . . . . 228 Biological Program, United States Joins the
Bergman Wins International Fame with The International (July 1, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2960
Seventh Seal (May 17, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . 1712 Biologically Active DNA, Kornberg and
Berkeley Free Speech Movement Begins Colleagues Synthesize (Aug.-Sept., 1967) . . . . 2973
(Sept. 14, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2592 Birth Control, National Council of Churches
Berlin Blockade (June 24, 1948-May 11, 1949) . . . 805 Supports (Feb. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160
Berlin Diary, Shirer Examines the Rise of Nazi Birth Control, Plastic IUD Developed for
Ideology in (1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2471
Berlin Wall, Communists Raise the Birth Control, Roman Catholic Church Reaffirms
(Aug. 13, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2204 Its Position Against (July 25, 1968) . . . . . . . 3114
Berliner Ensemble, Brecht Founds the Birth Control Pill, FDA Approves the
(Jan., 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 (June 23, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2065
Bernstein Joins Symphonic and Jazz Elements Birth Control Pills Are Tested in Puerto Rico
in West Side Story (Sept. 26, 1957) . . . . . . . . 1758 (Apr., 1956-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617
Berry’s “Maybellene” Popularizes Rock and Roll Birth of the European Monetary Union Project
(Spring, 1955). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500 (Dec., 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3344
Best and the Brightest, Halberstam Reflects on Bishop, Karol Wojtyua Is Named Poland’s Youngest
American Involvement in Vietnam in The (July 4, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844
(1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3200 Bismarck, Sinking of the German Battleship
Best Picture, Ben-Hur Wins (Apr. 4, 1960) . . . . . 2043 (May 26-27, 1941). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Best Picture, Going My Way Wins “Black Holes,” Wheeler Refers to Collapsed
(Mar. 15, 1945). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Stars as (Spring, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3069
Best Picture, Lawrence of Arabia Wins Black Panther Party Is Organized
(Apr. 8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2391 (Oct. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2839
Best Picture, On the Waterfront Wins Black Rage in The Fire Next Time, Baldwin
(Mar. 30, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503 Voices (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2341
Best Picture and Actor Awards, Patton’s Historical Black Wednesday Demonstrates Dangers of
Realism Leads to (Feb. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3385 Smog (Sept. 8, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
xxxiii
Blackboard Jungle, Poitier Emerges as a Film Botswana, Khama Leads a Stable

Star in The (Mar. 19, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497 (Sept. 30, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2836
Blacklisting Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool Boulez’s Le Marteau sans maître Premieres
(1947-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 (June 18, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1520
Blalock and Taussig Perform the First “Blue Baby” Boumédienne Seizes Power from Dictator in
Surgery (Nov. 29, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Algeria (June 19, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2663
Blockade, Berlin (June 24, 1948-May 11, 1949) . . . 805 Boxing Championship, Marciano Wins His
Blood Groups, Boyd Defines Human “Races” by First Heavyweight (Sept. 23, 1952). . . . . . . . 1220
(1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981 Boxing Title, Clay Defeats Liston to Gain
“Blue Baby” Surgery, Blalock and Taussig Perform World Heavyweight (Feb. 25, 1964) . . . . . . . 2514
the First (Nov. 29, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Boycott, Chávez Is Jailed for Organizing a
Blue Lake Region Is Returned to the Taos Pueblo, National Lettuce (Dec. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3491
New Mexico’s (Dec. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 3500 Boycott, Montgomery Bus
Boeing 707 Begins Commercial Service (Dec. 5, 1955-Dec. 21, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . 1576
(Oct. 26, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864 Boyd Defines Human “Races” by Blood Groups
Bolivia, Revolution Grips (Apr., 1952) . . . . . . . 1186 (1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Bolivian President Paz Estenssoro Is Toppled, Bracero Program, United States Begins the
Reformist (Nov. 3, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2614 (Aug. 4, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Bollingen Prize, Pound Wins the (Feb. 20, 1949). . . 900 Brain Can Function Independently, Sperry
Bomb, China Explodes Its First Nuclear Discovers That Sides of the Human
(Oct. 16, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2606 (Early 1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1974
Bomb, Teller and Ulam Develop the First Brandt Meets Stoph (Mar. 19, 1970). . . . . . . . . 3394
Hydrogen (1951-1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 Brazil Begins Era of Intense Repression
Bomb Is Detonated, First Nuclear (Dec. 13, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3188
(July 16, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Brazil Builds a New Capital City
Bombing of Bikini Atoll, Nuclear (Apr. 18, 1956-Apr. 21, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . 1623
(Mar. 1, 1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365 Brazil Nationalizes U.S. Businesses
Bombing of Japan, Superfortress (Apr., 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2284
(June 15, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 “Breath-Measure,” Celan Introduces the Concept
Bombing of Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941) . . . . . . . 111 of Poetic (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2873
Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Atomic Breathless Revolutionizes Film, Godard’s
(Aug. 6 and 9, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 (Mar. 16, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2027
Bonanza Becomes an American Television Brecht Founds the Berliner Ensemble
Classic (Sept. 12, 1959-Jan. 16, 1973) . . . . . . 1936 (Jan., 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
Bondi, Gold, and Hoyle, Steady-State Theory of Breeder Reactor, Meltdown Occurs in the First
the Universe Is Advanced by (1948) . . . . . . . . 726 (Nov. 29, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569
Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the Nazis Breeder Reactor Produces Electricity, World’s
(Apr. 9, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 First (Dec. 20, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152
Bookchin Publishes Crisis in Our Cities (1965) . . . 2632 Bretton Woods Agreement Encourages Free
Bookchin Warns of Health Hazards of Artificial Trade (July 1-22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Environments (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2246 Breuer Designs a Building for the Whitney
Books Foundation Is Established, Great Museum (Sept. 28, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2833
(July, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 Brezhnev Doctrine Mandates Soviet Control
“Boom,” Latin American Fiction (1955-1970) . . . 1486 of Satellite Nations (Nov. 12, 1968-
Borges’s Ficciones Transcends Traditional Realism Dec., 1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3171
(1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Brezhnev Rises in Communist Ranks
Borlaug Begins Work on High-Yield Wheat (1955-1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1484
(Sept., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Brides Act, War (Dec. 28, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Borlaug Receives the Nobel Prize for His Work Brideshead Revisited, Evelyn Waugh Captures
on World Hunger (Dec. 10, 1970) . . . . . . . . 3496 Prewar English Life in (May 28, 1945) . . . . . . 466
Boston’s Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Proves Bridge Opens, Verrazano-Narrows
Deadly, Fire in (Nov. 28, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . 217 (Nov. 21, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2616
xxxiv
Britain Establishes the Royal National Theatre Buckley Founds National Review Magazine
(Aug. 9, 1962). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2298 (Nov., 1955). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
Britain’s Majority Government, Labour Party Bulgaria Joins the Tripartite Pact
Forms (July 26, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 (Mar. 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
British and Australian Tribunals Impose Death Bulge, Battle of the (Dec. 16, 1944-Jan., 1945). . . . 415
Sentences for War Crimes (1946) . . . . . . . . . 505 Bultmann Offers a Controversial Interpretation of
British Colonials, Nyasaland Independence the Christian Scriptures (1941) . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Leader Banda Is Arrested by (Mar. 3, 1959) . . . 1902 Bundestag Passes Legislation on Codetermination
British Film, Ealing Comedies Mark a High (Apr. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Point in (1949-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 Burdick and Lederer Explore the Image of the
British Leyland Motor Corporation Is Formed “Ugly American” (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
(Jan. 15, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3047 Bureau of Land Management, Truman Creates
British Parliament Abolishes the Death Penalty the (July 16, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
(Nov. 8, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2738 Burke Discover Radio Emissions from Jupiter,
British Parliament Passes the Equal Pay Act Franklin and (Early 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
of 1970 (May 29, 1970). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3423 Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor,
British Troops Restore Order in Northern Ireland Thai- (Oct. 25, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
(Aug., 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3279 Bus Boycott, Montgomery
Britten Completes Peter Grimes (June 7, 1945) . . . 469 (Dec. 5, 1955-Dec. 21, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . 1576
Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered, First Business Administration, Congress Creates the
(Nov., 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Small (July 30, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1310
Broadcast Media, Cigarette Ads Are Banned Businesses, Brazil Nationalizes U.S.
from (Apr. 1, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3400 (Apr., 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2284
Broadcaster Guitar, Fender Introduces the Businesses, Congress Gives Tax Breaks to
(1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 Financiers of Small (Aug. 21, 1958) . . . . . . . 1855
Broadcasting Service Airs Its First Program, Bypass Surgery, Favaloro Develops the Artery
Public (Oct. 5, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3452 (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2879
Broadway, Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun
Debuts on (Mar. 11, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907 C-5A Galaxy, Congress Begins Hearings on
Broadway, Oklahoma! Opens on Overspending for the (Sept. 3, 1969) . . . . . . . 3296
(Mar. 31, 1943). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Cabrini Becomes the First U.S. Citizen Canonized
Broadway, Radical Musical Hair Opens on as a Saint, Mother (July 7, 1946). . . . . . . . . . 551
(Apr. 29, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3085 Caetano Becomes Prime Minister of Portugal
Broadway’s First “Concept” Musical Premieres (Sept. 27, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3144
(Apr. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3413 Cage’s 4 33 Premieres (Aug. 29, 1952) . . . . . . 1211
Brooke Becomes the First African American Caine Mutiny Premieres, The (June 24, 1954) . . . . 1412
U.S. Senator Since Reconstruction Cairo Conference and Declaration Addresses
(Jan. 10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2894 War in the Pacific (Nov. 23-30, 1943) . . . . . . . 316
Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor, Construction Calley Is Court-Martialed for My Lai Massacre
Starts on (1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 (Nov. 17, 1970-Mar. 29, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3483
Brooklyn Dodgers Move to Los Angeles Calvin Wins the Nobel Prize for His Work on
(Fall, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747 Photosynthesis (Dec. 10, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . 2239
Brothers at Taizé Take Permanent Vows Cambodia, United States Invades
(Apr. 17, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918 (Apr. 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3416
Brower Becomes Executive Director of the Cambodia Gains Independence from France
Sierra Club (Nov., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227 (Nov. 9, 1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337
Brower Forms Friends of the Earth Camera, Land Demonstrates the Polaroid
(May, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3242 (Feb. 21, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Brown Introduces Funk Music Camille Devastates the U.S. Gulf Coast, Hurricane
(Mar. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2800 (Aug. 17-18, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3292
Bubble Memory in Computers, First Use of Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Resistance,
(Aug. 8, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3285 Okinawa (Apr. 1-July 2, 1945). . . . . . . . . . . 447
xxxv
Camus Give Dramatic Voice to Existential Carbon-14 Method of Dating Ancient Objects,
Philosophy, Sartre and (1944-1960) . . . . . . . . 342 Libby Introduces the (Mar. 4, 1949) . . . . . . . . 906
Canada and the United States Create NORAD Cardinal Mindszenty, Hungary’s Communist
(May 12, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834 Government Arrests (Dec. 26, 1948) . . . . . . . 855
Canada and the United States Establish the DEW Cardinal Tops Best-Seller List, Robinson’s The
Line (Feb. 15, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359 (1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Canada Announces Ban on Hunting Baby Seals Career, Mahalia Jackson Begins Her Recording
(Oct. 15, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3315 (Oct. 3, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Canada as World War II Ally, Churchill Visits Caretaker Opens in London, Pinter’s The
(Dec. 29-31, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 (Apr. 27, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2046
Canada Bans Commercial Fishing in Lakes Carroll Becomes the First African American
St. Clair and Erie (Mar. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . 3397 Woman to Star as a Non-domestic on
Canada Becomes the Third Nation to Orbit a Television (Sept. 17, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3138
Satellite (Sept. 28, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2309 Carson Publishes Silent Spring (Sept. 27, 1962). . . 2304
Canada Declares War on Japan Cartoons, The Flintstones Popularizes Prime-Time
(Dec. 7, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 (Sept. 30, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
Canada Establishes the Experimental Lakes Area Casablanca Conference (Jan. 14-24, 1943) . . . . . . 235
(1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3021 Casablanca Marks the Artistic Apex of 1940’s
Canada Implements Conscription After Months War-Themed Films (Nov. 26, 1942) . . . . . . . . 213
of Crisis (Nov. 22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Cascades National Park, Johnson Establishes
Canada Implements Its National Health Plan North (Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3147
(Dec. 19, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2866 Case Study Program, Arts and Architecture
Canada Invokes War Measures Act Against Quebec Magazine Initiates the (Jan., 1945). . . . . . . . . 425
Separatists (Oct. 16, 1970-Apr. 30, 1971) . . . . 3458 Cassin Is Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
Canada’s Citizenship Act Is Passed (Dec. 10, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3181
(July 1, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 Catch-22 Illustrates Antiwar Sentiment (1961) . . . 2121
Canada’s First Native-Born Governor-General, Catcher in the Rye, Young Readers Embrace The
Massey Becomes (Feb. 28, 1952). . . . . . . . . 1184 (July 16, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
Canada’s Official Languages Act Catholic Church Reaffirms Its Position Against
(July 9, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3264 Birth Control, Roman (July 25, 1968) . . . . . . 3114
Canada’s Prime Minister, Pearson Becomes Cat’s Cradle Expresses 1960’s Alienation,
(Apr. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2394 Vonnegut’s (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2354
Canada’s Tenth Province, Newfoundland Catton Wins a Pulitzer Prize for A Stillness at
Becomes (Mar. 31, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 Appomattox (Spring, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371
Canadian Bill of Rights Prohibits Sex Ceaulescu Is Elected President of Romania
Discrimination (Aug. 4, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . 2087 (Dec. 9, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3012
Canadian Prime Minister, Diefenbaker Serves as Celan Introduces the Concept of Poetic
(June 10, 1957-Feb. 5, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 1715 “Breath-Measure” (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2873
Canadian Prime Minister, St. Laurent Becomes Celler Act Reforms U.S. Immigration Law, Hart-
(Nov. 15, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 (Oct. 3, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715
Canadian Prime Minister, Trudeau Serves as Celler-Kefauver Act Amends Antitrust Legislation
(June 25, 1968-June 30, 1984) . . . . . . . . . . 3107 (Dec. 29, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
Cancer and Altered DNA, Horsfall Detects the Celtics Take an Eleventh NBA Title, Russell
Link Between (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130 Retires as the (May 5, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3245
Cann Reconstruct Ancient Near Eastern Trade Censorship and War Propaganda During World
Routes, Renfrew, Dixon, and (1964) . . . . . . . 2474 War II, U.S. (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Capital City, Brazil Builds a New Censorship of British Drama, Theatres Act Ends
(Apr. 18, 1956-Apr. 21, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . 1623 (July 26, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3117
Capra Releases It’s a Wonderful Life Central African Republic, Military Coup Brings
(Dec. 20, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 Dictatorship to (Jan. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . 2778
Captain Kangaroo Expands Children’s Television Central Pacific Offensive
(Oct. 3, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559 (Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . 313
xxxvi
Centralized Economic Planning, Hayek Opposes Chicago Riots Mar the Democratic National
(Mar., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Convention (Aug. 24-30, 1968). . . . . . . . . . 3134
Cepheid Luminosity Scale, Baade Corrects an Chicago School of Public Policy, Simons
Error in the (Aug., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208 Articulates the (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Certificate of Deposit Is Introduced, Negotiable Child, United Nations Adopts the Declaration of
(Feb. 20, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2155 the Rights of the (Nov. 20, 1959) . . . . . . . . . 1964
Ceylon, Tamils Protest Discrimination in Children, Head Start Is Established to Aid Poor
(Feb., 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2151 (May 18, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2654
Ceylon Becomes an Independent Dominion Children Delight in The Chronicles of Narnia
(Feb. 4, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 (1950-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
Chad, Civil War Begins in (Nov., 1965). . . . . . . 2731 Children’s Hospital Opens, St. Jude
Chair of the Palestine Liberation Organization, (Feb. 4, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2271
Arafat Becomes (Dec. 11, 1969) . . . . . . . . . 3353 Children’s Programming, Sesame Street
Chalk River Nuclear Reactor Explosion and Revolutionizes (Nov. 10, 1969). . . . . . . . . . 3327
Meltdown (Dec. 12, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249 Children’s Television, Captain Kangaroo
Challenger Begins Collecting Ocean-Floor Expands (Oct. 3, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559
Samples, Glomar (Aug. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . 3120 Children’s Television Programming, Kukla,
Chamber Is Developed, Liquid Bubble Fran, and Ollie Pioneers (Nov. 29, 1948-
(1953-1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267 Aug. 31, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
Chamberlain Scores 100 Points in a Professional Chile, Allende Wins a Close Election in
Basketball Game (Mar. 2, 1962) . . . . . . . . . 2279 (Sept. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3440
Championship, Marciano Wins His First Chile’s Copper Industry, Frei “Chileanizes”
Heavyweight Boxing (Sept. 23, 1952) . . . . . . 1220 (1964-1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2488
Chandigarh, Le Corbusier Designs and Builds China, Cultural Revolution Begins in
(1951-1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074 (May, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2807
Change, Future Shock Explores the Impact of China, Famine Decimates (1959-1961) . . . . . . . 1888
(July, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3431 China, Mao Zedong Proclaims a Communist
Change in Developing Countries, Huntington People’s Republic in (Oct. 1, 1949) . . . . . . . . 946
Examines Processes of (1968) . . . . . . . . . . 3030 China, Mao’s Great Leap Forward Brings
Charges, AT&T Is Ordered to Reduce Chaos to (Beginning 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
(July 5, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2966 China Begins Its First Five-Year Plan
Charity, Mother Teresa Founds the (Jan., 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
Missionaries of (Oct. 7, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . 1031 China Explodes Its First Nuclear Bomb
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Is Published (Oct. 16, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2606
(Sept., 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2583 China Invades and Begins Rule of Tibet
Charter Convention, United Nations (Oct. 7, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
(Apr. 25-June 26, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Chinese Exclusion Act, Magnuson Act
Charter Declares a Postwar Right of Repeals the (Dec. 17, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Self-Determination, Atlantic Chinese Forces Battle Communists as Japan
(Aug. 14, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Advances, Nationalist (Jan., 1941) . . . . . . . . . 34
Charter Is Signed, European Social Chisholm Becomes the First African American
(Oct. 18, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2229 Woman Elected to Congress (Nov. 5, 1968) . . . 3164
Chávez and Huerta Form Farmworkers’ Chloracne in West German Chemical Workers,
Union and Lead Grape Pickers’ Strike Dioxin Causes (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674
(Sept. 30, 1962, and Sept. 16, 1965) . . . . . . . 2311 Christian Realism, Niebuhr Extols a Theory of
Chávez Is Jailed for Organizing a National (Mar., 1941-Jan., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Lettuce Boycott (Dec. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 3491 Christian Roots of Environmental Problems, White
Chelsea Girls Finds Mainstream Audience, Explores the Judeo- (Mar. 10, 1967) . . . . . . . 2905
Warhol’s Underground Film The Christian Scriptures, Bultmann Offers a
(Sept. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2829 Controversial Interpretation of the (1941). . . . . . 14
Chemical Additives in Food, Congress Sets Christ’s Death, Paul VI Renounces the “Collective
Standards for (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795 Guilt” of Jews in (Oct. 28, 1965) . . . . . . . . . 2725
xxxvii
Chronicles of Narnia, Children Delight in The Civil Rights Act Is Passed, Indian
(1950-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 (Apr. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3079
Church, Moon Founds the Unification Civil Rights Act of 1960 (May 6, 1960) . . . . . . . 2052
(May 1, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391 Civil Rights Act of 1964, Congress Passes the
Church Is Formed, United Methodist (July 2, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2564
(Apr. 23, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3082 Civil Rights Groups, SCLC Forms to Link
Church of Scientology, Hubbard Founds the (Jan. 10, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
(Feb. 18, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362 Civil Rights Protesters Attract International
Church Reaffirms Its Position Against Birth Control, Attention (Apr. 3-May 8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . 2387
Roman Catholic (July 25, 1968) . . . . . . . . . 3114 Civil Rights Workers Are Murdered, Three
Churches Approve Ordination of Women, (June 21-22, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2556
Presbyterian and Methodist Civil War, Biafra’s Secession Triggers Nigerian
(May, 1955-May, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509 (May 30, 1967-Jan. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 2936
Churches Is Formed, National Council of Civil War, Collapse of the Laotian Government
(Nov. 29, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 Leads to (Dec. 9, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116
Churches Is Formed, World Council of Civil War, Costa Rica Endures Its Bloodiest
(Aug. 22, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824 (Mar. 12-Apr. 19, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
Churches Supports Birth Control, National Civil War, United Nations Intervenes in the
Council of (Feb. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160 Congolese (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2075
Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech Civil War Begins in Chad (Nov., 1965) . . . . . . . 2731
(Mar. 5, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Civil War Erupts, First Sudanese
Churchill Visits Canada as World War II Ally (Aug. 18-Sept. 6, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538
(Dec. 29-31, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Clay Defeats Liston to Gain World Heavyweight
Cigarette Ads Are Banned from Broadcast Media Boxing Title (Feb. 25, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . 2514
(Apr. 1, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3400 Clean Air Act, Congress Amends the
Cigarette Warning Labels, Federal Law Requires (Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3515
(Jan. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2775 Clean Air Act Grants Federal Authority to Regulate
Cinema, French New Wave Ushers in a New Air Pollution (Dec. 17, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2450
Era of (1956-1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596 Clothing Line, Lauren Creates the Polo
CinemaScope Film, Premiere of the First (Oct. 18, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3158
(Sept. 16, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324 Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modification, First
Cinematic Dance, Kelly Forges New Directions in (Nov. 13, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
(1944-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Coal and Steel Community Is Established, European
CIO Merge, AFL and (Dec. 5, 1955). . . . . . . . . 1572 (Apr. 18, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
Cities, Mumford Warns of the Dangers of Growing Coal Mine Health and Safety Act Is Approved,
(1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1985 Federal (Dec. 30, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3358
Cities, U.S. Government Encourages American COBOL, Hopper Invents the Computer Language
Indians to Settle in (1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989 (Dec. 17, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968
Citizen Kane Breaks with Traditional Filmmaking, Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Proves Deadly, Fire in
Welles’s (May 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Boston’s (Nov. 28, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from Germans Codetermination, Bundestag Passes Legislation on
(Sept. 30-Oct. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 (Apr. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Citizenship Act Is Passed, Canada’s Coenzyme A, Lipmann Discovers (1951) . . . . . . 1060
(July 1, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 COLA Clause, General Motors and the UAW
City, Brazil Builds a New Capital Introduce the (May 25, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . 792
(Apr. 18, 1956-Apr. 21, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . 1623 Cold War Politics Mar the
Civil and Political Rights Is Adopted, United Melbourne Summer Olympics
Nations Covenant on (Dec. 16, 1966) . . . . . . 2863 (Nov. 22-Dec. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1668
Civil Disorders, Kerner Commission Explores Collaborator Quisling, Norwegians Execute Nazi
the Causes of (Feb., 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3056 (Oct. 24, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Civil Rights, Congress Creates the Commission on Collapse of the Laotian Government Leads to Civil
(Sept. 9, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741 War (Dec. 9, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116
xxxviii
“Collective Guilt” of Jews in Christ’s Death, Commission on Civil Rights, Congress Creates the
Paul VI Renounces the (Oct. 28, 1965) . . . . . . 2725 (Sept. 9, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741
Colombia, La Violencia Begins in Committee for Famine Relief Is Founded, Oxford
(Apr. 9, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 (Oct. 5, 1942). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Color Line in Major-League Baseball, Robinson Common Agricultural Policy, European Economic
Breaks the (Apr. 15, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 Community Adopts the (July 1, 1967) . . . . . . 2957
Colorado River, Sierra Club Helps Block Dams Commonwealth, Puerto Rico Becomes a
on the (Jan. 20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3219 (July 25, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205
Colossus, Secret English Team Develops Communications Satellite Is Launched, First
(Dec., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Commercial (July 10, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . 2294
Colossus Voices Women’s Experience, Plath’s The Communications Satellite Is Launched, First
(Fall, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2106 Passive (Aug. 12, 1960). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2090
Combat, War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Communism, Havel’s The Garden Party Satirizes
(Apr. 18, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Life Under (Dec. 3, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2440
Comedies Dominate Television Programming, Communist Coup, Indonesia’s Government
Situation (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991 Retaliates Against a Failed (Sept. 30, 1965) . . . 2709
Comedies Mark a High Point in British Film, Communist Encroachment, Security Pact Is
Ealing (1949-1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 Signed by Three Pacific Nations Against
Comedies on Television Rise in Popularity, (Sept. 1, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115
Family (1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971 Communist Government Arrests Cardinal
Comedy, I Love Lucy Dominates Television Mindszenty, Hungary’s (Dec. 26, 1948) . . . . . . 855
(Oct. 15, 1951-Sept. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . 1135 Communist Government Arrests
Comedy, The Dick Van Dyke Show Popularizes the Primate of Poland, Polish
Situation (Oct. 3, 1961-June 1, 1966). . . . . . . 2226 (Sept. 25, 1953-Oct. 26, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . 1328
Comedy, The Honeymooners Defines Situation Communist People’s Republic in China,
(Oct. 1, 1955-Sept., 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1555 Mao Zedong Proclaims a (Oct. 1, 1949) . . . . . . 946
Comets, Oort Offers a Theory of (1950) . . . . . . . 984 Communist Ranks, Brezhnev Rises in
Commercial Agreement with the Soviet Union, (1955-1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1484
Cuba Signs a (Feb. 11, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . 2789 Communist Regime, East Germans Flee to
Commercial Communications Satellite Is West to Escape (1949-1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
Launched, First (July 10, 1962). . . . . . . . . . 2294 Communists as Japan Advances, Nationalist
Commercial Electronic Computer, UNIVAC I Chinese Forces Battle (Jan., 1941) . . . . . . . . . 34
Becomes the First (Mar. 31, 1951) . . . . . . . . 1092 Communists Raise the Berlin Wall
Commercial Fishing in Lakes St. Clair and Erie, (Aug. 13, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2204
Canada Bans (Mar. 31, 1970). . . . . . . . . . . 3397 Communists Seize Power in Czechoslovakia
Commercial Nuclear Plant Opens, First U.S. (Feb. 25, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
(Dec. 2, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783 Community Antenna Television Is Introduced
Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Opens, First (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
(Oct. 17, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658 Company Is Founded, Laura Ashley Fashion
Commercial Nuclear Reactor, General Public (Mar. 19, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1368
Utilities Announces Plans for a Computer, Price Identifies an Ancient Astronomical
(Dec. 12, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2447 (June, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1916
Commercial Service, Boeing 707 Begins Computer, UNIVAC I Becomes the First
(Oct. 26, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864 Commercial Electronic (Mar. 31, 1951) . . . . . 1092
Commercial Television, FCC Licenses Computer Data Storage, Floppy Disks Are
(May 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Developed for (1967-1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2887
Commission, Congress Establishes the Public Land Computer Is Completed, First Electronic
Law Review (Sept. 19, 1964-Dec. 31, 1970) . . . 2599 Stored-Program (Aug., 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . 927
Commission Is Established, Atomic Energy Computer Language, IBM Develops the
(Aug. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 FORTRAN (Apr., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709
Commission Is Formed, International Whaling Computer Language, Kemeny and Kurtz Develop
(Dec. 2, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 the BASIC (May 1, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2543
xxxix
Computer Language COBOL, Hopper Invents Congress Creates the National Aeronautics
the (Dec. 17, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968 and Space Administration (July 29, 1958) . . . . 1852
Computerized Weather Prediction, Meteorologists Congress Creates the Small Business Administration
Make the First (Apr., 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . 999 (July 30, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1310
Computers, First Use of Bubble Memory in Congress Enacts the Age Discrimination in
(Aug. 8, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3285 Employment Act (Dec. 15, 1967). . . . . . . . . 3018
“Concept” Musical Premieres, Broadway’s First Congress Enacts the Bilingual Education Act
(Apr. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3413 (Jan. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3044
Conference, Casablanca (Jan. 14-24, 1943) . . . . . . 235 Congress Establishes the Public Land Law
Conference, Potsdam (July 17-Aug. 2, 1945) . . . . . 479 Review Commission
Conference, Yalta (Feb. 4-11, 1945) . . . . . . . . . 432 (Sept. 19, 1964-Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 2599
Conference and Declaration Addresses War in Congress Gives Tax Breaks to Financiers of Small
the Pacific, Cairo (Nov. 23-30, 1943) . . . . . . . 316 Businesses (Aug. 21, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855
Conference and the “Final Solution,” Wannsee Congress Limits the Use of Highway Billboards
(Jan. 20, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 (Aug., 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2682
Conference Considers Nonalignment, Afro-Asian Congress Mandates Oil-Spill Liabilities and
(Apr. 18-24, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1506 Penalties (Apr. 3, 1970). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3404
Conference on Food and Agriculture, United Congress of Racial Equality Forms
Nations Holds Its First (May 18- (Spring, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
June 3, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Congress of Racial Equality Holds Its Journey of
Conference Promotes Allied Cooperation in Iran, Reconciliation (Apr. 9-23, 1947). . . . . . . . . . 633
Tehran (Nov. 28-Dec. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . 318 Congress Passes the Air Pollution Control Act
Confirmation of Asbestos Hazards Sparks (July 14, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531
Widespread Litigation (Apr. 6, 1964) . . . . . . 2530 Congress Passes the Architectural Barriers Act
Confrontation, Truman-MacArthur (Aug. 12, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3123
(Mar. 24-Apr. 11, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088 Congress Passes the Civil Rights Act of 1964
Conglomeration, Textron Initiates the Trend (July 2, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2564
Toward (July 8, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 Congress Passes the Consumer Credit Protection
Congo, Military Coup Places Mobutu in Control Act (May 29, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3098
of (Nov. 25, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2748 Congress Passes the Endangered Species
Congo and Riots Ensue, Katanga Province Preservation Act (Oct. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . 2843
Secedes from (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2071 Congress Passes the Equal Pay Act
Congolese Civil War, United Nations Intervenes (June 10, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2401
in the (July, 1960). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2075 Congress Passes the Fair Credit Reporting Act
Congress, Chisholm Becomes the First African (Oct. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3462
American Woman Elected to (Nov. 5, 1968) . . . 3164 Congress Passes the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution
Congress Acts to Control Noise Pollution Control Act (Oct. 20, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . 2718
(July 21, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3110 Congress Passes the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield
Congress Amends the Clean Air Act Act (June 12, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2057
(Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3515 Congress Passes the RICO Act (Oct. 15, 1970) . . . 3455
Congress Amends the Water Pollution Control Congress Passes the Voting Rights Act
Act (June 27, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631 (Aug. 6, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2685
Congress Approves the Mining and Minerals Congress Passes the Water Resources Research Act
Act (Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3518 (July 17, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569
Congress Begins Hearings on Overspending Congress Ratifies the National Council on Indian
for the C-5A Galaxy (Sept. 3, 1969) . . . . . . . 3296 Opportunity (Aug., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3433
Congress Creates Amtrak to Save Passenger Congress Sets Standards for Chemical Additives in
Rail Service (Oct. 30, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . 3467 Food (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
Congress Creates the Commission on Civil Rights Congress Strengthens Water Laws
(Sept. 9, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741 (Oct. 2, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2712
Congress Creates the Fulbright Program Conscription After Months of Crisis, Canada
(Aug. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Implements (Nov. 22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
xl
Consensual Sex, Wolfenden Report Recommends Convention on the Political Rights of Women Is
Decriminalizing (Sept. 4, 1957) . . . . . . . . . 1738 Approved, United Nations (Dec. 20, 1952). . . . 1251
Conservancy Is Founded, Nature Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees,
(Oct. 22, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139 Adoption of the U.N. (July 28, 1951) . . . . . . . 1112
Constitution Grants New Rights to Women, Japanese Convention Suppressing Human Trafficking Is
(May 3, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Adopted, United Nations (Dec. 2, 1949) . . . . . . 954
Constitution Provides for the Incapacity of the Conventions Establish Norms of Conduct in War,
President (Feb. 23, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2902 Geneva (Aug. 12, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
Constitutional Democracy, Japan Becomes a Cool Jazz, Davis Develops 1950’s
(May 3, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 (Jan. 21, 1949-Mar. 9, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
Construction of Levittown Is Announced Cooper, and Schrieffer Explain Superconductivity,
(May 7, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 Bardeen, (Feb.-Aug., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1694
Construction Starts on Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor Copland Score, Graham Debuts Appalachian
(1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 Spring with (Oct. 30, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Consumer Credit Protection Act, Congress Passes Copper Industry, Frei “Chileanizes” Chile’s
the (May 29, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3098 (1964-1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2488
Consumer Markets, Artificial Sweetener Cyclamate Coral Sea, Battle of the (May 7-8, 1942) . . . . . . . 163
Is Banned from U.S. (Oct. 21, 1969) . . . . . . . 3322 Corruption, Landrum-Griffin Act Targets Union
Consumer Rights Movement, Nader Launches the (Sept. 14, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940
(Nov. 29, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2750 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, Penzias
Consumers International Is Founded and Wilson Discover (1963-1965) . . . . . . . . 2360
(Apr. 1, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2037 Cosmonaut Conducts First Space Walk, Soviet
Consumption, Galbraith Critiques the Creation (Mar. 18, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2643
of a Society of Mass (1958). . . . . . . . . . . . 1802 Costa Rica Endures Its Bloodiest Civil War
Contemporary Art, SoHo Emerges as a Center for (Mar. 12-Apr. 19, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
(1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1999 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, Soviet
Continental Drift, Hess Identifies the Cause of Bloc States Establish (Jan. 25, 1949) . . . . . . . 897
(1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2010 Council Is Founded, Natural Resources Defense
Continental Shelf, Truman Proclamation on the (Feb., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3381
(Sept. 28, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Council of Churches Is Formed, National
Contraceptives in Griswold v. Connecticut, (Nov. 29, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Ban Council of Churches Is Formed, World
(June 7, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659 (Aug. 22, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
Controversial Glen Canyon Dam Is Completed Council of Churches Supports Birth Control,
(Sept. 13, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2419 National (Feb. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160
Controversial Interpretation of the Christian Council of Federated Organizations Registers
Scriptures, Bultmann Offers a (1941) . . . . . . . . 14 African Americans to Vote (1962-1965) . . . . . 2258
Controversy, I Spy Debuts to (Sept. 15, 1965). . . . 2698 Coup, Indonesia’s Government Retaliates Against
Controversy, Olivier’s Hamlet Is Released to a Failed Communist (Sept. 30, 1965) . . . . . . . 2709
Acclaim and (May 4, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 Coup, Somali Democracy Ends in a Military
Convention, United Nations Adopts the Abolition (Oct. 21, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3325
of Forced Labor (June 25, 1957) . . . . . . . . . 1718 Coup, Thai Military (Sept. 17, 1957) . . . . . . . . 1744
Convention, United Nations Charter Coup Begins Thirty-Five Years of Dictatorship in
(Apr. 25-June 26, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Paraguay, Military (May, 1954) . . . . . . . . . 1389
Convention Expands the Definition of Refugees, Coup Brings Dictatorship to Central African
African (Sept. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3300 Republic, Military (Jan. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . . . 2778
Convention on Genocide, United Nations Adopts Coup in Guatemala, United Fruit Company
(Dec. 9, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 Instigates a (June 18-27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . 1408
Convention on Human Rights Is Signed, European Coup Leads to Military Dictatorship, Greek
(Nov. 4, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 (Apr. 21, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915
Convention on Stateless Persons, United Nations Coup Leads to Military Government, Upper Volta
Drafts a (Sept. 28, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445 (Jan. 3, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2780
xli
Coup Places Mobutu in Control of Congo, Military Crucible Allegorizes the Red Scare Era, The
(Nov. 25, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2748 (Jan. 22, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
Courage to Be, Tillich Examines Modern Anxiety Cry, the Beloved Country, Paton Explores South
in The (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167 Africa’s Racial Divide in (Feb., 1948) . . . . . . . 744
Court-Martialed for My Lai Massacre, Calley Is Cuba, Hurricane Flora Devastates Haiti and
(Nov. 17, 1970-Mar. 29, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3483 (Oct. 4-8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2423
Court of Human Rights Is Established, Cuba Begins Expropriating Foreign Property
Inter-American (Nov. 22, 1969) . . . . . . . . . 3341 (Mar. 4, 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904
Court of Justice, Establishment of the International Cuba Signs a Commercial Agreement with the
(Feb. 5, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Soviet Union (Feb. 11, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . 2789
Court Upholds Ban on Housing Discrimination, Cuban Missile Crisis (Oct. 22-28, 1962). . . . . . . 2329
Supreme (June 17, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3104 Cuban Revolution
Cousins Founds SANE (Nov. 15, 1957) . . . . . . . 1778 (July 26, 1956-Jan. 8, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . 1640
Cousteau and Gagnan Develop the Aqualung Cubans Flee to Florida and Receive Assistance
(Spring, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977
Cousteau Announces Large Decline in Ocean Life Cult Following, Monty Python’s Flying Circus
(Sept., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3437 Prompts a (Oct. 5, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3306
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Is Adopted, Cultural and Religious Rights, Soviet Jews
United Nations (Dec. 16, 1966). . . . . . . . . . 2863 Demand (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002
Credit Protection Act, Congress Passes the Cultural Revolution Begins in China
Consumer (May 29, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3098 (May, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2807
Credit Reporting Act, Congress Passes the Fair Culture in the United States Rediscovers the
(Oct. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3462 Works of Hesse, Sixties (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . 1995
Crete, Germany Invades (May 20-June 1, 1941) . . . . 81 Cunningham Stages His First Dance “Event”
Crick Announce the Double-Helix Model for (June 24, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2560
DNA, Watson and (Apr. 2, 1953). . . . . . . . . 1293 Customs Union Enters into Force, Benelux
Crime Films, The Maltese Falcon Establishes a New (Jan. 1, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
Style for (Oct. 3, 1941). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Cuyahoga River Bursts into Flames, Polluted
Crime in The Godfather, Puzo Chronicles Organized (June 22, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3253
(1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3206 Cyanide Solution, Oró Detects the Formation
Crimes, British and Australian Tribunals Impose of Adenine from (June, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . 2054
Death Sentences for War (1946) . . . . . . . . . . 505 Cyclamate Is Banned from U.S. Consumer Markets,
Crimes, Eichmann Is Tried for War Artificial Sweetener (Oct. 21, 1969) . . . . . . . 3322
(Apr. 11-Aug. 14, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2169 Cyclamate Is Introduced, Artificial Sweetener
Crimes, Japanese General Yamashita Is Convicted (June, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005
of War (Oct. 29, 1945-Feb. 23, 1946) . . . . . . . 495 Cyclone Devastates East Pakistan, Bhola
Crimes, Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective (Nov. 12, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3479
Responsibility for War (1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Cypriots Clash over Political Rights, Greek and
Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg, Nazi War Turkish (Dec. 22, 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2453
(Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 498 Cyprus, United Nations Peace Force Is Deployed
Crisis, Canada Implements Conscription After in (Mar. 27, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2527
Months of (Nov. 22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Cyprus Gains Independence (Aug. 16, 1960) . . . . 2093
Crisis, Cuban Missile (Oct. 22-28, 1962) . . . . . . 2329 Czechoslovakia, Communists Seize Power in
Crisis in Our Cities, Bookchin Publishes (Feb. 25, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
(1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2632 Czechoslovakia, Soviet Union Invades
Crisis in U.N. Financing Emerges Over (Aug. 20-21, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3130
Peacekeeping Expenses (1963-1965) . . . . . . . 2358
Criticism Arises in American Universities, New Dacca, Kahn Blends Architecture and Urban
(1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Planning in (Beginning 1962) . . . . . . . . . . 2252
Critique of Pope Pius XII’s Silence During Dalrymple Discover the Magnetic Reversals of
the Holocaust, Hochhuth Stages a Earth’s Poles, Doell and (Nov. 4, 1965) . . . . . 2735
(Feb. 20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2373
xlii
Dam Is Completed, Controversial Glen Canyon Death Sentences for War Crimes, British and
(Sept. 13, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2419 Australian Tribunals Impose (1946) . . . . . . . . 505
Dam Project, Foreign Aid Is Withdrawn from Debris Buries Welsh Village, Mining
Egypt’s Aswan High (July 19-20, 1956) . . . . . 1633 (Oct. 21, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2846
Dam Proposal Is Defeated, Echo Park Debut of Gunsmoke Launches the Adult
(Apr. 11, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620 Western Drama (Sept. 10, 1955) . . . . . . . . . 1552
Dams on the Colorado River, Sierra Club Helps Declaration, Nyerere Outlines Socialist Policy
Block (Jan. 20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3219 in the Arusha (Feb. 5, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . 2899
Dance, Kelly Forges New Directions in Cinematic Declaration Addresses War in the Pacific, Cairo
(1944-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Conference and (Nov. 23-30, 1943) . . . . . . . . 316
Dance Company, Ailey Founds His Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations
(Mar. 30, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829 Adopts the Universal (Dec. 10, 1948) . . . . . . . 851
Dance Company, Taylor Establishes His Own Declaration of the Rights of the Child, United
(May 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1400 Nations Adopts the (Nov. 20, 1959) . . . . . . . 1964
Dance “Event,” Cunningham Stages His First Declaration on Equality for Women, United
(June 24, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2560 Nations Issues a (Nov. 7, 1967). . . . . . . . . . 2999
Dance Theatre of Harlem, Mitchell and Shook Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man Is
Found the (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3032 Adopted, American (May 2, 1948). . . . . . . . . 777
Dance to the Music of Time, Powell Publishes Decline in Ocean Life, Cousteau Announces
the Epic A (1951-1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078 Large (Sept., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3437
Dangers of Growing Cities, Mumford Warns of the Deconstruction, Derrida Enunciates the
(1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1985 Principles of (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2876
Dangers of Smog, Black Wednesday Demonstrates Deep Space Network Begins (Dec. 3, 1958). . . . . 1871
(Sept. 8, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Defendants’ Right to an Attorney, Supreme Court
Danish Jews from Germans, Citizens Rescue Establishes (Mar. 18, 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . 2383
(Sept. 30-Oct. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Defense-Industry Employment, Roosevelt Bans
Data Storage, Floppy Disks Are Developed for Discrimination in (June 25, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . 91
Computer (1967-1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2887 Defense Pact, Stalin and Mao Pen a
Dating Ancient Objects, Libby Introduces the (Feb. 14, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
Carbon-14 Method of (Mar. 4, 1949) . . . . . . . 906 De Gaulle Steps Down (Apr. 28, 1969) . . . . . . . 3239
Davies Reflects on His Post to Moscow in Mission Delano Grape Strike
to Moscow (Oct., 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 (Sept. 8, 1965-July 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . 2695
Davis Constructs a Solar Neutrino Detector Democracy, Japan Becomes a Constitutional
(Early 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2869 (May 3, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Davis Develops 1950’s Cool Jazz Democracy Ends in a Military Coup, Somali
(Jan. 21, 1949-Mar. 9, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . 894 (Oct. 21, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3325
Davis Introduces Jazz-Rock Fusion Democratic National Convention, Chicago Riots
(Aug., 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3282 Mar the (Aug. 24-30, 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . 3134
Day Publishes Her Autobiography, The Long Deposit Is Introduced, Negotiable Certificate of
Loneliness (Jan. 19, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176 (Feb. 20, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2155
DDT Ban Signals New Environmental Awareness Depreciation, U.S. Tax Laws Allow Accelerated
(Nov. 20, 1969-Dec. 31, 1972) . . . . . . . . . . 3337 (Aug. 16, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
Dead Sea Scrolls Are Unearthed (Apr. 26, 1948) . . . 770 Derrida Enunciates the Principles of Deconstruction
Deadly Temperature Inversion, Pennsylvania Town (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2876
Suffers (Oct. 26-31, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834 Desegregation of U.S. Armed Forces, Truman
Dean Becomes a Legend in Rebel Without a Cause Orders (July 26, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
(Oct. 29, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562 Déserts, Varèse Premieres (Dec. 2, 1954) . . . . . . 1456
Death of Stalin (Mar. 5, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287 Design for the Real World Calls for Industrial
Death of Villa-Lobos (Nov. 17, 1959) . . . . . . . . 1960 Design Reform (1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3362
Death Penalty, British Parliament Abolishes the Destruction of Ibo Culture, Things Fall Apart
(Nov. 8, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2738 Depicts the (1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
xliii
Detergent, Pollution Fears Prompt Invention of Director, La Strada Solidifies Fellini’s Renown
Phosphate-Free (Oct., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . 3449 as a Brilliant (Sept. 6, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . 1435
Detroit, Race Rioting Erupts in Disabilities and Illnesses Assisted by Federal Act,
(July 23-July 30, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2969 People with Mental (Oct. 31, 1963) . . . . . . . 2426
Detroit and Harlem, Race Riots Erupt in Discovers That Sides of the Human Brain Can
(June 20-21, 1943, and Aug. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . 267 Function Independently, Sperry
De Vaucouleurs Identifies the Local Supercluster (Early 1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1974
of Galaxies (Early 1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 Discovers the Earth’s Radiation Belts, Van Allen
Developing Countries, Huntington Examines (July 26, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
Processes of Change in (1968) . . . . . . . . . . 3030 Discovery of the First X-Ray Source Outside the
Development Bank Is Chartered, Asian Solar System (June 18-19, 1962) . . . . . . . . . 2287
(Dec. 4, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2754 Discrimination, Canadian Bill of Rights Prohibits
Development Forms, Organization for Economic Sex (Aug. 4, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2087
Cooperation and (Sept. 30, 1961). . . . . . . . . 2220 Discrimination, Supreme Court Upholds Ban
Development Is Established, Agency for on Housing (June 17, 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . 3104
International (Nov. 3, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . 2233 Discrimination, United Nations Condemns Racial
Development of Very Long Baseline (Nov. 20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2432
Interferometry (1967-1973). . . . . . . . . . . . 2890 Discrimination Against Untouchables, Indian
DEW Line, Canada and the United States Government Bans (Nov. 26, 1949). . . . . . . . . 950
Establish the (Feb. 15, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . 1359 Discrimination in Ceylon, Tamils Protest
Diagnosis and Treatment, X Rays from (Feb., 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2151
a Synchrotron Are First Used in Medical Discrimination in Defense-Industry Employment,
(1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880 Roosevelt Bans (June 25, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Diapers Are Introduced to U.S. Market, Discrimination in Employment Act, Congress
Disposable (Early 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2118 Enacts the Age (Dec. 15, 1967). . . . . . . . . . 3018
Dick Van Dyke Show Popularizes Situation Discrimination in Housing, Fair Housing Act
Comedy, The (Oct. 3, 1961-June 1, 1966) . . . . 2226 Outlaws (Apr. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3076
Dickinson’s Poems, First Full Edition of Discrimination in Public Accommodations, Supreme
(Sept., 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545 Court Prohibits Racial (Dec. 14, 1964) . . . . . . 2622
Dictator in Algeria, Boumédienne Seizes Power Disks Are Developed for Computer Data Storage,
from (June 19, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2663 Floppy (1967-1970). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2887
Dictator Rafael Trujillo Is Assassinated, Disney, ABC Makes a Landmark Deal with
Dominican (May 30, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2193 (Apr., 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373
Dictatorship, Greek Coup Leads to Military Disneyland Amusement Park Opens
(Apr. 21, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915 (July 17, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1534
Dictatorship in Paraguay, Military Coup Begins Disposable Diapers Are Introduced to U.S. Market
Thirty-Five Years of (May, 1954) . . . . . . . . 1389 (Early 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2118
Dictatorship to Central African Republic, Military District of Columbia Receives Representation in
Coup Brings (Jan. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2778 Presidential Elections (Mar. 29, 1961) . . . . . . 2166
Didrikson Woman Athlete of the Half Century, Dixon, and Cann Reconstruct Ancient Near Eastern
AP Names (Feb. 16, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 Trade Routes, Renfrew, (1964) . . . . . . . . . . 2474
Diefenbaker Serves as Canadian Prime Minister DNA, Horsfall Detects the Link Between Cancer
(June 10, 1957-Feb. 5, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 1715 and Altered (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
Diem Regime, Vietnamese Generals Overthrow DNA, Kornberg and Colleagues Synthesize
(Nov. 1-2, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2429 Biologically Active (Aug.-Sept., 1967). . . . . . 2973
Diners Club Begins a New Industry (1949) . . . . . . 867 DNA, Watson and Crick Announce the
Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps Europe and America Double-Helix Model for (Apr. 2, 1953) . . . . . 1293
(Spring, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 DNA Carries Hereditary Information, Avery,
Dioxin Causes Chloracne in West German MacLeod, and McCarty Determine That
Chemical Workers (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674 (1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Diquat Herbicide Is Developed for Weed Control Dr. No Launches the Hugely Popular James Bond
(1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465 Series (Oct. 5, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2318
xliv
Doctor Zhivago Is Published, Pasternak’s Du Vigneaud Synthesizes the First Peptide

(Oct., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761 Hormone (Oct. 5, 1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330
Doctrine, Eisenhower (Jan. 5, 1957) . . . . . . . . . 1685 Dylan Performs with Electric Instruments
Doctrine, Truman (Mar. 12, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . 627 (July 25, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2671
Doctrine Is Unveiled, Nixon (July 25, 1969) . . . . 3276 Dyna-Soar Space Plane Is Developed
Doctrine of the Assumption, Pius XII Proclaims (Oct. 14, 1957-Dec. 10, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . 1771
the (Nov. 1, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Dodgers Move to Los Angeles, Brooklyn Ealing Comedies Mark a High Point in British Film
(Fall, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747 (1949-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
Doell and Dalrymple Discover the Magnetic Earth, First Human Orbits the (Apr. 12, 1961) . . . 2172
Reversals of Earth’s Poles (Nov. 4, 1965) . . . . 2735 Earth Day Is Celebrated, First (Apr. 22, 1970) . . . 3410
Dominican Dictator Rafael Trujillo Is Assassinated Earth’s Poles, Doell and Dalrymple Discover
(May 30, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2193 the Magnetic Reversals of (Nov. 4, 1965) . . . . 2735
Dominican Republic, U.S. Troops Occupy the Earth’s Radiation Belts, Van Allen Discovers the
(Apr. 28, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2651 (July 26, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
Dominion, Ceylon Becomes an Independent Earthquake and Avalanche in Peru Kill
(Feb. 4, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 More than Sixty Thousand People
Donald Uses Ultrasound to Examine Human (May 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3425
Fetuses (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798 Earthquake Devastates Ashgabat and Kills Up to
Doolittle Mission Bombs Tokyo 100,000 People (Oct. 6, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . 832
(Apr. 18, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 East Germans Flee to West to Escape Communist
Double-Helix Model for DNA, Watson and Crick Regime (1949-1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
Announce the (Apr. 2, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . 1293 East Pakistan, Bhola Cyclone Devastates
Double Jeopardy, Supreme Court Extends (Nov. 12, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3479
Protection Against (June 23, 1969) . . . . . . . . 3257 Eastern Europe, Soviets Take Control of
Douglas Aircraft Companies Merge, McDonnell (1943-1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
and (Apr. 28, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2919 Easy Rider Captures the Spirit of 1960’s Youth
Dragnet Airs as the First Widely Popular Police (July 14, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3266
Show (Dec. 16, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149 Echo Park Dam Proposal Is Defeated
Dragoon, Operation (Aug. 15, 1944) . . . . . . . . . 385 (Apr. 11, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620
Drama, Theatres Act Ends Censorship of British Eckert and Mauchly Develop the ENIAC
(July 26, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3117 (Apr., 1943-1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Drama to Nighttime Television, Peyton Place Ecology, Acid Rain Changes Lake and Riverine
Brings Serial (Sept. 15, 1964-June 2, 1969) . . . 2596 (1950’s-mid-1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
Dramatic Voice to Existential Philosophy, Sartre Economic Assistance, Soviet Bloc States Establish
and Camus Give (1944-1960) . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Council for Mutual (Jan. 25, 1949) . . . . . . . . 897
Drought Extends the Reach of the Sahara Desert Economic Cooperation and Development Forms,
(1968-1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3037 Organization for (Sept. 30, 1961). . . . . . . . . 2220
Drucker Examines Managerial Roles (1954) . . . . 1346 Economic Planning, Hayek Opposes Centralized
Drug Found for the Treatment of Alcoholism, (Mar., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Aversion (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 Economy, Kennedy-Johnson Tax Cuts Stimulate
Drury Sets a Novel of Political Intrigue in the U.S. (Feb. 26, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2517
Washington, D.C. (1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1880 Economy Emerges in the United States, Service
Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988
(Summer, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Ecuadorian Pottery Shows Transpacific Contact
Du Pont to Disburse GM Holdings, U.S. Supreme in 3000 b.c.e., Anthropologists Claim That
Court Orders (May 22, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . 2186 (1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2628
Dutchman Dramatizes Racial Hatred Edsel, Ford Introduces the (Sept. 4, 1957) . . . . . . 1734
(Mar. 24, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2524 Education Act, Congress Enacts the Bilingual
Duties of Man Is Adopted, American Declaration (Jan. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3044
on the Rights and (May 2, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . 777 Egypt, Sadat Becomes President of
Duvalier Takes Power in Haiti (Oct. 22, 1957) . . . 1774 (Sept. 28, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3447
xlv
Egypt Attempts to Nationalize the Suez Canal English Life in Brideshead Revisited, Evelyn
(July 26, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1636 Waugh Captures Prewar (May 28, 1945) . . . . . 466
Egypt Form the United Arab Republic, Syria and English Team Develops Colossus, Secret
(Feb. 1, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826 (Dec., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Egypt Is Overthrown, King Farouk of ENIAC, Eckert and Mauchly Develop the
(July 23, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199 (Apr., 1943-1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Egypt’s Aswan High Dam Project, Foreign Aid Is Entrance into the United Nations, Spain Is Denied
Withdrawn from (July 19-20, 1956) . . . . . . . 1633 (Dec. 12, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Eichmann Is Tried for War Crimes Environmental Awareness, DDT Ban Signals New
(Apr. 11-Aug. 14, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2169 (Nov. 20, 1969-Dec. 31, 1972) . . . . . . . . . . 3337
Eisenhower Begins the Food for Peace Program Environmental Defense Fund Is Founded
(July 10, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420 (Sept., 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2979
Eisenhower Doctrine (Jan. 5, 1957) . . . . . . . . . 1685 Environmental Policy Act of 1969 Is Signed,
Eisenhower Is Elected President (Nov. 4, 1952). . . 1230 National (Jan. 1, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3372
Eisenhower Sends Troops to Little Rock, Arkansas Environmental Problems, White Explores the
(Sept. 25, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753 Judeo-Christian Roots of (Mar. 10, 1967) . . . . 2905
Eisenhower Warns of the Military-Industrial Environmental Protection Agency Is Created
Complex (Jan. 17, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145 (Dec. 2, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3487
El Alamein, Second Battle of Environments, Bookchin Warns of Health Hazards
(Oct. 23-Nov. 3, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 of Artificial (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2246
Election in Chile, Allende Wins a Close Epic A Dance to the Music of Time, Powell
(Sept. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3440 Publishes the (1951-1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
Elections, District of Columbia Receives Equal Pay Act, Congress Passes the
Representation in Presidential (June 10, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2401
(Mar. 29, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2166 Equal Pay Act of 1970, British Parliament
Electric Instruments, Dylan Performs with Passes the (May 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3423
(July 25, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2671 Equality for Women, United Nations Issues a
Electricity, World’s First Breeder Reactor Produces Declaration on (Nov. 7, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . 2999
(Dec. 20, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152 Equality Forms, Congress of Racial
Electron Tunneling in Semiconductors, Esaki (Spring, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Demonstrates (Jan. 15, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . 1818 Equality Holds Its Journey of Reconciliation,
Ellison’s Invisible Man Is Published (1952) . . . . . 1162 Congress of Racial (Apr. 9-23, 1947) . . . . . . . 633
Emergency Price Control Act, Roosevelt Signs the Eritrea Begins Its War for Independence
(Jan. 30, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 (Sept. 1, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2209
Employment, Roosevelt Bans Discrimination in Error in the Cepheid Luminosity Scale, Baade
Defense-Industry (June 25, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . 91 Corrects an (Aug., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208
Employment Act (Feb. 20, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 523 Esaki Demonstrates Electron Tunneling in
Employment Act, Congress Enacts the Age Semiconductors (Jan. 15, 1958) . . . . . . . . . 1818
Discrimination in (Dec. 15, 1967) . . . . . . . . 3018 Espionage, Rosenbergs Are Executed for Peacetime
End of World War II in Europe, V-E Day Marks the (June 19, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1307
(May 8, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Esslin Publishes The Theatre of the Absurd
Endangered Species Preservation Act, Congress (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2124
Passes the (Oct. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2843 Establishment of the International Court of Justice
Energy Act, Atomic (Aug. 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . 1432 (Feb. 5, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Energy Agency Begins Operations, International Ethiopia, Legal Slavery Ends in
Atomic (July 29, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1722 (Aug. 27, 1942). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Energy Commission Is Established, Atomic Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles, Zoot-Suit Riots
(Aug. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Exemplify (June 3-9, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Engine Is Used in the First Jet Plane, Turbojet Europe, Invasion of Normandy Begins the
(May 15, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Liberation of (June 6, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
England’s Windscale Reactor Releases Radiation Europe, Marshall Plan Provides Aid to
(Oct. 10, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768 (Apr. 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
xlvi
Europe, V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in Expedition, Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki
(May 8, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 (Apr. 28-Aug. 7, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Europe, Value-Added Taxes Begin in Experimental Lakes Area, Canada Establishes the
(Apr. 10, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377 (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3021
Europe and America, Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps Explosion, Apollo 13 Crew Survives Onboard
(Spring, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 (Apr. 11-17, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3407
European Coal and Steel Community Is Established Explosion, Hiroshima Recounts the Story of
(Apr. 18, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102 Surviving a Nuclear (Aug., 1946) . . . . . . . . . 560
European Common Market Is Established Explosion and Meltdown, Chalk River Nuclear
(Mar. 25, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1705 Reactor (Dec. 12, 1952). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
European Consortium Creates Airbus Industrie Expo 67 Features Innovative Architecture
(Dec. 18, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3505 (Apr. 28-Oct. 27, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2922
European Convention on Human Rights Is Signed Eye Surgery, Lasers Are First Used in
(Nov. 4, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041 (Aug., 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2409
European Economic Community Adopts
the Common Agricultural Policy Factory, Sara Lee Opens an Automated
(July 1, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2957 (Spring, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2520
European Free Trade Association Is Established Factory in the Soviet Union, Fiat Builds a
(Jan. 4, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021 (May 4, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2811
European Monetary Union Project, Birth of the Fair Credit Reporting Act, Congress Passes the
(Dec., 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3344 (Oct. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3462
European Payments Union Is Formed Fair Housing Act Outlaws Discrimination in
(July 1, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 Housing (Apr. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3076
European Social Charter Is Signed Family Comedies on Television Rise in Popularity
(Oct. 18, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2229 (1950’s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
European Theater, World War II Family Planning Services and Population
(Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Research Act Extends Reproductive Rights
Evangelist, Billy Graham Becomes a Traveling (Dec. 28, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3508
(1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Famine Decimates Bengal (1943-1944). . . . . . . . 228
Evelyn Waugh Captures Prewar English Life in Famine Decimates China (1959-1961). . . . . . . . 1888
Brideshead Revisited (May 28, 1945) . . . . . . . 466 Famine Relief Is Founded, Oxford Committee for
“Event,” Cunningham Stages His First Dance (Oct. 5, 1942). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
(June 24, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2560 Fancy Free Premieres, Robbins’s (Apr. 18, 1944) . . . 357
Evil, Arendt Speculates on the Banality of Fantasy World of Secret Agents, Le Carré
(1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2335 Rejects the (1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2345
Evil in The Screwtape Letters, Lewis Explores the Farmworkers’ Union and Lead Grape
Mind of (Feb., 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Pickers’ Strike, Chávez and Huerta Form
Evolution, Teilhard de Chardin Attempts to (Sept. 30, 1962, and Sept. 16, 1965) . . . . . . . 2311
Reconcile Religion and (1955) . . . . . . . . . . 1478 Farouk of Egypt Is Overthrown, King
Ewing Discover the Midoceanic Ridge, Heezen (July 23, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
and (1956). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1584 Fashion Company Is Founded, Laura Ashley
Execution of Che Guevara (Oct. 9, 1967) . . . . . . 2991 (Mar. 19, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1368
Executive Director of the Sierra Club, Brower Fast Food Is Incorporated and Franchised,
Becomes (Nov., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227 McDonald’s (Mar. 2, 1955). . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
Exiles and Prisoners of War Are Forced into Fastest Woman in the World, Rudolph Becomes
Repatriation, Soviet (Feb. 11, 1945) . . . . . . . . 436 the (Sept. 7, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2097
Existential Philosophy, Sartre and Camus Give Fatah Launches Its First Terrorist Strike on Israel
Dramatic Voice to (1944-1960) . . . . . . . . . . 342 (Dec. 31, 1964-Jan. 7, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2625
Existential Philosophy, Sartre’s Being and Faulkner Publishes Go Down, Moses
Nothingness Expresses (June 25, 1943) . . . . . . 270 (May 11, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Existential Theme of Absurdity, Waiting for Godot Favaloro Develops the Artery Bypass Surgery
Expresses the (Jan. 5, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . 1274 (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2879
xlvii
FCC Licenses Commercial Television Film Star in The Blackboard Jungle, Poitier
(May 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Emerges as a (Mar. 19, 1955). . . . . . . . . . . 1497
FDA Approves the Birth Control Pill Film Studios to Divest Theaters, Antitrust Rulings
(June 23, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2065 Force (May 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act Is Film The Chelsea Girls Finds Mainstream Audience,
Approved (Dec. 30, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3358 Warhol’s Underground (Sept. 15, 1966) . . . . . 2829
Federal Law Requires Cigarette Warning Labels Filmmaking, Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks with
(Jan. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2775 Traditional (May 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Formation Films, Casablanca Marks the Artistic Apex of
of the (Aug. 1, 1953-Dec. 31, 1963) . . . . . . . 1316 1940’s War-Themed (Nov. 26, 1942) . . . . . . . 213
Fellini’s Renown as a Brilliant Director, La Strada Films, The Maltese Falcon Establishes a New Style
Solidifies (Sept. 6, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1435 for Crime (Oct. 3, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Female Prime Minister, Gandhi Serves as India’s Final Issue, The Saturday Evening Post Publishes
First (Jan. 24, 1966). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2782 Its (Feb. 8, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3226
Fender Introduces the Broadcaster Guitar (1948) . . . 700 “Final Solution,” Wannsee Conference and the
Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear Fission (Jan. 20, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Chain Reaction (Dec. 2, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Financiers of Small Businesses, Congress Gives
Festival Inaugurates the “Summer of Love,” Tax Breaks to (Aug. 21, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . 1855
Monterey Pop (June 16-18, 1967) . . . . . . . . 2953 Financing Emerges Over Peacekeeping Expenses,
Festival Is Held, First Newport Jazz Crisis in U.N. (1963-1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2358
(July 17-18, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423 Fire in Boston’s Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Proves
Festival Marks the Climax of 1960’s Youth Culture, Deadly (Nov. 28, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Woodstock Music (Aug. 15-18, 1969) . . . . . . 3288 Fire Next Time, Baldwin Voices Black Rage in The
Fetal Genetic Traits, Bevis Describes Amniocentesis (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2341
as a Method to Check (Feb. 23, 1952) . . . . . . 1181 Firms Begin Replacing Skilled Laborers with
Fetuses, Donald Uses Ultrasound to Examine Automated Tools (Late 1950’s). . . . . . . . . . 1671
Human (1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798 First African American Woman Elected
Fiat Builds a Factory in the Soviet Union to Congress, Chisholm Becomes the
(May 4, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2811 (Nov. 5, 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3164
Ficciones Transcends Traditional Realism, Borges’s First African American Woman to Star as a
(1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Non-domestic on Television, Carroll Becomes
Fiction, Beckett’s Trilogy Expands the Frontiers of the (Sept. 17, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3138
(1951-1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071 First Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered
Fiction “Boom,” Latin American (1955-1970) . . . 1486 (Nov., 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Field Ion Microscope, Müller Develops the First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modification
(1952-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173 (Nov. 13, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Film, Ealing Comedies Mark a High Point in British First Commercial Communications Satellite Is
(1949-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 Launched (July 10, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2294
Film, Godard’s Breathless Revolutionizes First Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Opens
(Mar. 16, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2027 (Oct. 17, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658
Film, Premiere of the First CinemaScope First Earth Day Is Celebrated (Apr. 22, 1970) . . . . 3410
(Sept. 16, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324 First Electronic Stored-Program Computer Is
Film, Psycho Becomes Hitchcock’s Most Famous Completed (Aug., 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
(June 16, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062 First Experimental Weather Reconnaissance
Film, Westerns Dominate Postwar American Satellite, TIROS 1 Becomes the
(1946-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 (Apr. 1-June 14, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2040
Film Genre, Leone Renovates the Western First Five-Year Plan, China Begins Its
(1964-1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2484 (Jan., 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
Film-Industry Leader, Kubrick Becomes a First Full Edition of Dickinson’s Poems
(Jan. 30, 1964-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2510 (Sept., 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545
Film Roles to African Americans, Stormy Weather First Home Owner’s Insurance Policies Are Offered
Offers New (July 21, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 (Sept., 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
xlviii
First Human-Made Object to Impact Five-Year Plan, China Begins Its First
on the Moon, Luna 2 Becomes the (Jan., 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
(Sept. 14, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1944 Flag, Jasper Johns Paints the American
First Human Orbits the Earth (Apr. 12, 1961) . . . . 2172 (1954-1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1352
First Humans Land on the Moon Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima, American
(July 20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3272 (Feb. 23, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
First Jumbo Jet Is Delivered to Airlines Flag Salutes, Supreme Court Rules That
(Dec. 13, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3355 States Cannot Compel (June 14, 1943) . . . . . . 264
First Modern Herbicide Is Introduced Flames, Polluted Cuyahoga River Bursts
(Mid-1940’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 into (June 22, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3253
First Newport Jazz Festival Is Held Flintstones Popularizes Prime-Time Cartoons,
(July 17-18, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423 The (Sept. 30, 1960). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
First 911 Call in the United States Is Made Flood Kills Nearly Two Thousand People in
(Feb. 16, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3060 Holland, North Sea (Jan. 31-Feb. 1, 1953) . . . . 1284
First Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated Flood Tests Baseball’s Reserve Clause
(July 16, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 (Jan. 16, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3376
First Nuclear-Powered U.S. Submarine Is Floppy Disks Are Developed for Computer
Launched (Jan. 21, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356 Data Storage (1967-1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2887
First OPEC Meeting (Sept. 14, 1960) . . . . . . . . 2102 Flora Devastates Haiti and Cuba, Hurricane
First Passive Communications Satellite Is (Oct. 4-8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2423
Launched (Aug. 12, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2090 Florida and Receive Assistance, Cubans Flee to
First Performance by Balanchine and (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977
Kirstein’s Ballet Society (Nov. 20, 1946) . . . . . 589 Flu Pandemic Kills Millions Worldwide, Asian
First Successful Synthesizer Is Completed (Feb., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1692
(Jan., 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890 Fluoride Is Introduced into the U.S. Water Supply
First Sudanese Civil War Erupts (Jan. 25, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
(Aug. 18-Sept. 6, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538 Fonteyn Debut Ashton’s Marguerite and Armand,
First Televised Newsmagazine, 60 Minutes Nureyev and (Mar. 12, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2380
Becomes the (Sept. 24, 1968). . . . . . . . . . . 3141 Food, Congress Sets Standards for Chemical
First Tidal Power Station Begins Operation Additives in (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
(Nov. 26, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2856 Food and Agriculture, United Nations Holds Its
First Transatlantic Telephone Cable Begins First Conference on (May 18-June 3, 1943) . . . . 257
Operation (Sept. 25, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1645 Food for Peace Program, Eisenhower Begins the
First Two-Story, Fully Enclosed Shopping (July 10, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420
Mall Opens (Oct. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1652 Food Is Incorporated and Franchised, McDonald’s
First U.N. Secretary-General Is Selected Fast (Mar. 2, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
(Feb. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Food Programme Is Established, United Nations
First U.S. Commercial Nuclear Plant Opens World (Feb., 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2268
(Dec. 2, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783 Football League Holds Its First Super Bowl,
First Use of Bubble Memory in Computers National (Jan. 15, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2896
(Aug. 8, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3285 Football Names First Inductees to the Pro Football
First Views of the Far Side of the Moon, Hall of Fame, Professional (Jan. 29, 1963) . . . . 2368
Luna 3 Provides the (Oct. 7, 1959) . . . . . . . . 1947 Forced Labor, Thai-Burma Railway Is
First Water Pollution Control Act Is Passed Completed with (Oct. 25, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . 307
(June 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 Forced Labor Convention, United Nations
Fishing in Lakes St. Clair and Erie, Canada Adopts the Abolition of (June 25, 1957) . . . . . 1718
Bans Commercial (Mar. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . 3397 Ford Foundation Begins to Fund Nonprofit
Fission Chain Reaction, Fermi Creates Theaters (Fall, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750
the First Controlled Nuclear Ford Introduces the Edsel (Sept. 4, 1957) . . . . . . 1734
(Dec. 2, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Ford Introduces the Mustang (Apr. 17, 1964) . . . . 2533
Five States Take Steps to Halt Lake Erie Foreign Aid Is Withdrawn from Egypt’s Aswan
Pollution (Aug. 12, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2691 High Dam Project (July 19-20, 1956) . . . . . . 1633
xlix
Foreign Investment, Johnson Restricts Direct Freedom Fighters Begin Toppling White
(Jan. 1, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3040 Supremacist Government, Southern
Foreign Property, Cuba Begins Expropriating Rhodesian (Apr. 28, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2803
(Mar. 4, 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904 Freedom of Information Act Goes into Effect
“Formalism” in Music, Zhdanov Denounces (July 4, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2964
(Feb. 10, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 Frei “Chileanizes” Chile’s Copper Industry
Formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and (1964-1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2488
Nyasaland (Aug. 1, 1953-Dec. 31, 1963) . . . . . 1316 French Control of Indochina, Nationalist
Formosa Resolution Is Signed into Law Vietnamese Fight (Nov., 1946-July, 1954) . . . . 576
(Jan. 29, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1490 French New Wave Ushers in a New Era of
Forsyte Saga Anticipates the Television Miniseries, Cinema (1956-1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596
The (Oct. 5, 1969-Mar. 29, 1970). . . . . . . . . 3309 French Resistance (1941-Aug. 25, 1944). . . . . . . . 25
FORTRAN Computer Language, IBM Develops the French Students and Workers Rebel Against
(Apr., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709 the Political Order (May-June, 1968) . . . . . . . 3088
Fossil Hominid, Leakeys Find a French Troops Near Battambang, Thai Forces
1.75-Million-Year-Old (July 17, 1959) . . . . . . 1926 Attack (Jan., 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Foucault’s Madness and Civilization Is Friedman, Kendall, and Taylor Discover
Published (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2127 Quarks (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3024
Foundation Is Established, Great Books Friends of the Earth, Brower Forms
(July, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 (May, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3242
Four-Minute Mile, Bannister Beats the From Here to Eternity Wins Wide Readership
(May 6, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1393 (Feb. 26, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
4 33 Premieres, Cage’s (Aug. 29, 1952) . . . . . . 1211 Fromm Publishes The Art of Loving (1956) . . . . . 1582
Fractal Measures, Mandelbrot Develops Fulbright Program, Congress Creates the
Non-Euclidean (1966-1975) . . . . . . . . . . . 2768 (Aug. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
France, Algeria Gains Independence from Fuller Builds First Industrial Geodesic Dome
(July 5, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2290 (Apr., 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
France, Allied Forces Break German Front Funk Music, Brown Introduces
in (July 25, 1944). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 (Mar. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2800
France, Cambodia Gains Independence from Fusion, Davis Introduces Jazz-Rock
(Nov. 9, 1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337 (Aug., 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3282
France, Guinea Gains Independence from Future Shock Explores the Impact of Change
(Oct. 2, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859 (July, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3431
France and Italy Opens, Mont Blanc Tunnel
Between (July 16, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2669 Gabor Develops the Concept of Holography
France Grants Suffrage to Women (1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
(Mar. 15, 1944). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Gagnan Develop the Aqualung, Cousteau and
France Launches the Monnet Plan (Spring, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
(Mar. 17, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Galaxies, De Vaucouleurs Identifies the Local
France Withdraws from NATO’s Military Supercluster of (Early 1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Structure (Mar. 7, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2798 Galaxy, Reber Publishes the First Radio Maps
Franklin and Burke Discover Radio Emissions of the (Nov., 1944-Oct., 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . 403
from Jupiter (Early 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462 Galaxy, Ryle’s Radio Telescope Locates the
Franklin D. Roosevelt Wins a Fourth Presidential First Known Radio (1948-1951) . . . . . . . . . . 733
Term (Nov. 7, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Galbraith Critiques the Creation of a Society of
Free Speech Movement Begins, Berkeley Mass Consumption (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
(Sept. 14, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2592 Gallery Promotes New American Art, Peggy
Free Trade, Bretton Woods Agreement Guggenheim’s (Oct. 20, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Encourages (July 1-22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Gamow Develops the Big Bang Theory
Free Trade Association Is Established, (Oct. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
European (Jan. 4, 1960). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021 Gandhi Is Assassinated (Jan. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . 742
l
Gandhi Serves as India’s First Female Prime German Writers Form Group 47 (Sept., 1947) . . . . 668
Minister (Jan. 24, 1966). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2782 Germans, Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from
García Márquez’s One Hundred Years of (Sept. 30-Oct. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Solitude Is Published (May, 1967) . . . . . . . . 2925 Germany, Allied Forces Begin the Battle for
Garden Party Satirizes Life Under Communism, (Sept. 12, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Havel’s The (Dec. 3, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2440 Germany Agrees to Pay Reparations to Israel
Gaulle Steps Down, De (Apr. 28, 1969) . . . . . . . 3239 (Sept. 10, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
Gay Rights Movement, Stonewall Rebellion Germany and Italy Declare War on the United
Ignites Modern Lesbian and States (Dec. 11, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
(June 27-July 2, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3260 Germany Invades Crete
Gehrig Dies, Yankee Baseball Great Lou (May 20-June 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
(June 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Germany Invades Russia
Gell-Mann and Zweig Advance Quark Theory (June 22, 1941-Jan. 8, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
(1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457 Germany Mounts the Balkan Offensive
Gemini, NASA Launches Project (Apr. 6-30, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
(Apr., 1959-Nov. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913 Germany Splits into Two Republics
Gemini VI and VII Complete an Orbital (Sept. 21-Oct. 7, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
Rendezvous (Dec. 15, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2758 Germany’s Collective Responsibility for War
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Crimes, Jaspers Examines (1946) . . . . . . . . . 507
Is Signed (Oct. 30, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Ghana, Overthrow of Nkrumah in
General Assembly Passes the Uniting for Peace (Feb. 24, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2792
Resolution, United Nations (Nov. 3, 1950) . . . . 1038 Ghana Gains Independence from the United
General Motors and the UAW Introduce the Kingdom (Mar. 6, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1698
COLA Clause (May 25, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . 792 Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis, Warsaw
General Public Utilities Announces Plans (Apr. 19-May 16, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
for a Commercial Nuclear Reactor G.I. Bill, Roosevelt Signs the (June 22, 1944) . . . . 375
(Dec. 12, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2447 Gibbons Publishes Stalking the Wild Asparagus
General Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes, (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2249
Japanese (Oct. 29, 1945-Feb. 23, 1946) . . . . . . 495 Glaser Proposes an Orbiting Solar Power Station
Generation Rejects Mainstream Values, Beat (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3027
(1950’s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968 Glen Canyon Dam Is Completed, Controversial
Genetic Code, Nirenberg Cracks the (Sept. 13, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2419
(Summer, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2198 Glenn Becomes the First American to Orbit Earth
Genetic Traits, Bevis Describes Amniocentesis (Feb. 20, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2275
as a Method to Check Fetal (Feb. 23, 1952) . . . 1181 Global Awareness on Apartheid, Sharpeville
Geneva Conventions Establish Norms of Conduct Massacre Focuses (Mar. 21, 1960) . . . . . . . . 2034
in War (Aug. 12, 1949). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937 Glomar Challenger Begins Collecting Ocean-Floor
Genocide, United Nations Adopts Convention on Samples (Aug. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3120
(Dec. 9, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 GM Holdings, U.S. Supreme Court Orders
Genocide in Iraq, Kurds Suffer (1960’s). . . . . . . 1980 Du Pont to Disburse (May 22, 1961) . . . . . . . 2186
Geodesic Dome, Fuller Builds First Industrial Go Down, Moses, Faulkner Publishes
(Apr., 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289 (May 11, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
German Battleship Bismarck, Sinking of the Godard’s Breathless Revolutionizes Film
(May 26-27, 1941). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 (Mar. 16, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2027
German Forces, Tank Battle at Kursk Devastates Godfather, Puzo Chronicles Organized Crime
(July 4-12, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 in The (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3206
German Front in France, Allied Forces Break Going My Way Wins Best Picture
(July 25, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 (Mar. 15, 1945). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
German Measles Vaccine Is Developed Gold, and Hoyle, Steady-State Theory of the
(1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3195 Universe Is Advanced by Bondi, (1948) . . . . . . 726
German V-1 and V-2 Weapons Are Deployed Golden Age of Television (1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . 974
(June 13 and Sept. 8, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
li
Golding’s Lord of the Flies Spurs Examination Group Against Smog and Pollution, Pittsburgh
of Human Nature (1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349 Residents Form the (Oct. 20, 1969). . . . . . . . 3318
Goldman’s The Lion in Winter Premieres Group 47, German Writers Form
(Mar. 2, 1966). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2796 (Sept., 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
Good Man Is Hard to Find, O’Connor Guadalcanal, Battle of
Publishes A (1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471 (Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. 9, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Gordy Founds Motown Records (Jan., 1959) . . . . 1894 Guatemala, United Fruit Company Instigates a
Government, Labour Party Forms Britain’s Coup in (June 18-27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1408
Majority (July 26, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Guevara, Execution of Che (Oct. 9, 1967) . . . . . . 2991
Government Leads to Civil War, Collapse of Guggenheim Museum Opens, Wright-Designed
the Laotian (Dec. 9, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116 (Oct. 21, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950
Governor-General, Massey Becomes Canada’s Guggenheim’s Gallery Promotes New American
First Native-Born (Feb. 28, 1952) . . . . . . . . 1184 Art, Peggy (Oct. 20, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Graham Becomes a Traveling Evangelist, Billy Guinea Gains Independence from France
(1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 (Oct. 2, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
Graham Debuts Appalachian Spring with Copland Guitar, Fender Introduces the Broadcaster
Score (Oct. 30, 1944). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Grand Ole Opry, Hank Williams Performs on The Gulf Coast, Hurricane Camille Devastates the U.S.
(June 11, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 (Aug. 17-18, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3292
Grand Prize at Venice, Kurosawa’s Rashomon Gunsmoke Launches the Adult Western Drama,
Wins the (Sept. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121 Debut of (Sept. 10, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552
Grape Pickers’ Strike, Chávez and Huerta
Form Farmworkers’ Union and Lead Habash Founds the Popular Front for the
(Sept. 30, 1962, and Sept. 16, 1965) . . . . . . . 2311 Liberation of Palestine (Dec. 11, 1967). . . . . . 3015
Grape Strike, Delano Hafez al-Assad Takes Control of Syria
(Sept. 8, 1965-July 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . 2695 (Feb. 27, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3229
Grass Publishes The Tin Drum (1959) . . . . . . . . 1882 Hair Opens on Broadway, Radical Musical
Gravitational Redshifting, Mössbauer Effect Is (Apr. 29, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3085
Used to Detect (1960). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014 Haiti, Duvalier Takes Power in (Oct. 22, 1957) . . . 1774
Great Books Foundation Is Established Haiti and Cuba, Hurricane Flora Devastates
(July, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 (Oct. 4-8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2423
Great Leap Forward Brings Chaos to China, Hakim Introduces Absurdism to the Arab
Mao’s (Beginning 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804 Stage, Al- (1961-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2142
Great Swamp Wildlife Refuge Is Dedicated Halberstam Reflects on American Involvement
(May 29, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2550 in Vietnam in The Best and the Brightest
Greek and Turkish Cypriots Clash over (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3200
Political Rights (Dec. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . 2453 Hale Constructs the 200-Inch Telescope
Greek Coup Leads to Military Dictatorship (June 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
(Apr. 21, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915 Hall of Fame, Professional Football Names First
Green Revolution (1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2460 Inductees to the Pro Football (Jan. 29, 1963) . . . 2368
Greene’s The Heart of the Matter Is Published Hamlet Is Released to Acclaim and Controversy,
(1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 Olivier’s (May 4, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
Greenhouse Effect Is First Predicted Hammarskjöld Dies in a Plane Crash, United
(May, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2929 Nations Secretary-General Dag
Greening of America, Reich Publishes The (Sept. 18, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2217
(1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3365 Hammarskjöld Is Elected U.N. Secretary-General
Greensboro Sit-Ins (Feb. 1-July 25, 1960) . . . . . . 2023 (Apr. 10, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
Griffin Act Targets Union Corruption, Landrum- Handke’s Kaspar Dramatizes Language Theory
(Sept. 14, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940 (May 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3092
Griswold v. Connecticut, Supreme Court Rules Hanford Nuclear Reservation Becomes a Health
That States Cannot Ban Contraceptives in Concern (Beginning 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
(June 7, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659
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Hank Williams Performs on The Grand Ole Opry Heart of the Matter Is Published, Greene’s The
(June 11, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun Debuts on Heart Transplant, Barnard Performs the First
Broadway (Mar. 11, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907 Human (Dec. 2, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3008
Hardin Argues for Population Control Heavyweight Boxing Championship, Marciano
(Dec. 13, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3191 Wins His First (Sept. 23, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . 1220
Harlem, Mitchell and Shook Found the Dance Heavyweight Boxing Title, Clay Defeats Liston
Theatre of (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3032 to Gain World (Feb. 25, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . 2514
Harlem, Race Riots Erupt in Detroit and Heezen and Ewing Discover the Midoceanic
(June 20-21, 1943, and Aug. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . 267 Ridge (1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1584
Harris Amendment, Thalidomide Tragedy Prompts Heinlein Publishes Stranger in a Strange Land
Passage of the Kefauver- (Oct. 10, 1962). . . . . 2323 (June 1, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2195
Hart-Celler Act Reforms U.S. Immigration Law Hendrix Releases Acid Rock Album Are You
(Oct. 3, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715 Experienced? (May 12, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . 2932
Hasbro Advertises Toys on Television Herbicide Is Developed for Weed Control,
(Fall, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217 Diquat (1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465
Hassel Share the Nobel Prize for Determining Herbicide Is Introduced, First Modern
the Three-Dimensional Shapes of Organic (Mid-1940’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Compounds, Barton and (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . 3347 Hereditary Information, Avery, MacLeod,
Havel’s The Garden Party Satirizes Life Under and McCarty Determine That DNA
Communism (Dec. 3, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2440 Carries (1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Hawaii Gain Statehood, Alaska and HERMES Builds the First Multistage Rocket
(Jan. 3 and Aug. 21, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897 (Feb. 24, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Hayek Opposes Centralized Economic Planning Hess Identifies the Cause of Continental Drift
(Mar., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 (1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2010
Hazardous Substances Labeling Act Is Signed Hesse, Sixties Culture in the United States
(July 12, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2084 Rediscovers the Works of (1960’s) . . . . . . . . 1995
Head Start Is Established to Aid Poor Children Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki Expedition
(May 18, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2654 (Apr. 28-Aug. 7, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Healing Waters Ministry, Roberts Starts the High Blood Pressure, Wilkins Introduces
(1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 Reserpine for the Treatment of (1952) . . . . . . 1170
Health Act, Nixon Signs the Occupational Safety High Commissioner for Refugees
and (Dec. 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3512 Statute Is Approved, United Nations
Health and Safety Act Is Approved, Federal Coal (Dec. 14, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
Mine (Dec. 30, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3358 High Noon, Premiere of (July 24, 1952) . . . . . . . 1202
Health Concern, Hanford Nuclear Reservation High-Yield Wheat, Borlaug Begins Work on
Becomes a (Beginning 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . 870 (Sept., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Health Hazards of Artificial Environments, Highway Billboards, Congress Limits the Use
Bookchin Warns of (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2246 of (Aug., 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2682
Health Organization Intensifies Its Campaign to Highway Is Announced, Trans-Amazon
Eradicate Smallpox, World (1967) . . . . . . . . 2885 (June 16, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3428
Health Organization Proclaims Health a Basic Highway Is Completed, Alaska (Oct., 1943) . . . . . 303
Human Right, World (July 22, 1946) . . . . . . . 557 Hillary and Tenzing Reach the Top of Mount
Health Plan, Canada Implements Its National Everest (May 29, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
(Dec. 19, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2866 Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Atomic Bombs Destroy
Health Service Act, United Kingdom Passes the (Aug. 6 and 9, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
National (Nov. 6, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Hiroshima Recounts the Story of Surviving a
Hearings, McCarthy Nuclear Explosion (Aug., 1946) . . . . . . . . . . 560
(Jan. 15, 1953-Dec. 2, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . 1278 History, Michener’s Best Seller The Source
Hearings on Overspending for the C-5A Galaxy, Explores Jewish (June, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2657
Congress Begins (Sept. 3, 1969) . . . . . . . . . 3296 Hitchcock’s Most Famous Film, Psycho Becomes
(June 16, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062
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Ho Chi Minh Organizes the Viet Minh Hospital Opens, St. Jude Children’s
(May, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 (Feb. 4, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2271
Hochhuth Stages a Critique of Pope Pius XII’s Hostage, Theatre Workshop Presents Behan’s
Silence During the Holocaust The (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807
(Feb. 20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2373 Hotline Is Adopted Between the United States
Hodgkin Solves the Structure of Penicillin and the Soviet Union (June 20, 1963) . . . . . . 2407
(1944-1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Housing Act Outlaws Discrimination in Housing,
Hoffa Negotiates a National Trucking Agreement Fair (Apr. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3076
(Jan. 16, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2504 Housing Discrimination, Supreme Court Upholds
Hofstadter Discovers That Protons and Neutrons Ban on (June 17, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3104
Have Structure (1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057 Hoyle, Steady-State Theory of the Universe Is
Holland, North Sea Flood Kills Nearly Two Advanced by Bondi, Gold, and (1948). . . . . . . 726
Thousand People in (Jan. 31-Feb. 1, 1953) . . . . 1284 HUAC Investigates Hollywood (Oct. 20, 1947) . . . 677
Hollywood, HUAC Investigates Hubbard Founds the Church of Scientology
(Oct. 20, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 (Feb. 18, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362
Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed Huerta Form Farmworkers’ Union and Lead
(1946-1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Grape Pickers’ Strike, Chávez and
Hollywood’s Talent Pool, Blacklisting Depletes (Sept. 30, 1962, and Sept. 16, 1965) . . . . . . . 2311
(1947-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Hula Hoop Is Marketed (Summer, 1958) . . . . . . 1839
Holocaust, Hochhuth Stages a Critique of Human Brain Can Function Independently, Sperry
Pope Pius XII’s Silence During the Discovers That Sides of the (Early 1960’s). . . . 1974
(Feb. 20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2373 Human Comedy, Saroyan Offers a Compelling
Holocaust, Wiesel’s Night Recalls the (1956) . . . . 1589 Story of Hope in The (1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Holography, Gabor Develops the Concept of Human Fetuses, Donald Uses Ultrasound to
(1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 Examine (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798
Holy Land, Paul VI Visits the (Jan. 4-6, 1964) . . . 2498 Human Growth Hormone, Li Isolates
Home After World War II, Africans Return (Mid-1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459
(1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Human-Made Object to Impact on the Moon,
Home Owner’s Insurance Policies Are Offered, Luna 2 Becomes the First (Sept. 14, 1959) . . . . 1944
First (Sept., 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024 Human Nature, Golding’s Lord of the Flies
Home-Sales Strategy for Tupperware, Tupper Spurs Examination of (1954) . . . . . . . . . . . 1349
Adopts (Apr., 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096 Human Orbits the Earth, First (Apr. 12, 1961) . . . 2172
Homeland for Jews, Israel Is Created as a Human “Races” by Blood Groups, Boyd Defines
(May 14, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 (1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Hominid, Leakeys Find a 1.75-Million-Year-Old Human Right, World Health Organization
Fossil (July 17, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1926 Proclaims Health a Basic (July 22, 1946) . . . . . 557
Homosexuality, National Institute of Human Rights, United Nations Adopts the
Mental Health Report “Normalizes” Universal Declaration of (Dec. 10, 1948) . . . . . 851
(Oct. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3313 Human Rights Committee Is Founded, Moscow
Honeymooners Defines Situation Comedy, The (Nov. 11, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3475
(Oct. 1, 1955-Sept., 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1555 Human Rights Goals, Proclamation of Tehran
Hoop Is Marketed, Hula (Summer, 1958) . . . . . . 1839 Sets (May 13, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3095
Hope in The Human Comedy, Saroyan Offers a Human Rights Is Created, Inter-American
Compelling Story of (1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Commission on (Aug. 12-18, 1959) . . . . . . . 1932
Hopper Invents the Computer Language COBOL Human Rights Is Established, Inter-American
(Dec. 17, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968 Court of (Nov. 22, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3341
Hormone, Du Vigneaud Synthesizes the First Human Rights Is Signed, European Convention
Peptide (Oct. 5, 1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330 on (Nov. 4, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
Hormone, Li Isolates Human Growth Human Trafficking Is Adopted, United Nations
(Mid-1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459 Convention Suppressing (Dec. 2, 1949) . . . . . . 954
Horsfall Detects the Link Between Cancer Humane Society of the United States Is
and Altered DNA (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130 Established (Nov. 22, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . 1452
liv
Humans Are Naturally Territorial, Ardrey Independence, Uganda Gains (Oct. 9, 1962). . . . . 2321
Argues That (1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2764 Independence from France, Algeria Gains
Humans Land on the Moon, First (July 5, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2290
(July 20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3272 Independence from France, Cambodia Gains
Hundred Flowers Campaign Begins, Mao’s (Nov. 9, 1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337
(Spring, 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1701 Independence from France, Guinea Gains
Hungarian Uprising, Soviets Crush (Oct. 2, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
(Oct. 23-Nov. 10, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661 Independence from New Zealand, Western
Hungary’s Communist Government Arrests Samoa Gains (Jan. 1, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2262
Cardinal Mindszenty (Dec. 26, 1948) . . . . . . . 855 Independence from the United Kingdom, Ghana
Hunger, Borlaug Receives the Nobel Prize Gains (Mar. 6, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1698
for His Work on World (Dec. 10, 1970) . . . . . 3496 Independence from the United Kingdom, India
Huntington Examines Processes of Change Gains (Aug. 15, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
in Developing Countries (1968) . . . . . . . . . 3030 Independence Leader Banda Is Arrested by
Hurricane Camille Devastates the U.S. Gulf British Colonials, Nyasaland (Mar. 3, 1959) . . . 1902
Coast (Aug. 17-18, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3292 Independent Dominion, Ceylon Becomes an
Hurricane Flora Devastates Haiti and Cuba (Feb. 4, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
(Oct. 4-8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2423 India and Pakistan Clash over Kashmir
Hutus Overthrow Tutsi Monarchy, Rwandan (Oct. 27, 1947-Dec. 31, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . 682
(Nov., 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957 India Gains Independence from the United Kingdom
Hyderabad State, India Invades (Aug. 15, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
(Sept. 12, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 India Invades Hyderabad State
Hydrogen Bomb, Teller and Ulam Develop the (Sept. 12, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
First (1951-1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067 India-Pakistan Conflict Prompts U.N. Peacekeeping
Response (Sept. 20, 1965-Mar. 22, 1966) . . . . 2701
“I Have a Dream” Speech, King Delivers His Indian Civil Rights Act Is Passed
(Aug. 28, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2415 (Apr. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3079
I Love Lucy Dominates Television Comedy Indian Government Bans Discrimination Against
(Oct. 15, 1951-Sept. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . 1135 Untouchables (Nov. 26, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . 950
I Spy Debuts to Controversy Indian Opportunity, Congress Ratifies the National
(Sept. 15, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2698 Council on (Aug., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3433
IBM Develops the FORTRAN Computer Indian Parliament Approves Women’s Rights
Language (Apr., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709 Legislation (1955-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
Ibo Culture, Things Fall Apart Depicts the Indians Occupy Alcatraz Island, American
Destruction of (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811 (Nov. 20, 1969-June 11, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3334
Illnesses Assisted by Federal Act, People with Indians to Settle in Cities, U.S. Government
Mental Disabilities and (Oct. 31, 1963) . . . . . 2426 Encourages American (1950) . . . . . . . . . . . 989
Immigration Law, Hart-Celler Act Reforms U.S. India’s First Female Prime Minister, Gandhi
(Oct. 3, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715 Serves as (Jan. 24, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2782
In C, Riley Completes (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2477 Indochina, Nationalist Vietnamese Fight French
Incapacity of the President, Constitution Provides Control of (Nov., 1946-July, 1954) . . . . . . . . 576
for the (Feb. 23, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2902 Indonesia Regains Its Independence
Independence, Africa’s Year of (1960) . . . . . . . 2005 (Aug. 17, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
Independence, Austria Regains Its Indonesia’s Government Retaliates Against
(May 15, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1516 a Failed Communist Coup (Sept. 30, 1965) . . . 2709
Independence, Cyprus Gains (Aug. 16, 1960) . . . . 2093 Industrial Complex, Eisenhower Warns of the
Independence, Eritrea Begins Its War for Military- (Jan. 17, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145
(Sept. 1, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2209 Industrial Design Reform, Design for the Real
Independence, Indonesia Regains Its World Calls for (1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3362
(Aug. 17, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Industry, Diners Club Begins a New (1949) . . . . . 867
Independence, Philippines Regains Its Industry, Iran Nationalizes Its Oil
(July 4, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 (Mar., 1951-Aug., 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
lv
Inflation and Labor Unrest Investment, Johnson Restricts Direct Foreign

(Apr. 8, 1943-June 23, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . 251 (Jan. 1, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3040
Institution, The Tonight Show Becomes an Invisible Man Is Published, Ellison’s (1952) . . . . 1162
American (Sept. 27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1442 Ionesco’s Rhinoceros Receives a Resounding
Instruction in Puerto Rico, Spanish Becomes Worldwide Reception (Oct. 31, 1959) . . . . . . 1954
the Language of (Aug. 6, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . 933 Iran, Tehran Conference Promotes Allied
Insulin, Sanger Determines the Structure of Cooperation in (Nov. 28-Dec. 1, 1943) . . . . . . 318
(1944-1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Iran Nationalizes Its Oil Industry
Insurance Policies Are Offered, First Home Owner’s (Mar., 1951-Aug., 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
(Sept., 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024 Iraq, Kurds Suffer Genocide in (1960’s). . . . . . . 1980
Intellectuals Begin to Rebel Against Party Policy, Iraqi War, Anglo- (May 2-June 13, 1941) . . . . . . . 74
Soviet (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2882 Iraq’s Monarchy Is Toppled (July 14, 1958). . . . . 1847
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Is Iron Curtain Speech, Churchill Delivers His
Created (Aug. 12-18, 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . 1932 (Mar. 5, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Inter-American Court of Human Rights Is Isaacs and Lindenmann Discover Interferons
Established (Nov. 22, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3341 (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1676
Interest Equalization Tax Act, Johnson Signs Islamic Conference Is Established, Organization
the (Sept. 2, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2585 of the (Sept. 25, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3303
Interferometer, Ryle Constructs the First Radio Israel, Fatah Launches Its First Terrorist Strike
(1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474 on (Dec. 31, 1964-Jan. 7, 1965) . . . . . . . . . 2625
Interferometry, Development of Very Long Israel, Germany Agrees to Pay Reparations to
Baseline (1967-1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2890 (Sept. 10, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
Interferons, Isaacs and Lindenmann Discover Israel, Meir Becomes Prime Minister of
(1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1676 (Mar. 17, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3237
International Atomic Energy Agency Begins Israel Attacks the USS Liberty
Operations (July 29, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1722 (June 8, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2951
International Attention, Civil Rights Protesters Israel Brings Water to the Negev (1964). . . . . . . 2463
Attract (Apr. 3-May 8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2387 Israel Defeats Arab States in the Six-Day War
International Biological Program, United States (June 5-10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2947
Joins the (July 1, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2960 Israel Enacts the Law of Return (July 5, 1950) . . . 1015
International Court of Justice, Establishment of Israel Is Created as a Homeland for Jews
the (Feb. 5, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 (May 14, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
International Development Is Established, Agency Israeli War Creates Refugee Crisis, Arab-
for (Nov. 3, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2233 (Nov. 29, 1947-July, 1949). . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
International Labor Organization Wins the Nobel Italian New Wave Gains Worldwide Acclaim
Peace Prize (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3350 (1942-1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
International League for the Rights of Man Is Italy, Western Allies Invade (Sept. 3-18, 1943). . . . 294
Founded (1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Italy Declare War on the United States, Germany
International Whaling Commission Is Formed and (Dec. 11, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
(Dec. 2, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Italy Opens, Mont Blanc Tunnel Between France
Interpretation of the Christian Scriptures, Bultmann and (July 16, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2669
Offers a Controversial (1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 It’s a Wonderful Life, Capra Releases
Invasion, Bay of Pigs (Apr. 17-19, 1961) . . . . . . 2175 (Dec. 20, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Invasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of IUD Developed for Birth Control, Plastic
Europe (June 6, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2471
Invasion of North Africa (Nov. 8, 1942) . . . . . . . 210 Iwo Jima, American Flag Is Raised at
Invention of Phosphate-Free Detergent, Pollution (Feb. 23, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Fears Prompt (Oct., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3449
Invention of the Laser (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . 2068 Jackson Begins Her Recording Career, Mahalia
Invention of the Transistor (Dec. 23, 1947) . . . . . . 694 (Oct. 3, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Invents the Computer Language COBOL, Hopper Jackson Hole National Monument, Roosevelt
(Dec. 17, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968 Creates (Mar. 15, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
lvi
Jacqueline Kennedy Leads a Televised Tour of Jews in Christ’s Death, Paul VI Renounces
the White House (Feb. 14 and 18, 1962) . . . . . 2273 the “Collective Guilt” of (Oct. 28, 1965) . . . . . 2725
James Bond Series, Dr. No Launches the Hugely Jodrell Bank Radio Telescope Is Completed
Popular (Oct. 5, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2318 (Aug. 2, 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
Japan, Canada Declares War on (Dec. 7, 1941) . . . . 115 Joffrey Founds His Ballet Company
Japan, Superfortress Bombing of (Oct., 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1648
(June 15, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 John XXIII Issues Mater et Magistra
Japan Advances, Nationalist Chinese Forces Battle and Pacem in Terris, Pope
Communists as (Jan., 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 (May 15, 1961, and Apr. 11, 1963) . . . . . . . . 2183
Japan Becomes a Constitutional Democracy Johns Paints the American Flag, Jasper
(May 3, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 (1954-1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1352
Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast Asia Johnson Announces War on Poverty
(Dec. 7, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 (Jan. 8, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2500
Japan Invades the Philippines Johnson Begins the America Beautiful Program,
(Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Lady Bird (1964-1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2480
Japan Is Signed in San Francisco, Treaty of Peace Johnson Establishes North Cascades National
with (Sept. 8, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118 Park (Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3147
Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks (Oct. 20, 1944) . . . 393 Johnson Is Elected President (Nov. 3, 1964). . . . . 2611
Japanese Americans, United States Interns Johnson Restricts Direct Foreign Investment
(Feb. 19, 1942-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 (Jan. 1, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3040
Japanese Constitution Grants New Rights to Johnson Signs the Interest Equalization Tax
Women (May 3, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Act (Sept. 2, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2585
Japanese General Yamashita Is Convicted of Johnson Signs the Medicare and Medicaid
War Crimes (Oct. 29, 1945-Feb. 23, 1946) . . . . 495 Amendments (July 30, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2679
Japanese Resistance, Okinawa Campaign Meets Johnson Tax Cuts Stimulate the U.S. Economy,
Stiff (Apr. 1-July 2, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Kennedy- (Feb. 26, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . 2517
Jasper Johns Paints the American Flag Jordan Annexes the West Bank (Apr. 24, 1950). . . 1003
(1954-1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1352 Jouhaux Is Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective (Dec. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
Responsibility for War Crimes (1946) . . . . . . . 507 Journey of Reconciliation, Congress of Racial
Java Sea, Battle of the (Feb. 27-Mar. 1, 1942) . . . . 154 Equality Holds Its (Apr. 9-23, 1947). . . . . . . . 633
Jazz, Davis Develops 1950’s Cool Judeo-Christian Roots of Environmental Problems,
(Jan. 21, 1949-Mar. 9, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . 894 White Explores the (Mar. 10, 1967) . . . . . . . 2905
Jazz Elements in West Side Story, Bernstein Joins Julius Nyerere Emerges as Leader in Tanganyika
Symphonic and (Sept. 26, 1957) . . . . . . . . . 1758 (July 7, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417
Jazz Festival Is Held, First Newport Jumbo Jet Is Delivered to Airlines, First
(July 17-18, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423 (Dec. 13, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3355
Jazz-Rock Fusion, Davis Introduces Jupiter, Franklin and Burke Discover Radio
(Aug., 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3282 Emissions from (Early 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
Jensen Finds PCBs in Animal Tissues Justice, Establishment of the International Court
(Dec., 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2859 of (Feb. 5, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Jet Is Delivered to Airlines, First Jumbo Justice, Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird Calls for
(Dec. 13, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3355 Social (July 11, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2081
Jet Plane, Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First
(May 15, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Kahn Blends Architecture and Urban Planning
Jews, Israel Is Created as a Homeland for in Dacca (Beginning 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2252
(May 14, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 Kamikaze Attacks, Japan Orders
Jews, Soviets Escalate Persecution of (1948) . . . . . 724 (Oct. 20, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Jews Demand Cultural and Religious Rights, Karol Wojtyua Is Named Poland’s Youngest
Soviet (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002 Bishop (July 4, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844
Jews from Germans, Citizens Rescue Danish Kashmir, India and Pakistan Clash over
(Sept. 30-Oct. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 (Oct. 27, 1947-Dec. 31, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . 682
lvii
Kaspar Dramatizes Language Theory, King, Jr., Assassination of Martin Luther

Handke’s (May 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3092 (Apr. 4, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3072
Katanga Province Secedes from Congo King Wins the Nobel Peace Prize
and Riots Ensue (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . 2071 (Dec. 10, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2619
Kaunda Becomes Zambia’s First President Kirstein’s Ballet Society, First Performance
(Oct. 24, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2609 by Balanchine and (Nov. 20, 1946) . . . . . . . . 589
Kawabata Wins the Nobel Prize in Literature Kiss Me, Kate, Porter Creates an Integrated
(Dec. 12, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3184 Score for (Dec. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and Kline Discover the First Tranquilizer for
Screen (Oct. 15, 1942-1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Psychosis, Wilkins and (Apr. 30, 1954) . . . . . 1383
Keep America Beautiful Is Founded (1953) . . . . . 1255 Kon-Tiki Expedition, Heyerdahl’s
Kefauver Act Amends Antitrust Legislation, (Apr. 28-Aug. 7, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Celler- (Dec. 29, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053 Korea Seizes the USS Pueblo, North
Kefauver-Harris Amendment, Thalidomide Tragedy (Jan. 23, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3050
Prompts Passage of the (Oct. 10, 1962) . . . . . 2323 Korean Relief Agency Is Formed, United
Kelly Forges New Directions in Cinematic Dance Nations (Dec. 1, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
(1944-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Korean War (June 25, 1950-July 27, 1953) . . . . . 1008
Kemeny and Kurtz Develop the BASIC Computer Kornberg and Colleagues Synthesize Biologically
Language (May 1, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2543 Active DNA (Aug.-Sept., 1967) . . . . . . . . . 2973
Kendall, and Taylor Discover Quarks, Friedman Kubrick Becomes a Film-Industry Leader
(1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3024 (Jan. 30, 1964-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2510
Kennedy Airport’s TWA Terminal, Saarinen Kuhn Explores Paradigm Shifts in Scientific
Designs (1956-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600 Thought (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2255
Kennedy Expands U.S. Involvement in Vietnam Kuiper Discovers That Titan Has an Atmosphere
(Nov. 14, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2236 (Jan. 29, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Kennedy Is Assassinated, President Kukla, Fran, and Ollie Pioneers Children’s
(Nov. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2436 Television Programming (Nov. 29, 1948-
Kennedy Is Assassinated, Robert F. Aug. 31, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
(June 5, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3102 Kula Gulf, Battle of (July 6, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . 276
Kennedy Is Elected President Kurds Suffer Genocide in Iraq (1960’s) . . . . . . . 1980
(Nov. 8, 1960). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113 Kurosawa’s Rashomon Wins the Grand Prize
Kennedy-Johnson Tax Cuts Stimulate the U.S. at Venice (Sept. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
Economy (Feb. 26, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2517 Kursk Devastates German Forces, Tank Battle
Kennedy Leads a Televised Tour of the White at (July 4-12, 1943). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
House, Jacqueline (Feb. 14 and 18, 1962) . . . . 2273 Kurtz Develop the BASIC Computer Language,
Kent State Massacre (May 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3419 Kemeny and (May 1, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . 2543
Kenya, Mau Mau Uprising Creates Havoc in
(Oct. 20, 1952-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223 La Strada Solidifies Fellini’s Renown as a Brilliant
Kerner Commission Explores the Causes of Director (Sept. 6, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1435
Civil Disorders (Feb., 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . 3056 La Violencia Begins in Colombia
Khama Leads a Stable Botswana (Apr. 9, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
(Sept. 30, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2836 Labeling Act Is Signed, Hazardous Substances
Khartoum, Nimeiri Takes Charge in (July 12, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2084
(May 25, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3248 Labels, Federal Law Requires Cigarette Warning
Khrushchev Denounces Stalinist Regime (Jan. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2775
(Feb. 25, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1607 Labor Camp in One Day in the Life of Ivan
Khrushchev Falls from Power Denisovich, Solzhenitsyn Depicts Life in
(Oct. 13-14, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2603 a Soviet (Nov., 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2333
King Delivers His “I Have a Dream” Speech Labor Force, 6.6 Million Women Enter the U.S.
(Aug. 28, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2415 (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
King Farouk of Egypt Is Overthrown Labor Organization Wins the Nobel Peace Prize,
(July 23, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199 International (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3350
lviii
Labor Unrest, Inflation and Lawrence of Arabia Wins Best Picture

(Apr. 8, 1943-June 23, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . 251 (Apr. 8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2391
Laborers with Automated Tools, Firms Begin Laws, Congress Strengthens Water
Replacing Skilled (Late 1950’s) . . . . . . . . . 1671 (Oct. 2, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2712
Labour Party Forms Britain’s Majority Laws Allow Accelerated Depreciation, U.S. Tax
Government (July 26, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 (Aug. 16, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
Lady Bird Johnson Begins the America Beautiful Le Mans Auto-Racing Accident Kills More than
Program (1964-1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2480 Eighty (June 11, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1518
Lake and Riverine Ecology, Acid Rain Changes League for the Rights of Man Is Founded,
(1950’s-mid-1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 International (1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Lake Baikal a Protected Zone, Soviet Union Declares Leakeys Find a 1.75-Million-Year-Old Fossil
(Jan., 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3211 Hominid (July 17, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1926
Lake Erie Pollution, Five States Take Steps to Halt Lebanon, Middle East Turmoil Leads to U.N.
(Aug. 12, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2691 Action in (June 11-Dec., 1958) . . . . . . . . . . 1837
Lakes St. Clair and Erie, Canada Bans Commercial Le Carré Rejects the Fantasy World of Secret
Fishing in (Mar. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3397 Agents (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2345
Lamb and Retherford Discover the Lamb Shift Le Corbusier Designs and Builds Chandigarh
(1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 (1951-1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074
Land Demonstrates the Polaroid Camera Lederer Explore the Image of the “Ugly
(Feb. 21, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 American,” Burdick and (1958) . . . . . . . . . 1793
Land Management, Truman Creates the Bureau of Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird Calls for Social
(July 16, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Justice (July 11, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2081
Landing, Apollo 12 Mission Marks Second Moon Legal Slavery Ends in Ethiopia
(Nov. 19-20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3331 (Aug. 27, 1942). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Landmark Deal with Disney, ABC Makes a Legend in Rebel Without a Cause, Dean Becomes
(Apr., 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373 a (Oct. 29, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562
Landmark on Network Television, The Red Legislation on Codetermination, Bundestag Passes
Skelton Show Becomes a (Sept. 30, 1951- (Apr. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Aug. 29, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132 Lend-Lease Act, Roosevelt Signs the
Landrum-Griffin Act Targets Union Corruption (Mar. 11, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
(Sept. 14, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940 Leone Renovates the Western Film Genre
Language of Instruction in Puerto Rico, Spanish (1964-1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2484
Becomes the (Aug. 6, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . 933 Leopold Publishes A Sand County Almanac
Language Theory, Handke’s Kaspar Dramatizes (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
(May 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3092 Lesbian and Gay Rights Movement,
Larsen Pitches a Perfect Game in Baseball’s Stonewall Rebellion Ignites Modern
World Series (Oct. 8, 1956). . . . . . . . . . . . 1655 (June 27-July 2, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3260
Laser, Invention of the (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . 2068 Lettuce Boycott, Chávez Is Jailed for Organizing
Lasers Are First Used in Eye Surgery a National (Dec. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3491
(Aug., 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2409 Lévi-Strauss Identifies Common Structures in
Latin America, Nixon Faces Riots on Tour of World Myths (1964-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2492
(Apr. 27-May 15, 1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832 Levittown Is Announced, Construction of
Latin American Fiction “Boom” (1955-1970) . . . . 1486 (May 7, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Launched, Pioneer Space Program Is Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil in The Screwtape
(Oct. 11, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861 Letters (Feb., 1942). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Laura Ashley Fashion Company Is Founded Leyland Motor Corporation Is Formed, British
(Mar. 19, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1368 (Jan. 15, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3047
Lauren Creates the Polo Clothing Line Leyte Gulf, Battle for (Oct. 23-26, 1944) . . . . . . . 396
(Oct. 18, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3158 Li Isolates Human Growth Hormone
Law of Return, Israel Enacts the (July 5, 1950) . . . 1015 (Mid-1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459
Law Requires Cigarette Warning Labels, Federal Liabilities and Penalties, Congress Mandates
(Jan. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2775 Oil-Spill (Apr. 3, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3404
lix
Liability, Price-Anderson Act Limits Nuclear Luminosity Scale, Baade Corrects an Error in the
(Aug., 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725 Cepheid (Aug., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208
Libby Introduces the Carbon-14 Method of Dating Luna 2 Becomes the First Human-Made Object to
Ancient Objects (Mar. 4, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . 906 Impact on the Moon (Sept. 14, 1959). . . . . . . 1944
Liberation of Europe, Invasion of Normandy Luna 3 Provides the First Views of the Far Side
Begins the (June 6, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 of the Moon (Oct. 7, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947
Liberty, Israel Attacks the USS (June 8, 1967) . . . 2951 Luna 9 Makes the First Successful Lunar Soft
Libya, Military Takes Charge in Landing (Jan. 31-Feb. 6, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . 2785
(Sept. 1, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3294 Lunar Orbiter 1 Sends Photographs of the Moon’s
Limited Test Ban Treaty, Nuclear Powers Sign the Surface (Aug. 10, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2823
(Aug. 5, 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2412 Lunokhod 1 Lands on the Moon, Soviet Rover
Lindeman’s “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of (Nov. 10, 1970-Oct. 1, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . . 3471
Ecology” Is Published (Oct., 1942) . . . . . . . . 192 Lutuli Wins the Nobel Peace Prize
Lindenmann Discover Interferons, Isaacs and (Dec. 10, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2242
(1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1676
Lion in Winter Premieres, Goldman’s The MacArthur Confrontation, Truman-
(Mar. 2, 1966). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2796 (Mar. 24-Apr. 11, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088
Lipmann Discovers Coenzyme A (1951) . . . . . . 1060 McCarran-Walter Act (June 27, 1952) . . . . . . . . 1193
Liquid Bubble Chamber Is Developed McCarthy Hearings
(1953-1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1267 (Jan. 15, 1953-Dec. 2, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
Liston to Gain World Heavyweight Boxing Title, McCarty Determine That DNA Carries Hereditary
Clay Defeats (Feb. 25, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . 2514 Information, Avery, MacLeod, and (1944) . . . . 327
Literary Career with The Moviegoer, Percy Begins McDonald’s Fast Food Is Incorporated and
His (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133 Franchised (Mar. 2, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493
Literature, Kawabata Wins the Nobel Prize in McDonnell and Douglas Aircraft Companies Merge
(Dec. 12, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3184 (Apr. 28, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2919
Literature, Mauriac Accepts the Nobel Prize in MacLeod, and McCarty Determine That DNA Carries
(Dec. 10, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247 Hereditary Information, Avery, (1944) . . . . . . 327
Litigation, Confirmation of Asbestos Hazards McLuhan Probes the Impact of Mass Media on
Sparks Widespread (Apr. 6, 1964) . . . . . . . . 2530 Society (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2467
Little Rock, Arkansas, Eisenhower Sends Troops McMillan Make Plutonium, Seaborg and
to (Sept. 25, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753 (Feb. 23, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Local Supercluster of Galaxies, De Vaucouleurs Madness and Civilization Is Published, Foucault’s
Identifies the (Early 1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2127
London, Race Riots Erupt in Magazine, Buckley Founds National Review
(July-Sept., 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842 (Nov., 1955). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
Londoners, Smog Kills Thousands of Magazine Initiates the Case Study Program, Arts and
(Dec. 4-8, 1952). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243 Architecture (Jan., 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Long Day’s Journey into Night Revives O’Neill’s Magnetic Reversals of Earth’s Poles, Doell and
Reputation (Nov. 7, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665 Dalrymple Discover the (Nov. 4, 1965) . . . . . 2735
Long Loneliness, Day Publishes Her Autobiography, Magnuson Act Repeals the Chinese Exclusion Act
The (Jan. 19, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176 (Dec. 17, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Look Back in Anger Opens in London, Osborne’s Mahalia Jackson Begins Her Recording Career
(May 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626 (Oct. 3, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Lord of the Flies Spurs Examination of Human Mailer Publishes The Naked and the Dead
Nature, Golding’s (1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349 (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
Lord of the Rings, Tolkien Publishes The Mainstream Values, Beat Generation Rejects
(June, 1954-Oct., 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1402 (1950’s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
Los Angeles, Brooklyn Dodgers Move to Major-League Baseball, Robinson Breaks the Color
(Fall, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747 Line in (Apr. 15, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Los Angeles, Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify Ethnic Malcolm X, Assassination of (Feb. 21, 1965) . . . . 2637
Tensions in (June 3-9, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
lx
Malcolm X Is Published, The Autobiography of M*A*S*H Satirizes Warfare (Jan. 25, 1970) . . . . 3379
(Nov., 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2727 Mass Consumption, Galbraith Critiques the
Maltese Falcon Establishes a New Style for Crime Creation of a Society of (1958) . . . . . . . . . . 1802
Films, The (Oct. 3, 1941). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Mass Media on Society, McLuhan Probes the
Man for All Seasons Premieres, A Impact of (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2467
(July 1, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2078 Massacre, Calley Is Court-Martialed for My Lai
Management, Truman Creates the Bureau of Land (Nov. 17, 1970-Mar. 29, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3483
(July 16, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Massacre, Kent State (May 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3419
Managerial Roles, Drucker Examines (1954) . . . . 1346 Massacre Focuses Global Awareness on Apartheid,
Mandelbrot Develops Non-Euclidean Fractal Sharpeville (Mar. 21, 1960). . . . . . . . . . . . 2034
Measures (1966-1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2768 Massacre Stuns Mexico, Tlatelolco
Mao Pen a Defense Pact, Stalin and (Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3150
(Feb. 14, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995 Massey Becomes Canada’s First Native-Born
Mao Zedong Proclaims a Communist People’s Governor-General (Feb. 28, 1952) . . . . . . . . 1184
Republic in China (Oct. 1, 1949). . . . . . . . . . 946 Mater et Magistra and Pacem in Terris, Pope
Mao’s Great Leap Forward Brings Chaos to China John XXIII Issues (May 15, 1961, and
(Beginning 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804 Apr. 11, 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2183
Mao’s Hundred Flowers Campaign Begins Mathias Is Dubbed the “World’s Greatest Athlete”
(Spring, 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1701 (Aug. 6, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
Maps of the Galaxy, Reber Publishes the First Radio Mattingly Documents the Spanish Armada
(Nov., 1944-Oct., 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 (1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885
Maquiladoras, U.S. and Mexican Companies Form Mau Mau Uprising Creates Havoc in Kenya
(1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2634 (Oct. 20, 1952-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
Marat/Sade Is Produced, Weiss’s Absurdist Drama Mauchly Develop the ENIAC, Eckert and
(Apr. 29, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2539 (Apr., 1943-1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
March, Selma-Montgomery (Mar. 21-25, 1965). . . 2647 Mauriac Accepts the Nobel Prize in Literature
Marciano Wins His First Heavyweight Boxing (Dec. 10, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
Championship (Sept. 23, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . 1220 “Maybellene” Popularizes Rock and Roll, Berry’s
Marcuse Publishes Foundational New Left Works (Spring, 1955). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500
(1964-1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2495 Measles Vaccine Is Developed, German (1969) . . . 3195
Marguerite and Armand, Nureyev and Fonteyn Media, Cigarette Ads Are Banned from Broadcast
Debut Ashton’s (Mar. 12, 1963) . . . . . . . . . 2380 (Apr. 1, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3400
Marilyn Monroe Climbs to Stardom Media on Society, McLuhan Probes the Impact of
(1953-1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263 Mass (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2467
Mariner Missions Conduct Mars Flybys Medical Diagnosis and Treatment, X Rays from a
(July 14, 1965-Aug. 5, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 2665 Synchrotron Are First Used in (1949) . . . . . . . 880
Mariner 2 Becomes the First Spacecraft to Study Medicare and Medicaid Amendments, Johnson
Venus (Aug. 27, 1962-Jan. 2, 1963) . . . . . . . 2301 Signs the (July 30, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2679
Market Is Established, European Common Meir Becomes Prime Minister of Israel
(Mar. 25, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1705 (Mar. 17, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3237
Mars Flybys, Mariner Missions Conduct Melbourne Summer Olympics, Cold War Politics
(July 14, 1965-Aug. 5, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 2665 Mar the (Nov. 22-Dec. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . 1668
Marshall Becomes the First African American Meltdown, Chalk River Nuclear Reactor Explosion
Supreme Court Justice (Oct. 2, 1967) . . . . . . 2988 and (Dec. 12, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe Meltdown Occurs in the First Breeder Reactor
(Apr. 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758 (Nov. 29, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569
Marteau sans maître Premieres, Boulez’s Le Member States, United Nations Admits Its First
(June 18, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1520 New (Nov. 9-Dec. 15, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Martin Luther King, Jr., Assassination of Memorial Is Completed, Mount Rushmore National
(Apr. 4, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3072 (Oct. 31, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Mary Tyler Moore Show Examines Women’s Memory in Computers, First Use of Bubble
Roles, The (Sept. 19, 1970-Sept. 3, 1977) . . . . 3443 (Aug. 8, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3285
lxi
Mental Disabilities and Illnesses Assisted by Military Dictatorship, Greek Coup Leads to
Federal Act, People with (Oct. 31, 1963) . . . . . 2426 (Apr. 21, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2915
Mental Health Report “Normalizes” Homosexuality, Military Government, Upper Volta Coup Leads
National Institute of (Oct. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . 3313 to (Jan. 3, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2780
Mercury Poisoning Begins to Claim Victims, Military-Industrial Complex, Eisenhower Warns
Minamata Bay (Apr., 1956). . . . . . . . . . . . 1613 of the (Jan. 17, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2145
Meredith Registers at the University of Mississippi Military Takes Charge in Libya
(Oct. 1, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314 (Sept. 1, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3294
Merger, Supreme Court Rules Against a Procter & Miller Reports the Synthesis of Amino Acids
Gamble (Apr. 11, 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2912 (May 15, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1301
Merger Creates a Sports-Industry Giant, NFL-AFL Mills Analyzes Political Power in the United States
(June 8, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2817 (1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587
Merton Publishes His Spiritual Autobiography, The Minamata Bay Mercury Poisoning Begins to Claim
Seven Storey Mountain (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . 709 Victims (Apr., 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1613
Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time Is Performed Mind Control, Nineteen Eighty-Four Portrays
(Jan. 15, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Totalitarianism and (June, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . 920
Meteorologists Make the First Computerized Weather Mindszenty, Hungary’s Communist Government
Prediction (Apr., 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999 Arrests Cardinal (Dec. 26, 1948). . . . . . . . . . 855
Method Acting to the Screen, A Streetcar Named Mine Health and Safety Act Is Approved, Federal
Desire Brings (Sept. 20, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . 1128 Coal (Dec. 30, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3358
Methodist Church Is Formed, United Minimalism Emphasizes Objects as Art
(Apr. 23, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3082 (Feb., 1963-1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2370
Methodist Churches Approve Ordination of Women, Mining and Minerals Act, Congress Approves the
Presbyterian and (May, 1955-May, 1956) . . . . 1509 (Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3518
Mexican Companies Form Maquiladoras, U.S. and Mining Debris Buries Welsh Village
(1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2634 (Oct. 21, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2846
Mexican Workers, U.S. Government Program Miniseries, The Forsyte Saga Anticipates the
Begins Deporting (June 10, 1954) . . . . . . . . 1406 Television (Oct. 5, 1969-Mar. 29, 1970) . . . . . 3309
Mexico, Tlatelolco Massacre Stuns Miniskirt, Quant Introduces the
(Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3150 (Early 1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971
Michelangelo, Stone Documents the Life of Ministry, Roberts Starts the Healing Waters
(1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2140 (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
Michener’s Best Seller The Source Explores Missile Crisis, Cuban (Oct. 22-28, 1962) . . . . . . 2329
Jewish History (June, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2657 Mission 66 Plan Is Implemented
Microfossils, Barghoorn and Tyler Discover (Jan. 27, 1956-1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1603
2-Billion-Year-Old (Apr. 30, 1954). . . . . . . . 1380 Mission to Moscow, Davies Reflects on His Post
Microscope, Müller Develops the Field Ion to Moscow in (Oct., 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
(1952-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173 Missionaries of Charity, Mother Teresa Founds the
Middle East Turmoil Leads to U.N. Action in (Oct. 7, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
Lebanon (June 11-Dec., 1958) . . . . . . . . . . 1837 Mississippi, Meredith Registers at the University of
Midoceanic Ridge, Heezen and Ewing Discover (Oct. 1, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314
the (1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1584 Mitchell and Shook Found the Dance Theatre of
Midway, Battle of (June 3-5, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . 168 Harlem (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3032
Military Coup, Somali Democracy Ends in a Mobutu in Control of Congo, Military Coup Places
(Oct. 21, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3325 (Nov. 25, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2748
Military Coup, Thai (Sept. 17, 1957) . . . . . . . . 1744 Modern Anxiety in The Courage to Be, Tillich
Military Coup Begins Thirty-Five Years of Examines (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167
Dictatorship in Paraguay (May, 1954) . . . . . . 1389 Modification, First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather
Military Coup Brings Dictatorship to Central (Nov. 13, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
African Republic (Jan. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . . . 2778 Monarchy Is Toppled, Iraq’s (July 14, 1958) . . . . 1847
Military Coup Places Mobutu in Control of Monetary Union Project, Birth of the European
Congo (Nov. 25, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2748 (Dec., 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3344
lxii
Monnet Plan, France Launches the Mount Everest, Hillary and Tenzing Reach the
(Mar. 17, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Top of (May 29, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
Monroe Climbs to Stardom, Marilyn Mount Rushmore National Memorial Is Completed
(1953-1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263 (Oct. 31, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Mont Blanc Tunnel Between France and Italy Opens Mousetrap Begins a Record-Breaking Run, The
(July 16, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2669 (Nov. 25, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
Monterey Pop Festival Inaugurates the “Summer of Movement Meets, Nonaligned
Love” (June 16-18, 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . 2953 (Sept. 1-5, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2211
Montgomery Bus Boycott Moviegoer, Percy Begins His Literary Career
(Dec. 5, 1955-Dec. 21, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . 1576 with The (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133
Montgomery March, Selma- “Mr. Television” Hosts the Texaco Star Theater
(Mar. 21-25, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2647 (June 8, 1948-Spring, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
Monty Python’s Flying Circus Prompts a Cult Müller Develops the Field Ion Microscope
Following (Oct. 5, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3306 (1952-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
Monument, Roosevelt Creates Jackson Hole Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act, Congress
National (Mar. 15, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Passes the (June 12, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2057
Moon, First Humans Land on the Multistage Rocket, HERMES Builds the First
(July 20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3272 (Feb. 24, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Moon, Luna 2 Becomes the First Human-Made Mumford Warns of the Dangers of Growing Cities
Object to Impact on the (Sept. 14, 1959) . . . . . 1944 (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1985
Moon, Luna 3 Provides the First Views of the Museum, Breuer Designs a Building for the
Far Side of the (Oct. 7, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . 1947 Whitney (Sept. 28, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2833
Moon, Soviet Rover Lunokhod 1 Lands on the Museum Opens, Wright-Designed Guggenheim
(Nov. 10, 1970-Oct. 1, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . . 3471 (Oct. 21, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950
Moon Founds the Unification Church Music, Beatles Revolutionize Popular
(May 1, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391 (Jan., 1963-1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2364
Moon Landing, Apollo 12 Mission Marks Second Music, Brown Introduces Funk
(Nov. 19-20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3331 (Mar. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2800
Moon Landings, Surveyor Program Prepares NASA Music, Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in
for Piloted (May 30, 1966-Feb. 21, 1968) . . . . 2814 (Feb. 10, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Moon’s Surface, Lunar Orbiter 1 Sends Photographs Music Festival Marks the Climax of 1960’s Youth
of the (Aug. 10, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2823 Culture, Woodstock (Aug. 15-18, 1969) . . . . . 3288
Morgenthau Advances Realist School of Power Music Man Presents Musical Americana, Willson’s
Politics (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 The (Dec. 19, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790
Morita Licenses Transistor Technology (1953) . . . 1258 Musical Hair Opens on Broadway, Radical
Moscow Human Rights Committee Is Founded (Apr. 29, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3085
(Nov. 11, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3475 Musical Premieres, Broadway’s First “Concept”
Moscow in Mission to Moscow, Davies Reflects on (Apr. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3413
His Post to (Oct., 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Mustang, Ford Introduces the (Apr. 17, 1964). . . . 2533
Mössbauer Effect Is Used to Detect Gravitational Mutual Security Program, United States Inaugurates
Redshifting (1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014 (Oct. 22, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
Mother Cabrini Becomes the First U.S. Citizen My Lai Massacre, Calley Is Court-Martialed for
Canonized as a Saint (July 7, 1946) . . . . . . . . 551 (Nov. 17, 1970-Mar. 29, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3483
Mother Earth News Appear, The Whole Earth Myths, Lévi-Strauss Identifies Common Structures
Catalog and (Nov., 1968, and Jan., 1970) . . . . 3161 in World (1964-1971). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2492
Mother Teresa Founds the Missionaries of Charity
(Oct. 7, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 Nader Launches the Consumer Rights Movement
Motor Corporation Is Formed, British Leyland (Nov. 29, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2750
(Jan. 15, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3047 Nagasaki, Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act, Congress (Aug. 6 and 9, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Passes the (Oct. 20, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2718 Naked and the Dead, Mailer Publishes The
Motown Records, Gordy Founds (Jan., 1959) . . . . 1894 (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
lxiii
Nam June Paik Exhibits Video and Television as Native Americans Lose Government Special Status
Art (Mar. 11-20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2376 (Aug. 1, 1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1313
NASA for Piloted Moon Landings, Surveyor Native-Born Governor-General, Massey Becomes
Program Prepares (May 30, 1966- Canada’s First (Feb. 28, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . 1184
Feb. 21, 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2814 NATO’s Military Structure, France Withdraws from
NASA Launches Project Gemini (Mar. 7, 1966). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2798
(Apr., 1959-Nov. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913 Natural Resources Defense Council Is Founded
Nation to Orbit a Satellite, Canada Becomes the (Feb., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3381
Third (Sept. 28, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2309 Naturalism to the Stage and Screen, Kazan Brings
National Aeronautics and Space Administration, (Oct. 15, 1942-1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Congress Creates the (July 29, 1958) . . . . . . . 1852 Nature, Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for the
National Basketball Association Is Formed Transformation of (1948-1953) . . . . . . . . . . 736
(Aug. 3, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931 Nature Conservancy Is Founded
National Council of Churches Is Formed (Oct. 22, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139
(Nov. 29, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044 Navy Conducts Sealab Expeditions
National Council of Churches Supports Birth (July 20, 1964-Oct., 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2572
Control (Feb. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2160 Nazi Collaborator Quisling, Norwegians Execute
National Council on Indian Opportunity, Congress (Oct. 24, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Ratifies the (Aug., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3433 Nazi Ideology in Berlin Diary, Shirer Examines
National Endowment for the Arts Is Established the Rise of (1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
(Sept. 29, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2706 Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 Is (Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 498
Signed (Jan. 1, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3372 Nazis, Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the
National Football League Holds Its First Super (Apr. 9, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Bowl (Jan. 15, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2896 Nazis, Stein Is Killed by the
National Health Plan, Canada Implements Its (Aug. 9, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
(Dec. 19, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2866 Nazis, Warsaw Ghetto Armed Uprising Against
National Health Service Act, United Kingdom (Apr. 19-May 16, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Passes the (Nov. 6, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Nazis Ban Nolde’s Paintings (Aug. 23, 1941) . . . . . 99
National Institute of Mental Health Report NBA Title, Russell Retires as the Celtics Take an
“Normalizes” Homosexuality Eleventh (May 5, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3245
(Oct. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3313 NBC Broadcasts the Baseball World Series
National Lettuce Boycott, Chávez Is Jailed for (Sept. 30-Oct. 6, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Organizing a (Dec. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . 3491 NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself of a Radio Network
National Memorial Is Completed, Mount Rushmore (May 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
(Oct. 31, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Negev, Israel Brings Water to the (1964) . . . . . . 2463
National Monument, Roosevelt Creates Jackson Negotiable Certificate of Deposit Is Introduced
Hole (Mar. 15, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 (Feb. 20, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2155
National Organization for Women Forms to Protect Network, NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself of a Radio
Women’s Rights (Oct. 29-30, 1966) . . . . . . . 2852 (May 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
National Park, Johnson Establishes North Cascades Network Television, The Red Skelton Show
(Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3147 Becomes a Landmark on (Sept. 30, 1951-
National Review Magazine, Buckley Founds Aug. 29, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132
(Nov., 1955). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565 Network Television Service, ABC Begins Its Own
National Security Act (July 26, 1947). . . . . . . . . 660 (Apr. 19, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
Nationalist Chinese Forces Battle Communists Neutrino Detector, Davis Constructs a Solar
as Japan Advances (Jan., 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . 34 (Early 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2869
Nationalist Vietnamese Fight French Control of Neutrons Have Structure, Hofstadter Discovers
Indochina (Nov., 1946-July, 1954). . . . . . . . . 576 That Protons and (1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
Nationalists Riot at Sétif, Algerian New Criticism Arises in American Universities
(May 8, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 (1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
lxiv
New Left Works, Marcuse Publishes Foundational Nixon Faces Riots on Tour of Latin America
(1964-1972) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2495 (Apr. 27-May 15, 1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832
New Members, United Nations Admits Sixteen Nixon Is Elected President (Nov. 5, 1968). . . . . . 3168
(Dec. 14, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1580 Nixon Signs the Occupational Safety and Health
New Mexico’s Blue Lake Region Is Returned to Act (Dec. 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3512
the Taos Pueblo (Dec. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3500 Nkrumah in Ghana, Overthrow of
New Name and Focus, Royal Shakespeare Company (Feb. 24, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2792
Adopts a (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2136 Nobel Peace Prize, Cassin Is Awarded the
New Novel, Rise of the (1951). . . . . . . . . . . . 1063 (Dec. 10, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3181
New Wave Gains Worldwide Acclaim, Italian Nobel Peace Prize, International Labor
(1942-1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Organization Wins the (Dec. 10, 1969). . . . . . 3350
New Wave Ushers in a New Era of Cinema, French Nobel Peace Prize, Jouhaux Is Awarded the
(1956-1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596 (Dec. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
New York, U.S. Highball Premieres in Nobel Peace Prize, King Wins the
(Apr. 22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 (Dec. 10, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2619
New York City and the Northeast, Power Failure Nobel Peace Prize, Lutuli Wins the
Blacks Out (Nov. 9-10, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . 2741 (Dec. 10, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2242
New Zealand, Western Samoa Gains Independence Nobel Peace Prize, Pire Is Awarded the
from (Jan. 1, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2262 (Dec. 10, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1874
Newfoundland Becomes Canada’s Tenth Province Nobel Peace Prize, Schweitzer Is Awarded the
(Mar. 31, 1949). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 (Dec. 10, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
Newport Jazz Festival Is Held, First Nobel Prize for Determining the Three-Dimensional
(July 17-18, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423 Shapes of Organic Compounds, Barton and
Newsmagazine, 60 Minutes Becomes the First Hassel Share the (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . 3347
Televised (Sept. 24, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3141 Nobel Prize for His Work on Photosynthesis,
NFL-AFL Merger Creates a Sports-Industry Giant Calvin Wins the (Dec. 10, 1961) . . . . . . . . . 2239
(June 8, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2817 Nobel Prize for His Work on World Hunger,
Niebuhr Extols a Theory of Christian Realism Borlaug Receives the (Dec. 10, 1970) . . . . . . 3496
(Mar., 1941-Jan., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Nobel Prize in Literature, Kawabata Wins the
Nigeria, Oil Is Discovered in (June 5, 1956). . . . . 1629 (Dec. 12, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3184
Nigerian Civil War, Biafra’s Secession Triggers Nobel Prize in Literature, Mauriac Accepts the
(May 30, 1967-Jan. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 2936 (Dec. 10, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
Night Recalls the Holocaust, Wiesel’s Noise Pollution, Congress Acts to Control
(1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1589 (July 21, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3110
Nightclub Proves Deadly, Fire in Boston’s Cocoanut Nolde’s Paintings, Nazis Ban (Aug. 23, 1941) . . . . . 99
Grove (Nov. 28, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Nonaligned Movement Meets
Nimeiri Takes Charge in Khartoum (Sept. 1-5, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2211
(May 25, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3248 Nonalignment, Afro-Asian Conference Considers
911 Call in the United States Is Made, First (Apr. 18-24, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1506
(Feb. 16, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3060 Non-Euclidean Fractal Measures, Mandelbrot
Nineteen Eighty-Four Portrays Totalitarianism and Develops (1966-1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2768
Mind Control (June, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Nonprofit Theaters, Ford Foundation Begins to
1960’s Alienation, Vonnegut’s Cat’s Cradle Fund (Fall, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750
Expresses (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2354 Non-Proliferation Treaty Goes into Effect, Nuclear
1960’s Youth, Easy Rider Captures the Spirit of (Mar. 5, 1970). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3390
(July 14, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3266 NORAD, Canada and the United States Create
1960’s Youth Culture, Woodstock Music Festival (May 12, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834
Marks the Climax of (Aug. 15-18, 1969) . . . . . 3288 Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe,
Nirenberg Cracks the Genetic Code Invasion of (June 6, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
(Summer, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2198 North Africa, Invasion of (Nov. 8, 1942) . . . . . . . 210
Nixon Doctrine Is Unveiled North Atlantic Treaty Organization Is Formed
(July 25, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3276 (Apr. 4, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
lxv
North Cascades National Park, Johnson Establishes Nuclear Waste Explodes in the Ural Mountains
(Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3147 (Late 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
North Korea Seizes the USS Pueblo Nuclear Weapon, United States Develops the First
(Jan. 23, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3050 (June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . 171
North Sea Flood Kills Nearly Two Thousand Nuremberg, Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at
People in Holland (Jan. 31-Feb. 1, 1953) . . . . . 1284 (Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 498
North Vietnam, Operation Passage to Nureyev and Fonteyn Debut Ashton’s Marguerite
Freedom Evacuates Refugees from and Armand (Mar. 12, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2380
(Aug., 1954-May, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427 Nyasaland, Formation of the Federation of Rhodesia
Northern Ireland, British Troops Restore Order in and (Aug. 1, 1953-Dec. 31, 1963) . . . . . . . . 1316
(Aug., 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3279 Nyasaland Independence Leader Banda Is Arrested
Norwegians Execute Nazi Collaborator Quisling by British Colonials (Mar. 3, 1959). . . . . . . . 1902
(Oct. 24, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Nyerere Emerges as Leader in Tanganyika, Julius
Novel, Rise of the New (1951). . . . . . . . . . . . 1063 (July 7, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417
Novel of Political Intrigue in Washington, D.C., Nyerere Outlines Socialist Policy in the Arusha
Drury Sets a (1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1880 Declaration (Feb. 5, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2899
Nuclear Bomb, China Explodes Its First
(Oct. 16, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2606 Obsidian, Scientists Develop a Technique to Date
Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated, First Ancient (Spring, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2031
(July 16, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Occupational Safety and Health Act, Nixon Signs
Nuclear Bombing of Bikini Atoll the (Dec. 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3512
(Mar. 1, 1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1365 Ocean-Floor Samples, Glomar Challenger Begins
Nuclear Explosion, Hiroshima Recounts the Story of Collecting (Aug. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3120
Surviving a (Aug., 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Ocean Life, Cousteau Announces Large Decline in
Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction, Fermi Creates the (Sept., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3437
First Controlled (Dec. 2, 1942). . . . . . . . . . . 219 Ochoa Creates Synthetic RNA (1955) . . . . . . . . 1467
Nuclear Liability, Price-Anderson Act Limits O’Connor Publishes A Good Man Is Hard to Find
(Aug., 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725 (1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1471
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Goes into Effect Offensive, Central Pacific
(Mar. 5, 1970). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3390 (Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . 313
Nuclear Plant Opens, First U.S. Commercial Offensive, Germany Mounts the Balkan
(Dec. 2, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783 (Apr. 6-30, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Nuclear Power Plant, Soviet Union Completes Its Offensive Begins, Tet (Jan. 30, 1968) . . . . . . . . 3053
First (June 27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1414 Official Languages Act, Canada’s
Nuclear Power Plant Opens, First Commercial (July 9, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3264
(Oct. 17, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658 Offshore Oil Well Spill Blankets Santa Barbara
Nuclear-Powered U.S. Submarine Is Launched, Coastline (Jan. 28, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3223
First (Jan. 21, 1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356 Oil Discovery Sparks Controversy, Alaskan
Nuclear Powers Sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty (Mar., 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3065
(Aug. 5, 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2412 Oil Industry, Iran Nationalizes Its
Nuclear Reactor, Construction Starts on Brookhaven (Mar., 1951-Aug., 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
(1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 Oil Is Discovered in Nigeria (June 5, 1956) . . . . . 1629
Nuclear Reactor, General Public Utilities Announces Oil-Spill Liabilities and Penalties, Congress
Plans for a Commercial (Dec. 12, 1963) . . . . . 2447 Mandates (Apr. 3, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3404
Nuclear Reactor Explosion and Meltdown, Chalk Oil Tanker Torrey Canyon Runs Aground
River (Dec. 12, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249 (Mar. 18, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2909
Nuclear Reactor Is Activated, World’s First Oil Well Spill Blankets Santa Barbara Coastline,
(Nov. 4, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Offshore (Jan. 28, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3223
Nuclear Reservation Becomes a Health Concern, Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Resistance
Hanford (Beginning 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870 (Apr. 1-July 2, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Nuclear Testing, Scientists Campaign Against Oklahoma! Opens on Broadway
(July 9, 1955-early 1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1524 (Mar. 31, 1943). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
lxvi
Olivier’s Hamlet Is Released to Acclaim and Out of Our Heads, Rolling Stones Release
Controversy (May 4, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . 784 (July 26 and Sept. 24, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2675
Olympic Games, South Africa Is Banned from the Outer Space Treaty Takes Effect
(Aug. 18, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2580 (Oct. 10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2994
Olympics, Cold War Politics Mar the Melbourne Overpopulation, Vogt’s Road to Survival
Summer (Nov. 22-Dec. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . 1668 Warns of (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
Omar Torrijos Ousts Arias in Panama Overspending for the C-5A Galaxy, Congress
(Oct. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3156 Begins Hearings on (Sept. 3, 1969). . . . . . . . 3296
On the Waterfront Wins Best Picture Overthrow of Nkrumah in Ghana
(Mar. 30, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1503 (Feb. 24, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2792
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, Overthrow Tutsi Monarchy, Rwandan Hutus
Solzhenitsyn Depicts Life in a Soviet (Nov., 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957
Labor Camp in (Nov., 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . 2333 Oxford Committee for Famine Relief Is Founded
One Hundred Years of Solitude Is Published, García (Oct. 5, 1942). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Márquez’s (May, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2925
O’Neill’s Reputation, Long Day’s Journey into Night Pacem in Terris, Pope John XXIII Issues Mater
Revives (Nov. 7, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1665 et Magistra and (May 15, 1961, and
Oort Offers a Theory of Comets (1950) . . . . . . . . 984 Apr. 11, 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2183
OPEC Meeting, First (Sept. 14, 1960) . . . . . . . . 2102 Pacific, Cairo Conference and Declaration Addresses
Operation Dragoon (Aug. 15, 1944) . . . . . . . . . 385 War in the (Nov. 23-30, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Operation Passage to Freedom Evacuates Pacific Nations Against Communist
Refugees from North Vietnam Encroachment, Security Pact Is Signed
(Aug., 1954-May, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427 by Three (Sept. 1, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115
Orbit, Soyuz 4 and 5 Spacecraft Dock in Pacific Theater, World War II
(Jan. 16, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3215 (July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Orbit Earth, Glenn Becomes the First American to Pact, Bulgaria Joins the Tripartite (Mar. 1, 1941) . . . 48
(Feb. 20, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2275 Pact, Stalin and Mao Pen a Defense
Orbital Rendezvous, Gemini VI and VII (Feb. 14, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
Complete an (Dec. 15, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2758 Pact Is Signed, Warsaw (May 14, 1955) . . . . . . . 1512
Orbiting Satellite, United States Launches Its First Pact Is Signed by Three Pacific Nations
(Jan. 31, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822 Against Communist Encroachment, Security
Orbiting Solar Power Station, Glaser Proposes an (Sept. 1, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115
(1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3027 Paik Exhibits Video and Television as Art, Nam
Organic Compounds, Barton and Hassel Share June (Mar. 11-20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2376
the Nobel Prize for Determining the Three- Painting,” Rosenberg Defines “Action
Dimensional Shapes of (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . 3347 (Dec., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Paintings, Nazis Ban Nolde’s (Aug. 23, 1941) . . . . . 99
Development Forms (Sept. 30, 1961). . . . . . . 2220 Pakistan Clash over Kashmir, India and
Organization of African Unity Is Founded (Oct. 27, 1947-Dec. 31, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . 682
(May 25, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2396 Pakistan Conflict Prompts U.N. Peacekeeping
Organization of American States Is Founded Response, India- (Sept. 20, 1965-
(Apr. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Mar. 22, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2701
Organization of the Islamic Conference Is Palestine, Habash Founds the Popular Front for the
Established (Sept. 25, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3303 Liberation of (Dec. 11, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . 3015
Oró Detects the Formation of Adenine from Palestine Liberation Organization, Arafat Becomes
Cyanide Solution (June, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . 2054 Chair of the (Dec. 11, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3353
Osborn Publishes Our Plundered Planet Palestine Liberation Organization, Palestinian
(1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 Refugees Form the (May 28, 1964). . . . . . . . 2546
Osborne’s Look Back in Anger Opens in London Palestinian Refugees, United Nations Creates an
(May 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626 Agency to Aid (Dec. 9, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . 956
Our Plundered Planet, Osborn Publishes Palestinian Refugees Form the Palestine Liberation
(1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 Organization (May 28, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . 2546
lxvii
Panama, Omar Torrijos Ousts Arias in Peace Prize, Jouhaux Is Awarded the Nobel
(Oct. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3156 (Dec. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
Pandemic Kills Millions Worldwide, Asian Flu Peace Prize, King Wins the Nobel
(Feb., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1692 (Dec. 10, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2619
Paradigm Shifts in Scientific Thought, Kuhn Peace Prize, Lutuli Wins the Nobel
Explores (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2255 (Dec. 10, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2242
Paraguay, Military Coup Begins Thirty-Five Years Peace Prize, Pire Is Awarded the Nobel
of Dictatorship in (May, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . 1389 (Dec. 10, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1874
Parents, Parents Anonymous Is Established to Treat Peace Prize, Schweitzer Is Awarded the Nobel
Abusive (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3203 (Dec. 10, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
Parents Anonymous Is Established to Treat Abusive Peace Program, Eisenhower Begins the Food for
Parents (1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3203 (July 10, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420
Parker Predicts the Existence of the Solar Wind Peace Resolution, United Nations General Assembly
(Nov., 1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868 Passes the Uniting for (Nov. 3, 1950) . . . . . . 1038
Parker’s Playing Epitomizes Bebop Peace with Japan Is Signed in San Francisco, Treaty
(Mar. 28, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536 of (Sept. 8, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
Parliament, Australians Elect First Women to Peacekeeping Expenses, Crisis in U.N. Financing
(Sept., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Emerges Over (1963-1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2358
Parliament Abolishes the Death Penalty, British Peacekeeping Response, India-Pakistan
(Nov. 8, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2738 Conflict Prompts U.N.
Parliament Approves Women’s Rights Legislation, (Sept. 20, 1965-Mar. 22, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . 2701
Indian (1955-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481 Peale Promotes the Power of Positive Thinking
Parliament Passes the Equal Pay Act of 1970, British (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
(May 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3423 Pearl Harbor, Bombing of (Dec. 7, 1941) . . . . . . . 111
Party Policy, Soviet Intellectuals Begin to Rebel Pearson Becomes Canada’s Prime Minister
Against (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2882 (Apr. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2394
Passenger Rail Service, Congress Creates Amtrak Peggy Guggenheim’s Gallery Promotes New
to Save (Oct. 30, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3467 American Art (Oct. 20, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Pasternak’s Doctor Zhivago Is Published Penalties, Congress Mandates Oil-Spill Liabilities
(Oct., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761 and (Apr. 3, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3404
Paton Explores South Africa’s Racial Divide in Cry, Penicillin, Hodgkin Solves the Structure of
the Beloved Country (Feb., 1948) . . . . . . . . . 744 (1944-1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Patton’s Historical Realism Leads to Best Picture Pennsylvania Town Suffers Deadly Temperature
and Actor Awards (Feb. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3385 Inversion (Oct. 26-31, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Paul VI Renounces the “Collective Guilt” of Jews Penzias and Wilson Discover Cosmic Microwave
in Christ’s Death (Oct. 28, 1965) . . . . . . . . . 2725 Background Radiation (1963-1965) . . . . . . . 2360
Paul VI Visits the Holy Land People with Mental Disabilities and Illnesses
(Jan. 4-6, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2498 Assisted by Federal Act (Oct. 31, 1963) . . . . . 2426
Payments Union Is Formed, European Peptide Hormone, Du Vigneaud Synthesizes the
(July 1, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 First (Oct. 5, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1330
Payola Scandal, Radio’s (Sept. 13, 1960) . . . . . . 2099 Percy Begins His Literary Career with The
Paz Estenssoro Is Toppled, Reformist Bolivian Moviegoer (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133
President (Nov. 3, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2614 Perfect Game in Baseball’s World Series, Larsen
PCBs in Animal Tissues, Jensen Finds Pitches a (Oct. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
(Dec., 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2859 Performance by Balanchine and Kirstein’s Ballet
Peace Corps Is Founded (Mar. 1, 1961) . . . . . . . 2162 Society, First (Nov. 20, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Peace Force Is Deployed in Cyprus, United Nations Performer, Sinatra Establishes Himself as a Solo
(Mar. 27, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2527 (Sept., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Peace Prize, Cassin Is Awarded the Nobel Perón Creates a Populist Political Alliance in
(Dec. 10, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3181 Argentina (Feb. 24, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Peace Prize, International Labor Organization Wins Persecution of Jews, Soviets Escalate
the Nobel (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3350 (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
lxviii
Peru Kill More than Sixty Thousand Planetary Formation, Von Weizsäcker Forms His
People, Earthquake and Avalanche in Quantitative Theory of (1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 225
(May 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3425 Planned Community, Reston, Virginia, Exemplifies
Pessimism, The American Dream Establishes Albee the (Summer, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2553
as the Voice of (Jan. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . 2148 Plastic IUD Developed for Birth Control
Pesticide Poisons the Rhine River (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2471
(June 18-26, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3250 Plath’s The Colossus Voices Women’s Experience
Peter Grimes, Britten Completes (June 7, 1945) . . . 469 (Fall, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2106
Peyton Place Brings Serial Drama to Nighttime Plutonium, Seaborg and McMillan Make
Television (Sept. 15, 1964-June 2, 1969). . . . . 2596 (Feb. 23, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Philippine Sea, Battle of the Poems, First Full Edition of Dickinson’s
(June 12-20, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 (Sept., 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1545
Philippines, Japan Invades the Poetic “Breath-Measure,” Celan Introduces the
(Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Concept of (1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2873
Philippines Regains Its Independence Poisoning Begins to Claim Victims, Minamata Bay
(July 4, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 Mercury (Apr., 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1613
Philosophy, Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic Voice Poitier Emerges as a Film Star in The Blackboard
to Existential (1944-1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Jungle (Mar. 19, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497
Philosophy, Sartre’s Being and Nothingness Poland’s Youngest Bishop, Karol Wojtyua Is
Expresses Existential (June 25, 1943) . . . . . . . 270 Named (July 4, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844
Phosphate-Free Detergent, Pollution Fears Prompt Polaroid Camera, Land Demonstrates the
Invention of (Oct., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3449 (Feb. 21, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Photographs of the Moon’s Surface, Lunar Police Required to Inform Arrested Persons of
Orbiter 1 Sends (Aug. 10, 1966) . . . . . . . . . 2823 Their Rights (June 13, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . 2820
Photosynthesis, Calvin Wins the Nobel Prize for Police Show, Dragnet Airs as the First Widely
His Work on (Dec. 10, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . 2239 Popular (Dec. 16, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
Photovoltaic Cell, Bell Scientists Develop the Polio Vaccine, Sabin Develops the Oral (1957) . . . 1679
(May, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386 Polio Vaccine, Salk Develops a
Physicists Develop the First Synchrocyclotron (July 2, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196
(Nov., 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 Polish Communist Government Arrests the Primate
Pill, FDA Approves the Birth Control of Poland (Sept. 25, 1953-Oct. 26, 1956). . . . . 1328
(June 23, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2065 Political Alliance in Argentina, Perón Creates a
Pills Are Tested in Puerto Rico, Birth Control Populist (Feb. 24, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
(Apr., 1956-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617 Political Intrigue in Washington, D.C., Drury Sets
Pinter’s The Caretaker Opens in London a Novel of (1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1880
(Apr. 27, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2046 Political Order, French Students and Workers Rebel
Pioneer Space Program Is Launched Against the (May-June, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . 3088
(Oct. 11, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861 Political Power in the United States, Mills Analyzes
Pire Is Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587
(Dec. 10, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1874 Political Rights, Greek and Turkish Cypriots Clash
Pittsburgh Residents Form the Group Against over (Dec. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2453
Smog and Pollution (Oct. 20, 1969) . . . . . . . 3318 Political Rights Is Adopted, United Nations
Pius XII Proclaims the Doctrine of the Assumption Covenant on Civil and (Dec. 16, 1966) . . . . . . 2863
(Nov. 1, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033 Political Rights of Women Is Approved, United
Pius XII’s Silence During the Holocaust, Hochhuth Nations Convention on the (Dec. 20, 1952) . . . 1251
Stages a Critique of Pope (Feb. 20, 1963) . . . . 2373 Politics, Morgenthau Advances Realist School of
Plane, Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First Jet Power (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
(May 15, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Politics Mar the Melbourne Summer Olympics,
Plane Crash, United Nations Secretary-General Dag Cold War (Nov. 22-Dec. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . 1668
Hammarskjöld Dies in a (Sept. 18, 1961) . . . . 2217 Poll Taxes Are Outlawed (Jan. 23, 1964) . . . . . . 2507
Planet, Venera 3 Is the First Spacecraft to Impact Polluted Cuyahoga River Bursts into Flames
Another (Nov. 16, 1965-Mar. 1, 1966) . . . . . . 2745 (June 22, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3253
lxix
Pollution, Clean Air Act Grants Federal Authority to Portugal, Caetano Becomes Prime Minister of
Regulate Air (Dec. 17, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2450 (Sept. 27, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3144
Pollution, Congress Acts to Control Noise Positive Thinking, Peale Promotes the Power of
(July 21, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3110 (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
Pollution, Five States Take Steps to Halt Lake Erie Postwar American Film, Westerns Dominate
(Aug. 12, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2691 (1946-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Pollution, Pittsburgh Residents Form the Group Potsdam Conference (July 17-Aug. 2, 1945) . . . . . 479
Against Smog and (Oct. 20, 1969) . . . . . . . . 3318 Pottery Shows Transpacific Contact in 3000 b.c.e.,
Pollution, Soviet Union Adopts Measures to Reduce Anthropologists Claim That Ecuadorian
Air (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 (1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2628
Pollution Control Act, Congress Amends the Water Poultry Products Act Is Passed, Wholesome
(June 27, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631 (Aug. 18, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3127
Pollution Control Act, Congress Passes the Air Pound Wins the Bollingen Prize
(July 14, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1531 (Feb. 20, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
Pollution Control Act, Congress Passes the Motor Poverty, Johnson Announces War on
Vehicle Air (Oct. 20, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2718 (Jan. 8, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2500
Pollution Control Act Is Passed, First Water Powell Publishes the Epic A Dance to the Music
(June 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 of Time (1951-1975) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
Pollution Fears Prompt Invention of Phosphate-Free Power, Khrushchev Falls from
Detergent (Oct., 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3449 (Oct. 13-14, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2603
Polo Clothing Line, Lauren Creates the Power Failure Blacks Out New York City and the
(Oct. 18, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3158 Northeast (Nov. 9-10, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2741
Poor Children, Head Start Is Established to Aid Power from Dictator in Algeria, Boumédienne
(May 18, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2654 Seizes (June 19, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2663
Pope John XXIII Issues Mater et Magistra Power in Czechoslovakia, Communists Seize
and Pacem in Terris (May 15, 1961, and (Feb. 25, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
Apr. 11, 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2183 Power of Positive Thinking, Peale Promotes the
Pope Pius XII’s Silence During the Holocaust, (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
Hochhuth Stages a Critique of Power Plant, Scenic Hudson Case Stops Storm King
(Feb. 20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2373 (Dec. 29, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2761
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, Power Plant, Soviet Union Completes Its First
Habash Founds the (Dec. 11, 1967). . . . . . . . 3015 Nuclear (June 27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1414
Population Bomb Is Published, The (1968) . . . . . 3034 Power Plant Opens, First Commercial Nuclear
Population Control, Hardin Argues for (Oct. 17, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1658
(Dec. 13, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3191 Power Politics, Morgenthau Advances Realist
Population Council, Rockefeller Founds the School of (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
(Nov. 7, 1952). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233 Power Station, Soviet Union Opens a Tidal
Population Growth Movement Begins, Zero (Dec., 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3178
(Nov., 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2996 Power Station Begins Operation, First Tidal
Population Research Act Extends Reproductive (Nov. 26, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2856
Rights, Family Planning Services and Predicts the Existence of the Solar Wind, Parker
(Dec. 28, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3508 (Nov., 1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868
Population to Determine Voting Districts, Premiere of High Noon (July 24, 1952) . . . . . . . 1202
Supreme Court Requires Premiere of the First CinemaScope Film
(Mar. 26, 1962-Feb. 17, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . 2282 (Sept. 16, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1324
Populist Political Alliance in Argentina, Perón Premiere of The Searchers (Mar. 13, 1956) . . . . . 1611
Creates a (Feb. 24, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Premieres, Some Like It Hot (Mar. 28, 1959) . . . . 1911
Portable Aerosol Containers Are Introduced Presbyterian and Methodist Churches
(1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Approve Ordination of Women
Porter Creates an Integrated Score for Kiss Me, Kate (May, 1955-May, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509
(Dec. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 President, Constitution Provides for the Incapacity
Portnoy’s Complaint, Roth Publishes (1969) . . . . 3208 of the (Feb. 23, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2902
lxx
President, Eisenhower Is Elected Prime Minister of Portugal, Caetano Becomes

(Nov. 4, 1952). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1230 (Sept. 27, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3144
President, Johnson Is Elected (Nov. 3, 1964) . . . . 2611 Prime-Time Cartoons, The Flintstones Popularizes
President, Kaunda Becomes Zambia’s First (Sept. 30, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
(Oct. 24, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2609 Prisoners, United Nations Sets Rules for Treatment
President, Kennedy Is Elected (Nov. 8, 1960) . . . . 2113 of (Aug. 22-Sept. 3, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1542
President, Nixon Is Elected (Nov. 5, 1968) . . . . . 3168 Prisoners of War Are Forced into Repatriation, Soviet
President, Truman Is Elected (Nov. 2, 1948) . . . . . 840 Exiles and (Feb. 11, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
President Kennedy Is Assassinated Prize, International Labor Organization Wins the
(Nov. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2436 Nobel Peace (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3350
President of Egypt, Sadat Becomes Prize, Jouhaux Is Awarded the Nobel Peace
(Sept. 28, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3447 (Dec. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
President of Romania, Ceaulescu Is Elected Prize, King Wins the Nobel Peace
(Dec. 9, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3012 (Dec. 10, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2619
President of South Korea, Rhee Is Elected Prize, Lutuli Wins the Nobel Peace
(July 20, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815 (Dec. 10, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2242
President of South Vietnam, Thieu Is Elected Prize, Pound Wins the Bollingen (Feb. 20, 1949). . . 900
(Sept. 3, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2982 Prize, Schweitzer Is Awarded the Nobel Peace
President Paz Estenssoro Is Toppled, Reformist (Dec. 10, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
Bolivian (Nov. 3, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2614 Prize at Venice, Kurosawa’s Rashomon Wins the
President Truman Escapes Assassination Attempt Grand (Sept. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
(Nov. 1, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 Prize for A Stillness at Appomattox, Catton Wins a
Presidential Elections, District of Columbia Pulitzer (Spring, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371
Receives Representation in (Mar. 29, 1961) . . . 2166 Prize for Determining the Three-Dimensional Shapes
Presidential Term, Franklin D. Roosevelt Wins a of Organic Compounds, Barton and Hassel Share
Fourth (Nov. 7, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 the Nobel (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3347
Presidents Are Limited to Two Terms, U.S. Prize for His Work on Photosynthesis, Calvin Wins
(Mar. 1, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086 the Nobel (Dec. 10, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2239
Presley Becomes a Rock-and-Roll Sensation Prize for His Work on World Hunger, Borlaug
(1956-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592 Receives the Nobel (Dec. 10, 1970) . . . . . . . 3496
Price-Anderson Act Limits Nuclear Liability Prize in Literature, Mauriac Accepts the Nobel
(Aug., 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725 (Dec. 10, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
Price Control Act, Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Proclamation of Tehran Sets Human Rights Goals
(Jan. 30, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 (May 13, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3095
Price Identifies an Ancient Astronomical Computer Proclamation on the Continental Shelf, Truman
(June, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1916 (Sept. 28, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Primate of Poland, Polish Communist Government Procter & Gamble Merger, Supreme Court Rules
Arrests the (Sept. 25, 1953-Oct. 26, 1956) . . . . 1328 Against a (Apr. 11, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2912
Primate Skull, Simons Identifies a Professional Football Names First Inductees to the
30-Million-Year-Old (Jan., 1966). . . . . . . . . 2771 Pro Football Hall of Fame (Jan. 29, 1963) . . . . 2368
Prime Minister, Diefenbaker Serves as Canadian Program, Public Broadcasting Service Airs Its First
(June 10, 1957-Feb. 5, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 1715 (Oct. 5, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3452
Prime Minister, Gandhi Serves as India’s First Project Gemini, NASA Launches
Female (Jan. 24, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2782 (Apr., 1959-Nov. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913
Prime Minister, Pearson Becomes Canada’s Propaganda During World War II, U.S. Censorship
(Apr. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2394 and War (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Prime Minister, St. Laurent Becomes Canadian Property, Cuba Begins Expropriating Foreign
(Nov. 15, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 (Mar. 4, 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904
Prime Minister, Trudeau Serves as Canadian Protected Zone, Soviet Union Declares Lake
(June 25, 1968-June 30, 1984) . . . . . . . . . . 3107 Baikal a (Jan., 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3211
Prime Minister of Israel, Meir Becomes Protesters Attract International Attention, Civil
(Mar. 17, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3237 Rights (Apr. 3-May 8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2387
lxxi
Protons and Neutrons Have Structure, Hofstadter Quebec Sovereignist Movement Begins
Discovers That (1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057 (1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2018
Province, Newfoundland Becomes Canada’s Tenth Quiet Crisis, Udall Publishes The (1963) . . . . . . 2351
(Mar. 31, 1949). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 Quisling, Norwegians Execute Nazi Collaborator
Province Secedes from Congo and Riots Ensue, (Oct. 24, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Katanga (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2071
Psycho Becomes Hitchcock’s Most Famous Film Race Rioting Erupts in Detroit
(June 16, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062 (July 23-July 30, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2969
Psychology, Skinner Develops the Behaviorist Race Riots Erupt in Detroit and Harlem
School of (1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261 (June 20-21, 1943, and Aug. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . 267
Psychosis, Wilkins and Kline Discover the First Race Riots Erupt in London (July-Sept., 1958) . . . 1842
Tranquilizer for (Apr. 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . . 1383 “Races” by Blood Groups, Boyd Defines Human
Public Accommodations, Supreme Court Prohibits (1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Racial Discrimination in (Dec. 14, 1964). . . . . 2622 Racial Discrimination, United Nations Condemns
Public Broadcasting Service Airs Its First Program (Nov. 20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2432
(Oct. 5, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3452 Racial Discrimination in Public Accommodations,
Public Land Law Review Commission, Supreme Court Prohibits (Dec. 14, 1964) . . . . 2622
Congress Establishes the Racial Divide in Cry, the Beloved Country, Paton
(Sept. 19, 1964-Dec. 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 2599 Explores South Africa’s (Feb., 1948) . . . . . . . 744
Public Policy, Simons Articulates the Chicago Racial Equality Forms, Congress of
School of (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 (Spring, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Public Utilities Announces Plans for a Commercial Racial Equality Holds Its Journey of Reconciliation,
Nuclear Reactor, General (Dec. 12, 1963) . . . . 2447 Congress of (Apr. 9-23, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . 633
Pueblo, North Korea Seizes the USS Racial Hatred, Dutchman Dramatizes
(Jan. 23, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3050 (Mar. 24, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2524
Puerto Rico, Birth Control Pills Are Tested in Radar Signals to and from the Sun, Radio
(Apr., 1956-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617 Astronomers Transmit (Early 1959) . . . . . . . 1877
Puerto Rico, Spanish Becomes the Language of Radiation, England’s Windscale Reactor Releases
Instruction in (Aug. 6, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . 933 (Oct. 10, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
Puerto Rico Becomes a Commonwealth Radiation, Penzias and Wilson Discover Cosmic
(July 25, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205 Microwave Background (1963-1965) . . . . . . 2360
Pulitzer Prize for A Stillness at Appomattox, Catton Radiation Belts, Van Allen Discovers the Earth’s
Wins a (Spring, 1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371 (July 26, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
Pulsars, Bell Discovers (Feb. 24, 1968) . . . . . . . 3062 Radical Musical Hair Opens on Broadway
Puzo Chronicles Organized Crime in The Godfather (Apr. 29, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3085
(1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3206 Radio, Sony Develops the Pocket-Sized Transistor
Pyle Dies in Combat, War Correspondent (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682
(Apr. 18, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Radio Astronomers Transmit Radar Signals to and
from the Sun (Early 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1877
Quant Introduces the Miniskirt (Early 1960’s) . . . 1971 Radio Emissions from Jupiter, Franklin and Burke
Quantitative Theory of Planetary Formation, Von Discover (Early 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
Weizsäcker Forms His (1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Radio Interferometer, Ryle Constructs the First
Quark Theory, Gell-Mann and Zweig Advance (1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
(1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457 Radio Maps of the Galaxy, Reber Publishes the First
Quarks, Friedman, Kendall, and Taylor Discover (Nov., 1944-Oct., 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
(1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3024 Radio Network, NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself of a
Quartet for the End of Time Is Performed, Messiaen’s (May 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
(Jan. 15, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Radio Telescope Is Completed, Jodrell Bank
Quasars, Schmidt Identifies (1963) . . . . . . . . . 2348 (Aug. 2, 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
Quebec Separatists, Canada Invokes War Radio Telescope Locates the First Known Radio
Measures Act Against (Oct. 16, 1970- Galaxy, Ryle’s (1948-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Apr. 30, 1971). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3458 Radio’s Payola Scandal (Sept. 13, 1960) . . . . . . 2099
lxxii
Rail Service, Congress Creates Amtrak to Save Record-Breaking Run, The Mousetrap Begins a
Passenger (Oct. 30, 1970). . . . . . . . . . . . . 3467 (Nov. 25, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
Railroads, Truman Orders Seizure of the Recording Career, Mahalia Jackson Begins Her
(May 17-25, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 (Oct. 3, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor, Records, Gordy Founds Motown (Jan., 1959) . . . . 1894
Thai-Burma (Oct. 25, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Red Scare Era, The Crucible Allegorizes the
Rain Changes Lake and Riverine Ecology, Acid (Jan. 22, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
(1950’s-mid-1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 Red Skelton Show Becomes a Landmark
Raisin in the Sun Debuts on Broadway, on Network Television, The
Hansberry’s A (Mar. 11, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . 1907 (Sept. 30, 1951-Aug. 29, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 1132
Rake’s Progress Premieres in Venice, Stravinsky’s Redshifting, Mössbauer Effect Is Used to Detect
The (Sept. 11, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124 Gravitational (1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014
Ranger Program (Feb. 23, 1961-Mar. 24, 1965) . . . 2157 Reformist Bolivian President Paz Estenssoro Is
Rashomon Wins the Grand Prize at Venice, Toppled (Nov. 3, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2614
Kurosawa’s (Sept. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . 1121 Refugee Crisis, Arab-Israeli War Creates
Reaction, Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear (Nov. 29, 1947-July, 1949). . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Fission Chain (Dec. 2, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Refugee Relief Act (Aug. 7, 1953). . . . . . . . . . 1319
Reactor, Construction Starts on Brookhaven Nuclear Refugees, Adoption of the U.N. Convention
(1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 Relating to the Status of (July 28, 1951) . . . . . 1112
Reactor, General Public Utilities Announces Plans Refugees, African Convention Expands the
for a Commercial Nuclear (Dec. 12, 1963) . . . . 2447 Definition of (Sept. 10, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . 3300
Reactor, Meltdown Occurs in the First Breeder Refugees, United Nations Creates an Agency to
(Nov. 29, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1569 Aid Palestinian (Dec. 9, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . 956
Reactor Explosion and Meltdown, Chalk River Refugees Form the Palestine Liberation
Nuclear (Dec. 12, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249 Organization, Palestinian (May 28, 1964) . . . . 2546
Reactor Is Activated, World’s First Nuclear Refugees from North Vietnam, Operation
(Nov. 4, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Passage to Freedom Evacuates
Reactor Produces Electricity, World’s First Breeder (Aug., 1954-May, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427
(Dec. 20, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152 Refugees Statute Is Approved, United Nations
Reactor Releases Radiation, England’s Windscale High Commissioner for (Dec. 14, 1950) . . . . . 1050
(Oct. 10, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768 Regime, Khrushchev Denounces Stalinist
Readers Embrace The Catcher in the Rye, Young (Feb. 25, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1607
(July 16, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108 Reich Publishes The Greening of America
Readership, From Here to Eternity Wins Wide (1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3365
(Feb. 26, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 Relief Act, Refugee (Aug. 7, 1953) . . . . . . . . . 1319
Realism, Borges’s Ficciones Transcends Traditional Relief Agency Is Formed, United Nations Korean
(1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 (Dec. 1, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Realism, Niebuhr Extols a Theory of Christian Religion and Evolution, Teilhard de Chardin
(Mar., 1941-Jan., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Attempts to Reconcile (1955). . . . . . . . . . . 1478
Realism Leads to Best Picture and Actor Awards, Religious Rights, Soviet Jews Demand Cultural
Patton’s Historical (Feb. 4, 1970) . . . . . . . . 3385 and (1960’s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002
Realist School of Power Politics, Morgenthau REM Sleep, Aserinsky Discovers
Advances (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 (Sept. 4, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321
Rebel Without a Cause, Dean Becomes a Legend Renfrew, Dixon, and Cann Reconstruct Ancient
in (Oct. 29, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1562 Near Eastern Trade Routes (1964) . . . . . . . . 2474
Rebellion Ignites Modern Lesbian and Reparations to Israel, Germany Agrees to Pay
Gay Rights Movement, Stonewall (Sept. 10, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
(June 27-July 2, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3260 Repatriation, Soviet Exiles and Prisoners of War
Reber Publishes the First Radio Maps of the Galaxy Are Forced into (Feb. 11, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . 436
(Nov., 1944-Oct., 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Report “Normalizes” Homosexuality,
Reconciliation, Congress of Racial Equality Holds Its National Institute of Mental Health
Journey of (Apr. 9-23, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 (Oct. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3313
lxxiii
Representation in Presidential Elections, District Right of Self-Determination, Atlantic Charter

of Columbia Receives (Mar. 29, 1961) . . . . . . 2166 Declares a Postwar (Aug. 14, 1941) . . . . . . . . . 95
Repression, Brazil Begins Era of Intense Right to an Attorney, Supreme Court Establishes
(Dec. 13, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3188 Defendants’ (Mar. 18, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2383
Reproductive Rights, Family Planning Services Rights, Congress Creates the Commission on Civil
and Population Research Act Extends (Sept. 9, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741
(Dec. 28, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3508 Rights, Family Planning Services and Population
Republic in China, Mao Zedong Proclaims a Research Act Extends Reproductive
Communist People’s (Oct. 1, 1949) . . . . . . . . 946 (Dec. 28, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3508
Republics, Germany Splits into Two Rights, Greek and Turkish Cypriots Clash over
(Sept. 21-Oct. 7, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 Political (Dec. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2453
Research Using Animals, Animal Welfare Act Rights, National Organization for Women Forms to
Regulates (Aug. 24, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2827 Protect Women’s (Oct. 29-30, 1966) . . . . . . . 2852
Reserpine for the Treatment of High Blood Rights, Police Required to Inform Arrested Persons
Pressure, Wilkins Introduces (1952) . . . . . . . 1170 of Their (June 13, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2820
Reserve Clause, Flood Tests Baseball’s Rights, Soviet Jews Demand Cultural and Religious
(Jan. 16, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3376 (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002
Resistance, French (1941-Aug. 25, 1944) . . . . . . . 25 Rights, United Nations Adopts the Universal
Resistance, Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Declaration of Human (Dec. 10, 1948) . . . . . . 851
Japanese (Apr. 1-July 2, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Rights Act, Congress Passes the Voting
Resolution, United Nations General Assembly (Aug. 6, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2685
Passes the Uniting for Peace (Nov. 3, 1950) . . . 1038 Rights Act Is Passed, Indian Civil
Resolution Is Signed into Law, Formosa (Apr. 11, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3079
(Jan. 29, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1490 Rights Act of 1960, Civil
Resolution 242, United Nations Security Council (May 6, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052
Adopts (Nov. 22, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3005 Rights Act of 1964, Congress Passes the Civil
Resource Recovery Act Is Passed (July 2, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2564
(Oct. 26, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3465 Rights and Duties of Man Is Adopted, American
Responsibility for War Crimes, Jaspers Examines Declaration on the (May 2, 1948) . . . . . . . . . 777
Germany’s Collective (1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Rights Committee Is Founded, Moscow Human
Reston, Virginia, Exemplifies the Planned (Nov. 11, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3475
Community (Summer, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . 2553 Rights Groups, SCLC Forms to Link Civil
Retherford Discover the Lamb Shift, Lamb and (Jan. 10, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
(1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 Rights Is Adopted, United Nations Covenant on
Revolution, Cuban Civil and Political (Dec. 16, 1966) . . . . . . . . 2863
(July 26, 1956-Jan. 8, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . 1640 Rights Is Created, Inter-American Commission
Revolution, Green (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2460 on Human (Aug. 12-18, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . 1932
Revolution Begins in China, Cultural Rights Is Established, Inter-American Court of
(May, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2807 Human (Nov. 22, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3341
Revolution Grips Bolivia (Apr., 1952). . . . . . . . 1186 Rights Is Signed, European Convention on Human
Rhee Is Elected President of South Korea (Nov. 4, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
(July 20, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815 Rights Legislation, Indian Parliament Approves
Rhine River, Pesticide Poisons the Women’s (1955-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
(June 18-26, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3250 Rights Movement, Nader Launches the Consumer
Rhinoceros Receives a Resounding Worldwide (Nov. 29, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2750
Reception, Ionesco’s (Oct. 31, 1959) . . . . . . . 1954 Rights Movement, Stonewall Rebellion
Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Formation of the Ignites Modern Lesbian and Gay
Federation of (Aug. 1, 1953-Dec. 31, 1963) . . . 1316 (June 27-July 2, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3260
RICO Act, Congress Passes the Rights of Man Is Founded, International League
(Oct. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3455 for the (1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Right, World Health Organization Proclaims Rights of the Child, United Nations Adopts the
Health a Basic Human (July 22, 1946). . . . . . . 557 Declaration of the (Nov. 20, 1959) . . . . . . . . 1964
lxxiv
Rights of Women Is Approved, United Nations Rockefeller Founds the Population Council
Convention on the Political (Dec. 20, 1952) . . . 1251 (Nov. 7, 1952). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1233
Rights Prohibits Sex Discrimination, Canadian Rocket, HERMES Builds the First Multistage
Bill of (Aug. 4, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2087 (Feb. 24, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
Rights Protesters Attract International Attention, Rocket Aircraft Program, X-15
Civil (Apr. 3-May 8, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2387 (June 8, 1959-Dec. 31, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
Rights to Women, Japanese Constitution Grants Rodeo, Agnes de Mille Choreographs
New (May 3, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 (Oct. 16, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Rights Workers Are Murdered, Three Civil Rolling Stones Release Out of Our Heads
(June 21-22, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2556 (July 26 and Sept. 24, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2675
Riley Completes In C (1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . 2477 Roman Catholic Church Reaffirms Its Position
Riot, Watts (Aug. 11-17, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2688 Against Birth Control (July 25, 1968) . . . . . . 3114
Rioting Erupts in Detroit, Race Roosevelt Bans Discrimination in Defense-Industry
(July 23-July 30, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2969 Employment (June 25, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Riots Ensue, Katanga Province Secedes from Roosevelt Creates Jackson Hole National Monument
Congo and (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2071 (Mar. 15, 1943). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Riots Erupt in Detroit and Harlem, Race Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control Act
(June 20-21, 1943, and Aug. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . 267 (Jan. 30, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Riots Erupt in London, Race Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill (June 22, 1944) . . . . . 375
(July-Sept., 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842 Roosevelt Signs the Lend-Lease Act
Riots Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles, (Mar. 11, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Zoot-Suit (June 3-9, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Roosevelt Wins a Fourth Presidential Term,
Riots Mar the Democratic National Convention, Franklin D. (Nov. 7, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Chicago (Aug. 24-30, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . 3134 Rosenberg Defines “Action Painting”
Riots on Tour of Latin America, Nixon Faces (Dec., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
(Apr. 27-May 15, 1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832 Rosenbergs Are Executed for Peacetime Espionage
Rise of the New Novel (1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063 (June 19, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1307
Riverine Ecology, Acid Rain Changes Lake and Roth Publishes Portnoy’s Complaint (1969). . . . . 3208
(1950’s-mid-1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978 Rover Lunokhod 1 Lands on the Moon, Soviet
Rivers and Trails System Acts Are Passed, Wild and (Nov. 10, 1970-Oct. 1, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . . 3471
Scenic (Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3152 Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In Satirizes Social
RNA, Ochoa Creates Synthetic (1955) . . . . . . . 1467 Upheaval (Sept. 9, 1967-May 14, 1973) . . . . . 2984
Road to Survival Warns of Overpopulation, Vogt’s Royal National Theatre, Britain Establishes the
(1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 (Aug. 9, 1962). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2298
Robbins’s Fancy Free Premieres Royal Shakespeare Company Adopts a New Name
(Apr. 18, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 and Focus (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2136
Robert F. Kennedy Is Assassinated Rudolph Becomes the Fastest Woman in the World
(June 5, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3102 (Sept. 7, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2097
Roberts Starts the Healing Waters Ministry Rules for Treatment of Prisoners, United Nations
(1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 Sets (Aug. 22-Sept. 3, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . 1542
Robinson Breaks the Color Line in Major-League Rulings Force Film Studios to Divest Theaters,
Baseball (Apr. 15, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 Antitrust (May 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Robinson’s The Cardinal Tops Best-Seller List Russell Retires as the Celtics Take an Eleventh
(1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986 NBA Title (May 5, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3245
Rock Album Are You Experienced?, Hendrix Russia, Germany Invades
Releases Acid (May 12, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . 2932 (June 22, 1941-Jan. 8, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Rock and Roll, Berry’s “Maybellene” Popularizes Rwandan Hutus Overthrow Tutsi Monarchy
(Spring, 1955). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1500 (Nov., 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957
Rock-and-Roll Sensation, Presley Becomes a Ryle Constructs the First Radio Interferometer
(1956-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592 (1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1474
Rock Fusion, Davis Introduces Jazz- Ryle’s Radio Telescope Locates the First Known
(Aug., 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3282 Radio Galaxy (1948-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
lxxv
Saarinen Designs Kennedy Airport’s TWA Satellite Program, United States Launches Vanguard
Terminal (1956-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600 (Sept. 9, 1955-Sept. 18, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . 1549
Sabin Develops the Oral Polio Vaccine Saturday Evening Post Publishes Its Final Issue,
(1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1679 The (Feb. 8, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3226
Sadat Becomes President of Egypt Scandal, Radio’s Payola (Sept. 13, 1960) . . . . . . 2099
(Sept. 28, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3447 Scenic Hudson Case Stops Storm King Power Plant
Sahara Desert, Drought Extends the Reach of the (Dec. 29, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2761
(1968-1973) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3037 Scenic Rivers and Trails System Acts Are Passed,
Saint, Mother Cabrini Becomes the First U.S. Wild and (Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3152
Citizen Canonized as a (July 7, 1946) . . . . . . . 551 Schmidt Identifies Quasars (1963) . . . . . . . . . . 2348
St. Jude Children’s Hospital Opens School Segregation, Supreme Court Ends Public
(Feb. 4, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2271 (May 17, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396
St. Laurent Becomes Canadian Prime Minister Schools, Supreme Court Limits Bible Reading in
(Nov. 15, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843 Public (June 17, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2404
St. Lawrence Seaway Opens (June 26, 1959) . . . . 1922 Schrieffer Explain Superconductivity, Bardeen,
Sales Strategy for Tupperware, Tupper Adopts Cooper, and (Feb.-Aug., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . 1694
Home- (Apr., 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096 Schweitzer Is Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
Salk Develops a Polio Vaccine (Dec. 10, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1343
(July 2, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196 Scientific Thought, Kuhn Explores Paradigm
San Francisco, Treaty of Peace with Japan Is Shifts in (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2255
Signed in (Sept. 8, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118 Scientists Campaign Against Nuclear Testing
Sand County Almanac, Leopold Publishes A (July 9, 1955-early 1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1524
(1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873 Scientists Debate the Addition of Antibiotics to
SANE, Cousins Founds (Nov. 15, 1957) . . . . . . 1778 Animal Feed (June, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2943
Sanger Determines the Structure of Insulin Scientists Develop a Technique to Date Ancient
(1944-1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Obsidian (Spring, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2031
Santa Barbara Coastline, Offshore Oil Well Spill Scientists Develop the Photovoltaic Cell, Bell
Blankets (Jan. 28, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3223 (May, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1386
Sara Lee Opens an Automated Factory Scientists Is Founded, Union of Concerned
(Spring, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2520 (Mar. 4, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
Saroyan Offers a Compelling Story of Hope in Scientology, Hubbard Founds the Church of
The Human Comedy (1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 (Feb. 18, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1362
Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic Voice to Existential SCLC Forms to Link Civil Rights Groups
Philosophy (1944-1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 (Jan. 10, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688
Sartre’s Being and Nothingness Expresses Existential Score for Kiss Me, Kate, Porter Creates an Integrated
Philosophy (June 25, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 (Dec. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
Satellite, Canada Becomes the Third Nation to Screen, A Streetcar Named Desire Brings Method
Orbit a (Sept. 28, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2309 Acting to the (Sept. 20, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . 1128
Satellite, Soviet Union Launches the First Artificial Screen, Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and
(Oct. 4, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1765 (Oct. 15, 1942-1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Satellite, TIROS 1 Becomes the First Screwtape Letters, Lewis Explores the Mind of
Experimental Weather Reconnaissance Evil in The (Feb., 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
(Apr. 1-June 14, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2040 Scrolls Are Unearthed, Dead Sea
Satellite, United States Launches Its First Orbiting (Apr. 26, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
(Jan. 31, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822 Seaborg and McMillan Make Plutonium
Satellite Is Launched, First Commercial (Feb. 23, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Communications (July 10, 1962) . . . . . . . . . 2294 Sealab Expeditions, Navy Conducts
Satellite Is Launched, First Passive Communications (July 20, 1964-Oct., 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2572
(Aug. 12, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2090 Searchers, Premiere of The (Mar. 13, 1956) . . . . . 1611
Satellite Nations, Brezhnev Doctrine SEATO Is Founded (Sept. 8, 1954) . . . . . . . . . 1439
Mandates Soviet Control of Seaway Opens, St. Lawrence
(Nov. 12, 1968-Dec., 1989). . . . . . . . . . . . 3171 (June 26, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1922
lxxvi
Secession Triggers Nigerian Civil War, Biafra’s Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, Beatles
(May 30, 1967-Jan. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 2936 Release (June, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2939
Second Battle of El Alamein Service Economy Emerges in the United States
(Oct. 23-Nov. 3, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988
Second Sex Anticipates the Women’s Movement, Sesame Street Revolutionizes Children’s
Beauvoir’s The (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861 Programming (Nov. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . 3327
Second Vatican Council Meets Sétif, Algerian Nationalists Riot at
(Oct. 11, 1962-Dec. 8, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2327 (May 8, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Secret Agents, Le Carré Rejects the Fantasy 707 Begins Commercial Service, Boeing
World of (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2345 (Oct. 26, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
Secret English Team Develops Colossus Seven of the Top Ten Television Series Are
(Dec., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 Westerns (1958-1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
Secretary-General, Hammarskjöld Is Elected U.N. Seven Storey Mountain, Merton Publishes His
(Apr. 10, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296 Spiritual Autobiography, The (1948). . . . . . . . 709
Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld Seventh Seal, Bergman Wins International Fame
Dies in a Plane Crash, United Nations with The (May 17, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1712
(Sept. 18, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2217 Sex Discrimination, Canadian Bill of Rights
Secretary-General Is Selected, First U.N. Prohibits (Aug. 4, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2087
(Feb. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 Shakespeare Company Adopts a New Name and
Security Act, National Focus, Royal (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2136
(July 26, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Shane Premieres (Apr. 23, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . 1299
Security Council Adopts Resolution 242, United Sharpeville Massacre Focuses Global Awareness
Nations (Nov. 22, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3005 on Apartheid (Mar. 21, 1960). . . . . . . . . . . 2034
Security Pact Is Signed by Three Pacific Sheen Entertains and Instructs on American
Nations Against Communist Encroachment Television (Feb. 12, 1952-1957, and
(Sept. 1, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115 1961-1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179
Security Program, United States Inaugurates Mutual Sherman Antitrust Act, Alcoa Is Convicted of
(Oct. 22, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142 Violating the (Mar. 12, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Segregation, Supreme Court Ends Public School Shift, Lamb and Retherford Discover the Lamb
(May 17, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396 (1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Seizure of Steel Plants, Truman Orders Shirer Examines the Rise of Nazi Ideology in
(Apr. 8, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188 Berlin Diary (1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Seizure of the Railroads, Truman Orders Shook Found the Dance Theatre of Harlem,
(May 17-25, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Mitchell and (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3032
Self-Determination, Atlantic Charter Declares a Shopping Mall Opens, First Two-Story, Fully
Postwar Right of (Aug. 14, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . 95 Enclosed (Oct. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1652
Selma-Montgomery March Sicily, Allied Forces Invade
(Mar. 21-25, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2647 (July 9-Aug. 17, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Semiconductors, Esaki Demonstrates Electron Sierra Club, Brower Becomes Executive Director
Tunneling in (Jan. 15, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . 1818 of the (Nov., 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
Senator Since Reconstruction, Brooke Becomes Sierra Club Helps Block Dams on the Colorado
the First African American U.S. River (Jan. 20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3219
(Jan. 10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2894 Silent Spring, Carson Publishes
Sensation, Presley Becomes a Rock-and-Roll (Sept. 27, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2304
(1956-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1592 Simon Publishes Administrative Behavior
Separate Development System, South Africa (1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Begins (June 21, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104 Simons Articulates the Chicago School of Public
Separatist Organization Is Formed, Basque Policy (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
(July 31, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929 Simons Identifies a 30-Million-Year-Old Primate
Separatists, Canada Invokes War Measures Skull (Jan., 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2771
Act Against Quebec (Oct. 16, 1970- Sinatra Establishes Himself as a Solo Performer
Apr. 30, 1971). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3458 (Sept., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
lxxvii
Sinking of the German Battleship Bismarck SoHo Emerges as a Center for Contemporary Art
(May 26-27, 1941). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1999
Sino-Soviet Tensions Mount Along the Ussuri Solar Neutrino Detector, Davis Constructs a
River Border (Mar. 2-Oct. 20, 1969) . . . . . . . 3231 (Early 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2869
Sit-Ins, Greensboro (Feb. 1-July 25, 1960) . . . . . 2023 Solar Power Station, Glaser Proposes an Orbiting
Situation Comedies Dominate Television (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3027
Programming (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991 Solar System, Discovery of the First X-Ray Source
Situation Comedy, The Dick Van Dyke Show Outside the (June 18-19, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . 2287
Popularizes (Oct. 3, 1961-June 1, 1966) . . . . . 2226 Solar Wind, Parker Predicts the Existence of the
Situation Comedy, The Honeymooners Defines (Nov., 1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868
(Oct. 1, 1955-Sept., 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1555 Solid Waste Disposal Act Is Passed
Six-Day War, Israel Defeats Arab States in the (Oct. 20, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2722
(June 5-10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2947 Solo Performer, Sinatra Establishes Himself as a
6.6 Million Women Enter the U.S. Labor Force (Sept., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
(1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Solzhenitsyn Depicts Life in a Soviet Labor Camp
Sixties Culture in the United States Rediscovers in One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich
the Works of Hesse (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . 1995 (Nov., 1962). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2333
60 Minutes Becomes the First Televised Somali Democracy Ends in a Military Coup
Newsmagazine (Sept. 24, 1968) . . . . . . . . . 3141 (Oct. 21, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3325
Skilled Laborers with Automated Tools, Firms Some Like It Hot Premieres (Mar. 28, 1959). . . . . 1911
Begin Replacing (Late 1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . 1671 Sony Develops the Pocket-Sized Transistor Radio
Skinner Develops the Behaviorist School of (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682
Psychology (1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1261 Sound, Test Aircraft Exceeds Twice the Speed of
Slavery Ends in Ethiopia, Legal (Nov. 20, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1340
(Aug. 27, 1942). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Sound Barrier, Yeager Breaks the
Slavery Treaty, United Nations Amends Its (Oct. 14, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
International (Oct. 23, 1953-Sept. 4, 1956). . . . 1333 Sound of Music Captivates Audiences, The
Sleep, Aserinsky Discovers REM (Mar. 2, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2640
(Sept. 4, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1321 Source Explores Jewish History, Michener’s Best
Small Business Administration, Congress Creates Seller The (June, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2657
the (July 30, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1310 South Africa Begins Separate Development
Smallpox, World Health Organization Intensifies System (June 21, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Its Campaign to Eradicate (1967). . . . . . . . . 2885 South Africa Is Banned from the Olympic Games
Smog, Black Wednesday Demonstrates Dangers of (Aug. 18, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2580
(Sept. 8, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 South African Mandate over South-West
Smog and Pollution, Pittsburgh Residents Form the Africa, United Nations Revokes
Group Against (Oct. 20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . 3318 (Oct. 27, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2849
Smog Kills Thousands of Londoners South Africa’s Racial Divide in Cry, the Beloved
(Dec. 4-8, 1952). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243 Country, Paton Explores (Feb., 1948) . . . . . . . 744
Snow-Management Programs, Alpine Avalanches South Korea, Rhee Is Elected President of
Prompt (Feb. 10-Apr. 16, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3387 (July 20, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
Soccer War (July 14-20, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . 3270 South Vietnam, Thieu Is Elected President of
Social Charter Is Signed, European (Sept. 3, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2982
(Oct. 18, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2229 Southeast Asia, Japan Begins Attacks on
Social Upheaval, Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In (Dec. 7, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Satirizes (Sept. 9, 1967-May 14, 1973) . . . . . . 2984 Southeast Asian Nations Is Formed, Association
Socialist Policy in the Arusha Declaration, Nyerere of (Aug. 8, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2976
Outlines (Feb. 5, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2899 Southern Rhodesian Freedom Fighters Begin
Society of Mass Consumption, Galbraith Critiques Toppling White Supremacist Government
the Creation of a (1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802 (Apr. 28, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2803
Soft Landing, Luna 9 Makes the First Successful South-West Africa, United Nations Revokes South
Lunar (Jan. 31-Feb. 6, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . 2785 African Mandate over (Oct. 27, 1966) . . . . . . 2849
lxxviii
Sovereignist Movement Begins, Quebec (1960). . . 2018 Space Network Begins, Deep (Dec. 3, 1958) . . . . 1871
Soviet Bloc States Establish Council for Mutual Space Plane Is Developed, Dyna-Soar
Economic Assistance (Jan. 25, 1949) . . . . . . . 897 (Oct. 14, 1957-Dec. 10, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . 1771
Soviet Control of Satellite Nations, Brezhnev Space Program Is Launched, Pioneer
Doctrine Mandates (Nov. 12, 1968- (Oct. 11, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861
Dec., 1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3171 Space Walk, Soviet Cosmonaut Conducts First
Soviet Cosmonaut Conducts First Space Walk (Mar. 18, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2643
(Mar. 18, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2643 Spacecraft Dock in Orbit, Soyuz 4 and 5
Soviet Exiles and Prisoners of War Are Forced into (Jan. 16, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3215
Repatriation (Feb. 11, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Spacecraft to Impact Another Planet, Venera 3
Soviet Intellectuals Begin to Rebel Against Party Is the First (Nov. 16, 1965-Mar. 1, 1966) . . . . 2745
Policy (1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2882 Spacecraft to Study Venus, Mariner 2 Becomes
Soviet Jews Demand Cultural and Religious Rights the First (Aug. 27, 1962-Jan. 2, 1963) . . . . . . 2301
(1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002 Spain Is Denied Entrance into the United Nations
Soviet Labor Camp in One Day in the Life of Ivan (Dec. 12, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Denisovich, Solzhenitsyn Depicts Life in a Spanish Armada, Mattingly Documents the
(Nov., 1962). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2333 (1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885
Soviet Rover Lunokhod 1 Lands on the Moon Spanish Becomes the Language of Instruction in
(Nov. 10, 1970-Oct. 1, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . . 3471 Puerto Rico (Aug. 6, 1949). . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
Soviet Tensions Mount Along the Ussuri River Special Status, Native Americans Lose Government
Border, Sino- (Mar. 2-Oct. 20, 1969) . . . . . . . 3231 (Aug. 1, 1953). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1313
Soviet Union, Cuba Signs a Commercial Agreement Speech, Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain
with the (Feb. 11, 1966). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2789 (Mar. 5, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Soviet Union, Fiat Builds a Factory in the Speech, King Delivers His “I Have a Dream”
(May 4, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2811 (Aug. 28, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2415
Soviet Union, Hotline Is Adopted Between the Speed of Sound, Test Aircraft Exceeds Twice the
United States and the (June 20, 1963) . . . . . . 2407 (Nov. 20, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1340
Soviet Union Adopts Measures to Reduce Air Sperry Discovers That Sides of the Human
Pollution (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877 Brain Can Function Independently
Soviet Union Completes Its First Nuclear Power (Early 1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1974
Plant (June 27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1414 Spill Blankets Santa Barbara Coastline, Offshore
Soviet Union Declares Lake Baikal a Protected Oil Well (Jan. 28, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3223
Zone (Jan., 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3211 Spiritual Autobiography The Seven Storey Mountain,
Soviet Union Invades Czechoslovakia Merton Publishes His (1948). . . . . . . . . . . . 709
(Aug. 20-21, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3130 Sports-Industry Giant, NFL-AFL Merger Creates a
Soviet Union Launches the First Artificial Satellite (June 8, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2817
(Oct. 4, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1765 Stage, Al-Hakim Introduces Absurdism to the Arab
Soviet Union Opens a Tidal Power Station (1961-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2142
(Dec., 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3178 Stage and Screen, Kazan Brings Naturalism to the
Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation (Oct. 15, 1942-1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
of Nature (1948-1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 Stalin, Death of (Mar. 5, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
Soviets Crush Hungarian Uprising Stalin and Mao Pen a Defense Pact
(Oct. 23-Nov. 10, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661 (Feb. 14, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
Soviets Escalate Persecution of Jews (1948) . . . . . 724 Stalingrad, Battle of
Soviets Take Control of Eastern Europe (Aug. 19, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 186
(1943-1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Stalinist Regime, Khrushchev Denounces
Soyuz 4 and 5 Spacecraft Dock in Orbit (Feb. 25, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1607
(Jan. 16, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3215 Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation of Nature,
Space, United States Places Its First Astronaut in Soviets Adopt (1948-1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
(May 5, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2179 Stalking the Wild Asparagus, Gibbons Publishes
Space Administration, Congress Creates the (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2249
National Aeronautics and (July 29, 1958) . . . . 1852
lxxix
Star in The Blackboard Jungle, Poitier Emerges Stravinsky’s The Rake’s Progress Premieres in
as a Film (Mar. 19, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1497 Venice (Sept. 11, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
Stardom, Marilyn Monroe Climbs to Streetcar Named Desire Brings Method Acting
(1953-1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263 to the Screen, A (Sept. 20, 1951) . . . . . . . . . 1128
Stars as “Black Holes,” Wheeler Refers to Streptomycin, Waksman Discovers the Antibiotic
Collapsed (Spring, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3069 (Sept., 1943-Mar., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
State, Vietnam Is Named a (Mar. 8, 1949) . . . . . . 909 Strike, Chávez and Huerta Form Farmworkers’
Statehood, Alaska and Hawaii Gain Union and Lead Grape Pickers’
(Jan. 3 and Aug. 21, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897 (Sept. 30, 1962, and Sept. 16, 1965) . . . . . . . 2311
Stateless Persons, United Nations Drafts a Strike, Delano Grape
Convention on (Sept. 28, 1954). . . . . . . . . . 1445 (Sept. 8, 1965-July 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . 2695
States, United Nations Admits Its First New Structure of Insulin, Sanger Determines the
Member (Nov. 9-Dec. 15, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . 584 (1944-1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
States Cannot Ban Contraceptives in Griswold v. Structure of Penicillin, Hodgkin Solves the
Connecticut, Supreme Court Rules That (1944-1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
(June 7, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659 Structures in World Myths, Lévi-Strauss Identifies
States Cannot Compel Flag Salutes, Supreme Court Common (1964-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2492
Rules That (June 14, 1943). . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Studebaker Announces Plans to Abandon U.S.
States Establish Council for Mutual Economic Auto Production (Dec. 9, 1963) . . . . . . . . . 2443
Assistance, Soviet Bloc (Jan. 25, 1949) . . . . . . 897 Students and Workers Rebel Against the Political
States Is Founded, Organization of American Order, French (May-June, 1968) . . . . . . . . . 3088
(Apr. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Studio System Is Transformed, Hollywood
States Take Steps to Halt Lake Erie Pollution, Five (1946-1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
(Aug. 12, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2691 Studios to Divest Theaters, Antitrust Rulings Force
Statute Is Approved, United Nations High Film (May 3, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Commissioner for Refugees (Dec. 14, 1950) . . . 1050 Style for Crime Films, The Maltese Falcon
Statutes of Limitations Are Rendered Inapplicable Establishes a New (Oct. 3, 1941) . . . . . . . . . 105
to War Crimes (Nov. 26, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . 3175 Submarine Is Launched, First Nuclear-Powered
Steady-State Theory of the Universe Is Advanced U.S. (Jan. 21, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356
by Bondi, Gold, and Hoyle (1948) . . . . . . . . . 726 Sudanese Civil War Erupts, First
Steel Community Is Established, European Coal (Aug. 18-Sept. 6, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538
and (Apr. 18, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102 Suez Canal, Egypt Attempts to Nationalize the
Steel Plants, Truman Orders Seizure of (July 26, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1636
(Apr. 8, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188 Suffrage to Women, France Grants
Steelmaking, Voest Develops the Basic Oxygen (Mar. 15, 1944). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Process for (Early 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158 “Summer of Love,” Monterey Pop Festival
Stein Is Killed by the Nazis (Aug. 9, 1942) . . . . . . 183 Inaugurates the (June 16-18, 1967) . . . . . . . . 2953
Stillness at Appomattox, Catton Wins a Pulitzer Sun, Radio Astronomers Transmit Radar Signals
Prize for A (Spring, 1954). . . . . . . . . . . . . 1371 to and from the (Early 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . 1877
Stone Documents the Life of Michelangelo Sunset Boulevard Premieres
(1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2140 (Aug. 10, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
Stonewall Rebellion Ignites Modern Lesbian and Gay Super Bowl, National Football League Holds Its
Rights Movement (June 27-July 2, 1969) . . . . 3260 First (Jan. 15, 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2896
Stoph, Brandt Meets (Mar. 19, 1970) . . . . . . . . 3394 Supercluster of Galaxies, De Vaucouleurs Identifies
Stored-Program Computer Is Completed, First the Local (Early 1950’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Electronic (Aug., 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927 Superconductivity, Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer
Storm King Power Plant, Scenic Hudson Case Stops Explain (Feb.-Aug., 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1694
(Dec. 29, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2761 Superfortress Bombing of Japan
Stormy Weather Offers New Film Roles to African (June 15, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Americans (July 21, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Supreme Court Ends Public School Segregation
Stranger in a Strange Land, Heinlein Publishes (May 17, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396
(June 1, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2195
lxxx
Supreme Court Establishes Defendants’ Right Synchrocyclotron, Physicists Develop the First
to an Attorney (Mar. 18, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . 2383 (Nov., 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Supreme Court Extends Protection Against Synchrotron Are First Used in Medical Diagnosis
Double Jeopardy (June 23, 1969) . . . . . . . . . 3257 and Treatment, X Rays from a (1949) . . . . . . . 880
Supreme Court Justice, Marshall Becomes the Synthesis of Amino Acids, Miller Reports the
First African American (Oct. 2, 1967) . . . . . . 2988 (May 15, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1301
Supreme Court Limits Bible Reading in Public Synthesizer Is Completed, First Successful
Schools (June 17, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2404 (Jan., 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1890
Supreme Court Orders Du Pont to Disburse GM Synthetic RNA, Ochoa Creates (1955) . . . . . . . 1467
Holdings, U.S. (May 22, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . 2186 Syria, Hafez al-Assad Takes Control of
Supreme Court Prohibits Racial (Feb. 27, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3229
Discrimination in Public Accommodations Syria and Egypt Form the United Arab Republic
(Dec. 14, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2622 (Feb. 1, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826
Supreme Court Requires Population to Determine
Voting Districts (Mar. 26, 1962- Taft-Hartley Act Passes over Truman’s Veto
Feb. 17, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2282 (June 23, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
Supreme Court Rules African American Taizé Take Permanent Vows, Brothers at
Disenfranchisement Unconstitutional (Apr. 17, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
(Apr. 3, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Talent Pool, Blacklisting Depletes Hollywood’s
Supreme Court Rules Against a Procter & Gamble (1947-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Merger (Apr. 11, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2912 Tamils Protest Discrimination in Ceylon
Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Ban (Feb., 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2151
Contraceptives in Griswold v. Connecticut Tanganyika, Julius Nyerere Emerges as Leader in
(June 7, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659 (July 7, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417
Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Compel Tanganyika Unite to Form Tanzania, Zanzibar and
Flag Salutes (June 14, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 (Apr. 26, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2536
Supreme Court Upholds Ban on Housing Tank Battle at Kursk Devastates German Forces
Discrimination (June 17, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . 3104 (July 4-12, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Surgery, Blalock and Taussig Perform the First Tanzania, Zanzibar and Tanganyika Unite to Form
“Blue Baby” (Nov. 29, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . 412 (Apr. 26, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2536
Surgery, Favaloro Develops the Artery Bypass Taos Pueblo, New Mexico’s Blue Lake Region Is
(1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2879 Returned to the (Dec. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3500
Surgery, Lasers Are First Used in Eye Tariffs and Trade Is Signed, General Agreement on
(Aug., 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2409 (Oct. 30, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Surveyor Program Prepares NASA for Piloted Taussig Perform the First “Blue Baby” Surgery,
Moon Landings (May 30, 1966- Blalock and (Nov. 29, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Feb. 21, 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2814 Tax Act, Johnson Signs the Interest Equalization
Surviving a Nuclear Explosion, Hiroshima (Sept. 2, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2585
Recounts the Story of (Aug., 1946) . . . . . . . . 560 Tax Breaks to Financiers of Small Businesses,
Sustained Yield Act, Congress Passes the Congress Gives (Aug. 21, 1958) . . . . . . . . . 1855
Multiple Use- (June 12, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . 2057 Tax Cuts Stimulate the U.S. Economy,
Sweeps Europe and America, Dior’s “New Look” Kennedy-Johnson (Feb. 26, 1964) . . . . . . . . 2517
(Spring, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 Tax Laws Allow Accelerated Depreciation, U.S.
Sweetener Cyclamate Is Banned from U.S. Consumer (Aug. 16, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
Markets, Artificial (Oct. 21, 1969) . . . . . . . . 3322 Taxes Are Outlawed, Poll
Sweetener Cyclamate Is Introduced, Artificial (Jan. 23, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2507
(June, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 Taxes Begin in Europe, Value-Added
Swimsuit Is Introduced, Bikini (Apr. 10, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377
(July 5, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 Taylor Discover Quarks, Friedman, Kendall, and
Symphonic and Jazz Elements in West Side Story, (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3024
Bernstein Joins (Sept. 26, 1957) . . . . . . . . . 1758 Taylor Establishes His Own Dance Company
(May 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1400
lxxxi
Teamsters Union, AFL-CIO Expels the Television Programming, Kukla, Fran, and Ollie
(Dec. 5, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1786 Pioneers Children’s (Nov. 29, 1948-
Technique to Date Ancient Obsidian, Scientists Aug. 31, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
Develop a (Spring, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2031 Television Programming, Situation Comedies
Tehran Conference Promotes Allied Cooperation Dominate (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991
in Iran (Nov. 28-Dec. 1, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Television Programming, Variety Shows
Tehran Sets Human Rights Goals, Proclamation of Dominate (June, 1948-1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
(May 13, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3095 Television Rise in Popularity, Family Comedies on
Teilhard de Chardin Attempts to Reconcile Religion (1950’s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
and Evolution (1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1478 Television Series Are Westerns, Seven of the
Telephone Cable Begins Operation, First Top Ten Are (1958-1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
Transatlantic (Sept. 25, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . 1645 Television Service, ABC Begins Its Own Network
Telescope, Hale Constructs the 200-Inch (Apr. 19, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
(June 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798 Teller and Ulam Develop the First Hydrogen Bomb
Telescope Is Completed, Jodrell Bank Radio (1951-1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
(Aug. 2, 1957). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728 Temperature Inversion, Pennsylvania Town Suffers
Telescope Locates the First Known Radio Galaxy, Deadly (Oct. 26-31, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
Ryle’s Radio (1948-1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Tenzing Reach the Top of Mount Everest,
Televised Newsmagazine, 60 Minutes Becomes Hillary and (May 29, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304
the First (Sept. 24, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3141 Terminal, Saarinen Designs Kennedy Airport’s
Televised Tour of the White House, Jacqueline TWA (1956-1962). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1600
Kennedy Leads a (Feb. 14 and 18, 1962) . . . . . 2273 Terms, U.S. Presidents Are Limited to Two
Television, Amahl and the Night Visitors Premieres (Mar. 1, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
on American (Dec. 24, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . 1155 Terrorist Strike on Israel, Fatah Launches Its First
Television, Captain Kangaroo Expands Children’s (Dec. 31, 1964-Jan. 7, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2625
(Oct. 3, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1559 Test Aircraft Exceeds Twice the Speed of Sound
Television, Carroll Becomes the First African (Nov. 20, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1340
American Woman to Star as a Non-domestic Tet Offensive Begins (Jan. 30, 1968) . . . . . . . . 3053
on (Sept. 17, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3138 Tetracycline Antibiotic, Duggar Develops the
Television, FCC Licenses Commercial First (Summer, 1945). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
(May 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Texaco Star Theater, “Mr. Television” Hosts the
Television, Golden Age of (1950’s). . . . . . . . . . 974 (June 8, 1948-Spring, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
Television, Hasbro Advertises Toys on Textron Initiates the Trend Toward Conglomeration
(Fall, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217 (July 8, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
Television, Peyton Place Brings Serial Drama to Thai-Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced
Nighttime (Sept. 15, 1964-June 2, 1969) . . . . . 2596 Labor (Oct. 25, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Television, Sheen Entertains and Instructs on Thai Forces Attack French Troops Near Battambang
American (Feb. 12, 1952-1957, and (Jan., 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1961-1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179 Thai Military Coup (Sept. 17, 1957) . . . . . . . . . 1744
Television, The Red Skelton Show Becomes a Thalidomide Tragedy Prompts Passage of the
Landmark on Network (Sept. 30, 1951- Kefauver-Harris Amendment
Aug. 29, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132 (Oct. 10, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2323
Television as Art, Nam June Paik Exhibits Theaters, Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios
Video and (Mar. 11-20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . 2376 to Divest (May 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Television Classic, Bonanza Becomes an Theaters, Ford Foundation Begins to Fund
American (Sept. 12, 1959-Jan. 16, 1973) . . . . . 1936 Nonprofit (Fall, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750
Television Comedy, I Love Lucy Dominates Theatre, Britain Establishes the Royal National
(Oct. 15, 1951-Sept. 24, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . 1135 (Aug. 9, 1962). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2298
Television Is Introduced, Community Antenna Theatre of the Absurd, Esslin Publishes The
(1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 (1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2124
Television Miniseries, The Forsyte Saga Anticipates Theatre Workshop Presents Behan’s The Hostage
the (Oct. 5, 1969-Mar. 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3309 (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807
lxxxii
Theatres Act Ends Censorship of British Drama Trade Association Is Established, European Free
(July 26, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3117 (Jan. 4, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2021
Theory, Gamow Develops the Big Bang Trade Is Signed, General Agreement on Tariffs and
(Oct. 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837 (Oct. 30, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Theory of Comets, Oort Offers a (1950) . . . . . . . 984 Trade Routes, Renfrew, Dixon, and Cann
Theory of the Universe Is Advanced by Bondi, Reconstruct Ancient Near Eastern (1964) . . . . 2474
Gold, and Hoyle, Steady-State (1948) . . . . . . . 726 Traditional Filmmaking, Welles’s Citizen Kane
Thieu Is Elected President of South Vietnam Breaks with (May 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
(Sept. 3, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2982 Trafficking Is Adopted, United Nations Convention
Things Fall Apart Depicts the Destruction of Suppressing Human (Dec. 2, 1949) . . . . . . . . 954
Ibo Culture (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811 Trails System Acts Are Passed, Wild and Scenic
Third Man Premieres, The (Sept. 3, 1949) . . . . . . 941 Rivers and (Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3152
Third New International Dictionary, Webster’s Tranquilizer for Psychosis, Wilkins and Kline
(Oct., 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2223 Discover the First (Apr. 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . 1383
Three Civil Rights Workers Are Murdered Trans-Amazon Highway Is Announced
(June 21-22, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2556 (June 16, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3428
Three-Dimensional Shapes of Organic Compounds, Transatlantic Telephone Cable Begins Operation,
Barton and Hassel Share the Nobel Prize for First (Sept. 25, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1645
Determining the (Dec. 10, 1969) . . . . . . . . . 3347 Transformation of Nature, Soviets Adopt Stalin’s
Tibet, China Invades and Begins Rule of Plan for the (1948-1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
(Oct. 7, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Transistor, Invention of the (Dec. 23, 1947) . . . . . 694
Tidal Power Station, Soviet Union Opens a Transistor Radio, Sony Develops the Pocket-Sized
(Dec., 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3178 (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1682
Tidal Power Station Begins Operation, First Transistor Technology, Morita Licenses
(Nov. 26, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2856 (1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1258
Tillich Examines Modern Anxiety in The Courage Transpacific Contact in 3000 b.c.e., Anthropologists
to Be (1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167 Claim That Ecuadorian Pottery Shows
Tin Drum, Grass Publishes The (1959) . . . . . . . 1882 (1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2628
TIROS 1 Becomes the First Experimental Transplant, Barnard Performs the First Human
Weather Reconnaissance Satellite Heart (Dec. 2, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3008
(Apr. 1-June 14, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2040 Treatment, X Rays from a Synchrotron Are First
Titan Has an Atmosphere, Kuiper Discovers That Used in Medical Diagnosis and (1949) . . . . . . 880
(Jan. 29, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Treatment of Alcoholism, Aversion Drug Found
Tlatelolco Massacre Stuns Mexico for the (1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
(Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3150 Treatment of High Blood Pressure, Wilkins
To Kill a Mockingbird Calls for Social Justice, Introduces Reserpine for the (1952) . . . . . . . 1170
Lee’s (July 11, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2081 Treaty, Nuclear Powers Sign the Limited Test Ban
Tokyo, Doolittle Mission Bombs (Aug. 5, 1963). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2412
(Apr. 18, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Treaty, United Nations Amends Its International
Tolkien Publishes The Lord of the Rings Slavery (Oct. 23, 1953-Sept. 4, 1956) . . . . . . 1333
(June, 1954-Oct., 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1402 Treaty Goes into Effect, Nuclear Non-Proliferation
Tonight Show Becomes an American Institution, (Mar. 5, 1970). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3390
The (Sept. 27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1442 Treaty Goes into Force, Antarctic
Toppled, Iraq’s Monarchy Is (July 14, 1958) . . . . 1847 (June 23, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2201
Torrey Canyon Runs Aground, Oil Tanker Treaty of Peace with Japan Is Signed in San
(Mar. 18, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2909 Francisco (Sept. 8, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118
Totalitarianism and Mind Control, Nineteen Treaty Organization Is Formed, North Atlantic
Eighty-Four Portrays (June, 1949) . . . . . . . . . 920 (Apr. 4, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
Toys on Television, Hasbro Advertises Treaty Takes Effect, Outer Space
(Fall, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1217 (Oct. 10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2994
Trade, Bretton Woods Agreement Encourages Free Tribunals Impose Death Sentences for War Crimes,
(July 1-22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 British and Australian (1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 505
lxxxiii
Trilogy Expands the Frontiers of Fiction, Beckett’s U-2 Incident (May 1, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2049
(1951-1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071 UAW Introduce the COLA Clause, General Motors
Tripartite Pact, Bulgaria Joins the and the (May 25, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
(Mar. 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Udall Publishes The Quiet Crisis (1963). . . . . . . 2351
Troops Occupy the Dominican Republic, U.S. Uganda Gains Independence (Oct. 9, 1962) . . . . . 2321
(Apr. 28, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2651 “Ugly American,” Burdick and Lederer Explore the
Troops Restore Order in Northern Ireland, British Image of the (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
(Aug., 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3279 Ulam Develop the First Hydrogen Bomb, Teller and
Troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, Eisenhower Sends (1951-1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
(Sept. 25, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753 Ultrasound to Examine Human Fetuses, Donald
Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” Is Published, Uses (1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798
Lindeman’s “The (Oct., 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . 192 U.N. Action in Lebanon, Middle East Turmoil
Trucking Agreement, Hoffa Negotiates a National Leads to (June 11-Dec., 1958) . . . . . . . . . . 1837
(Jan. 16, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2504 U.N. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees,
Trudeau Serves as Canadian Prime Minister Adoption of the (July 28, 1951). . . . . . . . . . 1112
(June 25, 1968-June 30, 1984) . . . . . . . . . . 3107 U.N. Financing Emerges Over Peacekeeping
Trujillo Is Assassinated, Dominican Dictator Rafael Expenses, Crisis in (1963-1965) . . . . . . . . . 2358
(May 30, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2193 U.N. Peacekeeping Response, India-Pakistan
Truman Creates the Bureau of Land Management Conflict Prompts (Sept. 20, 1965-
(July 16, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Mar. 22, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2701
Truman Doctrine (Mar. 12, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . 627 U.N. Secretary-General, Hammarskjöld Is Elected
Truman Escapes Assassination Attempt, President (Apr. 10, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296
(Nov. 1, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035 U.N. Secretary-General Is Selected, First
Truman Is Elected President (Nov. 2, 1948) . . . . . 840 (Feb. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Truman-MacArthur Confrontation Unconstitutional, Supreme Court Rules
(Mar. 24-Apr. 11, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1088 African American Disenfranchisement
Truman Orders Desegregation of U.S. Armed Forces (Apr. 3, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
(July 26, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818 Underground Film The Chelsea Girls Finds
Truman Orders Seizure of Steel Plants Mainstream Audience, Warhol’s
(Apr. 8, 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188 (Sept. 15, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2829
Truman Orders Seizure of the Railroads UNICEF Is Established (Dec. 11, 1946) . . . . . . . 597
(May 17-25, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Unification Church, Moon Founds the
Truman Proclamation on the Continental Shelf (May 1, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391
(Sept. 28, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Union, AFL-CIO Expels the Teamsters
Truman’s Veto, Taft-Hartley Act Passes over (Dec. 5, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1786
(June 23, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 Union and Lead Grape Pickers’ Strike,
Tunnel Between France and Italy Opens, Mont Blanc Chávez and Huerta Form Farmworkers’
(July 16, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2669 (Sept. 30, 1962, and Sept. 16, 1965) . . . . . . . 2311
Tupper Adopts Home-Sales Strategy for Tupperware Union Corruption, Landrum-Griffin Act Targets
(Apr., 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096 (Sept. 14, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940
Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First Jet Plane Union Enters into Force, Benelux Customs
(May 15, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 (Jan. 1, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
Turkish Cypriots Clash over Political Rights, Greek Union Is Established, Western European
and (Dec. 22, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2453 (Oct. 23, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
Tutsi Monarchy, Rwandan Hutus Overthrow Union Is Formed, European Payments
(Nov., 1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1957 (July 1, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
200-Inch Telescope, Hale Constructs the Union Is Founded, World Conservation
(June 3, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798 (Oct. 5, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Two Republics, Germany Splits into Union of Concerned Scientists Is Founded
(Sept. 21-Oct. 7, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 (Mar. 4, 1969). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3234
Tyler Discover 2-Billion-Year-Old Microfossils, Union Project, Birth of the European Monetary
Barghoorn and (Apr. 30, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . 1380 (Dec., 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3344
lxxxiv
United Arab Republic, Syria and Egypt Form the United Nations Korean Relief Agency Is Formed
(Feb. 1, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826 (Dec. 1, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
United Fruit Company Instigates a Coup in United Nations Peace Force Is Deployed in Cyprus
Guatemala (June 18-27, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . 1408 (Mar. 27, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2527
United Kingdom, Ghana Gains Independence United Nations Revokes South African
from the (Mar. 6, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1698 Mandate over South-West Africa
United Kingdom, India Gains Independence (Oct. 27, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2849
from the (Aug. 15, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 United Nations Secretary-General Dag
United Kingdom Passes the National Health Hammarskjöld Dies in a Plane Crash
Service Act (Nov. 6, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 (Sept. 18, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2217
United Methodist Church Is Formed United Nations Security Council Adopts
(Apr. 23, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3082 Resolution 242 (Nov. 22, 1967) . . . . . . . . . 3005
United Nations, Spain Is Denied Entrance into the United Nations Sets Rules for Treatment of
(Dec. 12, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Prisoners (Aug. 22-Sept. 3, 1955) . . . . . . . . 1542
United Nations Admits Its First New Member United Nations Volunteers Program Is Established
States (Nov. 9-Dec. 15, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 584 (Dec. 7, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3495
United Nations Admits Sixteen New Members United Nations World Food Programme Is
(Dec. 14, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1580 Established (Feb., 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2268
United Nations Adopts Convention on Genocide United States, Germany and Italy Declare War
(Dec. 9, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 on the (Dec. 11, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
United Nations Adopts the Abolition of Forced United States, Mills Analyzes Political Power
Labor Convention (June 25, 1957) . . . . . . . . 1718 in the (1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1587
United Nations Adopts the Declaration of the United States, Service Economy Emerges in the
Rights of the Child (Nov. 20, 1959) . . . . . . . 1964 (1960’s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988
United Nations Adopts the Universal Declaration United States and the Soviet Union, Hotline Is
of Human Rights (Dec. 10, 1948) . . . . . . . . . 851 Adopted Between the (June 20, 1963) . . . . . . 2407
United Nations Amends Its International Slavery United States Begins the Bracero Program
Treaty (Oct. 23, 1953-Sept. 4, 1956) . . . . . . . 1333 (Aug. 4, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
United Nations Charter Convention United States Create NORAD, Canada and the
(Apr. 25-June 26, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 (May 12, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834
United Nations Condemns Racial Discrimination United States Develops the First Nuclear Weapon
(Nov. 20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2432 (June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . 171
United Nations Convention on the Political Rights United States Enters the Battle of the Atlantic
of Women Is Approved (Dec. 20, 1952) . . . . . 1251 (Mar. 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
United Nations Convention Suppressing Human United States Enters the Vietnam War
Trafficking Is Adopted (Dec. 2, 1949) . . . . . . . 954 (Aug. 7, 1964-Jan. 27, 1973) . . . . . . . . . . . 2576
United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political United States Establish the DEW Line, Canada
Rights Is Adopted (Dec. 16, 1966) . . . . . . . . 2863 and the (Feb. 15, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1359
United Nations Creates an Agency to Aid Palestinian United States Inaugurates Mutual Security Program
Refugees (Dec. 9, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 (Oct. 22, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
United Nations Drafts a Convention on Stateless United States Interns Japanese Americans
Persons (Sept. 28, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445 (Feb. 19, 1942-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
United Nations General Assembly Passes the Uniting United States Invades Cambodia
for Peace Resolution (Nov. 3, 1950) . . . . . . . 1038 (Apr. 29, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3416
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United States Is Established, Humane Society of the
Statute Is Approved (Dec. 14, 1950) . . . . . . . 1050 (Nov. 22, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1452
United Nations Holds Its First Conference on Food United States Joins the International Biological
and Agriculture (May 18-June 3, 1943) . . . . . . 257 Program (July 1, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2960
United Nations Intervenes in the Congolese Civil United States Launches Its First Orbiting Satellite
War (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2075 (Jan. 31, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822
United Nations Issues a Declaration on Equality for United States Launches Vanguard Satellite Program
Women (Nov. 7, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2999 (Sept. 9, 1955-Sept. 18, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . 1549
lxxxv
United States Places Its First Astronaut in Space U.S. Gulf Coast, Hurricane Camille Devastates the
(May 5, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2179 (Aug. 17-18, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3292
United States Sprays Agent Orange in Vietnam U.S. Highball Premieres in New York
(Jan. 12, 1962-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2265 (Apr. 22, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Uniting for Peace Resolution, United Nations U.S. Immigration Law, Hart-Celler Act Reforms
General Assembly Passes the (Nov. 3, 1950). . . 1038 (Oct. 3, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2715
UNIVAC I Becomes the First Commercial Electronic U.S. Involvement in Vietnam, Kennedy Expands
Computer (Mar. 31, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092 (Nov. 14, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2236
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United U.S. Labor Force, 6.6 Million Women Enter the
Nations Adopts the (Dec. 10, 1948) . . . . . . . . 851 (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Universities, New Criticism Arises in American U.S. Market, Disposable Diapers Are Introduced
(1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 to (Early 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2118
University of Mississippi, Meredith Registers at the U.S. Presidents Are Limited to Two Terms
(Oct. 1, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2314 (Mar. 1, 1951). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
Unrest, Inflation and Labor U.S. Senator Since Reconstruction, Brooke Becomes
(Apr. 8, 1943-June 23, 1947). . . . . . . . . . . . 251 the First African American (Jan. 10, 1967) . . . . 2894
Untouchables, Indian Government Bans U.S. Submarine Is Launched, First Nuclear-
Discrimination Against (Nov. 26, 1949) . . . . . . 950 Powered (Jan. 21, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1356
Upper Volta Coup Leads to Military Government U.S. Supreme Court Orders Du Pont to Disburse
(Jan. 3, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2780 GM Holdings (May 22, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . 2186
Uprising, Soviets Crush Hungarian U.S. Tax Laws Allow Accelerated Depreciation
(Oct. 23-Nov. 10, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1661 (Aug. 16, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
Uprising Against Nazis, Warsaw Ghetto Armed U.S. Troops Occupy the Dominican Republic
(Apr. 19-May 16, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 (Apr. 28, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2651
Uprising Creates Havoc in Kenya, Mau Mau U.S. Voting Age Is Lowered to Eighteen
(Oct. 20, 1952-1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223 (1970-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3368
Ural Mountains, Nuclear Waste Explodes in the U.S. Water Supply, Fluoride Is Introduced into the
(Late 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731 (Jan. 25, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Urban Planning in Dacca, Kahn Blends USS Pueblo, North Korea Seizes the
Architecture and (Beginning 1962) . . . . . . . . 2252 (Jan. 23, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3050
U.S. and Mexican Companies Form Maquiladoras Ussuri River Border, Sino-Soviet Tensions Mount
(1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2634 Along the (Mar. 2-Oct. 20, 1969). . . . . . . . . 3231
U.S. Armed Forces, Truman Orders Desegregation
of (July 26, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818 V-1 and V-2 Weapons Are Deployed, German
U.S. Auto Production, Studebaker Announces (June 13 and Sept. 8, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Plans to Abandon (Dec. 9, 1963) . . . . . . . . . 2443 V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in
U.S. Businesses, Brazil Nationalizes Europe (May 8, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
(Apr., 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2284 Vaccine, Sabin Develops the Oral Polio (1957) . . . 1679
U.S. Censorship and War Propaganda During Vaccine, Salk Develops a Polio (July 2, 1952) . . . 1196
World War II (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Vaccine Is Developed, German Measles
U.S. Citizen Canonized as a Saint, Mother Cabrini (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3195
Becomes the First (July 7, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . 551 Value-Added Taxes Begin in Europe
U.S. Commercial Nuclear Plant Opens, First (Apr. 10, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377
(Dec. 2, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783 Van Allen Discovers the Earth’s Radiation Belts
U.S. Consumer Markets, Artificial Sweetener (July 26, 1958) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
Cyclamate Is Banned from (Oct. 21, 1969). . . . 3322 Vanguard Satellite Program, United States Launches
U.S. Economy, Kennedy-Johnson Tax Cuts (Sept. 9, 1955-Sept. 18, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . 1549
Stimulate the (Feb. 26, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . 2517 Varèse Premieres Déserts (Dec. 2, 1954) . . . . . . 1456
U.S. Government Encourages American Indians Variety Shows Dominate Television Programming
to Settle in Cities (1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989 (June, 1948-1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
U.S. Government Program Begins Deporting Vatican Council Meets, Second
Mexican Workers (June 10, 1954) . . . . . . . . 1406 (Oct. 11, 1962-Dec. 8, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . 2327
lxxxvi
Venera 3 Is the First Spacecraft to Impact Another Voting Age Is Lowered to Eighteen, U.S.
Planet (Nov. 16, 1965-Mar. 1, 1966) . . . . . . . 2745 (1970-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3368
Venice, Kurosawa’s Rashomon Wins the Grand Voting Districts, Supreme Court Requires
Prize at (Sept. 10, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121 Population to Determine (Mar. 26, 1962-
Venus, Mariner 2 Becomes the First Spacecraft Feb. 17, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2282
to Study (Aug. 27, 1962-Jan. 2, 1963) . . . . . . 2301 Voting Rights Act, Congress Passes the
Verrazano-Narrows Bridge Opens (Aug. 6, 1965). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2685
(Nov. 21, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2616 Vows, Brothers at Taizé Take Permanent
Very Long Baseline Interferometry, (Apr. 17, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
Development of (1967-1973) . . . . . . . . . . . 2890
Veto, Taft-Hartley Act Passes over Truman’s Waiting for Godot Expresses the Existential
(June 23, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 Theme of Absurdity (Jan. 5, 1953) . . . . . . . . 1274
Video and Television as Art, Nam June Paik Waksman Discovers the Antibiotic Streptomycin
Exhibits (Mar. 11-20, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . 2376 (Sept., 1943-Mar., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Viet Minh, Ho Chi Minh Organizes the Walter Act, McCarran- (June 27, 1952) . . . . . . . 1193
(May, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution”
Vietnam, Kennedy Expands U.S. Involvement in (Jan. 20, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
(Nov. 14, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2236 War, Anglo-Iraqi (May 2-June 13, 1941). . . . . . . . 74
Vietnam, United States Sprays Agent Orange in War, Biafra’s Secession Triggers Nigerian Civil
(Jan. 12, 1962-1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2265 (May 30, 1967-Jan. 15, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . 2936
Vietnam in The Best and the Brightest, War, Collapse of the Laotian Government Leads
Halberstam Reflects on American to Civil (Dec. 9, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116
Involvement in (1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3200 War, Costa Rica Endures Its Bloodiest Civil
Vietnam Is Named a State (Mar. 8, 1949). . . . . . . 909 (Mar. 12-Apr. 19, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
Vietnam War, United States Enters the War, Geneva Conventions Establish Norms of
(Aug. 7, 1964-Jan. 27, 1973) . . . . . . . . . . . 2576 Conduct in (Aug. 12, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
Vietnamese Fight French Control of Indochina, War, Israel Defeats Arab States in the Six-Day
Nationalist (Nov., 1946-July, 1954) . . . . . . . . 576 (June 5-10, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2947
Vietnamese Generals Overthrow Diem Regime War, Korean (June 25, 1950-July 27, 1953) . . . . . 1008
(Nov. 1-2, 1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2429 War, Soccer (July 14-20, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . 3270
Views of the Far Side of the Moon, Luna 3 War, United Nations Intervenes in the Congolese Civil
Provides the First (Oct. 7, 1959) . . . . . . . . . 1947 (July, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2075
Villa-Lobos, Death of (Nov. 17, 1959) . . . . . . . 1960 War, United States Enters the Vietnam
Violencia Begins in Colombia, La (Aug. 7, 1964-Jan. 27, 1973) . . . . . . . . . . . 2576
(Apr. 9, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 War Begins in Chad, Civil (Nov., 1965). . . . . . . 2731
Virginia, Exemplifies the Planned Community, War Brides Act (Dec. 28, 1945). . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Reston, (Summer, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2553 War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat
Voest Develops the Basic Oxygen Process for (Apr. 18, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Steelmaking (Early 1952) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158 War Creates Refugee Crisis, Arab-Israeli
Vogt’s Road to Survival Warns of Overpopulation (Nov. 29, 1947-July, 1949). . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
(1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 War Crimes, British and Australian Tribunals
Voice of America Begins Broadcasting Impose Death Sentences for (1946) . . . . . . . . 505
(Feb. 24, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 War Crimes, Eichmann Is Tried for
Volunteers Program Is Established, United Nations (Apr. 11-Aug. 14, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2169
(Dec. 7, 1970) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3495 War Crimes, Japanese General Yamashita Is
Vonnegut’s Cat’s Cradle Expresses 1960’s Convicted of (Oct. 29, 1945-Feb. 23, 1946) . . . . 495
Alienation (1963) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2354 War Crimes, Jaspers Examines Germany’s
Von Weizsäcker Forms His Quantitative Theory Collective Responsibility for (1946) . . . . . . . . 507
of Planetary Formation (1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 225 War Crimes, Statutes of Limitations Are Rendered
Vote, Council of Federated Organizations Inapplicable to (Nov. 26, 1968). . . . . . . . . . 3175
Registers African Americans to War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg, Nazi
(1962-1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2258 (Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . 498
lxxxvii
War Erupts, First Sudanese Civil Waugh Captures Prewar English Life in Brideshead
(Aug. 18-Sept. 6, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1538 Revisited, Evelyn (May 28, 1945) . . . . . . . . . 466
War for Independence, Eritrea Begins Its Weapon, United States Develops the First Nuclear
(Sept. 1, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2209 (June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . 171
War in the Pacific, Cairo Conference and Weapons Are Deployed, German V-1 and V-2
Declaration Addresses (Nov. 23-30, 1943) . . . . 316 (June 13 and Sept. 8, 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
War Measures Act Against Quebec Weather Modification, First Cloud Seeding Heralds
Separatists, Canada Invokes (Nov. 13, 1946). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
(Oct. 16, 1970-Apr. 30, 1971) . . . . . . . . . . 3458 Weather Prediction, Meteorologists Make the First
War on Japan, Canada Declares Computerized (Apr., 1950). . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
(Dec. 7, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Weather Reconnaissance Satellite, TIROS 1
War on Poverty, Johnson Announces Becomes the First Experimental (Apr. 1-
(Jan. 8, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2500 June 14, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2040
War on the United States, Germany and Italy Websters Third New International Dictionary
Declare (Dec. 11, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 (Oct., 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2223
War-Themed Films, Casablanca Marks the Artistic Weed Control, Diquat Herbicide Is Developed for
Apex of 1940’s (Nov. 26, 1942) . . . . . . . . . . 213 (1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1465
War II, Africans Return Home After World Weiss’s Absurdist Drama Marat/Sade Is Produced
(1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 (Apr. 29, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2539
War II, U.S. Censorship and War Propaganda During Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks with Traditional
World (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Filmmaking (May 1, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
War II Ally, Churchill Visits Canada as World Welsh Village, Mining Debris Buries
(Dec. 29-31, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 (Oct. 21, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2846
War II: European Theater, World West Bank, Jordan Annexes the
(Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 (Apr. 24, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
War II in Europe, V-E Day Marks the End of West German Chemical Workers, Dioxin Causes
World (May 8, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 Chloracne in (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674
War II: Pacific Theater, World West Side Story, Bernstein Joins Symphonic and
(July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Jazz Elements in (Sept. 26, 1957) . . . . . . . . 1758
Warfare, M*A*S*H Satirizes (Jan. 25, 1970) . . . . 3379 Western Allies Invade Italy (Sept. 3-18, 1943) . . . . 294
Warhol’s Underground Film The Chelsea Girls Finds Western Drama, Debut of Gunsmoke Launches
Mainstream Audience (Sept. 15, 1966) . . . . . . 2829 the Adult (Sept. 10, 1955) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552
Warsaw Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis Western European Union Is Established
(Apr. 19-May 16, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 (Oct. 23, 1954) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
Warsaw Pact Is Signed (May 14, 1955) . . . . . . . 1512 Western Film Genre, Leone Renovates the
Washington, D.C., Drury Sets a Novel of Political (1964-1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2484
Intrigue in (1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1880 Western Samoa Gains Independence from New
Water Laws, Congress Strengthens Zealand (Jan. 1, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2262
(Oct. 2, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2712 Westerns, Seven of the Top Ten Television
Water Pollution Control Act, Congress Amends the Series Are (1958-1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
(June 27, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1631 Westerns Dominate Postwar American Film
Water Pollution Control Act Is Passed, First (1946-1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
(June 30, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 Whaling Commission Is Formed, International
Water Resources Research Act, Congress Passes (Dec. 2, 1946) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
the (July 17, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569 Wheat, Borlaug Begins Work on High-Yield
Water Supply, Fluoride Is Introduced into the U.S. (Sept., 1944) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
(Jan. 25, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Wheeler Refers to Collapsed Stars as “Black
Water to the Negev, Israel Brings (1964) . . . . . . 2463 Holes” (Spring, 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3069
Watson and Crick Announce the Double-Helix White Explores the Judeo-Christian Roots of
Model for DNA (Apr. 2, 1953) . . . . . . . . . . 1293 Environmental Problems (Mar. 10, 1967) . . . . 2905
Watts Riot (Aug. 11-17, 1965) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2688 White House, Jacqueline Kennedy Leads a Televised
Tour of the (Feb. 14 and 18, 1962) . . . . . . . . 2273
lxxxviii
White Supremacist Government, Southern Women Enter the U.S. Labor Force, 6.6 Million
Rhodesian Freedom Fighters Begin Toppling (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
(Apr. 28, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2803 Women Forms to Protect Women’s Rights, National
Whitney Museum, Breuer Designs a Building Organization for (Oct. 29-30, 1966) . . . . . . . 2852
for the (Sept. 28, 1966) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2833 Women Is Approved, United Nations Convention
Whole Earth Catalog and Mother Earth News on the Political Rights of (Dec. 20, 1952) . . . . 1251
Appear, The (Nov., 1968, and Jan., 1970) . . . . 3161 Women to Parliament, Australians Elect First
Wholesome Poultry Products Act Is Passed (Sept., 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
(Aug. 18, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3127 Women’s Experience, Plath’s The Colossus Voices
Wiesel’s Night Recalls the Holocaust (1956) . . . . 1589 (Fall, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2106
Wild and Scenic Rivers and Trails System Acts Are Women’s Movement, Beauvoir’s The Second Sex
Passed (Oct. 2, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3152 Anticipates the (1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
Wilderness Act Is Passed (Sept. 3, 1964) . . . . . . 2589 Women’s Rights Legislation, Indian Parliament
Wildlife Fund Is Established, World Approves (1955-1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481
(Sept. 11, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2214 Women’s Roles, The Mary Tyler Moore Show
Wildlife Refuge Is Dedicated, Great Swamp Examines (Sept. 19, 1970-Sept. 3, 1977) . . . . . 3443
(May 29, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2550 Woodstock Music Festival Marks the Climax
Wilkins and Kline Discover the First Tranquilizer of 1960’s Youth Culture (Aug. 15-18, 1969) . . . 3288
for Psychosis (Apr. 30, 1954). . . . . . . . . . . 1383 Workers, Dioxin Causes Chloracne in West German
Wilkins Introduces Reserpine for the Treatment Chemical (1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1674
of High Blood Pressure (1952) . . . . . . . . . . 1170 Workers, U.S. Government Program Begins
Williams Performs on The Grand Ole Opry, Hank Deporting Mexican (June 10, 1954) . . . . . . . 1406
(June 11, 1949) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 Workers Rebel Against the Political Order, French
Willson’s The Music Man Presents Musical Students and (May-June, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . 3088
Americana (Dec. 19, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790 Working-Class Views, “Angry Young Men” Express
Wilson Discover Cosmic Microwave Background (1950’s). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
Radiation, Penzias and (1963-1965) . . . . . . . 2360 World Conservation Union Is Founded
Windscale Reactor Releases Radiation, England’s (Oct. 5, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
(Oct. 10, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768 World Council of Churches Is Formed
Wojtyua Is Named Poland’s Youngest Bishop, (Aug. 22, 1948). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
Karol (July 4, 1958). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844 World Food Programme Is Established, United
Wolfenden Report Recommends Decriminalizing Nations (Feb., 1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2268
Consensual Sex (Sept. 4, 1957) . . . . . . . . . . 1738 World Health Organization Intensifies Its
Woman Athlete of the Half Century, AP Names Campaign to Eradicate Smallpox (1967) . . . . . 2885
Didrikson (Feb. 16, 1950) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997 World Health Organization Proclaims Health a
Woman Elected to Congress, Chisholm Becomes Basic Human Right (July 22, 1946) . . . . . . . . 557
the First African American (Nov. 5, 1968) . . . . 3164 World Hunger, Borlaug Receives the Nobel Prize
Woman in the World, Rudolph Becomes the Fastest for His Work on (Dec. 10, 1970) . . . . . . . . . 3496
(Sept. 7, 1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2097 World Series, Larsen Pitches a Perfect Game in
Woman to Star as a Non-domestic on Television, Baseball’s (Oct. 8, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1655
Carroll Becomes the First African American World Series, NBC Broadcasts the Baseball
(Sept. 17, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3138 (Sept. 30-Oct. 6, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Women, France Grants Suffrage to World War II, Africans Return Home After
(Mar. 15, 1944). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 (1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Women, Japanese Constitution Grants New World War II, U.S. Censorship and War Propaganda
Rights to (May 3, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 During (1941-1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Women, Presbyterian and Methodist World War II Ally, Churchill Visits Canada as
Churches Approve Ordination of (Dec. 29-31, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
(May, 1955-May, 1956) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509 World War II: European Theater
Women, United Nations Issues a Declaration on (Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Equality for (Nov. 7, 1967) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2999 World War II in Europe, V-E Day Marks the End of
(May 8, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
lxxxix
World War II: Pacific Theater Yankee Baseball Great Lou Gehrig Dies
(July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 (June 2, 1941) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
World Wildlife Fund Is Established Yeager Breaks the Sound Barrier
(Sept. 11, 1961) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2214 (Oct. 14, 1947) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
World’s First Breeder Reactor Produces Electricity Young Readers Embrace The Catcher in the Rye
(Dec. 20, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152 (July 16, 1951) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated Youth, Easy Rider Captures the Spirit of 1960’s
(Nov. 4, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 (July 14, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3266
“World’s Greatest Athlete,” Mathias Is Dubbed the Youth Culture, Woodstock Music Festival
(Aug. 6, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822 Marks the Climax of 1960’s
Wright-Designed Guggenheim Museum Opens (Aug. 15-18, 1969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3288
(Oct. 21, 1959) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950
Writers Form Group 47, German (Sept., 1947) . . . . 668 Zambia’s First President, Kaunda Becomes
(Oct. 24, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2609
X-15 Rocket Aircraft Program Zanzibar and Tanganyika Unite to Form Tanzania
(June 8, 1959-Dec. 31, 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . 1919 (Apr. 26, 1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2536
X-Ray Source Outside the Solar System, Discovery Zero Population Growth Movement Begins
of the First (June 18-19, 1962) . . . . . . . . . . 2287 (Nov., 1967). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2996
X Rays from a Synchrotron Are First Used in Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in Music
Medical Diagnosis and Treatment (1949) . . . . . 880 (Feb. 10, 1948) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in
Yalta Conference (Feb. 4-11, 1945) . . . . . . . . . . 432 Los Angeles (June 3-9, 1943) . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes, Japanese Zweig Advance Quark Theory, Gell-Mann and
General (Oct. 29, 1945-Feb. 23, 1946). . . . . . . 495 (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457
xc
List of Maps, Tables, and Sidebars
Abbey, Kentucky’s Silent (primary source) . . . . 709 ANZUS Treaty (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 1116
Aberfan, Wales (map). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2847 Apartheid, Mandela on (primary source) . . . . . 1106
Abington School District v. Schempp Apartheid Legislation in 1950’s South Africa
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2405 (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105
Abolishing Untouchability (primary source) . . . 951 Appeal of June 18, Charles de Gaulle’s
Across the Pacific, Rafting (primary source) . . . 643 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Adenauer Promises Restitution “Arab Circle,” Nasser’s (primary source) . . . . 1200
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214 Arab Republic, 1958, United (map) . . . . . . . 1827
Affirmative Action (primary source) . . . . . . . 2704 Arab States, 1967, Israel and the (map). . . . . . 2948
Africa, c. 1970 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cvi “Are You a Member of the Communist Party?”
Africa, Roosevelt Announces a Second Front in (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Arizona, Miranda v. (primary source) . . . . . . 2821
Africa, Sahel Region of Northern (map) . . . . . 3038 Armed Forces, Desegregating the U.S.
African Nations and Their Years of (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Independence (list). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008 Arusha Declaration (primary source). . . . . . . 2900
African Nations Gaining Independence in Asbestos? What Is (primary source) . . . . . . . 2531
1960 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2007 Asia and Australasia, c. 1970 (map) . . . . . . . . ciii
African Unity, Charter of the Organization of Assassination, Gandhi’s (primary source) . . . . . 742
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2398 Association of Southeast Asian Nations,
Air Pollutants, Major (sidebar). . . . . . . . . . . 835 Declaration of the (primary source) . . . . . . 2977
Air War in Korea, The (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . 1011 Atlantic Charter, The (primary source) . . . . . . . 97
Alaska Highway, The (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Atlantic Treaty, North (primary source) . . . . . . 916
Alcatraz Island (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3336 Atomic Pile, The First (primary source) . . . . . . 221
Algeria, 1962, Independent (map) . . . . . . . . 2291 “Atomic Submarine, We’re Betting Our Shirts
Alienation (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . 1997 on the” (primary source). . . . . . . . . . . . 1358
Allied Invasion of North Africa, 1942 Atoms for Peace (primary source) . . . . . . . . 1723
(map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Attila Line, Cyprus (map). . . . . . . . . . . . . 2454
Allwright, Smith v. (primary source) . . . . . . . . 355 Australasia, c. 1970, Asia and (map) . . . . . . . . ciii
American Indian Civil Rights Act “Autocracy . . . Runs This University, An”
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3080 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2594
American Situation Comedies of the 1960’s,
Popular (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992 Badlands, Egypt, Fayum (map) . . . . . . . . . . 2773
American States: Members and Years of Baikal, Soviet Union, Lake (map) . . . . . . . . 3213
Signature, Organization of (list) . . . . . . . . 776 Balancing Production and Public Services
American Westerns of the Postwar Period, (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
1946-1962, Major (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Banality of Evil, On the (primary source) . . . . 2336
America’s Military-Industrial Complex Barnette, West Virginia State Board of
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2146 Education v. (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 265
America’s National Parks, A Plea for Battle of Guadalcanal, 1942-1943 (map). . . . . . 180
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621 Battle of the Atlantic, 1939-1945 (map). . . . . . . 52
Amnesty’s Founding (primary source) . . . . . . 2190 Battle of the Bulge, 1944-1945 (map) . . . . . . . 417
Ancient-Rock Excavation Sites (map) . . . . . . 3003 Battle of the Java Sea, 1942 (primary source) . . . 155
Animal Welfare Act (primary source) . . . . . . 2828 Bay of Pigs, Cuba (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2177
Antiapartheid Freedom Charter Beats, Naming the (primary source) . . . . . . . . 969
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2035 Beckett’s “Ruined” Understanding
Antitrust Act, Sherman (primary source) . . . . . 442 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
xci
Berkeley, “Showdown” at (primary source) . . . 2593 Charles de Gaulle’s Appeal of June 18

Berlin, 1945-1989, A Divided (map) . . . . . . . 2205 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Best Picture, 1941-1970, Oscars for (list) . . . . . 511 Charter, The Atlantic (primary source) . . . . . . . 97
Biafra, 1967-1970 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2937 Charter of the Organization of African Unity
Bikini Atoll in the South Pacific (map) . . . . . . 1366 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2398
“Birmingham Jail, Letter from a” Chemicals Are the “Elixirs of Death”
Blast Up Close, Seeing the (primary source) . . . 477 Che’s Farewell to Castro and Cuba
“Blow All This Smog Away?, Can’t We Just” (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2992
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2720 Chicago School, Defining the (sidebar) . . . . . . 721
Blue Lake Region, Returning the Chicago Seven Trial, Sentencing at the
Board of Education, Brown v. Child, Declaration on the Rights of the
Body Is Exhumed, Oswald’s (sidebar) . . . . . . 2439 China, 1949-1970, The People’s Republic of
Boeing 707: A Profile (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1866 (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
Boeing 747-100 Jumbo Jet, Profile of the Christianity and the Environment
(table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3357 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2906
Bracero Program Agreement Cigarette Warning Labels (primary source) . . . 2776
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 City, Humanizing the Modern
Breeder Reactor, Idaho, World’s First (map) . . . 1153 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1986
Bridge: Facts and Figures, Verrazano-Narrows Civil Rights Act, American Indian
Broadcasting Act, Public (primary source) . . . . 3453 Civil Rights Act of 1955, India’s Protection of
Brown v. Board of Education (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1398 Civil Rights Act of 1964 (primary source) . . . . 2567
Buddhists, 1963, Diem’s Persecution of Civil Rights Bus Boycott, 1955-1956 (map) . . . 1577
(time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2431 Cold War, Geopolitical Regions During the
Bulge, 1944-1945, Battle of the (map) . . . . . . . 417 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . civ
Burying Mannie (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 166 Cold War, Seeds of the (primary source) . . . . . 232
Bus Boycott, 1955-1956, Civil Rights (map) . . . 1577 Cold War Europe, 1955 (map). . . . . . . . . . . . cv
Colorado River Storage Project Act
Calling for International Service (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2421
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2163 Comedies of the 1960’s, Popular American
Canada, 1949 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 Situation (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992
“Can’t We Just Blow All This Smog Away?” Command, The Chain of (sidebar) . . . . . . . . 3485
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2720 “Commons, The Tragedy of the”
Captain Waskow’s Body (primary source) . . . . 453 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3193
Casablanca, 1943, Conference at (map) . . . . . . 236 Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Constitution
Cascades National Park, North (map) . . . . . . 3149 of the (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
Castro and Cuba, Che’s Farewell to Communism, Hoover on Domestic
Castro’s Cuban Revolution (map) . . . . . . . . 1641 “Communist Party?, Are You a Member of the”
Catch-22 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2122 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
“Catcher” in the Field of Rye Components of a Disposable Diaper (list) . . . . 2119
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110 Conference at Casablanca, 1943 (map) . . . . . . 236
Censure of McCarthy, Senate Congressional Appropriations to the NEA
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280 (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2707
Chad at Peak of Civil War (map) . . . . . . . . . 2732 “Conjunction of Science and Religion, The”
Chain of Command, The (sidebar) . . . . . . . . 3485 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1479
xcii
Constitution, The District of Columbia in the Democratic Dictatorship (primary source). . . . . 948
U.S. (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2167 Desegregating the U.S. Armed Forces
Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Rico (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206 Design, Rethinking (primary source) . . . . . . . 3363
Consumer Credit Protection Act “Destiny, The Motion of ” (primary source) . . . 1700
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3099 “Destroyer of Worlds, I Am Become Death, the”
Consumer Rights (primary source) . . . . . . . . 2038 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Controlled Schizophrenia (primary source) . . . 1308 “Details, Nothing but” (primary source) . . . . . . 331
Convention Establishing the European Free Devil Speaks, The (primary source) . . . . . . . . 145
Trade Association (primary source) . . . . . . 2022 DEW Line, The (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1360
Convention on Human Rights, European Diaper, Components of a Disposable (list) . . . . 2119
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Dictatorship, Democratic (primary source) . . . . 948
Convention on the Political Rights of Women Diem’s Persecution of Buddhists, 1963
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253 (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2431
Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Disability Access: 1968-1998, Key Acts on
Persons (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . 1447 (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3125
Countering Red Fascism (primary source). . . . . 620 Disneyland, 1954-1955, First Season of (list) . . . 1374
“Countryside Serve as a Trash Can?, Must Our” Disposable Diaper, Components of a (list) . . . . 2119
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256 Disputed Territory of the Kashmir Region
Court of Justice, The Hague, International (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
(map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 “Disquieting Muses, The” (primary source) . . . 2108
Credit Protection Act, Consumer District of Columbia in the U.S. Constitution,
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3099 The (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2167
Crimes of General Yamashita, MacArthur on the Dive Site, Sealab II (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2573
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 Divided Berlin, 1945-1989, A (map) . . . . . . . 2205
Crude Oil, Uses for (primary source). . . . . . . 2104 Doctor Zhivago Returns (primary source) . . . . 1763
Cuba, Bay of Pigs (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2177 Doctrine, The Eisenhower
Cuba, Che’s Farewell to Castro and (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1686
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2992 Domestic Communism, Hoover on
Cuban Revolution, Castro’s (map) . . . . . . . . 1641 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279
Dominican Republic, 1965 (map). . . . . . . . . 2652
Dangerous at the Top, It’s (sidebar) . . . . . . . 2330 Dorothy Day’s Early Years
“Day of Infamy” (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 113 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178
Day’s Early Years, Dorothy “Dream of Geneticists, The”
Dead Sea Scrolls, Locations of the (map) . . . . . 771 Drum Beats On and On, The
“Death, the Destroyer of Worlds, I Am Become” (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1883
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Duvalierville: Papa Doc’s Model City
Debating Immigration to the United States (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1776
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
Declaration of the Association of Southeast Earth’s Major Plates and Midocean Ridges
Asian Nations (primary source) . . . . . . . . 2977 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011
Declaration of the Rights of the Child Easy Rider Road Trip, The (map). . . . . . . . . 3268
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1965 Educational Exchange, Global
Defending Formosa (primary source) . . . . . . 1492 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Defending Tom Robinson (primary source) . . . 2082 Egypt, Fayum Badlands (map) . . . . . . . . . . 2773
Defining the Chicago School (sidebar) . . . . . . 721 Egypt, Suez Canal in (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1637
De Gaulle’s Appeal of June 18, Charles Einstein Manifesto, The, Russell-
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1525
Delta, The Ganges (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3481 Eisenhower Doctrine, The (primary source) . . . 1686
xciii
“Elixirs of Death,” Chemicals Are the Food Programme Mission Statement, World
Energy’s Power, Nuclear (primary source) . . . . 172 Formosa, Defending (primary source) . . . . . . 1492
ENIAC?, What Is (primary source) . . . . . . . . 248 Fossil Site, 1959, Hominid (map). . . . . . . . . 1927
Environment, Christianity and the “Four Freedoms” (primary source) . . . . . . . . 130
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2906 Fred Hoyle and the Steady State Theory
Environmental Milestones of the 1960’s (sidebar). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059 Free Trade Association, Convention
Environmental Policy Act, National Establishing the (primary source) . . . . . . . 2022
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3373 Freedom Charter, Antiapartheid
Environmental Protection, Federal-Level (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2035
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3489 Freedom for South Africans, Uncompromised
Equal Pay Act (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 2402 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2243
Erie, Lake (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2692 “Freedoms, Four” (primary source) . . . . . . . . 130
Essence, Existence Precedes Frodo Takes the Ring (primary source) . . . . . 1404
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Future, Shock of the (primary source) . . . . . . 3432
Ethic, A Land (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . 874
“Ethics than of Physics, A Problem More of ” Galaxies, Local Supercluster of (map) . . . . . . . 962
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Gandhi’s Assassination (primary source) . . . . . 742
Europe, 1955, Cold War (map) . . . . . . . . . . . cv Ganges Delta, The (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3481
European Convention on Human Rights García Márquez’s Magic (primary source) . . . . 2927
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Gaulle’s Appeal of June 18, Charles de
European Free Trade Association, Convention (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Establishing the (primary source) . . . . . . . 2022 Gehrig’s Farewell-to-Baseball Speech, Lou
European Theater, Time Line of World War II: (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
(time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 “Geneticists, The Dream of ”
Everest, Mount (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Evil, On the Banality of (primary source) . . . . 2336 Geopolitical Regions During the Cold War
Excavation Sites, Ancient-Rock (map) . . . . . . 3003 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . civ
Exhumed, Oswald’s Body Is (sidebar) . . . . . . 2439 German and Soviet Officials Meet
Existence Precedes Essence (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Germany Declares War on the United States
Experimental Lakes Area (map) . . . . . . . . . 3022 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Germany, 1949, Partition of (map). . . . . . . . . 944
Fascism, Countering Red (primary source) . . . . 620 Germany Surrenders (primary source). . . . . . . 464
Fascism? What Is (primary source) . . . . . . . . 295 Ghana After Independence, 1957 (map) . . . . . 1699
Fayum Badlands, Egypt (map) . . . . . . . . . . 2773 Ghettos in Europe, Major Jewish (map) . . . . . . 254
FBI on Hubbard, The (primary source). . . . . . 1364 G.I. Bill, Roosevelt Signs the
Federal-Level Environmental Protection (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3489 Global Educational Exchange
Field of Rye, “Catcher” in the (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110 Godot, Still Waiting for (primary source) . . . . 1276
“Final Solution,” The (primary source) . . . . . . 137 Goebbels Argues for Total War
First Atomic Pile, The (primary source) . . . . . . 221 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
First Season of Disneyland, 1954-1955 (list) . . . 1374 “Good Earth,” Plundering the
“Fixing” the National Parks (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1604 Griffin Act, Landrum- (primary source) . . . . . 1941
Flybys of Mars, Summary of the Mariner Guatemala and Neighboring Countries
(table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2667 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409
Guilt of War, The (primary source) . . . . . . . . 508
xciv
H-Bomb, Making the (primary source). . . . . . 1068 International Court of Justice, The Hague
Haiti, 1957 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Haze? What Is (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 1532 International Service, Calling for
Highway, The Alaska (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2163
Himmler’s Inhumanity (primary source) . . . . . 255 International Slavery Treaty, U.N.
Hitler’s Proclamation on Invading Russia (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 International Whaling Commission Member
Hominid Fossil Site, 1959 (map) . . . . . . . . . 1927 Countries (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
Hoover on Domestic Communism Internment, Roosevelt’s Order of
Hot Line Treaty (primary source) . . . . . . . . 2408 Internment, Western United States, Japanese
Huascarán Mountain in Peru (map). . . . . . . . 3426 American (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Hubbard, The FBI on (primary source). . . . . . 1364 Invading Russia, Hitler’s Proclamation on
Human, The Naturally Territorial (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2765 Invasion of Normandy, 1944 (map) . . . . . . . . 364
“Human Being First and Foremost, A” “Iron Curtain Has Descended Across the
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2729 Continent, An” (primary source) . . . . . . . . 531
Human Rights, European Convention on Islamic Conference Member States (table) . . . . 3304
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042 Israel and the Arab States, 1967 (map) . . . . . . 2948
Human Rights, Universal (list) . . . . . . . . . . . 852 Israel, 1947-1948 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Human Trafficking, The Suppression of Italy Declares War on the United States
Humanizing the Modern City It’s Dangerous at the Top (sidebar). . . . . . . . 2330
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1986 Iwo Jima, Reports on (primary source) . . . . . . 439
“I Am Become Death, the Destroyer of Worlds” Japan Renounces War (primary source) . . . . . . 645
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Japan, Ryukyu Islands (map). . . . . . . . . . . . 448
I Love Lucy Nielsen Rankings, 1951-1957 Japanese American Internment, Western United
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137 States (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Immigration to the United States, Debating Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, 1941
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Independence, African Nations and Their “Japanese People, To the” (primary source) . . . . 486
Years of (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008 Java Sea, 1942, Battle of the
Independence in 1960, African Nations (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Gaining (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2007 Jewish Ghettos in Europe, Major (map) . . . . . . 254
Independence, 1957, Ghana After (map) . . . . . 1699 Jumbo Jet, Profile of the Boeing 747-100
Independent Algeria, 1962 (map) . . . . . . . . . 2291 (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3357
Independent Zimbabwe, 1966 (map) . . . . . . . 2805
India, 1947, Partition of (map) . . . . . . . . . . . 665 Kashmir Region, Disputed Territory of the
India, Postcolonial (primary source) . . . . . . . . 664 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Indian Civil Rights Act, American Katanga Province, 1960 (map) . . . . . . . . . . 2072
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3080 Kentucky’s Silent Abbey (primary source) . . . . 709
“Indian Control of Indian Programs” Kenya: Site of Mau Mau Uprising (map) . . . . . 1224
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3435 Key Acts on Disability Access: 1968-1998
India’s Protection of Civil Rights Act of 1955 (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3125
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952 Korea, The Air War in (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . 1011
Industrial Complex, America’s Military- Korean War, 1950-1953 (map) . . . . . . . . . . 1009
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2146
“Infamy, Day of ” (primary source) . . . . . . . . 113 Lake Baikal, Soviet Union (map) . . . . . . . . . 3213
Inhumanity, Himmler’s (primary source) . . . . . 255 Lake Erie (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2692
xcv
Lake Region, Returning the Blue Midocean Ridges, Earth’s Major Plates and
Lakes Area, Experimental (map) . . . . . . . . . 3022 Midway, June 4, 1942, Ships Sunk at
Land Ethic, A (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . 874 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Landrum-Griffin Act (primary source) . . . . . . 1941 Mile-Run Times by Men, 1942-1967,
Leakey, Mary (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1928 Progression of (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395
Lend-Lease Act (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . 55 Military-Industrial Complex, America’s
“Letter from a Birmingham Jail” (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2146
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2388 Miranda v. Arizona (primary source). . . . . . . 2821
Literature from Outside Western Europe, Nobel Missile Sites in Cuba, October, 1962, Soviet
Laureates in (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3186 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2331
Little Rock Nine (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1756 Misusing Science and Technology
Local Supercluster of Galaxies (map) . . . . . . . 962 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3235
Locations of the Dead Sea Scrolls (map) . . . . . 771 Model City, Duvalierville: Papa Doc’s
Lou Gehrig’s Farewell-to-Baseball Speech (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1776
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Modern City, Humanizing the
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1986
MacArthur, Truman Dismisses Modern Society, One-Dimensional
MacArthur on the Crimes of General Yamashita “Moral Equivalent of War, The”
McCarthy, Senate Censure of Mössbauer Effect, Uses of the (sidebar) . . . . . 2016
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280 “Most Terrible Thing Ever Discovered, The”
“McNamara-Rusk Memorandum (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2237 “Motion of Destiny, The” (primary source) . . . 1700
Madness as a Social Failing Mount Everest (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1306
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2129 Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Time
Magic, García Márquez’s Line of (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2927 Mountain in Peru, Huascarán (map) . . . . . . . 3426
Major Air Pollutants (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . . 835 Mountaineering Glossary, A (list) . . . . . . . . 1305
Major American Westerns of the Postwar Period, Municipal Waste Stream, Materials Generated
1946-1962 (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 in the U.S. (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2723
Major Jewish Ghettos in Europe (map) . . . . . . 254 “Muses, The Disquieting”
Making the H-Bomb (primary source) . . . . . . 1068 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2108
Mandela on Apartheid (primary source) . . . . . 1106 Music Festival, Site of the Woodstock
Manhattan Project Sites in the United States (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3289
(map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Mussolini on the War’s Progress
Mannie, Burying (primary source). . . . . . . . . 166 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Mariner Flybys of Mars, Summary of the “Must Our Countryside Serve as a Trash Can?”
Mars, Summary of the Mariner Flybys of
(table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2667 Naming the Beats (primary source) . . . . . . . . 969
Marshall Plan, Truman Calls for the Narrows Bridge: Facts and Figures, Verrazano-
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760 (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2617
Mary Leakey (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1928 Nasser’s “Arab Circle” (primary source) . . . . . 1200
Materials Generated in the U.S. Municipal Waste National Environmental Policy Act
Stream (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2723 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3373
Mau Mau Uprising, Kenya: Site of (map) . . . . 1224 National Memorial, Time Line of Mount
Member of the Communist Party?, Are You a” Rushmore (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 National Park, North Cascades (map) . . . . . . 3149
xcvi
National Parks, A Plea for America’s Organization of American States: Members

(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621 and Years of Signature (list) . . . . . . . . . . 776
National Parks, “Fixing” the Organization of the Islamic Conference
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1604 Member States (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3304
National Trails System Act Oscars for Best Picture, 1941-1970 (list). . . . . . 511
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3154 Oswald’s Body Is Exhumed (sidebar) . . . . . . 2439
NATO Member States, 1955 (map) . . . . . . . . 915 Outer Space Treaty (primary source) . . . . . . . 2995
Naturally Territorial Human, The Oxfam Mission Statement (primary source) . . . . 196
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2765
NEA, Congressional Appropriations to the Pacific, Rafting Across the (primary source) . . . 643
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2707 Pacific and Western Samoa, The South
Neighborhood, A New (primary source) . . . . . 1909 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2263
Neshoba County, 1964 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . 2557 Pacific Theater, Time Line of World War II:
Netherlands, Sea Levels of the (map). . . . . . . 1285 (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
New Neighborhood, A (primary source) . . . . . 1909 Palestine Liberation Organization, Statement of
Newspeak (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . 922 Proclamation (primary source) . . . . . . . . 2548
Nielsen Rankings, 1951-1957, I Love Lucy Papa Doc’s Model City, Duvalierville:
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137 (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1776
Nobel Laureates in Literature from Outside Park, North Cascades National (map) . . . . . . 3149
Western Europe (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3186 Partition of Germany, 1949 (map) . . . . . . . . . 944
Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Partition of India, 1947 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . 665
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3391 Pay Act, Equal (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 2402
Normandy, 1944, Invasion of (map) . . . . . . . . 364 Peace, Atoms for (primary source) . . . . . . . . 1723
North Africa, 1942, Allied Invasion of (map) . . . 211 Pearl Harbor, Japanese Attack on (map) . . . . . . 112
North America, c. 1960 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . cvii “People, People, People, People”
North Atlantic Treaty (primary source) . . . . . . 916 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3035
North Cascades National Park (map) . . . . . . . 3149 People’s Republic of China, 1949-1970, The
Northern Africa, Sahel Region of (map) . . . . . 3038 (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
“Nothing but Details” (primary source) . . . . . . 331 Persecution of Buddhists, 1963, Diem’s
Nuclear Energy’s Power (primary source). . . . . 172 (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2431
Nuclear Weapons, Treaty on the Peru, Huascarán Mountain in (map) . . . . . . . 3426
Non-Proliferation of (primary source). . . . . 3391 Philosophy, Quisling’s (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . 493
Nuremberg Trials: Statement of the Offense “Physics, A Problem More of Ethics than of ”
Pipeline, The Trans-Alaska (map) . . . . . . . . 3067
Oil, Uses for Crude (primary source). . . . . . . 2104 Planned Society Can Lead to Totalitarianism, A
“Olympism,” The Principles of (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2581 Plates and Midocean Ridges, Earth’s Major
On the Banality of Evil (primary source). . . . . 2336 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011
One-Dimensional Modern Society Plea for America’s National Parks, A
“One Is Not Born . . . a Woman” Plundering the “Good Earth”
OPEC Member States (map) . . . . . . . . . . . 2103 Political Realism, Six Principles of
Opening Statement, The Prosecution’s (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2170 Political Rights of Women, Convention on the
Order of Internment, Roosevelt’s (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Pollutants, Major Air (sidebar). . . . . . . . . . . 835
Organization of African Unity, Charter of the Popular American Situation Comedies of the
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2398 1960’s (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992
xcvii
Popular Television Westerns of the 1950’s Regions During the Cold War, Geopolitical
and 1960’s (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . civ
Possible Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyage “Religion, The Conjunction of Science and”
(map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2629 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1479
Postcolonial India (primary source) . . . . . . . . 664 Reports on Iwo Jima (primary source). . . . . . . 439
Poverty, Proposal for a Nationwide War on Resolution 242, U.N. (primary source) . . . . . . 3006
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2501 Restitution, Adenauer Promises
Pre-Columbian Transoceanic Voyage, Possible (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214
(map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2629 Rethinking Design (primary source) . . . . . . . 3363
Presidential Proclamation 2667 Returning the Blue Lake Region
Primary Sources in U.N. Diplomacy (list) . . . . 1580 Right to Vote, The (primary source) . . . . . . . 2686
Principles of “Olympism,” The Rights, Consumer (primary source) . . . . . . . 2038
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2581 Rights, Universal Human (list) . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Principles of Political Realism, Six Rights of the Child, Declaration of the
“Problem More of Ethics than of Physics, A” Rights of Women, Convention on the Political
Proclamation 2667, Presidential Ring, Frodo Takes the (primary source) . . . . . 1404
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Rivers Act, Wild and Scenic
Production and Public Services, Balancing (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3153
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803 Road Trip, The Easy Rider (map). . . . . . . . . 3268
Profile of the Boeing 747-100 Jumbo Jet Robinson, Defending Tom (primary source) . . . 2082
(table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3357 Roosevelt Announces a Second Front in Africa
Progression of Mile-Run Times by Men, (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1942-1967 (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395 Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill
Proposal for a Nationwide War on Poverty (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2501 Roosevelt’s Order of Internment
Prosecution’s Opening Statement, The (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2170 Rosenbergs Are Sentenced, The
Protection Act, Consumer Credit (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3099 “Ruined” Understanding, Beckett’s
Public Broadcasting Act (primary source) . . . . 3453 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073
Public Services, Balancing Production and Rushmore National Memorial, Time Line of
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803 Mount (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Pueblo’s Capture, Site of the USS (map) . . . . . 3051 Rusk Memorandum, McNamara-
Puerto Rico, Constitution of the (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2237
Commonwealth of (primary source) . . . . . 1206 Russell-Einstein Manifesto, The
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1525
Quisling’s Philosophy (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . 493 Russia, Hitler’s Proclamation on Invading
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Radiation Belts, The Van Allen (map) . . . . . . 1850 Ryle’s Radio Telescopes (sidebar). . . . . . . . . 735
Radio and Television Set Ownership in American Ryukyu Islands, Japan (map). . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Homes, 1950-1959 (time line) . . . . . . . . . 975
Radio Telescopes, Ryle’s (sidebar) . . . . . . . . 735 Sahel Region of Northern Africa (map) . . . . . 3038
Rafting Across the Pacific (primary source) . . . . 643 Samoa, Western (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2263
Railway, 1943, Thai-Burma (map). . . . . . . . . 308 Sartre on Shame (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 272
Realism, Six Principles of Political Schempp, Abington School District v.
Red Fascism, Countering (primary source) . . . . 620 Schizophrenia, Controlled (primary source) . . . 1308
xcviii
“Science and Religion, The Conjunction of ” South Pacific and Western Samoa, The
Science and Technology, Misusing Southeast Asian Nations, Declaration of the
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3235 Association of (primary source) . . . . . . . . 2977
Sea Levels of the Netherlands (map) . . . . . . . 1285 Soviet Missile Sites in Cuba, October, 1962
Sealab II Dive Site (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2573 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2331
SEATO Member Nations (map) . . . . . . . . . 1440 Soviet Officials Meet, German and
Seeds of the Cold War (primary source). . . . . . 232 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Seeing the Blast Up Close (primary source) . . . . 477 Soviet Union, Lake Baikal (map) . . . . . . . . . 3213
Self-Identity Through Struggle Soviet Union, U-2 Crash Site in the (map) . . . . 2050
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2343 Space Flight Log, 1961-1970, U.S. (list) . . . . . 2181
Self-Immolation (primary source) . . . . . . . . 3202 Space Treaty, Outer (primary source) . . . . . . 2995
Senate Censure of McCarthy Sri Lanka, Tamil Majority Populations in
Sentencing at the Chicago Seven Trial Stateless Persons, Convention Relating to the
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3136 Status of (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . 1447
Service, Calling for International Statement of the Offense, Nuremberg Trials
747-100 Jumbo Jet, Profile of the Boeing Steady State Theory, Fred Hoyle and
(table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3357 (sidebar). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
Shame, Sartre on (primary source). . . . . . . . . 272 Still Waiting for Godot (primary source). . . . . 1276
Sherman Antitrust Act (primary source). . . . . . 442 Struggle, Self-Identity Through
Ships Sunk at Midway, June 4, 1942 (map) . . . . 170 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2343
Shock of the Future, The (primary source) . . . . 3432 Suez Canal in Egypt (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1637
“Showdown” at Berkeley (primary source) . . . 2593 Summary of the Mariner Mars Flybys
Silent Abbey, Kentucky’s (primary source) . . . . 709 (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2667
Site of the USS Pueblo’s Capture (map) . . . . . 3051 Supercluster of Galaxies, Local (map) . . . . . . . 962
Site of the Woodstock Music Festival (map) . . . 3289 Suppression of Human Trafficking, The
Six Principles of Political Realism (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Surrenders, Germany (primary source) . . . . . . 464
Skyrocket, Testing (primary source) . . . . . . . 1340
Slavery Treaty, U.N. International Tamil Majority Populations in Sri Lanka
Smith v. Allwright (primary source) . . . . . . . . 355 Taussig’s Right Touch (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . . 413
“Smog Away?, Can’t We Just Blow All This” Technology, Misusing Science and
Social Failing, Madness as a Television Set Ownership in American Homes,
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2129 1950-1959, Radio and (time line) . . . . . . . . 975
Society, One-Dimensional Modern Television Westerns of the 1950’s and 1960’s,
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2497 Popular (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552
Soldiers Carried, Things (primary source) . . . . 2578 Ten Principles, The (primary source). . . . . . . 1507
Sonic Boom? What Is a (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . 3111 Territorial Human, The Naturally
Sources in U.N. Diplomacy, Primary (list) . . . . 1580 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2765
South Africa, Apartheid Legislation in 1950’s Testing Skyrocket (primary source) . . . . . . . 1340
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105 Thai-Burma Railway, 1943 (map) . . . . . . . . . 308
South Africans, Uncompromised Freedom for Things Soldiers Carried (primary source) . . . . 2578
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2243 Tibet, 1950 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
South America, c. 1970 (map). . . . . . . . . . . cviii Time Line of Mount Rushmore National
South Pacific, Bikini Atoll in the (map) . . . . . 1366 Memorial (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
xcix
Time Line of World War II: European Theater Untouchability, Abolishing

(time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951
Time Line of World War II: Pacific Theater U.S. Environmental Milestones of the 1960’s
(time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059
“To the Japanese People” (primary source) . . . . 486 U.S. Space Flight Log, 1961-1970 (list) . . . . . 2181
Tom Robinson, Defending Uses for Crude Oil (primary source) . . . . . . . 2104
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2082 Uses of the Mössbauer Effect (sidebar) . . . . . 2016
Total War, Goebbels Argues for
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Van Allen Radiation Belts, The (map) . . . . . . 1850
Totalitarianism, A Planned Society Can Lead to Verrazano-Narrows Bridge: Facts and Figures
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2617
“Tragedy of the Commons, The” Vietnam, 1954-1975 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2577
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3193 Voice of America, the First Decade
Trails System Act, National (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3154 Volunteers Program Mission Statement, U.N.
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, The (map) . . . . . . . . 3067 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3495
Transoceanic Voyage, Possible Pre-Columbian Vote, The Right to (primary source) . . . . . . . 2686
(map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2629
Treaty, Hot Line (primary source) . . . . . . . . 2408 Waiting for Godot, Still (primary source) . . . . 1276
Treaty, North Atlantic (primary source) . . . . . . 916 Wales, Aberfan (map). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2847
Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear War, Goebbels Argues for Total
Weapons (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . 3391 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Trophic Dynamics (primary source) . . . . . . . . 193 War, The Guilt of (primary source) . . . . . . . . 508
Tropisms (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064 War, Japan Renounces (primary source). . . . . . 645
Truman Calls for the Marshall Plan “War, The Moral Equivalent of ”
Truman Dismisses MacArthur War in Korea, The Air (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . 1011
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090 War on Poverty, Proposal for a Nationwide
Truman Doctrine (primary source) . . . . . . . . 628 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2501
Twenty-Fifth Amendment (primary source) . . . 2903 War on the United States, Germany Declares
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
U-2 Crash Site in the Soviet Union (map) . . . . 2050 War on the United States, Italy Declares
U.N. Diplomacy, Primary Sources in (list) . . . . 1580 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
U.N. International Slavery Treaty War on Weeds, A (primary source). . . . . . . . 1466
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335 Warning Labels, Cigarette
U.N. Member States and Year of Membership (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2776
(list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 War’s Progress, Mussolini on the
U.N. Resolution 242 (primary source) . . . . . . 3006 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
U.N. Volunteers Program Mission Statement Warsaw Pact (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . 1513
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3495 Warsaw Pact Nations, 1955 (map) . . . . . . . . 1514
Uncompromised Freedom for South Africans Waskow’s Body, Captain (primary source) . . . . 453
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2243 Waste Stream, Materials Generated in the U.S.
United Arab Republic, 1958 (map) . . . . . . . . 1827 Municipal (table) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2723
United States, Debating Immigration to the Weeds, A War on (primary source). . . . . . . . 1466
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194 Welfare Act, Animal (primary source) . . . . . . 2828
United States, Germany Declares War on the “We’re Betting Our Shirts on the Atomic
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Submarine” (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 1358
United States, Italy Declares War on the West Virginia State Board of Education v.
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Barnette (primary source). . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Universal Human Rights (list) . . . . . . . . . . . 852
c
Western Europe, Nobel Laureates in Literature Woodstock Music Festival, Site of the (map) . . . 3289
from Outside (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3186 World Food Programme Mission Statement
Western Samoa (map). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2263 (primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2269
Westerns of the 1950’s and 1960’s, Popular World War II: European Theater, Time Line of
Television (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1552 (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Westerns of the Postwar Period, 1946-1962, World War II: Germany and the European Theater
Major American (list) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Whaling Commission Member Countries, World War II: Japan and the Pacific Theater
International (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
What Is a Sonic Boom? (sidebar) . . . . . . . . . 3111 World War II: Pacific Theater, Time Line of
What Is Asbestos? (primary source) . . . . . . . 2531 (time line) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
What Is ENIAC? (primary source). . . . . . . . . 248 World’s First Breeder Reactor, Idaho (map) . . . 1153
What Is Fascism? (primary source) . . . . . . . . 295
What Is Haze? (primary source) . . . . . . . . . 1532 Yalta Conference, 1945 (map) . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act Yamashita, MacArthur on the Crimes of General
“Woman, One Is Not Born . . . a”
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863 Zhivago Returns, Doctor (primary source) . . . . 1763
Women, Convention on the Political Rights of Zimbabwe, 1966, Independent (map). . . . . . . 2805
(primary source) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
ci
Asia and Australasia, c. 1970
Russia Siberia
Manchuria
A s i a
Mongolia
North
Korea
Japan
n
sta
ni
ha
H Ti b e t C h i n a South
Afg
im P a c i f i c
ala Korea
N ya M
epa ts.
l
O c e a n
India Taiwan (China)
Burma South
Bay of China
Arabian Bengal Laos S e a
Philippines
Sea Vietnam
Thailand
Cambodia West Malaysia ia
s
ay
Ceylon al
M
st New Guinea
Ea (Australia)
I n
d o n e s i a
I n d i a n Papua
Grea
(Australia)
t B
O c e a n
a
rr
ie
r
R
ee
f
Australia
New
Zealand
Tasmania
ciii
Geopolitical Regions of the World, Cold War
civ
= First World (developed nations)
= Second World (Soviet-influenced nations)
= Third World (developing nations)

Cold War Europe, 1955
= NATO countries
= Warsaw Pact countries

Iceland
= Neutral countries
Finland
ay
rw
den
No
Swe
North
U. S. S. R.
Sea Denmark Baltic
Ireland Sea
United Netherlands
Kingdom
East Poland
Be
lg Germany
Atlantic ium
West
Germany Czec
Luxembourg hosl
Ocean ovak
ia
Liechtenstein
ia
str
Switzerland Au Hungary
France Romania
San
Marino Black Sea
Yugoslavia
Monaco
Andorra Bulgaria
al
It
Corsica
tug
Alban
al
(Fr.)
y
Por
Spain
Sardinia Turkey
ia
(It.) Greece
Mediterranean Sea
Sicily
(It.)
Morocco Algeria
(Fr.) Tunisia Crete Cyprus
(Fr.)
(Fr.) (Gr.) (Br.)
A F R I C A
cv
Africa, c. 1970
M
ed
Morocco ite
Tunisia rra
nean Sea
a Algeria
ar
Libya Egypt
h
Sa
sh
ia
an
Re
i
et
Span
d
r
Ma u
Se
Mali
a
Djibouti
Niger
Senegal Chad n
Ade
Burkina Sudan of
Biss Gambia
Faso G ulf
Guine
au
Nigeria
a
Ethiopia
er oo n
Ivory
ne
Ghan
Central
eo
Coast
Guinea
African
aL
Republic
r
am
Sier
Liberia Togo C
Benin d a Somalia
an Kenya
Equatorial Guinea
Ug
São Tomé & Principé
Gabon Democratic Rwanda
Republic of the Indian
Republic Congo Burundi
Tanzania Ocean
of the Congo
Malawi
Angola
Atlantic Zambia ue
biq
ca r
Ocean am
oz s
aga
Zimbabwe M
Namibia
M ad
Botswana
Swaziland
South
Africa Lesotho
cvi
North America, c. 1960
Bering ait
Str A r c t i c
Sea Bering
O c e a n
Greenland
(Denmark)
Alaska
Baf
fin
Gulf of B
a
Yukon
y
Alaska
Territory
Northwest
Territories
C
British
Hudson Labrador
Columbia a
n
Alberta a Bay d a
wan
a t ch e
Newfoundland
Manitoba
Sask
er
Washington
Ri v
Quebec
Ontario
New Brunswick
ce
ren
Montana Nova Scotia
Oregon North
Dakota so
ta G r e a
t
Maine aw
P a c i f i c
.L
e
Idaho Mi Vermont
Mi n n
Wi
St
La
South s New Hampshire

ch
co
New
ke
Wyoming Dakota
i g an
Massachusetts
n si
York
s
Nevada
n
Rhode Island
Ca l i
Nebraska Iowa Penn-
e a n
Utah Indiana sylvania Connecticut
ve r Illinois
Ohio
New Jersey
R i Colorado
M is
fo r
iver
pp i Rive r
do
Kansas h io R Delaware
ni
O
C o l o ra
so
O c
u
a
ri Kentucky Maryland
de
O c
Arizona
R i o G ra n
New Oklahoma a s Tennessee Virginia

Mexico s
M iss i n
West Virginia
ssi
ka
pi
a
e a
bam
ssip
North Carolina
Ar
Ge
i c
or
South Carolina
si
A la
Lou
gi
n
Mis
Texas
a
n t
si
i
a na
M
Fl
a
or
t l
ida
e
Gulf of
A
x
Mexico
i
Puerto
Haiti
c
Cuba Rico
Hawaii
o
Jamaica
Dominican
Ce Belize C a r Republic
nt i b
Honduras
ra b e a
l n S e a
A
Guatemala m
e
El Salvador
ri
Panama
Nicaragua
ca
Costa Rica
th America
Sou
cvii
South America, c. 1970
a n
r i b b e S e a
C a
Caracas
North
Guyana
Atlantic
Venezuela Suriname
Ocean
French
Bogotá Guiana
Colombia
Galápagos
Islands
Ecuador Quito River
on
az
Am i
n
s
A m a z B a
o n
Brazil R i ve r
Peru co
is
nc
Fra
A
Lima
S ão
n
d
e
s La Paz
Brasília
Bolivia
M
Sucre r
ve
o u n t
South
Ri
Paraguay
á
Pa r a n
Pa c i f i c Rio de Janeiro
Ocean
a i n
s
Chile
Santiago
Argentina Uruguay
Buenos Aires Montevideo
South
Negro
Riv
e r Atlantic
Ocean
Falkland
Islands
(British)
Stanley South
Georgia
Cape
Horn
cviii
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 World War II: Pacific Theater
July, 1937-September 2, 1945

World War II: Pacific Theater
1941
The Empire of Japan represented the Axis Powers in States and Japan that extended back into the last decades
the Pacific theater of World War II. The Japanese war of the nineteenth century. The United States began to de-
began in China, but after Japan’s massive attack on velop its global reach during the presidencies of William
the Pacific Islands between Asia and Hawaii in McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt. Under their admin-
December of 1941, it faced the United States. The istrations, America became a major participant in the
Americans responded to their initial Pacific losses with new world system and sought to establish itself as a dom-
an “island-hopping” strategy, slowly regaining inant power in the international struggle to control world
control of the Pacific. Japan refused to surrender, markets and raw materials.
however, until the United States deployed nuclear In East Asia, the nation most important to the eco-
weapons, dropping atomic bombs on the Japanese nomic security of the United States was China. By the
cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 1890’s, Russia, Japan, the United Kingdom, France, and
Germany had begun to carve out spheres of influence in
Locale: Pacific Ocean and Australasia East Asia, and the McKinley administration began to
Categories: World War II; military history; wars, fear that the United States would lose access to its valu-
uprisings, and civil unrest able Chinese trade. John Hay, McKinley’s secretary of
Key Figures state, proposed the open door policy, which advocated
John Hay (1838-1905), U.S. secretary of state, 1879- equal access to this trade with China. This policy con-
1881, who implemented the open door policy that flicted with a growing Japanese belief that Asia should
challenged Japanese supremacy in China be dominated by the strongest Asian power, Japan. The
Hirota Kfki (1878-1948), Japanese prime minister, resulting Japanese-American tension was exacerbated
1936-1937, who placed Japan’s foreign policy in when the Theodore Roosevelt administration arranged
the hands of the military an informal diplomatic understanding with the govern-
Isoroku Yamamoto (1884-1943), Japanese admiral who ment of Japan, known as the Gentlemen’s Agreement
planned and executed the attack on Pearl Harbor (1907), that addressed the discrimination faced by Japa-
and the other strategic targets in the first weeks of nese American students in the California educational
the Pacific war system. The Gentlemen’s Agreement ended the formal
Tomoyuki Yamashita (1885-1946), commander of the segregation of Japanese students in exchange for Japan’s
Japanese ground forces that gained control of the promise to restrict the emigration of Japanese workers
Philippines and the Netherlands Indies to America. Many Japanese regarded the Gentlemen’s
Chester W. Nimitz (1885-1966), commander of the Agreement as a racist slap in the face, and it increased
American forces at the Battles of the Coral Sea and anti-American feeling in Japan.
Iwo Jima Japan’s Internal Struggles. The 1920’s was a
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), general who decade of deep political unrest in Japan that centered on a
developed the tactical plan of island hopping in the power struggle between the military and the civilian gov-
Pacific theater and rebuilt Japan after the war ernment. In particular, a group of chauvinistic young
Tadamichi Kuribayashi (1891-1945), commander of army officers attacked the civilian government for what
the Japanese forces on Iwo Jima they perceived as its weak and incompetent handling of
Mitsuru Ushijima (1887-1945), commander of the the nation’s diplomacy. They believed the government
Japanese forces on Okinawa had disgraced itself by accepting the provisions of the
Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. (1886-1945), commander two major treaties of the Washington Conference of
of the American forces on Okinawa 1922. They viewed the Five-Power Treaty, which as-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United signed Japan the smallest ratio of battleships among the
States, 1945-1953 world’s major naval powers, and the Nine-Power Treaty,
which protected the territorial integrity of China, as be-
Summary of Event trayals of Japan’s national security. These young army
The conflict in World War II’s Pacific theater had its ori- officers called for a military takeover of the government,
gins in the geopolitical struggle between the United and army death squads assassinated a number of impor-
1
World War II: Pacific Theater The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
World War II: Japan and the Pacific Theater

Alaska
Soviet Union
Sakh
d
n
A l l a
e u t i I s
alin
a n
s
nd
la
Outer
Is
Mongolia
e
il
ur
Manchuria
K
Peking
Korea P a c i f i c
Hiroshima
Tokyo
China
Shanghai Japan
The Nagasaki
Hump
Okinawa Midway I.
Iwo Jima
Hong Kong
Formosa Pearl
Burma Mariana Harbor
Bataan Is. Hawaiian Is.
Rangoon Wake I.
Siam Luzon Philippine Guam
(Thailand) Indo- Is.
china Marshall
Leyte Caroline I. Is.
Eniwetok
Malaya
Singapore Tarawa
Gilbert I.
Borneo
Sumatra
New Solomon
O c e a n
Guinea Is.
Java
Port Guadalcanal
Indian Moresby
Coral
Ocean
Sea
Australia
tant Japanese officials. With the approval of the young destruction of one of China’s great cities, remembered as
militants, a former foreign minister, Hirota Kfki, became the Rape of Nanjing. Between mid-December, 1937, and
the new leader of the Japanese government. This marked early February, 1938, the Japanese army tortured and ex-
a turning point in the history of Japan and placed the ecuted tens of thousands of military prisoners, raped in
nation’s foreign policy directly in the hands of the mili- excess of 50,000 women, and killed thousands of civil-
tary. ians; conservative estimates place the overall death toll at
War with China. Once in control, the army began 250,000.
to finalize plans to invade China. The invasion began in Japan Joins the Axis. The United States initially
July, 1937. The Japanese military inflicted heavy casual- reacted to the Japanese aggression through both diplo-
ities on the Chinese forces, and the Nationalist govern- matic channels and public statements condemning the
ment was unable to stop the Japanese advance. Contrary brutality of the Japanese military. By the early summer
to the Geneva Conventions, Japan’s military elite also of 1940, the situation in Asia had deteriorated to such an
targeted civilians. The most infamous example was the extent that the United States placed an embargo on the
2
sale of aviation fuel, lubricants, and scrap metal to Japan. Pearl Harbor. In the early 1930’s, in reaction to the Japa-
This was a significant blow to the Japanese war machine, nese invasion of Manchuria, the United States conducted
and the diplomatic tension between the two nations esca- a series of war games testing the vulnerability of its stra-
1941
lated significantly. Japan then reached out to its fascist tegic bases in Asia. In one such exercise, an American
counterparts in Germany and Italy; they signed the Tri- carrier force successfully launched an air attack against
partite Pact in September of 1940. This solidified the the U.S. fleet stationed at Pearl Harbor, and the account
Axis alliance and gave the fascist militarists a global of this event impressed Admiral Yamamoto and his staff.
reach. Most historians agree that Japan wanted to use the Yamamoto was also influenced by the British use of car-
Tripartite Pact as a strategic weapon against the possibil- rier forces in the early months of World War II, when
ity that the United States would intervene militarily in carrier-launched aircraft played a pivotal tactical role in
China. An alliance with the two European fascist powers the British victory against Italian forces in the Battle of
would necessitate that the United States be willing to Taranto. The success of these naval actions helped con-
fight a multi-front war if it chose to stand up to Japanese vince Yamamoto that a surprise carrier-based operation
aggression in Asia. The United States reacted to Japan’s could in fact cripple American forces and drive the
new imperialist ambitions by placing greater restrictions United States from Asia.
on the export of oil and steel and by closing the Panama The Attack on Pearl Harbor. For its part, the
Canal to Japanese shipping. U.S. Intelligence Command had been amassing a signifi-
War Plans Are Laid. As a result of these actions cant amount of information about the movement and
on the part of the American government, Japan decided buildup of Japanese forces in the Pacific region. By late
that the U.S. military threat in Asia had to be neutral- November and early December, 1941, the U.S. military
ized. The geostrategic goals of the Japanese high com- command, including General George C. Marshall, con-
mand were to drive the United States from Asia and to cluded that Japan was in the process of amassing its na-
obtain dominance over important geopolitical space, es- val, air, and ground forces to launch a major offensive in
pecially the resource-rich areas of East and Southeast Asia. Despite repeated warnings of a possible attack,
Asia. Most important for the future of the Japanese Em- however, the tactical defense structure at Pearl Harbor
pire, the oil deposits in the Dutch East Indies and the was completely unprepared for the Japanese strike on the
strategic waterways, including the Strait of Malacca, morning of December 7, 1941, and all the military equip-
would have to be brought under Japanese control. The ment that could have been used to repel the attack had
main target of Japan’s military would be the destruction been left unstaffed; this enabled the Japanese military to
of the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor. The essential devastate the American forces.
goal of Japan’s military was to deliver a devastating As destructive as the Japanese attack was, the most
knockout blow against United States forces stationed in important targets, America’s three aircraft carriers, es-
Hawaii. caped the onslaught. These carriers and their accompa-
The Japanese plan to attack Pearl Harbor had its his- nying fighters and torpedo bombers would play a major
torical foundation in four military actions, one of which role in the United States’ naval victories in early 1942.
dates back to the first decade of the twentieth century, Finally, for all of its great tactical success, most histori-
during the Russo-Japanese War. Military historians agree ans agree that this attack was a significant strategic blun-
that the decisive action of that conflict was the Battle of der. The Japanese completely miscalculated the collec-
Tsushima. In the Tsushima Strait, off the coast of Korea, tive strength and resolve of the American people. Instead
the Japanese navy ambushed the Russian navy in a dev- of pulling back to “fortress America” and suing for
astating attack, using a combination of naval gunnery peace, the people united behind their president in a com-
and surface-to-surface torpedoes. It destroyed the Rus- mon effort to defeat the Axis alliance. The great indus-
sian Pacific Fleet. The attack was so incapacitating that trial capacity of the United States—arguably the decid-
the Romanov Dynasty sued for peace. This outstanding ing factor in World War II—would allow the nation to
military victory, in conjunction with the Japanese suc- create a war machine that the Japanese resource base
cess in World War I, developed a belief among Japan’s simply could not match.
military elite that its forces could in fact defeat the mili- Japan Controls the Pacific. The attack on Pearl
tary might of the Western industrialized nations. Harbor was just part of a much greater plan to occupy and
Japanese admiral Isoroku Yamamoto also drew on control important geopolitical areas, to gain access to
more recent military events in planning for the attack on strategically significant resources, and to prevent coun-
3
terattacks by antifascist forces. Within twenty-four trolled the avenues of movement among the four major
hours of the initial attack, Japanese ground forces islands of Borneo, Celebes, Sumatra, and Java. Domina-
launched invasions of the American bases at Guam and tion of this important area would allow the Empire of Ja-
Wake Island. Other military units moved against British pan to control the vast natural resources of the region, es-
and French forces in Indochina and captured Thailand. pecially large quantities of petroleum. Singapore fell on
By January, 1942, the Japanese army had captured Ma- February 15, 1942, and within a month the Japanese mili-
nila, the capital of the Philippines, as well. tary had conquered the entirety of the Netherlands In-
Then, under the leadership of General Tomoyuki Ya- dies. This great military victory included a devastating
mashita, the Empire of Japan attacked Malaya. This mili- defeat for the Allies in the Battle of the Java Sea. The Jap-
tary action was taken as a first step to gain control of the anese then turned north and conquered Burma; this gave
strategic city of Singapore. Singapore was located at the the Japanese Empire control of 1 million square miles of
tip of the Malay Peninsula, and it held the geopolitical territory and about 150 million people.
key to the control of both the Strait of Malacca and the Australia Helps Turn the Tide. With both the
Netherlands Indies (now Indonesia). The Strait of Ma- Netherlands Indies and most of French Indochina under
lacca is one of the most important waterways in the its control, Japan was now in the position to launch at-
world. Geopolitically, this strategic choke point con- tacks against both India and Australia. India, the “jewel
Time line of World War II: Pacific Theater

July, 1937-February, 1938 Japanese troops invade China, beginning World War II in East Asia.
August, 1939 The possibility of U.S. involvement in the war developing in Europe and East Asia
prompts conversion of domestic production to meet military needs.
Sept. 1, 1939 Germany invades Poland, beginning World War II in Europe.
Summer, 1940 United States embargoes fuel and scrap metal sales to Japan.
Sept. 27, 1940 Japan signs the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy, becoming a member of the Axis
powers.
July 24, 1941 Japan occupies French Indochina (modern Vietnam). United States halts trade with Japan,
sends General Douglas MacArthur to oversee military forces in the Philippines.
December, 1941-April, 1942 Battle of Bataan: A Japanese victory that is a major step in Japan’s attainment of the
Philippines.
Dec. 7, 1941 Attack on Pearl Harbor: Japanese bomb Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands, sinking or
disabling five of eight U.S. battleships, as well as other ships and airplanes. Nearly
2,500 persons, including 68 civilians, are killed. Japan simultaneously attacks Guam,
the Philippines, Midway Island, Hong Kong, and the Malay Peninsula.
Dec. 7, 1941 Canada declares war on Japan.
Dec. 8, 1941 United States declares war on Japan.
Dec. 10, 1941-Feb. 15, 1942 Battle of Singapore
Dec. 11, 1941 Axis nations declare war on the United States.
Feb. 19, 1942 U.S. government begins relocating persons of Japanese descent on the Pacific Coast.
Feb. 27-March 1, 1942 Battle of the Java Sea: Severe U.S. losses; Japan occupies Java.
March 9, 1942 Japan occupies Rangoon, Burma, cutting off Allied access to China.
May, 1942 Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor fall to the Japanese.
May 7-8, 1942 Battle of the Coral Sea: For the first time in history, all fighting in a naval battle is conducted
by planes launched from aircraft carriers. Japanese advance into Australia is halted.
June 3-21, 1942 Japan bombs Alaska, occupies the Aleutian Islands, and shells the Oregon coast.
June 3-5, 1942 Battle of Midway: Japan’s advance across the Pacific is stopped, and Japan suffers severe
losses. Turning point in the Pacific war.
June 17, 1942 President Roosevelt approves the Manhattan Project.
Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. 9, 1943 Battle of Guadalcanal: United States prevents Japanese from landing reinforcements,
ensuring Allied conquest of Guadalcanal. Japanese evacuate Guadalcanal on Feb. 9,
1943.
4
in the crown” of the British colonial system, was of par- strike the air base at Port Moresby. A ferocious battle en-
ticular strategic importance, because if it fell, all of South sued, and the United States lost the carrier Lexington;
Asia and the rich oil supplies of the Middle East would be however, in the end, the United States put two Japanese
1941
threatened. However, it would be the protection of Aus- carriers out of commission and Japan’s advance toward
tralia that would provide the United States with the op- Australia was halted.
portunity to score a much-needed victory against the Jap- The Battle of Midway. The Battle of the Coral
anese navy. In March, 1942, the Japanese high command Sea convinced the Japanese high command that the re-
decided to move against Australia, and it began prepara- maining American carrier force had to be defeated. Once
tion for military operations against the Solomon Islands again, Admiral Yamamoto prepared to engage the U.S.
and the air base at Port Moresby on the island of New Navy at Midway in a decisive battle intended to finish the
Guinea. The Japanese navy planned to use the air base to task left uncompleted at Pearl Harbor, giving the Japa-
bomb the coastal defenses of Australia and to control the nese control of the Pacific region. This time, the Ameri-
airspace over the Coral Sea, which would be used as the can forces, led by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, made
avenue of advance in an invasion of Australia. On May 4, good use of their military intelligence, and the U.S. Navy
1942, a U.S. carrier force intercepted a Japanese naval scored an impressive victory, sinking four Japanese car-
contingent in the Coral Sea that was positioning itself to riers. Just as important, many of Japan’s best carrier pi-
Aug. 23-25, 1942 Battle of the Eastern Solomons: United States inflicts severe damage on Japanese ships.
Sept. 13-14, 1942 Battle of Bloody Ridge: Six thousand Japanese troops are routed.
July 6, 1943 Battle of Kula Gulf: First U.S. victory in South Pacific.
Aug. 15, 1943 United States regains Aleutian Islands.
Nov. 2, 1943 Battle of Empress Augusta Bay: Japanese defeat in South Pacific secures Solomons for
the Allies.
Nov. 20-23, 1943 Battle of Tarawa: Costly U.S. victory in which U.S. forces use the captured airstrip to
support invasions of the Marshall Islands.
Jan. 31-Nov. 25, 1944 United States takes Marshall Islands, Mariana Islands, Guam, and the Palaus.
June 15-July 9, 1944 United States seizes the island of Saipan, headquarters for the Japanese defense of the
Central Pacific. Its fall impairs the Japanese defense strategy and gives the Americans
an air base from which B-29 Superfortress bombers can reach Tokyo.
June 15, 1944 Superfortress bombing of Japan begins.
June 19-20, 1944 Battle of the Philippine Sea: Inflicts severe losses on Japan, of both sea vessels and
airplanes.
July 20-Aug. 10, 1944 Battle of Guam: United States recaptures a strategic base in the Pacific from the Japanese.
July 24-Aug. 1, 1944 Battle of Tinian: United States swiftly takes Tinian from the Japanese, which becomes
the launching site of numerous B-29 bombing raids against the Japanese main
islands.
Oct. 23-26, 1944 Battle for Leyte Gulf: In three major naval engagements, the United States destroys
remaining Japanese naval forces and takes control of the Philippines. The largest naval
battle of the war.
Feb. 19-March 26, 1945 Battle of Iwo Jima: U.S. Marines seize a Japanese island air base located southeast of
Japan.
March, 1945 Battle of Mandalay
April 1-July 2, 1945 Battle of Okinawa: United States invades Okinawa, occupying it by June 21. Japanese
suicide flights contribute to making this the costliest battle of the war.
May 8, 1945 V-E Day: President Harry S. Truman declares victory in Europe.
July 17-Aug. 2, 1945 Potsdam Conference: The third and final Big Three meeting plans a peace settlement
at the end of World War II.
Aug. 6 & 9, 1945 United States drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.
Aug. 14, 1945 V-J Day: Japan accepts terms of surrender and occasion is declared “Victory in
Japan” day.
5
lots were killed during this campaign, and their deaths dreds of automatic weapons. His plan was to inflict as
hurt Japan’s ability to make war as aggressively as it had many casualities as possible on the American forces in
done in the past. The Battle of Midway was a turning hopes that the widespread devastation would slow the
point in the war in the Pacific, not only because it pun- American advance toward Japan. After weeks of bloody
ished the Japanese navy but also because it helped engen- fighting, the American forces gained complete control of
der a belief among the Allies that Japan would eventually the island on March 26, 1945.
be defeated. The final assault in the island-hopping campaign was
The “Island-Hopping” Campaign. The man who the invasion of Okinawa. If the allies were able to secure
had the most significant impact on the ground war in this final outpost in the Japanese defensive perimeter,
the Pacific was General Douglas MacArthur. He de- they would be able both to bomb Japan at will and even-
veloped a tactical strategy to deal with the problem tually to launch an invasion of the mainland. The Japa-
that the Japanese army had occupied hundreds of is- nese military government knew that Okinawa would be
lands across the Pacific and that it would be impossible the final American target, and the Japanese army, under
successfully to engage these forces in every Japanese the leadership of General Mitsuru Ushijima, spent weeks
outpost. MacArthur developed the concept of “island turning Okinawa into a deadly fortress. The Japanese
hopping” that pinpointed the most strategically impor- high command stockpiled tanks and artillery and brought
tant islands and bypassed the rest of the Japanese forces. in thousands of troops in a final attempt to stop the Amer-
The Battle of Guadalcanal set the stage for MacArthur’s ican military machine. General Simon Bolivar Buckner,
tactical plan and introduced the United States to the Jr., commanded the Unites States’ forces, and after al-
bloody battles of attrition that would become common- most three months of brutal fighting, the island fell on
place in the Pacific theater. Guadalcanal occupied an im- June 21, 1945.
portant position at the southern tip of the Solomon Is- The Atomic Bomb. The carnage of Okinawa led
lands, a strategically important archipelago east of the many intelligence analysts to predict that an invasion of
Coral Sea. From August, 1942, until February, 1943, the Japanese mainland would cost more than a million
U.S. and Japanese forces fought a deadly campaign Allied and three million Japanese causalities. Many his-
for control of the island. This campaign marked the torians believe this was one of the major reasons Presi-
first successful Allied invasion in the Pacific and estab- dent Harry S. Truman decided to drop an atomic bomb on
lished the reputations of American soldiers as constitut- Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and another bomb on Na-
ing a formidable fighting force and of the U.S. military gasaki on August 9. As a result of the devastation in-
command as effective at planning and executing major flicted by these two formidable weapons, the Empire of
military operations. Japan surrendered to General Douglas MacArthur on the
U.S. Forces Reach Japan. The two most important battleship Missouri on September 2, 1945.
land campaigns in the Pacific region were the Battles of
Iwo Jima and Okinawa. A vital part of MacArthur’s plan Significance
was to establish air bases close enough to Japan to allow The United States of America came out of World War II
American bombers to strike targets on the Japanese as one of two global military superpowers; the Soviet
mainland. The capture of the Japanese island of Iwo Jima Union was the other. The United States alone, however,
would place the United States’ B-29 Superfortress bomb- possessed atomic weapons at the end of the war. General
ers within range of many of Japan’s industrial centers. MacArthur was given the responsibility of rebuilding Ja-
Taking Iwo Jima would also give the U.S. Navy the abil- pan, so it could reassume its place among the community
ity to erect a defensive curtain around the central Pacific of nations. Most historians believe that MacArthur suc-
region, stretching from Midway and the Hawaiian Is- ceeded beyond all expectations. He helped the new Japa-
lands in the east to the Mariana Islands and Guam to the nese government write a constitution that created a par-
west. In mid-February, 1945, the United States, under the liamentary democracy with a legislative body known as
direction of Admiral Nimitz, launched the invasion of the Diet. He also helped create a modified capitalist
Iwo Jima. Japanese general Tadamichi Kuribayashi had economy that, by the early 1970’s, was the second stron-
been given the task of defending the island. In the months gest in the world.
leading up to the invasion, he had constructed multiple By the early twenty-first century, Japan’s economy
lines of defense centered on an extensive system of caves made it one of the world’s major powers, albeit one
and tunnels into which he placed artillery units and hun- lacking military might. Moreover, its technological re-
6
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 World War II: European Theater
sources helped drive the economic development and From Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima and Beyond. Lon-
high-tech industries of most of the world’s industrialized don: Channel Four, 2001. History of the Pacific war,
nations. The consistent growth of China as both an eco- published to accompany a British television docu-
1941
nomic and a military power, however, had begun seri- mentary by the same name. Bibiliographic references
ously to shift the power balance of Asia, and it remained and index.
to be seen how Japan—or the United States—would Rawson, Andy. Victory in the Pacific and the Far East:
respond to these developments. Rare Photographs from Wartime Archives. Barnsley,
—Richard D. Fitzgerald South Yorkshire, England: Pen & Sword Military,
2005. Stunning collection of photographs taken in the
Further Reading
Pacific theater. Part of the Images of War series.
Beasley, W. G. Japanese Imperialism, 1894-1945.
Thobaben, Robert G., ed. For Comrade and Country:
Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1987. Excellent
Oral Histories of World War II Veterans. Jefferson,
overview of the history of modern Japanese imperial-
N.C.: McFarland, 2003. Collects first-person narra-
ism. Maps, index.
tives of both the Pacific and European theaters of the
Edgerton, Robert B. Warriors of the Rising Sun: A His-
war. Index.
tory of the Japanese Military. Boulder, Colo.: West-
view Press, 1997. Provides a detailed account of the
rise and evolution of the Japanese military from the See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
late nineteenth century to the end of World War II. European Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl
Maps, index. Harbor; Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on South-
Hoyt, Edwin P. Japan’s War: The Great Pacific Con- east Asia; Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. 9, 1943: Battle of Gua-
flict. New York: Da Capo Press, 1989. One of the dalcanal; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pa-
most respected accounts of the causes and effects of cific Offensive; July 16, 1945: First Nuclear Bomb Is
Japanese militarism in East Asia. Maps, index. Detonated; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs De-
Lewis, Jonathan, and Ben Steel. Hell in the Pacific: stroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
September 3, 1939-May 7, 1945

World War II: European Theater
Adolf Hitler’s planned conquest of Europe between Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet
1939 and 1941 prompted the formation of a grand Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953
coalition of Allied countries to resist the Germans. By Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Italian dictator, 1922-1943
1945, the Allies had fought Hitler’s troops to a bitter Winston Churchill (1874-1965), British prime minister,
end. The war’s effects, which resonate into the twenty- 1940-1945
first century, included the Holocaust, geopolitical Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the
realignments, and untold destruction, injury, and United States, 1933-1945
death. Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), supreme
commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in
Locale: Europe; North Atlantic; North Africa; Europe, 1943-1945
Mediterranean Sea Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), British army
Categories: World War II; atrocities and war commander
crimes; military history; wars, uprisings, and civil George S. Patton (1885-1945), American army
unrest
commander
Key Figures Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945), German Reichsführer-
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- SS, 1929-1945
1945 Georgy Zhukov (1896-1974), Soviet army commander
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; Gerd von Rundstedt (1875-1953), German army
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central commander
7
World War II: European Theater The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), French army overwhelmed the Dutch, who surrendered on May 14.
commander In what might have been a terrible mistake, bombers of
Hermann Göring (1893-1946), German the Luftwaffe struck the open city of Rotterdam in the
Reichsmarschall and commander of Luftwaffe Netherlands, killing between thirty thousand and forty
Erwin Rommel (1891-1944), German army general thousand people and initiating the practice of aerial bom-
bardment of civilian centers. King Leopold of Belgium
Summary of Event surrendered his troops on April 28.
Well before dawn on the morning of September 1, 1939, Between May 26 and June 4, more than 300,000 sur-
Nazi Germany opened World War II in Europe with a rounded Allied troops were evacuated successfully
blitzkrieg (lightning war). German armor and mecha- across the English Channel from Dunkirk. Though Ger-
nized infantry stormed across the Polish border. With man land troops (the Wehrmacht) could probably have
daybreak, the Luftwaffe (German air force) joined the killed or captured the bulk of these troops, Hitler’s air
assault. Dive-bombing Stukas supported the infantry marshal Hermann Göring vowed that his Luftwaffe could
near the border, while long-range bombers struck targets wipe them out, in the process demoralizing the British
farther inside Polish territory. Suffering from surprise homeland. Instead, Göring’s failure heartened the Brit-
and outdated equipment and tactics, the Polish units that ish and preserved for the Allies a core of veteran troops.
were not surrounded and annihilated fell back in disar- Turning south into the French interior, German troops
ray. On September 3, fulfilling the terms of their alliance, entered Paris on June 14. The French government surren-
the United Kingdom (Great Britain) and France declared dered on June 22, leaving Britain without western conti-
war on Germany. Two days later, U.S. president Franklin nental allies. France itself was divided into an occupied
D. Roosevelt declared U.S. neutrality. On September 17, area in the north under direct Nazi control and a
Joseph Stalin’s Soviet armies moved into eastern Poland semiautonomous puppet state in the south under World
as part of Stalin’s secret agreement with Adolf Hitler War I hero Marshal Philippe Pétain with its capital at
made earlier in the year. On September 28, after a pound- Vichy. One week later, the British recognized Charles de
ing by German bombers, Warsaw surrendered, and Po- Gaulle as the leader of the “Free French” in exile.
land was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Hitler now turned directly on Britain, launching air
Union. raids on English ports on July 10. Churchill’s resolve
With fall and winter came both fevered diplomatic only stiffened, however, and the Nazis prepared Opera-
maneuvering by the Allied Powers and a “sitzkrieg” (sit- tion Sea Lion, the invasion of Britain. On Adlertag (eagle
ting war), as Hitler reoriented his victorious forces day), August 15, Göring sent nearly twenty-five hundred
against Western Europe. Britain obtained a “cash and fighters and bombers against strategic sites, but the Brit-
carry” supply agreement with the neutral United States, ish Royal Air Force’s (RAF’s) eight hundred fighters ex-
an agreement that ensured the flow of badly needed food acted a heavy toll and survived in numbers great enough
and military arms by naval convoy. Britain also estab- to continue defending the island nation. Though nearly
lished a formal naval blockade of the German state and victorious in its attacks directly on RAF installations,
its allies that was immediately challenged by German Germany began targeting English cities, opening the
submarines (U-boats) and surface raiders, steps that nighttime blitz on London on September 7. By the mid-
opened the Battle of the Atlantic. Meanwhile, Stalin at- dle of the month, Hitler abandoned Operation Sea
tacked Finland and seized more than sixteen thousand Lion—conceding British victory in English skies—but
square miles of Finnish territory. continued assaults on London and cities like Coventry.
Hitler’s spring campaign of 1940 opened with inva- Meanwhile, the RAF began regular raids on German cit-
sions of Norway and Denmark on April 9. Denmark ies, beginning with Berlin on August 25.
collapsed immediately, but with British support the Nor- Germany’s Second Front. During the winter of
wegians fought on for nearly a month. On May 10, 1940-1941, Hitler began preparations for Operation
seventy-five divisions of German armor and infantry Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union,
rolled into the French Ardennes Forest and the Nether- while his Italian allies, under the direction of Benito
lands, a crisis that forced British prime minister Neville Mussolini, suffered significant losses in attempts to in-
Chamberlain to resign in favor of Winston Churchill. vade Greece and Egypt and thus create an Italian empire.
Using blitzkrieg tactics and avoiding the formidable for- Meanwhile, the still-neutral United States established
tifications of the French Maginot Line, the Germans the Selective Service and military draft and the U.S. Con-
8
gress debated the Lend-Lease Act (signed March 11), On March 25, 1941, Yugoslavia joined Hungary, Ro-
which would provide billions of dollars worth of military mania, and Bulgaria as partners in the Rome-Berlin Axis,
supplies to threatened nations, especially Britain. touching off a popular rebellion that drew German troops
1941
To aid Mussolini, Hitler sent the brilliant general into Yugoslavia. At the same time, Hitler decided to rein-
Erwin Rommel and his Afrika Korps to confront the Brit- force the Italians in Greece to stabilize the Balkans. This
ish in North Africa. Strategically, he hoped to seize distraction forced him to postpone Barbarossa for sev-
Egypt and the Suez Canal and press eastward into eral very important weeks, a delay that would prove
friendly Iraq, whose oil would have been most useful in deadly to the Germans. By early June the Germans had
the German war effort. Rommel quickly adapted his driven the British from Greece and much of North Africa
tanks and trucks to desert conditions and drove the Brit- and had daringly seized Crete with paratroopers. In the
ish out of Libya and back to Egypt. Balkans, however, nationalist partisans (guerrilla fight-
World War II: Germany and the European Theater
Sw
Finland
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North
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Compiègne Prague ve
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Paris Reims Trier ch Do
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France R Vienna Budapest

Switzerland Austria Hungary Odessa
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Belgrade B l a c k S e a
Florence Yugoslavia i ver
A
Danube R
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Anzio
Naples Salerno
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Algiers Bizerte
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Casablanca Syria
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French Algeria t e r r a n e a n Palestine

Tu
Morocco Trans-
Tripoli Jordan
Tobruk
Nile R
Benghazi
Libya El Alamein
iver
Egypt
9
Time Line of World War II: European Theater

July, 1937-February, 1938 Japanese troops invade China, beginning World War II in East Asia.
Sept. 15-29, 1938 British and German leaders meet in Munich.
August, 1939 The possibility of U.S. involvement in the war developing in Europe and East Asia
prompts conversion of domestic production to meet military needs.
Sept. 1, 1939 Germany invades Poland, beginning World War II in Europe.
Sept. 3, 1939-May 4, 1945 Battle of North Atlantic: Eventual definitive victory for Allied forces.
October, 1939-Dec. 7, 1941 Polish Campaign
April 9, 1940 Germany invades Norway.
May-June, 1940 Germany occupies France.
May 10, 1940 Germany invades Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium.
June 10, 1940 Italy declares war on France and Great Britain. Italian forces enter southern France.
July 10-Oct. 31, 1940 Battle of Britain: Germany bombs Great Britain in preparation for a land invasion. Despite
great losses on both sides, the British repulse German air power and avoid German
occupation.
Sept. 27, 1940 Japan signs the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy, becoming a member of the Axis
powers.
Oct. 8, 1940 Germany occupies Romania.
Oct. 28, 1940 Italy invades Greece.
Nov. 11, 1940 Battle of Taranto
Dec. 9-13, 1940 Battle of Stdt Barr3ni
1941-1942 Battle of Moscow
1941-1944 Siege of Leningrad
March 11, 1941 Before the United States becomes formally involved in the war, it uses the Lend-Lease
program to support Great Britain’s war effort while declaring official neutrality.
May 20-31, 1941 Crete campaign
Sept. 16-26, 1941 Battle of Kiev
Nov. 18, 1941-June 21, 1942 Battles of Tobruk
Dec. 8, 1941 United Stats declares war on Japan.
Dec. 11, 1941 Axis nations declare war on the United States.
1942-1943 Battles of Kharkov
June 17, 1942 President Roosevelt approves the Manhattan Project.
ers) began a ferocious campaign against German occu- Center targeted Moscow, and Field Marshal Gerd von
pation that would continue to drain vital resources from Rundstedt’s southern forces headed for Ukraine, Cauca-
the new theater in the Soviet Union. sus oil fields, and the symbolically important city of Sta-
Hitler had needed a neutral Soviet Union to his east to lingrad.
ensure his victories in Western Europe; hence he signed a Suffering from an earlier Stalinist purge of thousands
nonaggression pact with Stalin in early 1939. Never one of experienced officers, Soviet resistance was disorga-
to provide good faith to treaties, Hitler thoroughly sur- nized and Stalin himself literally disappeared from pub-
prised Stain, if not his generals, when on June 22, 1941, lic view for several weeks before making himself, like
three German army groups consisting of nearly 150 divi- Hitler, the supreme commander of his military (on Au-
sions and 3,000 Luftwaffe planes swept into Soviet terri- gust 7). By September, Leningrad was being shelled by
tory. The blitzkrieg tactics of deep penetration by planes, German artillery; the Wehrmacht was in Ukrainian
tanks, and mechanized infantry quickly overwhelmed Kharkov by mid-October, and German tanks were a
whole Soviet armies that were ranged along the two- mere 60 miles from Moscow. Unfortunately, relatively
thousand-mile-long frontier, capturing hundreds of few Axis units were equipped or clothed for the brutal
thousands of soldiers at a time. Northern forces “liber- Russian cold that would soon descend on them.
ated” the recently seized Baltic states and drove toward General Georgy Zhukov’s defense of the capital, Sta-
Leningrad (St. Petersburg). Germany’s Army Group lin’s patriotic speeches (to Soviets this was the Great Pa-
10
Aug. 19, 1942 Raid on Dieppe

Aug. 23, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943 Battle of Stalingrad
Oct. 23-Nov. 4, 1942 Battle of El Alamein
1941
Nov. 7-8, 1942 North Africa invasion: An Allied campaign designed to drive the Germans out of
North Africa. This operation provides a training ground for U.S. forces in World
War II.
February, 1943 Casablanca Conference
July 5-15, 1943 Battle of Kursk
July 9-Sept. 19, 1943 Italy invasion: This campaign forces Germany to use troops and resources that might
otherwise have been used in northern France.
Sept. 8, 1943 Italy surrenders unconditionally.
Sept. 9-Oct. 1, 1943 Battle of Salerno: The Allies accomplish their objective, taking the port of Naples.
November, 1943-June, 1944 Battle of Monte Cassino
Jan. 22-May 25, 1944 Battle of Anzio
June 6, 1944 D day: Operation Overlord’s Normandy invasion begins.
June 22-July 11, 1944 Operation Bagration
Aug. 25, 1944 Liberation of Paris
Sept. 11, 1944 Liberation of Luxembourg
Sept. 17-26, 1944 Battle of Arnhem
Dec. 16, 1944-Jan. 25, 1945 Battle of the Bulge: German forces are routed in a desperate campaign to halt advancing
Allied armies.
Feb. 4-11, 1945 Yalta Conference: This significant meeting of the “Big Three” Allied powers marks the
height of Allied cooperation but also reveals conflicting agendas.
March 7-May 8, 1945 Rhine crossings
April 19-May 2, 1945 Battle of Berlin
May 7, 1945 Germany signs surrender documents.
May 8, 1945 V-E Day: President Harry S. Truman declares victory in Europe.
July 17-Aug. 2, 1945 Potsdam Conference: The third and final Big Three meeting plans a peace settlement
at the end of World War II.
Aug. 6 & 9, 1945 United States drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.
Aug. 14, 1945 V-J Day: Japan accepts terms of surrender and occasion is declared “Victory in
Japan” day.
triotic War), and U.S. Lend-Lease aid emboldened the early 1942 and directed by Heinrich Himmler, the hor-
Russians, as fall and winter set in. By year’s end, none of rors were greatly magnified as entire neighborhoods
the major objectives had been taken, and Hitler had a were deported to concentration camps in Poland. Not
powerful new enemy. On December 7, 1941, Germany’s only barbarously inhumane, the deportation program
ally in the Pacific, the Empire of Japan, attacked the U.S. was economically wasteful as it absorbed valuable re-
naval forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and four days later sources that could have aided the German war machine.
Hitler and Mussolini foolishly declared war on the In every European country, people suffered from
United States in support of Japan. shortages of consumer goods; the Germans were the last
Life in Occupied Europe. Nazi ideology had to face these shortages, as Hitler hoped to spare the na-
combined with the exigencies of war to produce espe- tion the material sacrifices of total war (at least until
cially harsh conditions for the people of Europe. Simple 1943). Allied bombing raids disrupted urban life as well
freedoms were often curtailed by martial law, and partic- as armament production in central Europe, as did Ger-
ular groups such as Jews, intellectuals, and communists man air raids and later V-1 and V-2 attacks on English
were openly persecuted. Even before the machinery of cities. Collaborators chose to cooperate with the occupi-
the Holocaust and its death camps were operational, peo- ers, often earning the hatred of their country folk. Resis-
ple were seized, imprisoned, tortured; some were mur- tance fighters, on the other hand, sought to make life for
dered. With the so-called final solution, formulated in the occupation forces miserable, most notably in France,
11
Greece, and Yugoslavia. Most spectacularly, and tragi- order, however, and prepared for an invasion of the
cally, Poles in Warsaw rose against their invaders (Au- mainland. This began across the Strait of Messina on
gust 1-October 2, 1944) as Soviet forces approached. September 3. With the Italian surrender on September 8,
Stalin, however, called a halt, and the Germans merci- the Germans took complete control of the country and
lessly slaughtered as many as 200,000 people and ban- fortified it against the Allies. A U.S. landing at Salerno
ished another half million people to concentration near Naples on September 9 established a northern
camps. beachhead, but German strongholds were centered on
The Tide Turns. During the winter and spring of Monte Cassino, well south of Rome. In January, 1944,
1942, Zhukov counterattacked the Germans near Mos- the Allies attempted a breakout by landing at Anzio, but
cow, and in the spring, Russian forces attacked German the beachhead was contained and advances were stalled.
positions in the south. German counterattacks stabilized The Noose Tightens. Early 1944 saw Soviet
the southern front, however, and in July, Hitler decided troops drive to Poland following retreating Germans, as
to split the army between two objectives: the Caucasus Allied leaders planned the invasion of northwestern
and Stalingrad. Meanwhile, Rommel’s tanks rolled to France, Operation Overlord, which was to be directed by
within 100 miles of the Nile River, stalling in July at Brit- General Eisenhower. By March, the Red Army was in
ish defenses near El Alamein. In August, Churchill gave Romania, headed for Hungary and the Balkans. In mid-
the command of Britain’s African forces to Bernard Law May the German Gustav Line in central Italy was
Montgomery, who defeated Rommel’s undersupplied breached and Allied forces drove toward Rome, which
forces at El Alamein and began driving them westward in they entered on June 4. Two days later—on D day—
October and early November. U.S., British, and Canadian troops stormed occupied
On November 8, U.S. general Dwight D. Eisenhower France in Normandy. The defenses, marshaled by
launched Operation Torch, which landed thirty-five Rommel and von Rundstedt, failed to contain the inva-
thousand troops in Vichy-controlled Algeria and Mo- sion, which quickly established a firm beachhead. As in
rocco. In late August, German forces under Field Mar- North Africa and Italy, Allied air superiority assured
shal Friedrich Paulus surrounded and entered Stalingrad, unhampered reconnaissance, close air-ground support
a city already devastated by Luftwaffe bombing. The de- (dive-bombing, strafing), and provision of troops and
fense under Russian general Vasili Chuikov was tena- supplies by parachute drop. Tactical bombers also
cious and the fighting horribly brutal. In November, blasted enemy positions immediately behind front lines,
1942, Paulus’s Sixth Army, forbidden to retreat, was often with devastating effect. Though Hitler’s heavy
quickly surrounded by a Soviet relief force, and Rom- tanks were superior to any Allied models, they were few
mel’s Afrika Korps sat perilously between the British in number and lacking in shells and fuel, a problem that
and the Americans. In early February, 1943, the last rem- grew with the intensity of Allied bombing of factories
nants of the Sixth Army surrendered. The remainder of and supply lines.
the war in Russia would be a long German retreat punc- By late summer, 1944, Italy had been liberated as
tuated with often brilliant tactical counterattacks. The far north as Florence and French troops marched into
greatest of these was at Kursk (beginning July 4), ulti- Paris. Fortunately, German commanders in both cities
mately a defeat that cost the Germans dearly. After an ignored Hitler’s orders to destroy the cities before they
initial victory over the Americans at the Kasserine Pass were recaptured. Despite Churchill’s objections, a sec-
in Tunisia, the Allies closed in on Rommel, whose troops ond French front opened with Allied landings near Mar-
surrendered in May, 1943, opening the way to an inva- seille. The British prime minister’s concerns focused on
sion of Italy. German rocket sites in northern Germany, from which
The Allied Second Front in Europe. Allied V-1 bombs and later V-2 missiles were launched against
political leaders meeting at Casablanca, Morocco, from London. Though Eisenhower insisted on a broad ad-
January 10 to 24, 1943, decided general strategy for al- vance on the Rhine, Montgomery fought for a strong
lied victory: Intensify the bomber campaign, invade Sic- northern offensive, launching Operation Market Garden,
ily before Italy itself, and demand unconditional German a failed attempt by paratroopers and armor to take the
surrender when the time came. British and Americans Dutch city of Arnhem (September 17-28). Hitler’s last
under Montgomery and George S. Patton landed in Sic- counterattack in the west was designed by the retired von
ily with 160,000 soldiers on July 10 and seized the island Rundstedt: an armored strike in mid-December through
in five weeks. The Germans retreated in generally good the Ardennes Forest toward Antwerp that would split the
12
Allied armies. The Battle of the Bulge (December 16, ure of prewar diplomacy and the war itself also led the in-
1944-January 28, 1945) was terribly costly for both ternational community to replace the toothless League of
sides, but it proved to be the Germans’ last offensive. Nations with the United Nations.
1941
Winter and spring, 1945, saw the slow but certain col- For the first time in history, international tribunals
lapse of German defenses everywhere. Boys and old men such as that in Nuremberg tried, convicted, and executed
fought bravely but failed, as victorious Allied armies military and political leaders for war crimes and crimes
eliminated resistance. Western troops stopped at the Elbe against humanity. Germany’s aggressive assaults on oth-
River, fearing staunch resistance in Bavaria and allowing erwise peaceful states, the brutality of its war machine
the Soviets to seize Berlin. It was in a bunker in Berlin, and occupation, and the Holocaust horrified Europeans
with the Allies closing in, that Hitler committed suicide and others around the world. The war also led to an un-
on April 30. On May 7 in Rheims, France, German chief precedented European pacifism and internationalism,
of staff Alfred Jodl signed surrender papers: Victory in perhaps best exemplified in the establishment of the Eu-
Europe (V-E Day) was celebrated the following day. ropean Union.
—Joseph P. Byrne
Significance
The far-reaching effects of the war can be sketched here Further Reading
only briefly. Death toll estimates vary wildly, but the So- Ambrose, Stephen E. D-Day, June 6, 1944: The Climac-
viet Union lost roughly 20 million people, Germany lost tic Battle of World War Two. New York: Simon &
7.5 million, and Poland lost 5.8 million, Yugoslavia lost Schuster, 1995. A stirring account based on both in-
more than 1 million, and the United States, Britain, and terviews and documentary research.
France lost more than 400,000 each. In the immediate af- Bahn, Karl. Berlin, 1945: The Last Battle, 16 April-2
termath of the war, perhaps 21 million Europeans be- May 1945. Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword Books,
came “displaced persons” (D.P.’s), refugees without 2001. An authoritative account of the European the-
home, civic identity, family, or resources. Many Euro- ater’s final assault, which prompted Hitler’s suicide
pean cities were mere piles of rubble, and Germany’s and Germany’s surrender.
economic base was shattered. Rebuilding a viable Eu- Bungay, Stephen. The Most Dangerous Enemy: A His-
rope would take decades and the huge U.S. commitment tory of the Battle of Britain. London: Aurum Press,
of the Marshall Plan. In areas liberated by the Red Army, 2002. A well-structured and highly detailed narrative
entire factories were shipped to Russia to help repair its that includes much technical information as well as
crippled industrial base. personality sketches.
The war efforts of both Axis and Allied scientists and Dear, Ian C. B. The Oxford Companion to World War II.
technicians produced numerous inventions or refine- New ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. A
ments of great importance. Among these were radar, so- thorough encyclopedic work with more than seven-
nar, jet engines, rockets, and the atomic bomb, on which teen hundred alphabetized entries.
German as well as American scientists had labored. Gilbert, Martin. The Holocaust: A History of the Jews of
The Holocaust stands as an everlasting testament to Europe During the Second World War. New York:
humankind’s capacity for inhumanity, but it also led di- Henry Holt, 1985. This work remains a classic over-
rectly to the formation of the state of Israel. Other politi- view of the German treatment of its own Jews and
cal effects include the partition of Germany, the Soviet those in occupied and allied countries.
domination of Eastern Europe and creation of the Soviet Glantz, David M. Before Stalingrad: Barbarossa, Hit-
Bloc, and the counter-development of the North Atlantic ler’s Invasion of Russia, 1941. Stroud, England: Tem-
Treaty Organization (NATO) and other Western Euro- pus, 2004. A Russian historian’s expert analysis of
pean and Atlantic international arrangements. The forty- why the seeds of German defeat were sown in the in-
five-year Cold War between the Soviets and the Western vasion itself.
alliance ironically has its origins in the Grand Alliance Lande, David. Resistance! Occupied Europe and Its De-
against fascism. Indeed, fascism was eliminated as a fiance of Hitler. Osceola, Wis.: Zenith Press, 2001.
political system everywhere in Europe except neutral Relies on many interviews and other reports of the
Spain, but communist governments came to control people who lived under Nazi government, emphasiz-
Eastern Europe behind the “Iron Curtain,” a phrase ing those who helped the Allied cause by undermin-
coined by the Conservative Winston Churchill. The failing German administration.
13
Bultmann Interprets the Christian Scriptures The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Overy, Richard. Why the Allies Won. New York: W. W. cludes many illustrations, maps, and photographs.
Norton, 1996. A controversial analysis that challenges Available at http://www.army.mil/cmh/.
the standard explanations for Germany’s defeat. Weinberg, Gerhard L. Hitler’s Foreign Policy: The Road
Parker, Danny S. The Battle of The Bulge: Hitler’s to World War II, 1933-1939. New York: Enigma
Ardennes Offensive, 1944-1945. New York: Da Capo Books, 2005. Considered by many the definitive
Press, 2004. Considered by many the standard history study of Hitler’s Germany before World War II.
of the battle in English. Traces Germany’s transformation from an “unequal”
Roberts, Geoffrey. Victory at Stalingrad: The Battle That entity in Europe to the center of diplomatic domi-
Changed History. New York: Longman, 2002. Pre- nance and power on the world stage.
sents both the details of the commanders and the bat- White, David F. Bitter Ocean: The Battle of the Atlantic,
tle and places the Russian victory in its proper histori- 1939-1945. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. A
cal perspective. well-written, illustrated account of the major person-
The Second World War. 9 vols. Naples, Fla.: Trident alities and events in the long and costly struggle.
Press International, 2000. Illustrated with more than
twenty thousand photographs, this nine-volume See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
chronicle is unsurpassed as a visual record of World cific Theater; 1941-1945: U.S. Censorship and War
War II in both major theaters. Propaganda During World War II; Mar. 1, 1941:
Stewart, Richard W., ed. The United States Army in a United States Enters the Battle of the Atlantic; Dec.
Global Era: 1917-2003. Vol. 2 in American Military 11, 1941: Germany and Italy Declare War on the
History. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military His- United States; Jan. 20, 1942: Wannsee Conference
tory, U.S. Army, 2005. Originally written and pub- and the “Final Solution”; Aug. 19, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943:
lished in 1956 as a textbook for Army officers in train- Battle of Stalingrad; Sept. 12, 1944: Allied Forces Be-
ing, this updated work provides a detailed history of gin the Battle for Germany; May 8, 1945: V-E Day
the Army’s role in times of international strife. In- Marks the End of World War II in Europe.
1941
Bultmann Offers a Controversial Interpretation of the
Christian Scriptures
Rudolf Bultmann stripped the Christian Scriptures of Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), German existentialist
their supernatural elements to present a Christian philosopher
existentialist reading of the life and message of Jesus. Karl Jaspers (1883-1969), German existentialist
His manifesto for this “demythologization” project and philosopher and psychologist
the first of his many works that pursued this goal was Paul Tillich (1886-1965), German American Protestant
New Testament and Mythology. theologian
Johannes Eckhart (c. 1260-1327/1328), German mystic
Also known as: New Testament and Mythology: The Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-2002), German
Task of Demythologizing the New Testament Proc- hermeneutic philosopher
lamation; Neues Testament und Mythologie: Das Bruno Bauer (1809-1882), German Hegelian
Problem der Entmythologisierung der
philosopher
neutestamentlichen Verkündigung
Hermann Gunkel (1862-1932), German religious
Locale: Marburg, Germany
scholar
Categories: Religion, theology, and ethics;
Adolf von Harnack (1851-1930), German liberal
philosophy
Protestant theologian and historian
Key Figures Albrecht Ritschl (1822-1889), German Protestant
Rudolf Bultmann (1884-1976), German Lutheran theologian and historian
theologian and scholar David Friedrich Strauss (1808-1874), German
Karl Barth (1886-1968), Swiss theologian Hegelian philosopher
14
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Bultmann Interprets the Christian Scriptures
Summary of Event cance of the data for both its own time and his. A key fact
Academia’s systematic challenge to the literal truth of for Bultmann was that Christianity arose in a Hellenistic
the Bible began when David Friedrich Strauss published world. Without Greek influence, it would have been
1941
Leben Jesu (1835; The Life of Jesus, 1836-1843). Other quite different. Accordingly, to prepare to reinterpret the
authors before Strauss had written biographies of Jesus, Christian Scriptures, or New Testament, along form-
but Strauss was the first to use philosophical methods to critical lines, he immersed himself in the study of Greek
seek the historical Jesus and question Christ’s divinity, intellectual and cultural movements that were contempo-
miracles, and other supernatural qualities. Bruno Bauer rary with Christ, especially Gnosticism.
continued in a similar antimythological vein with Die Bultmann taught at the University of Marburg from
Religion des Alten Testaments in der geschichtlichen 1921 until he retired in 1951. Martin Heidegger was
Entwicklung ihrer Principien dargestellt (1838; the reli- there from 1923 to 1928. Heidegger sought to reveal true
gion of the Old Testament presented in the historical de- being by examining, or “deconstructing,” the language
velopment of its principles), Kritik der evangelischen in which the Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers first ex-
Geschichte des Johannes (1840; critique of the Gospel pressed it. This strategy of dissecting words to determine
of John), and Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte der what they originally meant would pervade literary and
Synoptiker (1841; critique of the Synoptic Gospels). social criticism in the late twentieth century. Evidence
In the late nineteenth century, Albrecht Ritschl’s Die exists that Bultmann and Heidegger influenced each
Christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Ver- other in their early careers. In the 1930’s, Bultmann com-
söhnung (1870-1874; The Christian Doctrine of Justifi- mitted himself to the problem of reinterpreting the lan-
cation and Reconciliation, 1872-1900) set the tone for guage of the New Testament in order to jettison the su-
liberal Protestant theology by emphasizing spiritual val- pernatural aspects of Jesus’ life and message (kerygma)
ues grounded in historical fact and practical consider- and present the Gospels as a more realistic or believable
ations. He relegated devotion, worship, and belief in set of stories.
dogma to secondary status. Inspired by Ritschl’s work, Bultmann’s little manifesto, Neues Testament und
Adolf von Harnack’s Dogmengeschichte (1885; History Mythologie: Das Problem der Entmythologisierung der
of Dogma, 1892-1900) and Wesen des Christentums neutestamentlichen Verkündigung (1941; New Testa-
(1900; What Is Christianity?, 1901) stressed the need for ment and Mythology: The Task of Demythologizing the
each believer to understand Christianity objectively as New Testament Proclamation, 1953), sparked extensive
part of all human history. controversy as soon as it was published. One commen-
Hermann Gunkel’s Die Sagen der Genesis (1901; The tator, Julius Schniewind, characterized the immediate
Legends of Genesis, 1901) inaugurated the “higher criti- reaction among German theologians as “a storm of in-
cism” of the Bible. Gunkel parsed the book of Genesis dignant repudiation.” Several of these rebuttals and Bult-
into its component forms and reasoned that the form of mann’s counterrebuttal were collected and published as
each text would reveal the original religious purpose of Kerygma und Mythos (1952; Kerygma and Myth, 1953).
the ancient Hebrews as they experienced their faith. Such Bultmann’s book Das Evangelium des Johannes (1941;
textual analysis of Scripture soon evolved into several The Gospel of John: A Commentary, 1971) contained a
varieties: Form criticism followed Gunkel in trying to similar message. Bultmann simply saw no point in hav-
discover the life situations of small units of text, whether ing any element of the supernatural in what was essen-
narratives, prayers, hymns, legal decrees, or genealogies. tially each believer’s personal spiritual quest.
Historical criticism compared biblical texts with con- The English-speaking world first became aware of
temporary documents from other ancient cultures. Liter- Bultmann’s demythologization project through his The-
ary criticism was similar to the methods that scholars ap- ologie des Neuen Testaments (1948-1953; Theology of
ply to modern novels and poems. Redaction criticism the New Testament, 1951-1955). This was Bultmann’s
probed the editorial process by which the Bible was most important book, not only for demythologization but
compiled. also for kerygmatic (“message-centered”) theology in
Rudolf Bultmann studied under both Harnack and general. The first part examined Jesus’ message through
Gunkel at the University of Berlin between 1903 and the lens of Gnostic motifs and other contemporary cultural
1906 and became adept in form criticism. As he began phenomena. The second, third, and fourth parts performed
his own university career, Bultmann learned to seek, not similar analyses of the respective theologies of Saint
the historical or theological data itself, but the signifi- Paul, Saint John, and the early church communities.
15
Bultmann Interprets the Christian Scriptures The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Significance Further Reading

Christian existentialism was a major force in twentieth Baird, William. The History of New Testament Re-
century thought. Its goal was to reinvent Christianity to search: From Jonathan Edwards to Rudolf Bultmann.
focus on the faith experience of individual believers in Minneapolis, Minn.: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. En-
ordinary life situations, rather than on doctrine, myth, dorses Bultmann’s early form-critical work, but dis-
miracles, church history, canon law, or any other aspect approves of demythologization and criticizes Bult-
of religion that would not immediately resonate with mann’s skepticism about Jesus.
modern rationality. It did not exclude mysticism but Barth, Karl, and Rudolf Bultmann. Letters, 1922-1966.
still asserted that anything supernatural would be within Edited by Bernd Jaspert and Geoffrey William
the heart of the believer, rather than in universal his- Bromiley. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1981. In-
tory or cosmology. Christian existentialists often cited sight into the lives and personalities of two giants of
Meister Eckhart’s belief that the soul of each human twentieth century theology.
being is a “spark of the divine” and that each and every Fergusson, David. Rudolf Bultmann. London: Contin-
person thus contains all of God’s essence deep within uum, 2000. Brief biographical appraisal of Bult-
him or her. mann’s writings.
The two greatest exponents of Christian existential- Harrisville, Roy A., and Walter Sundberg. The Bible in
ism were Bultmann, who based his version on a natural- Modern Culture: Theology and Historical-Critical
istic reinterpretation of the Christian Scriptures, and Paul Method from Spinoza to Käsemann. Grand Rapids,
Tillich, who based his on a philosophical reinterpretation Mich.: Eerdmans, 1995. Incisive chapter on Bultmann
of five centuries of Protestant theological tradition. engages him with his predecessors and contemporaries.
Bultmann’s Das Urchristentum im Rahmen der antiken Johnson, Roger A. The Origins of Demythologizing:
Religionen (1949; Primitive Christianity in its Contem- Philosophy and Historiography in the Theology of
porary Setting, 1956) and Tillich’s The Courage to Be Rudolf Bultmann. Leiden, the Netherlands: E. J. Brill,
(1952) were the main books of this movement. 1974. Compares Enlightenment, Neo-Kantian, re-
Bultmann’s mission to supersede literal understand- ligionsgeschichtliche (history of religions), and exis-
ings of the supernatural events described in Scripture tentialist conceptions of myth.
appealed to intellectuals, liberal thinkers, and progres- Livingston, James C. Modern Christian Thought from
sive churchgoers but irked conservative believers— the Enlightenment to Vatican II. New York: Mac-
especially those who regarded the Bible as without inter- millan, 1971. An intellectual history that clearly
nal error or contradiction. Bultmann, however, earned places Bultmann and other thinkers in context relative
the respect of some conservative theologians, such as to one another.
Karl Barth, who carried on a long and fruitful correspon- Miegge, Giovanni. Gospel and Myth in the Thought of
dence with him. Barth’s neo-orthodox theology of crisis Rudolf Bultmann. Richmond, Va.: John Knox Press,
had much in common with Christian existentialism’s 1960. Argues that Bultmann the existentialist is more
emphasis on the subjective implications of Christ’s mes- valuable to Christian theology than Bultmann the
sage, even if Barth and Bultmann could not agree on demythologizer.
what that message was, on who Christ was, or on the na- Ogden, Schubert Miles. Christ Without Myth: A Study
ture of divinity. Based on the Theology of Rudolf Bultmann. Dallas:
Bultmann’s demythologization project influenced Southern Methodist University Press, 1991. Proposes
philosophy as well as theology. Unlike the theological several alternatives to Bultmann’s project of demy-
response, the philosophical response to Bultmann was thologization.
almost entirely affirmative. Karl Jaspers and Bultmann
co-authored Die Frage der Entmythologisierung (1954; See also: Mar., 1941-Jan., 1943: Niebuhr Extols a The-
Myth and Christianity: An Inquiry into the Possibility ory of Christian Realism; Apr. 26, 1948: Dead Sea
of Religion Without Myth, 1958), and Hans-Georg Scrolls Are Unearthed; Nov. 1, 1950: Pius XII Pro-
Gadamer, Heidegger’s student, cited Bultmann favor- claims the Doctrine of the Assumption; 1955: Teilhard
ably in his masterpiece of philosophical hermeneutics, de Chardin Attempts to Reconcile Religion and Evo-
Wahrheit und Methode (1960; Truth and Method, 1975). lution; Oct. 11, 1962-Dec. 8, 1965: Second Vatican
—Eric v.d. Luft Council Meets.
16
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 New Criticism Arises in American Universities
1941
New Criticism Arises in American Universities
1941
The New Criticism was a school of criticism that read ence. Eliot, in his key critical work The Sacred Wood
literary texts formally, in isolation from the cultures or (1920), argued that the poet, rather than seeking to ex-
people that produced them. Adherents of the school press emotion, should try to escape it. By writing a
taught a generation of students the methodology of poem—a construction of images, plot, and metaphors
close reading and helped shape the history of literary that embodies the truth intrinsic in the work itself—the
criticism in the United States. poet could transcend personal experience. The author of
a work, Eliot argued, is therefore far less important than
Locale: United States the work itself. The historical context and moral world-
Categories: Cultural and intellectual history; view of the work are similarly unimportant to its proper
literature; education literary appreciation.
Key Figures The New Critics rejected the Victorian scholar Mat-
John Crowe Ransom (1888-1974), American scholar thew Arnold’s cultural criticism, which had claimed that
T. S. Eliot (1888-1965), American-born British poet, poetry would replace religion and provide the stability
playwright, and critic that religion had previously given. New Criticism in-
Cleanth Brooks (1906-1994), British scholar sisted that poetry is neither religion emotionally stated
William K. Wimsatt, Jr. (1907-1975), American nor the ornamental embellishment of cultural values and
scholar hopes—nor, New Critics argued, is poetry to be valued
I. A. Richards (1893-1979), American scholar according to its effect on readers; it is a verbal construct,
R. P. Blackmur (1904-1965), American scholar a thing made—indeed, the word “poetry” comes from
Allen Tate (1899-1979), American poet and critic the Greek poieo, which means “to make.” The New
Critics thus taught and interpreted the poem as poetry: as
Summary of Event a work with various parts and characteristics that were fit
By the end of World War II, a new method of literary together to make an artful whole.
study had gained primacy in American colleges and uni- After this initial stage, New Criticism expanded its
versities. The method, dubbed “New Criticism,” soon effect through the work of such other poets and critics
triumphed over other ways of interpreting literature, be- as I. A. Richards, R. P. Blackmur, William Empson,
coming the dominant lens for looking at poetry and other Cleanth Brooks, and Allen Tate. In The New Criticism
works taught in academia. (1941), John Crowe Ransom carefully defined the school
New Criticism was a reaction to and a rejection of but lamented its apparent lack of philosophical depth, so-
previous literary studies, which (according to the New cial awareness, and attention to cultural and moral val-
Critics) had submerged poetry in historical, philological, ues. Cleanth Brooks, in Understanding Poetry (1938),
cultural, and biographical studies. These studies accord- had provided a text that challenged poets and critics;
ing to some New Critics were all valid approaches to mostly, however, Brooks’s work captivated students by
reading, but they were not literary approaches. If one focusing on each individual poem’s language, images,
were to look at a poem’s historical context, for example, narrative, argument, and metaphors and on how these in-
one would according to New Critics be engaging in his- trinsic qualities worked with and against one another to
tory rather than literary study. The New Critics, then, at- sustain a tension that was primarily literary and aesthetic.
tempted to delineate a field of study, literary studies, that In a third stage of New Criticism’s development, vari-
would approach poetry in a distinctive way, one that was ous professors, critics, and poets codified the school into
not historical, philological, or biographical. a discernible method of literary criticism that was used to
Spearheaded by early critics such as T. E. Hulme teach poetry to thousands of students between the 1940’s
(1883-1917) and T. S. Eliot, New Criticism argued that and the 1960’s. Such texts as René Wellek and Austin
poetry should be interpreted by the reading of individual Warren’s Theory of Literature (1949); The Verbal Icon:
poems themselves. According to Hulme, scholarship in Studies in the Meaning of Poetry (1954), by William
the Romantic age had focused instead on the poet, whose K. Wimsatt, Jr., with Monroe C. Beardsley; Murray
verbal expressions were seen less as poetry and more as Krieger’s The New Apologists for Poetry (1956); Brooks
versified statements about the poet’s emotional experi- and Wimsatt’s Literary Criticism: A Short History
17
New Criticism Arises in American Universities The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
(1957); Allen Tate’s Essays of Four Decades (1969), stood in isolation, as a closed system on the page separate
dedicated appropriately to John Crowe Ransom; and from the person and culture that produced it; the creation
Cleanth Brooks’s 1956 reprint of Modern Poetry and the of an ostensibly objective methodology for the study of
Tradition (1939) all partook of the formidable authority literature called close reading; and the particular aes-
that New Criticism had achieved. thetic most effectively analyzed and appreciated by those
Several of these men, notably Eliot, Ransom, and who practiced New Critical close readings. To take the
Tate, were poets themselves. This led to the blurring of latter source first, it is important to note that every school
the distinction in some of their criticism between how a of criticism is better suited to read and explain some
poem should be written and how it should be interpreted. types of works than it is to understand others. New Criti-
In other words, New Criticism applied to the reading en- cism came to focus upon the economic and poetic use of
deavor held that a poet’s life and emotion were not rele- tension and paradox; the school portrayed unresolved
vant to interpretation. Applied to the poet’s activity, paradoxes within a work as the hallmark of the greatest
however, it held that poets should strive to separate their art. The works in which it is easiest to deploy that particu-
emotions from their work. This was a contradiction, lar type of representation are relatively short poems. As a
however, because it indicated that in some poetry— result of the rise of New Criticism, then, poetry came
poetry in which the poet had “failed” to be “properly” to be seen as the greatest literary art, and specifically
dismissive of vulgar emotion—the New Critical meth- shorter poems came to be valued more highly than epics.
odology might misconstrue the poem. The contradiction The novel, for example, was far less of a focus for the
was resolved by those critics who held that poetry that New Critics and their followers than was poetry.
was readable by New Criticism was the best poetry, and Perhaps the most interesting aspect of New Criticism,
other poems—poems, for example, in which form and and the one that accounts most plausibly for its appeal
content seemed not to be perfectly suited to each other— among the thousands of students educated by the New
were simply inferior poems. Critics, was its populism. Prior to the rise of the New
From these three decades of critical and poetic activ- Criticism, students who wanted to understand a poem
ity, a remarkable school evolved. While there never written in eighteenth century London were told to study
was unanimity among the New Critics, their work was eighteenth century London, to study the life of the poet,
largely defined by the following characteristics: a con- and to learn a host of other facts—including the history
cern for form that meant that poetry was viewed as a of poetry and the English language to that point—before
structure of events, images, and metaphors; an emphasis they would be capable of truly understanding the poem.
on close reading as the method by which texts were to be As a result, lay people assumed that they could simply
explicated; the use of structural analysis to determine never understand a poem as well as professional schol-
how the parts of a poem work together to achieve its ef- ars, because they did not have a sufficient background.
fect; a deliberate ignoring of the author’s life, values, and New Criticism’s rejection of external material, however,
worldview, as well as of the poem’s effect on the reader made all readers equal. Anyone who learned the method-
and of the poem’s origin in society; an emphasis on se- ology of close reading could apply it to any poem, re-
mantic studies in which the way words “mean” accord- gardless of his or her scholarly background or the obscu-
ing to poetic context is used to understand the poem; an rity of the poem’s history. New Criticism thus offered a
insistence that literary criticism must be literary and not generation of students who had no plans to become pro-
primarily, if at all, moral criticism, social (Marxist) criti- fessional literary scholars the tools to approach and ap-
cism, or psychological or theological criticism; and an preciate poetry on the same level as those scholars.
assertion that a poem is a vital organic unity—not a me- Finally, the decision to treat a work as a closed object
chanical contraption but a living thing that ideally in- in itself that was to be attended to through close reading
cludes everything necessary to, and nothing extraneous was an important stage in the development of twentieth
to, its meaning. The tenets of the New Criticism exerted a century criticism and philosophy. It had aspects in com-
powerful influence on the teaching and interpretation of mon with the school of criticism known as structural-
poetry in the mid-twentieth century. ism—though New Criticism and structuralism were dis-
tinct schools—and it looked ahead to post-structuralism
Significance and deconstruction, which would embrace close reading
The most important effects of New Criticism had three as a methodology, albeit using it for very different pur-
sources: the assertion that a literary work was best under- poses from those of the New Critics. Indeed, many of the
18
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 New Criticism Arises in American Universities
terms and perspectives of New Criticism, such as the fo- the difference that is produced by talking about each.
cus on the relationship between form and content, re- Lentricchia, Frank. After the New Criticism. Chicago:
mained centrally important to the later schools that re- University of Chicago Press, 1980. An intellectual ar-
1941
jected New Criticism itself. The underlying assumptions gument for the necessity that criticism proceed be-
of the New Critics may have eventually fallen from fa- yond New Criticism and its progeny. An important
vor, then, but their lens on literature remained an integral work that shows how New Criticism asked all the im-
part of literary studies. portant questions about the uniqueness of the work of
—John S. Reist, Jr. art and yet too easily assumed that each work was
available to the reader for interpretation.
Further Reading Ransom, John Crowe. The New Criticism. Reprint.
Beck, Charlotte H. The Fugitive Legacy: A Critical His- Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1979. The semi-
tory. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, nal text that first defined New Criticism and then
2001. Includes an analysis of the influence of Cleanth pointed out that it lacked ultimate, ontological foun-
Brooks and the New Criticism upon the reading and dations. Does not spell out clearly or finally what po-
writing of Southern American fiction. Bibliographic etry, as poetry, really is, or why it is essential. After
references and index. reading this book, however, one will feel that poetry is
Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren, eds. Under- both necessary and enriching to the human condition.
standing Poetry: An Anthology for College Students. Richards, I. A. Science and Poetry. New York: W. W.
New York: Henry Holt, 1938. A clearly written text Norton, 1926. The first modern influential text to
that introduces readers to narrative, description, me- focus on poetic language, its powers, and its limita-
ter, imagery, and theme. Actual poetic texts are ana- tions. A subtle, difficult work that shows the demand
lyzed with helpful questions and explanations. An ex- that thinking about and using language make on hu-
cellent, lucid book for teacher and student alike. manity.
Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Intro- Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly
duction. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Guide. New York: Garland, 1999. Accessible sum-
Survey of literary theory by a major scholar of struc- maries of ten major schools of criticism, including the
turalism and deconstruction. Relates New Criticism New Criticism. Places the school in its historical and
to the movements it helped to foster, both as reactions philosophical context. Bibliographic references and
and as sometimes unwitting followers. index.
Eliot, T. S. Selected Essays. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Wimsatt, W. K., Jr. The Verbal Icon. Lexington: Univer-
1950. Written in tight, clear, direct language, these es- sity Press of Kentucky, 1954. A book written for aca-
says are models of analysis and judgment about writ- demics; however, its focus on the work of art, as well
ers such as Dante Alighieri, William Shakespeare, as its placing of poetry in moral and religious con-
William Blake, and Alfred, Lord Tennyson. Eliot texts, shows that New Critics did not ignore the place
combines careful scrutiny of the works with ultimate, of poetry in the total human situation.
personal, and even theological verdicts. This book
gives the lie to the charge that the New Critics paid no See also: July, 1947: Great Books Foundation Is Estab-
heed to anything but the poem. lished; Feb. 20, 1949: Pound Wins the Bollingen
Krieger, Murray. The New Apologists for Poetry. Bloom- Prize; 1961: Foucault’s Madness and Civilization Is
ington: Indiana University Press, 1963. A difficult Published; 1964-1971: Lévi-Strauss Identifies Com-
and complex book; nevertheless, it carefully distin- mon Structures in World Myths; 1967: Derrida Enun-
guishes between poet, poem, and reader and shows ciates the Principles of Deconstruction.
19
Portable Aerosol Containers Are Introduced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1941
Portable Aerosol Containers Are Introduced
Working at the U.S. Department of Agriculture as part rived from a type of chrysanthemum flower, had long
of the World War II effort, two scientists developed a been known to be effective.
portable aerosol spray container for insecticides such One of the best-known synthetic insecticides was
as DDT. Spray cans came to be used for an endless dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). The exten-
variety of consumer products, not only insecticides but sive use of DDT and other chlorine-containing hydro-
also beauty and grooming products, foodstuffs, carbons was extremely effective in the battle against in-
household cleaners, and paints. fective insects. DDT was, for example, successful in
significantly reducing malaria in tropical countries by
Locale: Washington, D.C. controlling the mosquito that carries the disease. Without
Categories: Inventions; science and technology; this, the Pacific campaign during World War II would
World War II; manufacturing and industry have been much more difficult. Not until years later did
Key Figures the harmful effects of long-term exposure to DDT, which
Lyle D. Goodhue (1904-1981), Department of builds up in animal tissues, become widely realized. Use
Agriculture chemist who developed and tested of DDT was officially banned in the United States in
numerous pesticides 1972.
William N. Sullivan (fl. mid-twentieth century), Because the effectiveness of a fighting force is ham-
entomologist assigned to the Department of pered by disease and infection, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture to assist in pesticide development Agriculture, as a part of the war effort, launched various
Claude R. Wickard (1893-1967), U.S. secretary of studies aimed at developing more effective insecticides.
agriculture, 1940-1945 The studies addressed improved purification methods
for naturally occurring insecticides, synthesis and testing
Summary of Event of alternate insecticides, and improved methods of insec-
Humankind has always been plagued by a variety of ticide dispersion. At the time, insecticides were dis-
creatures harmful to its existence. Viruses, bacteria, persed as solids, as dusts affixed to fine, inert carrier par-
fungi, insects, and other invertebrate and vertebrate ani- ticles, and in sprays using compressed air and some form
mals attack humans and the plant and animal species on of propellant. Liquid propellant, often water, transported
which they depend for survival. Innumerable measures the insecticide in solution, or—because many insecti-
have been tried to counter these attacks, including pesticides were insoluble in the carrier liquid—as an emul-
cides to kill various creatures or otherwise render them sion.
harmless. No single substance exists to ward off all types To achieve maximum effectiveness, an insecticide
of destructive agents, so a variety of substances have had to be dispersed as widely as possible. Solids there-
been designed for specific adversaries. Insecticides to fore had to be in the form of fine powders, and liquids had
prevent insects from carrying diseases to humans and to be fine sprays, generally a mist or fog. One way to cre-
livestock and to prevent plant crop destruction are per- ate a fine mist was to direct the liquid carrier with its con-
haps the best-known and most widely used pesticides. centration of insecticide against a heated surface such as
Pesticides also include fungicides to inhibit fungus a hot plate; this procedure, although effective in dispers-
growth, herbicides to eradicate unwanted plants (weeds), ing an insecticide, was inconvenient, because it required
bactericides to destroy harmful bacteria, and rodenti- a heated surface, and the apparatus was not portable and
cides to kill small mammals. could not be readily used in the field. Chemist Lyle D.
In the early part of the twentieth century, inorganic Goodhue and entomologist William N. Sullivan were
poisons were widely used as insecticides. Copper, lead, among those in the Department of Agriculture’s Bureau
and arsenic compounds, however, killed not only insects of Entomology and Plant Quarantine who developed a
but, if used in excess, humans as well. With the start of portable apparatus for rapid and effective dispersion of
World War II, these elements were needed for the war an insecticide spray.
effort, and alternative insecticides derived from plant An aerosol is a solution containing finely divided liq-
sources or produced synthetically began to be used. Nic- uid or solid particles distributed uniformly in a gas. The
otine, extracted from tobacco plants, and pyrethrum, de- aerosol container developed by Goodhue and Sullivan
20
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Portable Aerosol Containers Are Introduced
consisted of a heavy walled canister whose opening at

the top was in the form of a nozzle with a small orifice. A
long tube inside the canister ran from the nozzle to near
1941
its bottom. When partially filled with a volatile liquid,
pressure built up inside the canister from the liquid vapor
pressure at the top. On opening the orifice, this pressure
pushing down on the liquid below forced the liquid up
the tube and through the opening as a fine mist or spray.
If the confined liquid contained the dissolved or emulsi-
fied insecticide, the insecticide was sprayed into the air
and reached into cracks, corners, and crevices where in-
sects normally hide.
The unit was both effective and portable. Developed
in 1941, the apparatus was presented at the American
Chemical Society meeting and in printed form in the
journal Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. The sig-
nificance of this device was immediately realized by
the Armed Forces as a means of controlling lice, flies,
disease-carrying mosquitoes, and other pests. “Each
dispenser . . . loaded with one pound of a liquid insecti-
cide . . . in twelve to fourteen minutes . . . will fumigate This image of aerosol cans containing the insecticide per-
150,000 cubic feet of space, the equivalent of 240 army methrin appears in a U.S. Army training manual. Aerosol in-
pup tents or fifty giant bombers,” reported The New York secticides remain important military equipment. (Armed Forces
Times on March 14, 1943. The paper referred to the de- Pest Management Board)
vice as a “health bomb.”
Work on increasing the aerosol spray’s effectiveness
continued for some time after its introduction. When first Philadelphia from a bequest by John Scott for signifi-
tested, methyl chloride (CH3C1) and dichlorodifluoro- cant scientific contributions that benefit humankind. The
methane (CC12F2) were used as the volatile liquids, and award consisted of a medal and one thousand dollars,
pyrethrum was the insecticide dispersed. A small amount which was divided equally between the recipients.
of sesame oil had been added; it acted as a synergist, a
component that itself has no insecticidal properties but Significance
when present greatly increases the effectiveness of the A portable, effective insecticide spray was enormously
insecticide. Goodhue and colleagues studied a number of important for maintaining a healthy and disease-free
such synergistic substances for their optimum concentra- fighting force during World War II. After the war ended
tions. Other factors in a spray’s effectiveness were the in 1945, aerosol spray containers began to be used both
types of volatile liquid, insecticide, and synergist; con- industrially and commercially. Advertisements at the
centration of and possible interaction between insecti- time pointed to the merits of these portable sprayers for
cide and synergist; the insecticide’s solubility; possible ridding homes of all varieties of insect pests, and the term
reaction of the insecticide or synergist with the container “bug bomb” came into use.
and degradation during storage; and particle size of the Aerosol sprays soon began to be adapted for dispens-
spray, which depends in part on the size of the nozzle ori- ing components other than insecticides. By the early
fice. All these variables were studied at the Department 1950’s, more than thirty million aerosol canisters con-
of Agriculture, resulting in a number of scientific papers, taining everything from health care products (for exam-
as well as patents; all patents pertaining to the aerosol de- ple, deodorants, shampoos, and suntan lotions) to food-
velopment were issued on behalf of the secretary of agri- stuffs had appeared on retail shelves. Automobile
culture, Claude R. Wickard, so they could not result in products in the form of aerosol sprays included deicers,
personal gain for those working on the projects. chrome protector sprays, ignition drier fluid, and touch-
Goodhue and Sullivan in 1945 were jointly awarded up paint. For home use there were window cleaners, fur-
the John Scott Medal, an award sponsored by the city of niture waxes, paints, and fire extinguishers. By 1956,
21
Portable Aerosol Containers Are Introduced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
sales of products in aerosol containers totaled $390 mil- spray can. Includes images and a brief history of the
lion, the equivalent, as Science Digest reported, of “117 spray can’s development.
billion 1-second pffts or about 700 squirts for everyone Gallager, Sheldon M. “You Wouldn’t Know the Old Bug
in the U.S.” Bomb.” Popular Science 157 (December, 1950):
Different products often necessitated modifications 102-106. Reports on the expanded use of aerosol
in the components and assembly of aerosol sprays. Shav- spray containers for a variety of products ranging
ing cream or pancake batter, for example, required a car- from shampoos to whipped cream.
rier fluid of higher vapor pressure to force the heavier Goodhue, Lyle D. “Insecticidal Aerosol Production.” In-
substance from the container and a larger nozzle orifice. dustrial and Engineering Chemistry 34 (December,
For foodstuffs, carrier fluids and synergistic agents were 1942): 1456-1459. Technical report that describes the
particularly restricted. Components of the canister itself dispensing of an insecticide in a container as an aero-
had to be chosen to be nonreactive with the contents and sol spray.
of sufficient strength for the pressure chosen. Goodhue, Lyle D., and E. R. McGovran. “Liquefied-Gas
Many of the components that were initially used in Method of Producing Germicidal Aerosols.” Science
aerosol sprays gradually became prohibited as their inju- 99 (June 23, 1944): 511-512. Describes in general
rious effects either on humans or on the environment terms how the aerosol spray container was developed.
became known. Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, or “On the Bug Front.” Time 39 (April 20, 1942): 44-45.
Freon 12, was one of the carrier fluids first used by Good- Reports on the development of new insecticides to
hue and Sullivan. Freons, a large class of gaseous, liquid, protect soldiers fighting in World War II.
and solid compounds containing chlorine- and fluorine- Rasmussen, Nicolas. “Plant Hormones in War and
carbon, were shown to interfere with the earth’s ozone Peace: Science, Industry, and Government in the De-
layer and are no longer used in aerosol sprays. They were velopment of Herbicides in 1940’s America.” Isis 92
replaced by less offensive or inert carriers. Many of the (2001): 291-316. Through an analysis of the role of
insecticides initially used for insect control were also dis- science, industry, and government in the war efforts
continued. DDT, once championed for its control of vari- of the 1940’s, places the development of aerosol con-
ous disease-bearing insects, was banned in the United tainers, and herbicides especially, in historical con-
States in 1972, although it continued to be used else- text. Also examines the postwar marketing of these
where in the world. Exposure limits for various insecti- chemicals for lawn treatments and other general con-
cides were often set by the U.S. federal government, with sumer uses.
a phaseout clause allowing existing supplies to be used. Slocum, Ken. “New Magic with Pushbutton Sprays.”
Alternate substances used to control insects included bi- Science Digest 42 (December, 1957): 23-26. Reports
ological agents (natural predators to harmful species), on the rapid growth of aerosol sprays for a wide vari-
pheromones (sex attractants to lure insects into traps), ety of products.
and genetic engineering to alter the internal makeup of a Spurney, Kvetoslav R., and Dieter Hochrainer, eds. Aero-
species and prevent its reproduction. Many of these sub- sol Chemical Processes in the Environment. Boca
stances, too, were dispensed with aerosol sprays. Uses of Raton, Fla.: Lewis, 2000. An extensive, if technical
aerosol containers eventually, however, extended far be- and specialized, overview. See, especially, chapter 1,
yond the initial “bug bomb” developed by Goodhue and “Aerosol Chemistry and Its Environmental Effects.”
Sullivan. Wharton, James. Before “Silent Spring.” Princeton, N.J.:
—Gordon A. Parker Princeton University Press, 1974. Discusses the rec-
ognition of insect problems and regulations in force
Further Reading prior to 1962. Also includes a history of pesticides and
Bartlett, Arthur. “Chemical Marvels Take the ‘Bug’ Out public health. Contains bibliographic notes by chap-
of Living.” Popular Science 146 (May, 1946): 150- ter and an index. Meant as a source of information for
154. Reports on the aerosol insecticide spray becom- the adult reader.
ing available for home use after the close of World
War II. See also: Mid-1940’s: First Modern Herbicide Is Intro-
Dowswell, Paul. Great Inventions, Everyday Life. Chi- duced; Jan. 25, 1945: Fluoride Is Introduced into the
cago: Heinemann Library, 2002. Two-page descrip- U.S. Water Supply; 1957: Dioxin Causes Chloracne
tions of inventions of common objects, including the in West German Chemical Workers; 1958: Congress
22
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Shirer Examines the Rise of Nazi Ideology in Berlin Diary
Sets Standards for Chemical Additives in Food; Jan. Tissues; June 18-26, 1969: Pesticide Poisons the
12, 1962-1971: United States Sprays Agent Orange in Rhine River; Nov. 20, 1969-Dec. 31, 1972: DDT Ban
Vietnam; Sept. 27, 1962: Carson Publishes Silent Signals New Environmental Awareness; Dec. 2,
1941
Spring; Dec., 1966: Jensen Finds PCBs in Animal 1970: Environmental Protection Agency Is Created.
1941
Shirer Examines the Rise of Nazi Ideology in BERLIN DIARY
In Berlin Diary, William L. Shirer produced a firsthand When Universal Services folded in August, 1937,
account of the development and spread of Nazi Shirer welcomed distinguished newsman Edward R.
ideology in Germany leading up to World War II. The Murrow’s offer of a new career as a broadcast journalist
book was a precursor to his more comprehensive for the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). Trans-
history of the Nazi regime, The Rise and Fall of the mitting mainly from Berlin, Shirer was well positioned
Third Reich—a hauntingly accurate assessment of the to observe the major events in Hitler’s campaign to over-
evils of Nazism. run Europe, but he struggled constantly with the Nazi
censors. The Wehrmacht (German army) invaded Aus-
Locale: New York, New York tria in the Anschluss of March, 1938, but Shirer was for-
Categories: Publishing and journalism; political bidden to broadcast the story from his location in Vienna.
science; World War II A sobbing Murrow called Shirer from Warsaw and
Key Figures sent him to London, where he could transmit uncensored
William L. Shirer (1904-1993), American newspaper “our first European radio round-up,” with Murrow con-
and radio journalist tributing from Vienna, Pierre Huss from Berlin, and Ed-
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933-1945 gar Mowrer from Paris. Six months after the collapse of
Edward R. Murrow (1908-1965), American broadcast Austria, Daladier and British prime minister Neville
journalist and Shirer’s colleague Chamberlain signed the notorious Munich Agreement
giving the Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia to Hitler.
Summary of Event Shirer described Chamberlain as looking “like the black
The first entry in William L. Shirer’s Berlin Diary: The vultures I’ve seen over the Parsi dead in Bombay.”
Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934-1941 (1941) The early months of 1939 were dominated by concern
is dated January 11, 1934, and was written in Lloret de over Hitler’s plans for Poland. The Soviet-German non-
Mar, Spain, where Shirer and his wife, Tess, had been agression treaty announced on August 23 convinced
loafing for a year. Shirer had come to Paris in 1925, wan- Shirer that Stalin was inviting Germany “to go in and
dered Europe, caught malaria and dysentery in India and clean up Poland,” and he wondered if Stalin’s intention
Afghanistan, and survived a skiing accident in the Alps was not to incite war between Germany and the West,
that cost him an eye. His book provides an account of the creating a chaos that would allow communism to flourish
next eight years of the journalist’s career. in the remains of Europe. More drama followed quickly:
Shirer left Spain to accept a “bad offer” from the Paris Hitler demanded Danzig (Gda5sk) and the Polish corri-
Herald and arrived in the French capital just in time to dor, and it was announced that ration cards would be is-
witness, on February 7, 1934, the riots protesting the sued for food, soap, shoes, textiles, and coal. Shirer de-
government of the new prime minister, Édouard Dala- scribed the announcement as a sobering “blow.”
dier. The following August, Shirer accepted a job with The suspense over Poland finally ended with the
Universal Services in Berlin, a perfect vantage point news, on September 1, that Poland had been invaded in
from which to monitor the raving and posturing of Adolf what Hitler called a “counterattack.” Two days later, En-
Hitler in such acts as his restoration on March 16, 1935, gland declared war on Germany, and Shirer reported that
of universal military service in defiance of the Versailles the stunned German people “cannot realize yet that Hit-
Treaty, a daring move that was followed a year later by ler has led them into a world war.” The first British air
his tearing up of the Locarno Treaty, which had demilita- raid came on September 5 against Cuxhaven and Wil-
rized the Rhineland. helmshaven, prompting Hermann Göring’s threat of
23
Shirer Examines the Rise of Nazi Ideology in Berlin Diary The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
“terrible revenge,” and Warsaw fell on September 27 af- city gave him “a feeling that what we’re seeing here in
ter “a heroic but hopeless stand.” These events were ac- Paris is the complete breakdown of French society. . . .”
companied by lying headlines, such as “GERMAN He opined sadly that “France did not fight” and he sus-
MEMORANDUM PROVES ENGLAND’S GUILT.” pected “either treachery or criminal negligence in the
On January 9, 1940, Shirer observed in Nazi propa- High Command.” On June 21, Shirer watched through
ganda a new theme “to convince the German people that field glasses the ceremony in which Hitler celebrated the
this is not only a war against the ‘plutocratic’ British and humbling of France. It was held in the same spot in the
French, but a holy struggle against the Jews.” At the Forest of Compiègne where the armistice ending World
same time, the Germans imposed a term of at least two War I had been signed on November 11, 1918.
years of forced labor on all Jews between fourteen and Much of the diary after the collapse of France re-
sixty. A German official’s remark that “Right is what the counts the heavy bombing attacks carried out by both the
Führer does” stirred Shirer’s contempt for German no- Germans and the British. Finally, on December 13, 1940,
tions of honor and strengthened his conviction that all six months before the Nazi invasion of Russia and a
Germans were submissive and sought direction from a year before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Shirer
master. On May 6, 1940, he quoted the Nazi minister of boarded the Excambion in Portugal and sailed for home.
education’s boast that “All the good things on earth are
Significance
trophy cups. The strong win them. The weak lose them.”
The publication in 1941 of Berlin Diary was opportune.
Ten days later, Shirer watched two uncensored news-
The broadcasts themselves had been record-setting re-
reels of German bombing of towns, people, and animals,
ports, and Shirer’s succinct written accounts of the events
and upon hearing the announcer’s boast, “And thus do
all Americans had heard of gave vivid life to a war that
we deal death and destruction on our enemies,” he com-
everyone knew was soon going to change American life
mented bitterly that the films “summed up the German
forever. His firsthand descriptions of, for instance, Paris
people to me.” He was not heartened to learn that sales of
after the fall, of Hitler in his braying harangues, and of
Hitler’s autobiographical manifesto, Mein Kampf (1925-
the personal responses to the war of individual Germans
1926; English translation, 1939), had reached 5,950,000
were revelations for the average newspaper reader. As an
copies.
act of journalistic observation, mixing fact and color,
In March, 1940, Shirer puzzled over why the Ger-
Berlin Diary was a triumph. For Shirer personally, Berlin
mans had not exploited their air superiority over the
Diary was a warm-up for the two tomes he later pub-
Allies, but on March 16 the Luftwaffe knocked out three
lished, The Collapse of the Third Republic (1969) and his
British battleships at the British naval base at Scapa
massive The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (1960).
Flow, and three days later the British retaliated by straf-
—Frank Day
ing the German seaplane base on the island of Sylt. On
April 19, Hitler occupied both Copenhagen and Oslo, as Further Reading
well as all the Norwegian ports vital to supplying Ger- Klemperer, Victor. I Will Bear Witness: A Diary of the
many with Swedish iron ore. Shirer lamented that the Nazi Years, 1933-1941. Translated by Martin Chal-
Allies mounted no serious resistance to the loss of Nor- mers. New York: Random House, 1998. Klemperer
way and concluded that air power had revolutionized war was a professor at the Dresden Technical University
by demonstrating its superiority to naval power. and a Jew who survived the Holocaust years by being
May 10, 1940, brought news that German forces had married to an Aryan. This is the first of three volumes
overrun Holland, Belgium, and Luxemburg, and a week of his diary and gives an account of the period from a
later the Maginot Line was breached and the German viewpoint totally different from Shirer’s.
army was driving toward Paris. Shirer traveled around Shirer, William L. The Collapse of the Third Republic:
surveying battle scenes. He was especially distressed by An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940. New York:
the destruction of Louvain and its great university li- Simon & Schuster, 1969. In Berlin Diary Shirer puz-
brary, and as he witnessed some hard fighting in the Bel- zles frequently over France’s failure to resist the Ger-
gian countryside, he remarked bitterly, “How England man forces effectively in 1940. This long study is his
and France are paying now for the criminal neglect of answer.
their aviation!” _______. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History
Even more distressing for Shirer was the news on of Nazi Germany. New York: Simon & Schuster,
June 14 that Paris had fallen. A quick tour of the defeated 1960. The whole story, in 1,245 pages.
24
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 French Resistance
Speer, Albert. Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs. Trans- See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II: Eu-
lated by Richard Winston and Clara Winston. New ropean Theater; 1941-1945: U.S. Censorship and War
York: Macmillan, 1970. This memoir by a prominent Propaganda During World War II; June 22, 1941-Jan.
1941
member of the Nazi elite close to Hitler provides an 8, 1942: Germany Invades Russia; Oct., 1941: Davies
inside perspective on events that observers like Shirer Reflects on His Post to Moscow in Mission to Moscow;
and Klemperer could get only partial views of from Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor; Dec. 11, 1941:
the outside. Germany and Italy Declare War on the United States.
1941-August 25, 1944

French Resistance
The French Resistance brought French citizens French movement in Great Britain. Few back in France,
together in a spontaneous patriotic movement to fight however, paid much attention. The armistice became of-
the German occupation during World War II. While ficial on June 25, 1940.
the Allies invaded the country, the Resistance helped to There were many French citizens who could tolerate
eliminate collaborators within it, destroyed neither the fall of France nor the armistice. These men
infrastructure to hinder the German war effort, and and women, known as the First Resisters, began to meet
finally rose up and overthrew the occupation spontaneously with one another in opposition to the
government in Paris. Vichy government and the German occupation. This
small group, largely autonomous and unconnected to the
Locale: France Free French movement led by de Gaulle, formed the nu-
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil cleus of what was to become the French Resistance. At
unrest; colonialism and occupation first, they scarcely knew what to do.
Key Figures After the armistice, France was divided into two
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), leader of the Free zones: The north was occupied by the Germans, while in
French in Great Britain from 1940 to 1942, and later the free south the Vichy government ruled. As the pre-
of the continental resistance mier of the Vichy government, Pétain quickly made
Jean Moulin (1899-1943), president of the National drastic changes in the government. Although promising
Resistance Council in 1943 that the government was to be run by the French, Pétain
Philippe Pétain (1856-1951), premier of Vichy France, abolished the Third French Republic, called for a new
1940-1944 constitution, and began a series of reforms known as the
National Revolution. A new motto, “Work, Family,
Summary of Event Country,” replaced the traditional one of “Liberty,
When France declared war on Germany in 1939, the Equality, Fraternity.” By November of 1940, the Vichy
French, with memories of atrocities of World War I still government had abolished all free elections, dissolved
in their minds, hoped that an actual war would not break the trade unions, established a secret police, and ban-
out. In May of 1940, however, the Germans entered and ished Jews from government jobs and the professions.
conquered northern France. On June 14, Paris surren- Even worse, on October 30, 1940, Pétain used the word
dered. On June 17, Philippe Pétain, the eighty-four-year- “collaborate” with the Germans at the same time as he
old general who had served France during World War I was filmed shaking hands with Hitler. This behavior
and to whom the defeated French looked as a savior, an- shocked many French citizens and galvanized them to
nounced over the radio from Vichy France that he was action.
seeking an armistice with the Germans. The next day, Among these early resisters was Jean Moulin, who
Charles de Gaulle spoke on a British Broadcasting Cor- had been arrested and tortured when the Germans en-
poration (BBC) radio broadcast from London, telling the tered the town of Chartres in 1940. Rather than sign a pa-
French that “the flame of French resistance must not per stating that the French were responsible for the atroc-
die,” and ten days later, British prime minister Winston ities committed by the Germans, Moulin cut his own
Churchill recognized de Gaulle as the leader of the Free throat. He was then hospitalized and, after his recovery,
25
French Resistance The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
managed to get to London. De Gaulle sent Moulin back the Germans asked France to send workers to Germany
to France in 1942 to head and unify the resistance move- voluntarily. Out of the 350,000 requested, only 50,000
ment there. For the next year until his death, he was a signed up. By 1943, this voluntary service became oblig-
ubiquitous figure throughout France. Known as “Max,” atory forced labor. In response, new groups of individu-
which was only one of a dozen aliases, he appeared, als joined the Resistance movement. Their name derived
speaking hoarsely and wearing a scarf around his injured from maquis, the term for the dense brush of the Corsican
throat. hill country, where those traditionally in trouble could
By 1942, the Vichy government had lost much of its seek refuge. Now, those who refused to go to Germany
credibility with its citizens. In November, the Germans became known as the maquis, the outlaw branch of the
moved south, making all of France occupied territory. In Resistance. They found refuge with local sympathetic
addition, Vichy lost its foothold in North Africa. In 1942, French citizens. Indeed, later some of the maquis lived
up to the name of outlaw and com-
mitted violent acts against the French
Charles de Gaulle’s Appeal of June 18 citizenry.
By May of 1943, de Gaulle, who
With the rise of the Nazi-installed Vichy government, led by Philippe Pétain, had from 1941 insisted on his right to
François Darlan, Joseph Darnand, and others, the commander of the French speak for France, became from his
Free Forces, General Charles de Gaulle, issued his “Appeal of June 18,” a fa- station in North Africa the titular
mous radio speech aired by the British Broadcasting Corporation on that date leader of the Resistance. He com-
in 1940. De Gaulle’s words prompted the French Resistance, the struggle
missioned Moulin to establish and
against Nazi occupation that would last through World War II:
lead the National Resistance Council
The leaders who, for many years, were at the head of French armies, have in France. In June of 1943, his where-
formed a government. This government, alleging our armies to be undone, abouts betrayed, Moulin was arrested
agreed with the enemy to stop fighting. Of course, we were subdued by the mein Lyon by Klaus Barbie and the Ge-
chanical, ground and air forces of the enemy. Infinitely more than their num- stapo. He was tortured and then put
ber, it was the tanks, the airplanes, the tactics of the Germans which made us re- to death. The identity of the one who
treat. It was the tanks, the airplanes, the tactics of the Germans that surprised betrayed him has never been deter-
our leaders to the point to bring them there where they are today. mined.
But has the last word been said? Must hope disappear? Is defeat final? No!
Moulin’s death notwithstanding,
Believe me, I speak to you with full knowledge of the facts and tell you that
the Resistance continued to grow,
nothing is lost for France. The same means that overcame us can bring us to a
day of victory. For France is not alone! She is not alone! She is not alone! She largely in response to the sustained
has a vast Empire behind her. She can align with the British Empire that holds repression by the Vichy government.
the sea and continues the fight. She can, like England, use without limit the im- With the establishment of the Milice
mense industry of United States. in 1943, an outgrowth of the French
This war is not limited to the unfortunate territory of our country. This war secret police started earlier by Vichy,
is not finished by the battle of France. This war is a world-wide war. All the and the obligatory service in Ger-
faults, all the delays, all the suffering, do not prevent there to be, in the world, many, the ranks of the Resistance
all the necessary means to one day crush our enemies. Vanquished today by swelled to more than 200,000. Resis-
mechanical force, we will be able to overcome in the future by a superior me- tance members undertook a multi-
chanical force.
tude of tasks. First, the Resistance
The destiny of the world is here. I, General de Gaulle, currently in London,
needed to make information avail-
invite the officers and the French soldiers who are located in British territory or
who would come there, with their weapons or without their weapons, I invite the able to their fellow French and to the
engineers and the special workers of armament industries who are located in Allies and so published numerous
British territory or who would come there, to put themselves in contact with me. clandestine newspapers. By 1944,
Whatever happens, the flame of the French resistance must not be extin- the Resistance press was publishing
guished and will not be extinguished. Tomorrow, as today, I will speak on Ra- two million papers a month. Second,
dio London. through the services of doctors and
Source: The Speeches of General de Gaulle (New York: Oxford University Press, other professionals, the Resistance
1944). produced false papers that made dis-
covery of its membership difficult.
26
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 French Resistance
Next, resisters engaged in sabotage, destroying factories things left to them under the German occupation, some
turning out weapons for the war effort and shutting down resisters wrote poetry. As values of the Resistance were
power stations that fed such factories. Last, they tried to felt rather than learned, these few used the language of
1941
assist in the escape of Jews and to ambush German pa- emotion—poetry—to memorialize their actions. This
trols. poetry and subsequent memoirs remain among the major
This activity escalated when the Allies landed in Nor- legacies of the French Resistance.
mandy on June 6, 1944, and began to push the Germans —Jennifer Eastman
back toward central Europe. At this point, the Resistance
Further Reading
blew up bridges, cut electrical cables and telephone
Aubrac, Lucie. Outwitting the Gestapo. Lincoln: Uni-
wires, blocked tunnels, delayed railway movements, and
versity of Nebraska Press, 1993. Written by the wife
removed signposts and milestones so as to confuse the
of the noted resister Raymond Aubrac, the book de-
Germans. In addition, they used several delaying tactics
tails nine months of the couple’s activity in the move-
to slow the German march. In some instances, the Resis-
ment. An excellent introduction.
tance would place explosives amid piles of stones along
Bodson, Herman. Downed Allied Airmen and Evasion of
the roads; soon the Germans became suspicious of any
Capture: The Role of Local Resistance Networks in
pile of stones. The resisters also buried boxes of explo-
World War II. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2005. Dis-
sives in holes in the road underneath clumps of cattle
cusses the Dutch and Belgian resistances in addition
dung. The resulting explosions were sufficient to dis-
to the French Resistance, detailing how each aided pi-
mantle tanks. The Resistance then encouraged French
lots shot down in German-occupied territory during
children to spread the dung in the roads without the ex-
the war.
plosives. When the Germans saw the dung, they spent at
De Vomecourt, Phillipe. An Army of Amateurs. Garden
least twenty minutes investigating it for the explosive.
City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1961. Detailed and lively
They thus lost valuable time in their retreat across France.
memoir from a resister present at the beginning of the
The Allies pushed the Germans back toward Paris.
movement until the Paris liberation in 1944.
While the Allied troops had no intention of entering the
Ehrlich, Blake. Resistance: France, 1940-1945. Boston:
city initially, on August 19, 1944, when Resistance fight-
Little, Brown, 1965. The most comprehensive, fac-
ers rose up against the Germans in Paris, the Allies de-
tual account of the activities of the French Resistance.
cided to intervene. On August 25, 1944, the Allies de-
Frenay, Henri. The Night Will End. New York: McGraw-
clared victory and de Gaulle, flanked by members of the
Hill, 1976. Eyewitness account of an early participant
Resistance, walked through the Arc de Triomphe in the
in the movement. Frenay is critical of de Gaulle and
heart of the city. Although de Gaulle would not have
Moulin, although he worked for both of them.
been there without the efforts of these resisters, he gave
Kedward, Roderick, and Roger Austin, eds. Vichy
them little recognition.
France and the Resistance Culture and Ideology.
Kent, England: Croom Helm, 1985. Interesting col-
Significance
lection of essays by British and Irish scholars empha-
As the Resistance had traveled behind the Allies forcing
sizing the ambiguities of the times.
the Germans back across France, they had spontaneously
Marriott, Edward. Claude and Madeleine: A True Story.
eliminated ten thousand Vichy officials. After the libera-
London: Picador, 2005. Details the activities of two
tion of Paris, the French courts assumed the task of ad-
members of the French Resistance who spied for the
ministering justice to those suspected of collaborating
British Secret Service during World War II until their
with the Germans. Fifty thousand of those placed on trial
deaths in 1942.
lost their civil rights, another forty thousand were sent to
prison, and between seven and eight hundred were exe- See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
cuted. Pétain was one of those who was tried and sen- European Theater; Apr. 19-May 16, 1943: Warsaw
tenced to death in 1945. The government commuted his Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis; Sept. 30-
sentence to life imprisonment, and he died in prison off Oct. 1, 1943: Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from Ger-
the coast of Brittany in 1951. mans; 1944-1960: Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic
The French Resistance kept few written records dur- Voice to Existential Philosophy; Apr. 17, 1949:
ing its existence, for these would have jeopardized the Brothers at Taizé Take Permanent Vows; Apr. 28,
membership. Because their language was one of the few 1969: De Gaulle Steps Down.
27
6.6 Million Women Enter the U.S. Labor Force The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1941-1945
6.6 Million Women Enter the U.S. Labor Force
During World War II, depletion of the male labor force school districts practiced similar policies during the
opened nontraditional employment opportunities and 1930’s. Because men were considered to be the primary
new social roles to American women. breadwinners, their jobs were viewed as more important
than those of women, who were expected to rely on men
Locale: United States
for financial support.
Categories: World War II; women’s issues;
Despite the labor shortage in the early war years, the
business and labor
shift to women workers did not come easily. Only by
Summary of Event overcoming or setting aside numerous cultural biases
With the advent of U.S. participation in World War II, could Americans in the 1940’s readily accept women
employment opportunities for women increased dramat- workers in factories. There was a stigma attached to
ically, in both scope and number. As early as the summer women, especially married women, working outside the
of 1940, the U.S. government began to strengthen mil- home; in addition, many employers feared that factory
itary and defense capabilities in preparation for war. work would be too physically challenging for “the weaker
Industry responded to this increased demand for war sex.” Women themselves often believed they lacked the
materials and, practically overnight, the rampant unem- stamina to succeed at such heavy work, and some even
ployment of the Depression years turned into a labor felt that physical labor was beneath their dignity.
shortage. The entry of the United States into the war, The media played a large role in allaying these fears.
prompted by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in De- From films to advertisements, working women were
cember, 1941, further increased the need for workers.
Unemployment, which stood at 17.2 percent in 1939,
plummeted to 4.7 percent in 1942, the first full year of
U.S. mobilization. By 1944, at the war’s peak, it was at a
twentieth century low of 1.2 percent.
By 1942, both government officials and industry
leaders realized that, in order to maintain productivity,
they must turn to the labor supply at hand—women. In
1940, 11,970,000 women worked outside the home. As a
result of war-related employment, their numbers had in-
creased to 18,610,000 by 1945. These women worked in
aircraft production, munitions, shipbuilding, and other
arenas traditionally dominated by men.
The rise in female employment in the 1940’s provided
a stark contrast to the previous decade—a decade domi-
nated by economic depression. Historically, women had
been tolerated in the workforce as long as they continued
to fulfill their primary duties as wives, mothers, and
homemakers. In the 1930’s, because of widespread un-
employment and economic hardship, that tolerance ex-
isted only if a woman worker did not displace a man.
Depression-era policies in both the private and public
sectors encouraged employers to lay off women before
men. Section 213 of the 1933 Economy Act, for exam-
ple, mandated that federal agencies reducing personnel
must first release employees married to other federal
workers. Approximately 75 percent of those whom such Rosie the Riveter declares, “We can do it!” in this 1942-1943
agencies subsequently dismissed were women. Many propaganda poster exhorting women to join the war effort.
city and state governments, private employers, and (NARA)
28
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 6.6 Million Women Enter the U.S. Labor Force
ers in record numbers. Such professional fields as engi-

neering, an almost exclusively male enclave before the
war, began to open to women. By the war’s end, the num-
1941
ber of female defense workers had increased by 460 per-
cent. Women flocked to these more upwardly mobile ca-
reers, leaving most service-oriented businesses facing
labor shortages.
This new female presence in industry helped chip
away at some legal obstacles that had long stymied
women. Between 1941 and 1945, four state legislatures
passed equal pay laws, mandating that women receive
the same pay as men for the same work. For the first time
in history, Congress debated both an equal pay bill and an
equal rights amendment to the Constitution. In 1942, the
National War Labor Board required that women receive
equal pay when the work they did was substantially the
same as that of men. Several states passed laws protect-
ing married women from employment discrimination.
Under the provisions of the Lanham Act, passed early in
1942, federally subsidized child care was made available
to some of the mothers who had taken jobs. Although
such centers were not widely available, at one point,
there were three thousand centers providing care for
130,000 children.
Following Rosie’s example, a woman rivets a war plane at Although women were employed in much greater
Lockheed Aircraft Corporation in Burbank, California. (Na- numbers during World War II than they had been pre-
tional Archives) viously, some of them still faced discrimination. Ini-
tially, married women were discouraged from joining
their unmarried sisters in the workforce. Their duties
shown supporting their fighting men by filling in at jobs at home were still considered too pressing. Economic
back home. Although women were called upon to make realities, however, soon forced employers and the gov-
sacrifices equal to those made by men overseas, they ernment to rethink this position. By 1944, for the first
were expected to do so without sacrificing their feminin- time in recorded U.S. history, married women work-
ity. Rosie the Riveter, a fictional glamorous beauty in ers outnumbered those who were single. The wives of
hard hat and work clothes, became the symbol for a na- men who were serving overseas were three times more
tion of women laboring to help win the war and bring likely to work than were those whose husbands re-
their men safely home. Such portrayals assured women mained at home.
that they could best serve their husbands and families by Despite the continued labor shortage, many compa-
serving their country and that so doing would not jeopar- nies were reluctant to employ older women, often refus-
dize their womanliness. By emphasizing that such ser- ing to hire women older than thirty-five years of age. Af-
vice would last only until the war ended, the media also rican American women, however, experienced the most
reminded women that their traditional roles as full-time discrimination. Employers who hired black men and
wives and mothers had been suspended only tempo- white women still refused to hire black women. When
rarily. black women registered with federal employment agen-
As women entered the workforce, they did so in new cies, they were, almost without exception, referred to
and challenging occupational arenas. Before 1940, one such positions as domestic servants, waitresses, laun-
in every four female workers was employed as a domes- dresses, and cooks. The service sector was already un-
tic servant. During the war, however, this was the only derstaffed, and most employers in the 1940’s still be-
segment of the female labor force that stagnated. Women lieved that African American women were better suited
became pilots, scientists, professors, and factory work- to fill such jobs than they were for other occupations.
29
6.6 Million Women Enter the U.S. Labor Force The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Significance examination of the social upheavals in gender roles

Although World War II temporarily altered women’s la- caused by World War II, based on interviews with ten
bor history, it did not permanently change its course. women who worked in the aircraft industry during the
More women did remain in the workforce in the immedi- war.
ate postwar years than during the Depression. Many of Hartmann, Susan M. The Home Front and Beyond: Amer-
them, however, lost their jobs in industry and were com- ican Women in the 1940’s. Boston: Twayne, 1982.
pelled to return to traditional female occupations such Sets women’s work experience in the context of a de-
as clerical work, service, and sales. Between June and cade that began with war and ended by ushering in the
September of 1945, one in four of the women who had postwar decorum of the 1950’s.
held factory jobs was dismissed. During the war years, O’Brien, Kenneth P., and Lynn H. Parsons, eds. The
women held 25 percent of all jobs in the automobile in- Home Front War: World War II and American Soci-
dustry; by April, 1946, they held only 7.5 percent of ety. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995. Sev-
those same positions. After the war ended, society man- eral articles in this collection of papers by noted
dated that women’s patriotic duty be replaced by familial World War II scholars discuss the female workforce.
duty—or rather, society insisted that fulfilling her famil- Sealander, Judith. “The Reaction to Rosie the Riveter:
ial duty was a woman’s primary patriotic duty. War Policy and the Woman Worker in World War II.”
Many women who had carried the double burdens of In As Minority Becomes Majority: Federal Reaction
home and job while their husbands were overseas ea- to the Phenomenon of Women in the Work Force,
gerly embraced their traditional role as homemakers. 1920-1963. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press,
With the return of so many men from the war, the na- 1983. Summarizes federal policy regarding, and leg-
tion’s birthrate soon skyrocketed, expanding many wom- islative reaction to, the expanded presence of women
en’s child-rearing responsibilities. The media continued workers.
to play an active part as a cultural mediator by encourag- Thomas, Kathleen. Don’t Call Me Rosie: The Women
ing women to ease the returning veterans’ adjustment to Who Welded the LSTs and the Men Who Sailed on
civilian life by resuming their prewar roles. Still, some Them. Tigard, Oreg.: Thomas/Wright, 2004. Study of
changes remained in effect. Pay scales for women gener- female welders and their role in the production of
ally improved, and the door that had opened to allow American naval landing craft during World War II.
women a greater range of career choices did not com- Includes bibliographic references.
pletely close again. Yellin, Emily. Our Mothers’ War: American Women at
—Jane M. Gilliland Home and at the Front During World War II. New
York: Free Press, 2004. Discusses women’s partici-
Further Reading
pation in the public sphere during World War II, both
Anderson, Karen. Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family
in the domestic workforce and in the war abroad. Bib-
Relations, and the Status of Women During World
liographic references and index.
War II. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981. Ex-
amines women’s wartime experiences in the defense See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II:
industry centers of Baltimore, Detroit, and Seattle. Pacific Theater; Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World
Chafe, William. The Paradox of Change: American War II: European Theater; June 25, 1941: Roosevelt
Women in the Twentieth Century. New York: Oxford Bans Discrimination in Defense-Industry Employ-
University Press, 1991. Three chapters are devoted to ment; Jan. 30, 1942: Roosevelt Signs the Emergency
women’s experiences in World War II, including Price Control Act; Aug. 4, 1942: United States Begins
those in the workforce. the Bracero Program; Apr. 8, 1943-June 23, 1947: In-
Gluck, Sherna. Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Women, the flation and Labor Unrest; June 10, 1963: Congress
War, and Social Change. Boston: Twayne, 1987. An Passes the Equal Pay Act.
30
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 U.S. Censorship and War Propaganda During World War II
1941-1945
U.S. Censorship and War Propaganda During World War II
1941
With the entry of the United States into World War II, War Information (OWI) in June, 1942, U.S. propaganda
the U.S. government took steps to protect war planning activities were coordinated under the direction of veteran
and to promote war sentiments among its citizens. radio journalist Elmer Davis. The U.S. propaganda effort
Although war correspondents were permitted to work under Davis was conducted in a great many different me-
among troops on the war fronts, information regarding dia, including books, films, leaflets, pamphlets, car-
troop movements was carefully guarded. toons, comic books, comic strips, posters, documenta-
ries, and radio broadcasts. Cartoons were an important
Locale: United States propaganda tool. During World War II, the Hollywood
Categories: Communications and media; publishing studios enlisted cartoon characters, such as Mickey
and journalism; radio and television; motion Mouse and Donald Duck, to help the war effort. A popu-
pictures and video; World War II lar such cartoon was Jack Kinney’s Donald Duck short
Key Figures “Der Fuehrer’s Face” (1942), which satirized the Axis
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the leaders, introduced a catchy title song, and won the
United States, 1933-1945 Academy Award for Best Short Subject, Cartoons.
Elmer Davis (1890-1958), radio news commentator, An important part of the OWI’s work were the posters
author, and director of the Office of War that very effectively communicated the office’s mes-
Information sages. These posters included Someone Talked! (1942);
Byron Price (1891-1981), journalist and director of the Norman Rockwell’s Four Freedoms (1943), inspired by
Office of Censorship and later assistant secretary- President Franklin Roosevelt’s 1941 speech; and the
general of the United Nations classic Loose Lips Sink Ships. The poster, inexpensive,
colorful, and immediate, was the ideal medium for deliv-
Summary of Event ering messages about American duties on the home front
When World War II began in Europe in 1939, U.S. pres- during World War II. The posters touched on all aspects
ident Franklin D. Roosevelt realized that the United States of wartime life, from the factory, where workers were in-
had no agencies to handle propaganda. Such agencies structed to take shorter cigarette breaks and focus on in-
would become necessary if the nation were to enter the creased production (“KILLING Time Is KILLING
war. To prepare for this eventuality, the president estab- Men”), to the home, where conserving scarce resources
lished several such agencies, as well as an office of censor- was essential (“We’ll have lots to eat this winter, won’t
ship, a necessity in wartime, to suppress opposing views we Mother? Grow your own”), to the farm, where eggs
against the war effort. When war was declared on Decem- and meat were wartime weapons in their own right (“Our
ber 8, 1941, the day after the Japanese attack on the U.S. Allies Need Eggs” and “Grow It Yourself—Plan a Farm
fleet in Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt immediately mobilized Garden Now”). Victory magazine, published from 1943
for U.S. involvement in the European conflict as well. The to 1946 by the OWI, was similar in format to Life maga-
president was a master propagandist, with considerable zine; it was translated into at least six languages.
rhetorical skills, who realized that his mission as a war- Motion-picture production became a joint effort be-
time leader was to use those skills to provide leadership. tween the Hollywood studios and the government; hun-
By the time the United States entered the war, Roose- dreds of feature-length motion pictures on war themes
velt already had established a propaganda effort in Latin were produced. Nearly all Hollywood films presented a
America by creating the Office of the Coordination of positive view of the war effort that minimized class and
Commercial and Cultural Relations Between the Ameri- racial differences in American society. These included
can Republics (OCCCRBAR). OCCCRBAR had been Thirty Seconds over Tokyo (1944), Guadalcanal Diary
created by order of the Council of National Defense on (1943), and The Fighting Seabees (1944). Stereotypes
August 16, 1940. Nelson A. Rockefeller was appointed its abounded: The Nazis were evil, Japanese were racially
coordinator. It was abolished by Executive Order 8840 inferior, and the American way of life was the best in the
(July 30, 1941), and its functions were transferred to the world.
Office of Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA). Also popular were documentaries. General George C.
With the establishment by Congress of the Office of Marshall commissioned film director Frank Capra to
31
U.S. Censorship and War Propaganda During World War II The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
produce the Why We Fight series, probably the most re-

membered of the World War II documentaries. In addi-
tion, the Information-Education Division in the War De-
partment, which started as the Morale Services Division
to produce health and training films, manufactured pro-
paganda films as well. The first documentary of the war
was actually the color footage that a Navy photographer
took from a pier during the attack on Pearl Harbor. It
formed the basis of John Ford’s documentary, December
7th (1943).
Rosie the Riveter was another classic propaganda sym-
bol during World War II. She was used to represent the
millions of American women who took up traditionally
male jobs while the men were serving in the armed forces.
The original Rosie the Riveter drawing, We Can Do It by
Howard Miller, was produced for the War Production
Coordinating Committee. After the war ended, Rosie the
Riveter became one of the most memorable and enduring
images of World War II homefront propaganda.
To strengthen U.S. participation in the “war of words,”
President Roosevelt established the Voice of America
(VOA) in February, 1942, as the U.S. government’s in-
ternational broadcasting agency. It complemented the
lesser known U.S. government broadcasting efforts that
were already transmitting to the American republics un-
der CIAA guidance. Also, many government agencies, In this World War II propaganda poster, Americans are re-
including the U.S. Department of the Treasury, broad- minded never to reveal sensitive information to anyone, be-
cast highly patriotic radio programs, such as Treasury cause “loose lips sink ships.” (National Archives)
Star Parade (1943-1944), to sell war bonds and maintain
American enthusiasm for continuing the fight.
In addition to the propaganda designed to disseminate radio broadcasts. In a spirit of cooperation, the code
messages deemed beneficial to the war effort, the United asked editors and broadcasters not to disclose or report
States engaged in censorship of messages deemed harm- any information that could be of value to the enemy, such
ful to that effort. The Office of Censorship was estab- as information on troop and ship movements. The Broad-
lished by the president in Executive Order 8985 (Decem- casting Division of the censorship office monitored both
ber 19, 1941), under the authority granted to him by the domestic and foreign broadcasts. The Office of Censor-
first War Powers Act, passed only one day earlier. Roo- ship’s Press Division, which dealt mainly with newspa-
sevelt’s order authorized the director of censorship to pers and magazines, drew more media attention than any
censor “in his absolute discretion, communications by other branch of the agency because of its impact on jour-
mail, cable, radio, or other means of transmission” be- nalists. After the war, the Office of Censorship was abol-
tween the United States and foreign countries. When he ished by Executive Order 9631 (September 28, 1945).
appointed journalist Byron Price as director of censor-
ship, the president noted that “all Americans abhor cen- Significance
sorship but the experience of this and of all other nations During World War II, propaganda became more impor-
has demonstrated that some degree of censorship is es- tant for the United States than in any previous war. World
sential in wartime.” Price, for his part, promised only War II was arguably the first truly global conflict, and it
“voluntary” domestic censorship. required more combat personnel, more military support
The new Office of Censorship created the Code of personnel, and more homefront workers in war-related
Wartime Practices, which addressed both print media industries than had any previous war. As a result, a
(books, newspapers, magazines, and house organs) and greater proportion of the populace needed to be moti-
32
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 U.S. Censorship and War Propaganda During World War II
vated to participate wholeheartedly in the war effort. For chological warfare and propaganda, many of which
this reason, U.S. propaganda was a combined effort that are based on personal experiences of the authors. Pre-
involved government agencies, the military, businesses, pared as a training guide for military personnel as-
1941
and civilian organizations. signed to psychological warfare planning and opera-
Propagandists stressed American economic productions.
tivity, power, and commitment to the war effort, while Davis, Elmer H., and Byron Price. War Information and
emphasizing the importance of defending the American Censorship. Washington, D.C.: American Council on
way of life. Media efforts were designed to promote the Public Affairs, n.d. Two lengthy essays by the heads
sale of war bonds, to boost military recruitment, to in- of the OWI and the Office of Censorship during
crease the number of women and minority workers in World War II. Each author discusses the mission of
factories, and to persuade citizens to ration limited re- his agency and its execution of that mission.
sources responsibly and to grow “victory gardens.” Hol- Holsinger, W. Paul, ed. War and American Popular Cul-
lywood studios cooperated with the government and ture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.:
with the military in film production, while the govern- Greenwood, 1999. Emphasis is on the nonmilitary as-
ment produced its own films as well. Radio broadcasts, pect of war, specifically the homefront culture. The
particularly the VOA, began in the form of a news ser- chapter on World War II, one of the longest in the
vice to occupied Europe; today, the VOA continues to book, features an introductory essay followed by brief
broadcast. Along with propaganda came censorship, a descriptions of significant popular persons, events,
necessary part of the wartime effort, but Price and his and artifacts, among which are television programs,
agency managed a fairly successful operation that ex- sculpture, songs, comic books, films, novels, and the-
isted, for the most part, harmoniously with the media. atrical productions.
—Martin J. Manning Paper Bullets: Great Propaganda Posters, Axis and
Allied Countries, WWII. New York: Chelsea House,
Further Reading
1977. Lavishly illustrated compilation of beautifully
Bird, William L., and Harry R. Rubenstein. Design
reproduced posters (all in color) from both sides of
for Victory: World War II Posters on the American
World War II. Features an essay by Daniel Lerner on
Homefront. New York: Princeton Architectural
psychological warfare and the significant role that
Press, 1998. Based on the collection in the National
posters played in the propaganda war.
Museum of American History and on records of the
Winkler, Allan M. Politics of Propaganda: The Office of
OWI, this book presents its readers with a vast num-
War Information, 1942-1945. New Haven, Conn.:
ber of posters and outlines the evolution of poster pro-
Yale University Press, 1978. Short history of the war-
paganda.
time propaganda agency, with good background on
Cull, Nicholas J., David Culbert, and David Welch. Pro-
its creation. Provides more detail on the OWI’s over-
paganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclo-
seas operations than on its domestic section.
pedia, 1500 to the Present. Santa Barbara, Calif.:
ABC-Clio, 2003. Encyclopedia that includes several See also: 1941-1945: 6.6 Million Women Enter the
well written articles on World War II topics, alphabet- U.S. Labor Force; Aug. 23, 1941: Nazis Ban Nolde’s
ically arranged, that cover the innumerable forms, Paintings; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
methods, and practitioners of propaganda over the Feb. 24, 1942: Voice of America Begins Broadcast-
past five hundred years. Political movements and fig- ing; Nov. 26, 1942: Casablanca Marks the Artistic
ures loom large in the content. Apex of 1940’s War-Themed Films; Oct. 20, 1944:
Daugherty, William E., ed. Psychological Warfare Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks; Feb. 23, 1945:
Casebook. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima; Apr. 18, 1945:
Press, 1958. Casebook compilation of essays on psy- War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat.
33
Nationalist Chinese Forces Battle Communists as Japan Advances The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
January, 1941
Nationalist Chinese Forces Battle Communists as
Japan Advances
Throughout World War II, Americans believed that the alist Army ambushed the southern wing of the New
Chinese were engaged in a valiant struggle to save their Fourth Army and killed about three thousand Commu-
homeland from the aggression of Imperial Japan. The nist troops. The Nationalists claimed the attack was nec-
reality, however, was that China was overwhelmed by essary to promote discipline, but the Communists and
internal strife, and the Chinese people were preoccupied most outside observers found that explanation unpersua-
with a civil war between Nationalists and Communists, sive. The Communists instead believed that Chiang had
which interfered with the defense of the nation. violated the United Front agreement and demonstrated
the bad faith with which he had signed it in the first place.
Also known as: Chinese Civil War Since the United States had not yet entered the war,
Locale: China Japan faced no immediate serious threat in the Pacific,
Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; World and both sides in the Chinese Civil War were therefore
War II vulnerable to Japanese attack. In 1940, the other major
Key Figures
Hirohito (1901-1989), emperor of Japan, r. 1926-1989
Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi; 1887-1975), director-
general of the Chinese Nationalist Party, 1938-
1975, president of the mainland Republic of China,
1925-1949, and president of the Republic of China
on Taiwan, 1950-1975
Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung; 1893-1976), chairman of
the Chinese Communist Party, 1935-1976, and top
Chinese leader, 1949-1976
Zhou Enlai (Chou En-lai; 1898-1976), chief foreign
minister of the Chinese Communist Party, 1935-
1976, and premier of China, 1949-1976
Summary of Event
By 1941, the Chinese Civil War had been nominally sus-
pended so the Chinese people would be able to repel the
Japanese armies invading their homeland. The National-
ists and the Communists had signed a “United Front”
agreement, and it was under the aegis of the United Front
that China’s national defense was to be conducted. The
agreement provided that Zhou Enlai, the Communists’
urbane foreign minister, would be stationed with Presi-
dent Chiang Kai-shek in the Nationalists’ wartime capi-
tal in Chongqing, but Zhou Enlai was not influential with
Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communists were dissatisfied
with the arrangement.
In January of 1941, Chiang Kai-shek (also known as
Jiang Jieshi) ordered a newly organized Communist mil-
itary force known as the New Fourth Army to move north
of the Chang (Yangtze) River by January 31. The com-
manders of the New Fourth Army were slow to com-
ply—perhaps intentionally—and negotiated endlessly Mao Zedong, leader of the Chinese communist revolutionaries.
with the Nationalists for delays. In response, the Nation- (National Archives)
34
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Nationalist Chinese Forces Battle Communists as Japan Advances
Communist force, the Eighth Route Army (also later

called the Eighteenth Route Army), under the direction
of General Peng Dehuai, launched a series of attacks
1941
against the Japanese forces known as the Hundred Regi-
ments Offensive. Although 104 regiments of the Com-
munist army were used and the Japanese did suffer some
heavy losses, the Japanese were able to respond with vi-
cious counterattacks known as the “three alls” program
for “kill all, burn all, destroy all.”
The resulting devastation to the Communists and their
peasant allies in the affected areas produced some of the
worst atrocities in the twentieth century. In some vil-
lages, the peasants sought protection in makeshift tun-
nels, leading the Japanese to surround the area of the tun-
nels and fill them with poison gas. While the Japanese
emperor Hirohito was not an absolute dictator such as
Hitler or Stalin, there is little doubt that he played a larger
role in supporting these atrocities than his apologists
have been willing to admit.
At roughly the same time, the Japanese were also at-
tacking the Nationalist forces, especially in areas where
they saw an opportunity to cut off Chiang Kai-shek’s
supplies from India. Both the Communists and the Na-
tionalists, then, were under attack from the Japanese. De-
spite these attacks, both Chinese forces preferred to take Chiang Kai-shek, president of the Republic of China. (Library
a defensive posture against the invaders, while devoting of Congress)
whatever offensive strength they could muster to fight-
ing each other.
While Chiang Kai-shek is credited with the most America by tying up about 40 percent of the Japanese
memorable phrasing, “the Japanese are a disease of the land forces, this was the only real help the Chinese ever
skin, while the Communists are a disease of the heart,” contributed to the war effort. It is true that American aid
there is little doubt that the Communists nurtured similar to the Chinese before Pearl Harbor was limited by the
sentiments. Communist Party leader Mao Zedong was need to help the British in Europe, but American aid was
believed to have ordered his party cadres to follow a set disproportionately generous after 1941 and far out-
of priorities directing 70 percent of their efforts toward stripped the help America received in return.
party expansion, 20 percent toward dealing with the Na- Initially, the United States did not even attempt to aid
tionalists, and 10 percent toward fighting Japan. the Communists. By 1944, however, the Americans had
In line with this attitude, both of the Chinese combat- become so frustrated with the inefficiency and corrup-
ants were relieved when the Japanese attacked Pearl Har- tion of the Nationalist forces that they finally considered
bor, because they recognized that the attack would bring some aid to Mao’s forces in the north. The famous Dixie
the might of the United States to bear against Japan and Mission, headed by General Patrick Hurley, was sent to
would limit the forces the Japanese could use against the Mao’s headquarters in Yan’an, and plans were made to
Chinese. There is even some reason to believe that the give the Communists some older military equipment.
Communists and Nationalists both thought that the Japa- These efforts were made so late in the war that they did
nese had recklessly attacked a country much more pow- little good, however. The Communists’ main access to
erful—perhaps seven times more powerful—than the American arms came principally because Nationalist
Japanese were. Believing that the Americans would forces frequently abandoned or even sold such material
eventually defeat Japan, both Mao and Chiang reduced to Mao’s forces.
their offensive actions against the Japanese even more. The importance of the ongoing Chinese Civil War
While Chinese resistance to Japan may have helped was so great that neither of the combatants ever gave the
35
Nationalist Chinese Forces Battle Communists as Japan Advances The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
war against the Japanese their full attention, and both excellent analytic work on China’s propensity for
counted on the Americans to defeat Japan for them. moralism in international politics.
Given this fact, the civil war became even more violent Hsu, Immanuel. The Rise of Modern China. 6th ed. New
as soon as the war with Japan was over. Eventually, York: Oxford University Press, 2000. An excellent
Mao’s Communist forces overcame the inefficient comprehensive history of the rise of modern China
and corrupt Nationalist forces, driving them out of the from the 1700’s to the present; well indexed with a
country. good bibliography and containing numerous illustra-
tions and maps.
Significance
Lu, Ning. The Dynamics of Foreign-Policy Decision-
The infighting between the two sides of the Chinese
Making in China. 2d ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview
United Front demonstrated America’s almost total igno-
Press, 2000. Demonstrates the long-term factors that
rance of the real historical, sociological, political, and
determine the underlying dynamics of Chinese for-
cultural forces operating in Asia during most of the twen-
eign politics.
tieth century. While the United States believed that the
Pye, Lucian. China: An Introduction. 4th ed. New York:
new “progressive” government of Chiang Kai-shek—
HarperCollins, 1991. Short, outstanding analysis of
diligently fighting alongside Mao Zedong’s progressive
Chinese culture and politics by one of America’s best
agrarian (Communist) reformers—would be grateful for
known China experts and a former president of the
U.S. aid to help expel the nearly invincible Japanese
American Political Science Association.
from their homeland, the reality was that the Japanese
Spence, Jonathan. Mao Zedong. New York: Viking Pen-
were merely an unpleasant sideshow for the real war to
guin, 1999. This insightful account by one of the
the death carried out by the two parties to the Chinese
greatest living China scholars provides a concise,
Civil War. Most U.S. aid given to the Chinese was
readable biography.
wasted or sold to the Japanese to be used against the
_______. The Search for Modern China. New York:
United States. Once the United States entered the war
Norton, 2001. Rapidly becoming a classic history of
against Japan, both Chinese parties engaged in purely
modern China by one of the best-known current histo-
defensive activities, convinced that the Untied States
rians of Chinese politics; well indexed with a good
would easily defeat the Japanese, who had recklessly at-
bibliography and containing numerous illustrations
tacked a country seven times larger than their own.
and maps.
—Richard L. Wilson
Further Reading See also: Oct. 1, 1949: Mao Zedong Proclaims a Com-
Fairbank, John King. China: A New History. Cambridge, munist People’s Republic in China; Oct. 7, 1950:
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992. The last his- China Invades and Begins Rule of Tibet; Jan., 1953:
tory written by the most prominent twentieth century China Begins Its First Five-Year Plan; Beginning
historian of China; well indexed, with a good bibliog- 1958: Mao’s Great Leap Forward Brings Chaos to
raphy and containing numerous illustrations and maps. China; Oct. 16, 1964: China Explodes Its First Nu-
Faust, John R., and Judith F. Kornberg. China in World clear Bomb; May, 1966: Cultural Revolution Begins
Politics. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1995. An in China.
36
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Thai Forces Attack French Troops Near Battambang
January, 1941
Thai Forces Attack French Troops Near Battambang
1941
Taking advantage of the German occupation of France province in Laos in order to preserve the core of his king-
in early World War II, Thailand used military force dom. France, however, claimed that it had inherited the
and diplomatic maneuvering to seize some of the old Vietnamese right to rule over all of Cambodia and
territory it had ceded to French Indochina in 1893 Laos, and in 1907, France seized the remaining part of
and 1907. Luang Prabang, as well as Battambang and Siem Reap,
incorporating them into French Indochina, which then
Also known as: Thai-French Indochina Border Dis- included Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos.
pute; French-Thai War During the late 1930’s, Siam began to press France
Locale: Thai-French Indochina border (now in for a return of the areas of Laos west of the Mekong
Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos); Gulf of Thailand River. Thai prime minister Luang Phibunsongkhram at-
Categories: Expansion and land acquisition; wars, tempted to emulate the rule of the militarists in control
uprisings, and civil unrest; colonialism and of the Japanese government. His picture became omni-
occupation; World War II present, while he also instituted a regime of repression
Key Figures against the Chinese minority in Thailand. Phibunsong-
Luang Phibunsongkhram (Plaek Khittassangkha; khram sought to use the issue of lost territories to bol-
1897-1964), field marshal and prime minister of ster his reputation as a strong leader and to right an old
Thailand, 1938-1944 and 1948-1957 grievance long resented by the Thais. One of his long-
Jean Decoux (1884-1963), French naval officer and term goals was to fulfill the ambition of many Thais
governor-general of French Indochina, 1940-1945 of creating a greater Thailand by absorbing provinces
Pridi Phanomyong (Pridi Banomyong; 1900-1983), outside Thailand that had an ethnic Thai population.
prime minister of Thailand, 1946 Thailand increasingly adopted a bellicose tone over its
Chulalongkorn (Rama V; 1853-1910), regent of Siam, “lost” territories.
1868-1873, and king as Phra Chula Chomklao Following the defeat of France by Nazi Germany in
Chaoyuhua, r. 1873-1910 June, 1940, the section of France not under direct Ger-
man control and all French colonial possessions were
Summary of Event governed by a weak government established in the
Situated between French and British colonial posses- French city of Vichy. Most colonial administrations re-
sions in Southeast Asia, Siam—as Thailand was known mained loyal to the Vichy government, but metropolitan
before 1939—had long sought the return of territories it France could offer little in the way of economic, diplo-
had traded in return for continued independence at the matic, or military support to those colonies. Phibun-
turn of the century. Taking advantage of the weakness of songkhram believed that French weakness created an op-
French Indochina following the defeat of France by Nazi portunity for the return of some of the lost territories.
Germany in 1940, Thailand used military force and Japa- However, Japan acted first, forcing the greatly weakened
nese diplomatic support to recover some bordering prov- colonial government in Indochina to grant Japan base
inces, before Japan took control of Indochina, rendering and transit rights in northern Vietnam. Phibunsong-
such an action impossible. khram feared that Japan might eventually take posses-
For several centuries, Cambodia had been a tributary sion of all Indochina, eliminating any hope of Thailand
of Siam. In 1867, France absorbed most of Cambodia as regaining its lost territories for itself.
a protectorate and incorporated it into its Indochinese Anti-French and nationalist rallies were held in Bang-
colony. Siam retained the western Cambodian provinces kok in the late summer and early fall of 1940. In response
of Battambang and Siem Reap. In April of 1893, fighting to what Washington saw as the destabilizing efforts of
between French and Siamese forces in Laos led the Phibunsongkhram, the United States suspended delivery
French to send gunboats up the Chao Phraya River, of warplanes that Thailand had purchased. Despite this
blockading the Siamese capital city of Bangkok (Krung pressure from the United States, Phibunsongkhram se-
Thep). As a result of the so-called Crisis of 1893, King cretly negotiated an agreement with Japan under which
Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam agreed to pay a sizable Japan would back Thai territorial demands against the
indemnity to France and to cede part of Luang Prabang French in Indochina in return for Thailand allowing Ja-
37
Thai Forces Attack French Troops Near Battambang The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
pan to use Thai territory in the event of a Japanese attack the Japanese to enter Thailand and use Thai territory
on the British colony of Malay. in their war against British Malay and Burma. Phibun-
In early January, 1941, Thai warplanes began making songkhram had been away from Bangkok when the Japa-
daytime attacks on Vientiane, in Laos, and Battambang nese invaded, but he quickly acquiesced once he returned
and Sisophon, in Cambodia. The French retaliated. The to the capital. Although no hard evidence exists, the sus-
Thai Burapha (eastern) and Isaan (northeastern) armies picion remains that his convenient absence from Bang-
then launched a series of border attacks against French kok and the initial fighting was a deliberate ploy to give
Indochina, which grew into a small war. French forces himself political coverage.
were outnumbered, lacked adequate supplies, and had In 1943, Thailand invaded and annexed the Shan
little intelligence on the disposition of Thai forces. The states from the British colony of Burma, which was then
Thais quickly consolidated their hold on Laotian areas, under Japanese control. Japan also gave Thailand con-
but found more difficulties in Cambodia. Early on Janu- trol of four northern Malay states that it had lost to Great
ary 16, the French launched a large but poorly coordi- Britain in the early twentieth century. Following the
nated counterattack on Thai forces at Yang Dang Khum end of World War II, Thailand quickly withdrew any
and Phum Preav, in Cambodia, where they were repelled claims to areas it had taken from Burma and Malay, but
with heavy casualties. However, Thai armored forces it desperately wanted to retain the territories taken from
were unable to follow up their successful defense with a Laos and Cambodia. Residents of the newly acquired
decisive defeat of the retreating French as a result of ef- territories voted in national elections in January and
fective French artillery. August of 1946. However, Thailand also sought a role
While generally triumphant on land, Thai naval in the emerging international order, the cornerstone of
forces found less success against the French. On January which was membership in the United Nations. In return
17, the French light cruiser Lamotte-Piquet caught a for France dropping its threat to veto Thailand’s en-
small Thai naval force near the island of Koh Chang, in trance into the international body, Prime Minister Pridi
the Gulf of Thailand near the border. The French ship Phanomyong, who had been active in the anti-Japanese
sank the Thai coastal defense ship Thonburi. This minor Free Thai movement during the war, took the more
naval action was the only notable French success in the pragmatic course and ceded the territories back to the
war. On January 24, Thai warplanes struck a French air- French.
field near Angkor and inflicted more humiliation on the —Barry M. Stentiford
French. At this juncture, Phibunsongkhram asked for
Japanese intervention, and a general armistice was de- Further Reading
clared on January 28. On March 11, 1941, after difficult Haseman, John B. The Thai Resistance Movement Dur-
negotiations in Tokyo, France gave up control of almost ing World War II. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm
all of Laos west of the Mekong River and two western Books, 2002. An outsider’s perspective on the short
Cambodian provinces. yet sharp fighting between Japanese forces and Thai
The short war soured what remained of Thailand’s re- forces two hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor and
lations with the United States. The United States reacted the underground resistance movement that sprang up
in part by cutting off exports of oil. The British, more in its aftermath.
concerned with maintaining good relations with Thai- Reynolds, E. Bruce. Thailand and Japan’s Southern Ad-
land, in part to protect their colonies in Malaya and vance, 1940-1945. New York: St. Martin’s Press,
Burma, acquiesced. Thailand quickly integrated the con- 1994. Nuanced account of the extremely complicated
quered territories into the Thai national structure. With relationship between Thailand and Japan during
the territories under Thai control, the prime minister World War II. Written predominantly from the Thai
sought to distance Thailand from Japan and improve re- point of view, it shows that Thai leaders sought to gain
lations with the British and the United States. whatever advantage the nation could through the in-
stability in the Far East, but above all desired to keep
Significance Thailand independent.
In the days following the Japanese attack on Pearl Har- Tejapira, Kasian. Commodifying Marxism: The Forma-
bor, which brought the United States into the war against tion of Modern Thai Radical Culture, 1927-1958.
Japan, the Japanese army invaded Thailand. After put- Kyoto, Japan: Kyoto University Press, 2003. A his-
ting up a sharp but futile defense, the Thai army allowed tory of Marxism in Thailand, mainly from the end of
38
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time Is Performed
the absolute monarchy in the 1930’s through the end See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
of the 1950’s. cific Theater; May, 1941: Ho Chi Minh Organizes the
Wyatt, David K. Thailand: A Short History. New Haven, Viet Minh; Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on
1941
Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982. Standard schol- Southeast Asia; Oct. 25, 1943: Thai-Burma Railway
arly account of Thai history from the ancient period Is Completed with Forced Labor; Sept. 17, 1957: Thai
until the end of the twentieth century. Military Coup.
January 15, 1941

Messiaen’s QUARTET FOR THE END OF TIME Is Performed
Olivier Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time was trio for them, which they played in the camp’s wash-
written in a prisoner-of-war camp for the musical room. Adding a part for himself to be played on the
instruments at hand. Both the piece itself and the story camp’s beaten-up piano, Messiaen set to work on the
of its composition served to cement Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time in 1940. The work’s first
reputation as one of the most important composers of performance on January 15, 1941, joins with the riotous
the twentieth century. premiere of Igor Stravinsky’s Le Sacre du printemps
(1913; The Rite of Spring) as one of the great stories in
Also known as: Quatuor pour la fin du temps modern music. Messiaen and his three colleagues per-
Locale: Gorlitz, Silesia (now in Germany) formed the quartet outdoors, in the dead of winter, before
Category: Music five thousand prisoners. Messiaen later admitted that he
Key Figures had never had such an attentive and appreciative audi-
Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992), French composer ence as this.
Jean Le Boulaire (1913-1999), French violinist and The work’s title has been interpreted as a reference to
prisoner of war the static conditions of life in a prison camp, where bore-
Étienne Pasquier (1905-1997), French cellist and dom and frustration were increased by the prisoners’
prisoner of war awareness of the frantic activity going on in the rest of
Henri Akoka (1912-1975), Jewish French clarinetist Europe, as well as to the composer’s own serene Roman
and prisoner of war Catholic contemplation of Christian liberty and the illu-
sory nature of time. Were Messiaen not known to be a
Summary of Event mystical Catholic, his title might be understood as a de-
The circumstances of the composition of Quatuor pour spairing comment about the ravages of World War II.
la fin du temps (1941; Quartet for the End of Time) are re- Messiaen himself rejected the interpretation that the
markable; that the work is one of the key musical master- work was composed as a comment on prison life; in-
pieces of the twentieth century makes the story even stead, he cited the title’s literary source, the Revelation
more amazing. Its composer, Olivier Messiaen, was born of Saint John, in which the angel of the Apocalypse tells
in Avignon, France, in 1908, and joined the French army Saint John, “There shall be no more delay; but when the
at the outbreak of World War II, serving as a hospital at- time comes for the seventh angel to sound his trumpet,
tendant. En route to Nancy following the German inva- the hidden purpose of God will have been fulfilled, as he
sion of Verdun, he was captured and sent to a prison promised to his servants the prophets.”
camp at Gorlitz in Silesia (now in Germany). While in Messiaen’s artistic development was influenced by a
Stalag 8A, Messiaen protected a precious knapsack con- curious combination of elements, including natural
taining a variety of miniature scores, including Johann sound (especially birdsong), Catholic mystical theology,
Sebastian Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos (c. 1721) and and the composer’s love of the theater—especially
Alban Berg’s Lyric Suite (1925-1926). Claude Debussy’s opera Pelléas et Mélisande (1902;
Messiaen discovered that three of his fellow prison- Pelléas and Mélisande). His parents provided him with a
ers were musicians: Jean Le Boulaire was a violinist, rigorously literary upbringing, as his father was an En-
Étienne Pasquier was a cellist, and the Jewish prisoner glish translator and a scholar of the works of William
Henri Akoka played the clarinet. Messiaen wrote a short Shakespeare, while his mother, the poet Cécile Sauvage,
39
Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time Is Performed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
wrote a book of poems called L’Âme en bourgeon (1908; The eight movements of the piece are interrelated in a
the flowering soul) during the composer’s gestation. variety of ways. Movements 2 and 7 have thematic links,
During his musical studies, he developed a fascination while 3 and 6 are monodies, unharmonized or unaccom-
with classical Greek rhythms and discovered in a French panied. Movement 3, “Abîme des oiseaux” (“Abyss of
encyclopedia a complex table of classical Indian Birds”), is a famous solo for clarinet, while the sixth
rhythms. Messiaen’s music is largely concerned with the movement, “Dance de la fureur, pour les sept trom-
revelation of God through Christianity, the action of God pettes” (“Dance of Fury for the Seven Trumpets”), is
as shown in human love for others, or the action of God in played largely in unison by violin, cello, and clarinet.
nature, as illustrated by the songs of birds. Movements 2, 6, and 7 are the most vigorous move-
Messiaen’s music has been admired for its rhythmic ments, while 5 and 8 are the most deliberate and contem-
vitality. In a 1958 lecture, the composer said, “Let us not plative. The latter two movements also share Messiaen’s
forget that the first, essential element in music is rhythm, preferred key of spiritual insight, E major.
and that rhythm is first and foremost the change of num-
ber and duration.” Messiaen had been a pupil of the Significance
French composer Paul Dukas, who reportedly urged his Quartet for the End of Time became one of the most ad-
students to “rhythmicize your harmonies,” which can be mired and frequently performed pieces of chamber mu-
interpreted in several ways. In a work that predicts the sic in the twentieth century. The circumstances of its
end of time, Messiaen uses such familiar means as link- composition undoubtedly contributed to its appeal, yet
ing the music of eternity with high pitch and slow tempo, the work remains immensely appealing on its own musi-
as in the “In Paradisum” section of Gabriel Fauré’s Re- cal terms. Although Messiaen is usually thought of as a
quiem (1888), which Messiaen is known to have ad- composer for the organ and large-scale orchestral forces,
mired. By means of the complicated rhythmic schemes the quartet demonstrates his ability to write successfully
of the various movements, the composer calls attention for small combinations of instruments. Even a chamber
to rhythmic energy but also to what happens before, af- group can have the distinctive “Messiaen sound.”
ter, and between beats in a piece of music. One wonders what the captive audience of five thou-
For Messiaen, rhythm is the key to the depiction of the sand at the piece’s premiere really made of the quartet,
predicted end of time. The composer uses such tech- although it is not difficult to imagine the mixed feelings
niques as “modes of limited transposition,” harmony as a of anxiety, hope, and fear that the composer, his fellow
form of timbre (rather than as distinct from it), and ex- captives, and their guards must have felt in the dark days
tremely slow tempi. The final movement of the Quartet of 1941. Like Dmitri Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 7
for the End of Time is marked “Extremely slow and ten- (1942; Leningrad), Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of
der, ecstatic,” in the composer’s effort to depict the vic- Time became one of the most widely admired composi-
tory of Jesus over time and mortality. It is unusual to find tions to emerge from World War II. Like Shostakovich’s
a composer with such a rich and complicated sense of Symphony No. 13 (1962; Babiy Yar) and Krzysztof
rhythm be so consistently engaged in the overcoming Penderecki’s Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima
and denial of time. (1960), it is frequently performed as a disturbing com-
Rather contradictorily, Messiaen elsewhere spoke of mentary on that war.
melody as the supreme element in music. In his book When Messiaen was repatriated in 1942, he was ap-
Technique de mon langage musical (1944; Technique of pointed professor of harmony at the Paris Conservatoire,
My Musical Language, 1944-1956), the composer as- indicating how widely his reputation had extended. Al-
serts, “Melody is the point of departure. May it remain though his name was long linked with the Paris Conser-
supreme!” For many listeners, Messiaen’s soaring melo- vatoire, Messiaen was not officially appointed professor
dies, often underscored by the otherworldly sound of of composition there until 1966. His other major works
the ondes martenot (an electronic keyboard instrument), from the war period are Visions de l’Amen (1943; Visions
represent the most captivating element in his music. The of the Amen), for two pianos; Trois Petites Liturgies de la
fifth and eighth movements of the Quartet for the End of présence divine (1944; Three Small Liturgies to the Di-
Time are distinguished by their slow, regular tempi and vine Presence), a controversial work for female choir
their rich melodic lines, played soaringly by the cello and orchestra; and Vingt Regards sur l’Enfant-Jésus
over the insistent rhythmic underpinning provided by (1945; Twenty Views of the Infant Jesus), for solo piano.
the piano. The religious works were often greeted with incompre-
40
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time Is Performed
hension, often being viewed as shockingly modern by poser’s mystical contemplations, and they revere Mes-
the pious and as sentimental by the modernists. siaen for his melodic and rhythmic innovations. As the
At the time of his death on April 28, 1992, Messiaen teacher of Pierre Boulez and Karlheinz Stockhausen,
1941
was arguably the most famous living composer, although Messiaen has been called the “father of recent European
he was perhaps more widely admired by musical audi- avant-garde music,” although his own music has never
ences for his serene faith and personality than for his ac- been as chillingly inaccessible as that of many of the
tual musical output. After World War II, Messiaen’s rep- composers whose work he inspired or that was written in
utation gradually grew throughout the world. Eventually, reaction against him. Messiaen’s achievement is distinc-
he enjoyed a popularity unusual for a living composer in tive and unlikely to be replicated; no other composer is
the twentieth century. likely to share Messiaen’s unusual combination of Cath-
For much of the audience for serious music, Mes- olic spirituality, passion for birdsong, and fascination
siaen’s reputation rests on the charm of his apparently with classical Indian rhythms. Even his detractors cannot
eccentric titles, which seem to combine overblown Ba- deny the warmth, integrity, and passionate commitment
roque Catholic excess with a surrealistic sensuality. Suc- of his music. Not only for the conditions of its composi-
cessive movements in the Turangalîla-symphonie tion but also for its glowing affirmation of the persistence
(1949) are entitled “Joie du sang des étoiles” (“Joy of the of the human spirit, Quartet for the End of Time has sur-
Blood of the Stars”) and “Jardin du sommeil d’amour” vived as a great musical testament of the twentieth cen-
(“Garden of Love’s Sleep”). A trip to Bryce Canyon in tury.
Utah inspired Des Canyons des étoiles (1971-1974; Can- —Byron Nelson
yons of the Stars). Messiaen’s final large orchestral
work, premiered by Zubin Mehta and the New York Further Reading
Philharmonic in the fall of 1992, was entitled Éclairs sur Griffiths, Paul. Olivier Messiaen and the Music of Time.
l’au-delà . . . (Illuminations of the Beyond). Not since Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985. Pro-
Aleksandr Scriabin at the beginning of the twentieth cen- vides a sensitive musical analysis of Messiaen’s ma-
tury had a composer chosen such bizarre titles for his jor works. As the title suggests, it is especially con-
music. cerned with Messiaen’s distinctive attitudes toward
Messiaen has been accused by his detractors (who are rhythm and time.
numerous) of mistaking sentimentality for piety and of Hill, Peter, and Nigel Simeone. Messiaen. New Haven,
simply continuing the treacly tradition of sentimental Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005. Comprehensive
nineteenth century vocal music. To these critics, the con- biography of the composer of Quartet for the End of
templative movements of the Quartet for the End of Time Time. Bibliographic references and index.
or the Turangalîla-symphonie are uncomfortably close Holland, Bernard. “An Island of Innocence and Taste.”
to the sentimental religiosity of the more turgid moments The New York Times, May 10, 1992, p. H25(N). Typi-
in the operas of Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. cal of a certain kind of academic attitude toward
Messiaen himself insisted that movements such as No. 8 Messiaen—respectful of his music but condescend-
in the quartet, “Louange à l’immortalité de Jésus” ing toward the deep spirituality that inspired it.
(“Praise to the Immortality of Jesus”), “are not at all lus- Pople, Anthony. Messiaen: “Quatuor pour la fin du
cious nor sweet; they are simply noble, bare, austere.” temps.” New York: Cambridge University Press,
Detractors, however, insist on finding traces of Massenet 1998. Detailed study of the quartet in the context of
and Glenn Miller, and many of these find more saccharin Messiaen’s complete oeuvre. Includes separate chap-
than spirituality. Even an admiring eulogy in The New ters on each movement. Bibliographic references and
York Times could not resist a patronizing view of the index.
composer’s spirituality: “Messiaen’s music and the Rischin, Rebecca. For the End of Time: The Story of the
woozy ardor of his Christian devotions are indivisible.” Messiaen Quartet. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University
This attitude is unfortunately typical of a certain class of Press, 2003. Book-length retelling of the story of the
academic rationalists who cannot forgive Messiaen for quartet’s composition, based on eyewitness accounts,
linking a modern, sophisticated musical technique to an including interviews with the musicians conducted
unfashionable religious perspective. in the 1990’s. Includes a discussion of what happened
Enthusiasts for Messiaen’s artistry, however, are to the three original musicians in the decades after
more than happy to hear the music of eternity in the com- the war.
41
Seaborg and McMillan Make Plutonium The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Salzman, Eric. Twentieth-Century Music: An Introduc- See also: Feb. 10, 1948: Zhdanov Denounces “Formal-
tion. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967. ism” in Music; Aug. 29, 1952: Cage’s 4 33 Pre-
Identifies the Messiaen of the late 1960’s as “the fa- mieres; Dec. 2, 1954: Varèse Premieres Déserts; June
ther of recent European avant-garde music” and notes 18, 1955: Boulez’s Le Marteau sans maître Pre-
his influence on figures such as Boulez and Stock- mieres; Nov. 17, 1959: Death of Villa-Lobos; 1964:
hausen. Riley Completes In C.
February 23, 1941

Seaborg and McMillan Make Plutonium
Nuclear physicist Edwin Mattison McMillan and clotron, and this new discovery stimulated him to think
chemist Glenn Theodore Seaborg discovered the first of various experiments that could be performed with the
elements in the periodic table heavier than uranium— cyclotron to investigate this new phenomenon.
the so-called transuranic elements, of which plutonium The fissioning of the uranium nucleus created frag-
is the most important. Plutonium, which is highly ments, and McMillan decided to measure how far these
explosive, was the key element in the first nuclear fragments would penetrate into various kinds of matter.
bombs. He studied their range first in a stack of thin aluminum
foils and then in a stack of cigarette papers. In the latter
Also known as: Element 94 case, he smeared a layer of uranium oxide onto the top
Locale: Berkeley, California piece of paper and then exposed the stack to a beam of
Categories: Chemistry; physics; science and neutrons from the cyclotron. As expected, some of the
technology; World War II fission fragments bored into the pile of thin papers and
Key Figures stopped at various depths. By taking the papers apart and
Edwin Mattison McMillan (1907-1991), American measuring their radioactivity with a Geiger counter, he
nuclear physicist and 1951 Nobel laureate in was able to determine the range of particular fragments.
chemistry He also found that the top paper, containing the uranium,
Glenn Theodore Seaborg (1912-1999), American had radioactivities with different properties from the
chemist and 1951 Nobel laureate in chemistry radioactivities in the other pieces of paper. In particular,
Philip Abelson (1913-2004), American physical he found a radioactive product that had a twenty-three-
chemist who assisted McMillan in the chemical minute half-life (the time in which half the nuclei of an
separation of neptunium isotope undergo radioactive decay) and another with a
Arthur C. Wahl (b. 1917), American chemist who half-life of a little more than two days.
codiscovered plutonium and was part of the In 1934, Enrico Fermi had tried to create elements
Manhattan Project to develop the atomic bomb heavier than uranium by adding neutrons to uranium;
Emilio Gino Segrè (1905-1989), Italian physicist who Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann had begun experiments
codiscovered the elements technetium, astatine, and of their own with the same intent. McMillan knew that
plutonium the twenty-three-minute half-life belonged to uranium
239, an isotope known since 1936. Uranium is element
Summary of Event 92, meaning that its atomic number (the number of pro-
Plutonium’s story has fission at its beginning and at its tons in its nucleus) is 92. Uranium 239’s nucleus also
end. The discovery of fission in 1938 was the stimulus contains 147 neutrons, for a total atomic weight of 239.
for scientists to discover neptunium and plutonium, and In the spring of 1940, McMillan concluded that the
the discovery of a fissionable isotope of plutonium led to substance with a two-day half-life in his experiments re-
the nuclear bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, sulted from the transformation of uranium 239 into a new
in 1945. element by means of electron (or beta) emission. When
The news of the discovery of fission excited Edwin electron emission occurs, a neutron in the affected atom
Mattison McMillan tremendously. He had worked with changes into a proton, thus increasing the atom’s atomic
Ernest Orlando Lawrence on the development of the cy- number by one, causing it to become a different element.
42
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Seaborg and McMillan Make Plutonium
The new element would thus have an atomic number of decided to call element 93 neptunium, after the planet
93 and retain an atomic weight of 239. For McMillan to Neptune.
prove that he had actually found element 93 required During the summer and fall of 1940, McMillan began
1941
painstaking chemical work on an extremely minute looking for the product of neptunium 239’s radioactive
quantity of material. decay. Since neptunium emitted electrons as it decayed,
McMillan was assisted by Philip Abelson, a chemist which would result in yet another neutron-proton con-
at the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C. Using version, McMillan reasoned that the product of its decay
“carrier” techniques, they were able to separate the new must be a new element with atomic number 94 and
element from uranium and characterize it chemically (a atomic weight 239. To make adequate amounts of this el-
carrier is a substance, available in bulk amounts, chemi- ement, he bombarded uranium with deuterons in the 152-
cally analogous to the radioelement obtainable only in centimeter Berkeley cyclotron (the hydrogen nucleus
minuscule amounts). At the start, McMillan suspected with a single proton and a single neutron is called a deu-
that element 93 would be chemically like rhenium, since teron). McMillan believed that a new element was pres-
element 93 would appear directly below rhenium in the ent, but the problem was to prove it. He suspected that
periodic table; but, much to their amazement, they found this new element would decay by emitting an alpha parti-
that element 93’s properties made it a close relative of cle (a helium nucleus, with two protons and two neu-
uranium. In their paper “Radioactive Element 93,” pub- trons), which was then more difficult to detect than was a
lished in Physical Review in 1940, they suggested that beta particle. Unfortunately, he had to leave Berkeley in
this element might be part of a second “rare earth” group November to take part in the development of radar at the
of related elements beginning with uranium. McMillan Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Following academic protocol, Glenn Theodore Sea-
borg, who had received his doctorate at the University of
California, Berkeley, in 1937, asked McMillan if he
could continue his studies of element 94. McMillan
agreed. Seaborg, whose postdoctoral work with Gilbert
N. Lewis was on the effects of isotopic variations on the
chemistry of elements, was well prepared to work out the
chemistry of the new element. In the fall of 1940, he as-
signed his graduate student Arthur C. Wahl the thesis
problem of investigating the chemical properties of ele-
ment 93. Joseph W. Kennedy, an instructor in the chem-
istry department with Seaborg, also was interested in
the transuranic elements; therefore, Seaborg, Wahl, and
Kennedy formed a team to establish the chemical proper-
ties of element 94.
On December 14, Seaborg and his colleagues bom-
barded uranium oxide with deuterons from the 152-
centimeter cyclotron. They believed that this bombard-
ment formed neptunium 238, an isotope with a short
half-life and therefore a high radioactivity. After losing
an electron, this isotope turned into element 94 with mass
number 238 (and a very long half-life). During the weeks
following this experiment, they were able to separate the
longer-lived isotope from its short-lived precursor. The
chemically separated fraction containing the new ele-
ment, which exhibited the alpha radioactivity that Mc-
Millan had predicted, presented the researchers with the
problem of isolating the new element from its nearest
neighbors, in particular, uranium and neptunium.
Glenn Theodore Seaborg. (The Nobel Foundation) The chemical key to the isolation of element 94 was
43
Seaborg and McMillan Make Plutonium The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
that it had two oxidation states; that is, it could form two In the course of their work, Seaborg’s team developed
different compounds with oxygen. To put it in its higher- new techniques for handling minuscule amounts of ra-
oxidation state required a stronger oxidizing agent than dioactive material, transforming such common appara-
was required for neptunium. Since different chemical tus as test tubes, flasks, and balances into devices that
properties indicate a different element, the discovery of could handle adeptly pinhead-sized quantities of mate-
element 94’s particular oxidative properties constituted rial. These ultramicrochemical techniques enabled the
proof of its individuality. Seaborg’s team first success- group to work out the chemistry of plutonium. In an im-
fully oxidized element 94 on February 23-24, 1941. portant early experiment, they succeeded, on September
Their paper describing the oxidation experiment was 10, 1942, in weighing the first visible amount of pluto-
sent to Washington on March 7, but it was not published nium 239 (about one ten-millionth of an ounce).
until 1946, because the new element’s potential military At the Metallurgical Laboratory, Seaborg and his col-
importance had become obvious. leagues discovered in nature minute quantities of neptu-
While experiments leading to the discovery of ele- nium and plutonium, the products of natural radioactive
ment 94 were occurring, Seaborg’s team, augmented by processes. In the summer of 1944, as a result of their rec-
Emilio Gino Segrè, was searching for the 239 isotope ognition that neptunium and plutonium form part of a
of the element. They suspected that this isotope would new series in the periodic table, Seaborg and his collabo-
be fissionable; that is, it would split when bombarded rators were able to discover two more elements, 95 and
with slow neutrons and simultaneously produce huge 96 (americium and curium, respectively).
amounts of energy. In the spring of 1941, Seaborg and The successful solutions to the problems of the chem-
his collaborators made this new isotope by bombarding ical separation of plutonium led to the construction, in
uranium 238 with neutrons. This resulted in neptunium Hanford, Washington, of large plutonium-producing nu-
239, which soon decayed into the 239 isotope of element clear reactors and a massive plant designed for the chem-
94. This isotope turned out to be very stable, with a half- ical separation of plutonium. A ratio of about one to a
life of twenty-four thousand years. When they bom- billion was involved in the scale-up from the minute
barded isotope 239 with slow neutrons from the 94- quantities used by Seaborg’s team to the huge amounts
centimeter Berkeley cyclotron, its nucleus fissioned with used in the Hanford Engineer Works. As is well known,
a release of energy greater than what scientists had the labors of these and many other scientists and techni-
obtained with uranium 235 (the fissionable isotope of cians eventually produced enough pure plutonium for
uranium). use in two bombs, one that was successfully tested at
The researchers recognized immediately that the 239 Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945 (the world’s
isotope of element 94 had the potential to make up the first detonation of an atomic bomb), and the other the
highly explosive ingredient of a nuclear bomb. There- bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9.
fore, as with the 238 isotope, Seaborg’s team decided Seaborg and McMillan, the two scientists most re-
to withhold public announcement of isotope 239’s fis- sponsible for the discovery of plutonium, believed that
sionability until 1946. In March, 1942, when they were its use was justified in the Nagasaki bomb to bring a swift
preparing detailed reports about their studies of the new end to World War II. Afterward, they were made aware
element, they named it “plutonium.” After discussions that many people associated their discovery with myriad
about using “P1” or “Pu” for the element’s symbol, they deaths and destruction. With the development of fast
chose Pu, an appropriate designation for this highly poi- breeder reactors, based on the production and recycling
sonous substance. of plutonium, the insidious properties of plutonium be-
came well known to the public, especially through the ef-
Significance forts of various groups in the environmental movement.
In the spring of 1942, Seaborg took a leave of absence Seaborg, in particular, fought against the association
from the University of California to join the operation to of plutonium with the horrors of nuclear war and the poi-
make material for an atomic bomb. He moved to the Met- soning of the planet. In many of his speeches and writ-
allurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago to con- ings, he expressed the hope that plutonium would be
tinue research on plutonium 239. He became head of the used in peaceful ways to raise standards of living. For
division whose goal was to develop chemical techniques Seaborg, plutonium confronted humanity with the
that could be scaled up to the factory-level manufacture choice that several previous scientific discoveries also
of massive quantities of plutonium from uranium. presented. Plutonium could, like them, be used destruc-
44
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Niebuhr Extols a Theory of Christian Realism
tively, but Seaborg believed that human beings, with rence papers and other sources to recount the early
deepened wisdom and understanding, could learn to use history of the laboratory.
this element constructively to build a world of lasting Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New
1941
peace and shared abundance. York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. Well researched and
— Robert J. Paradowski clearly written. Has become the principal account of
how the atomic and hydrogen bombs were developed.
Further Reading
Narrates, in graphic human, scientific, and technical
Chemistry, 1942-1962. River Edge, N.J.: World Scien-
detail, how the bombs evolved from basic discoveries
tific, 1999. Provides the Nobel lectures of McMillan
in chemistry and physics. Illustrated with diagrams
and Seaborg from 1951. Includes brief biographies of
and photographs. Detailed index.
the laureates.
Seaborg, Glenn T., with Eric Seaborg. Adventures in the
Gaddis, John Lewis, et al., eds. Cold War Statesmen
Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington. New York:
Confront the Bomb: Nuclear Diplomacy Since 1945.
Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001. Seaborg’s biogra-
New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Discusses
phy, covering a range of years, from his childhood to
the global politics of nuclear proliferation following
the discovery of plutonium and the Manhattan Project
World War II. Includes the chapter “Longing for In-
to the Nobel Prize to the future of nuclear energy. Il-
ternational Control, Banking on American Superior-
lustrations, index.
ity: Harry S. Truman’s Approach to Nuclear Weap-
ons.” Bibliographical references, index. See also: June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945: United States
Heilbron, J. L., and Robert W. Seidel. Lawrence and His Develops the First Nuclear Weapon; Dec. 2, 1942:
Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Lab- Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear Fission
oratory. Berkeley: University of California Press, Chain Reaction; July 16, 1945: First Nuclear Bomb Is
1989. Ernest O. Lawrence was the guiding spirit be- Detonated; 1951: Hofstadter Discovers That Protons
hind Berkeley’s Radiation Laboratory, in which big- and Neutrons Have Structure; 1953-1959: Liquid
ger and better atom-smashing machines were built Bubble Chamber Is Developed; 1964: Gell-Mann and
and used to do research. Uses material from the Law- Zweig Advance Quark Theory.
March, 1941-January, 1943

Niebuhr Extols a Theory of Christian Realism
Turning away from his commitment to pacifism, Summary of Event
Christian theologian and political philosopher By the mid-twentieth century, American Christian theo-
Reinhold Niebuhr argued for “Christian Realism,” logian Reinhold Niebuhr was already well known for his
proposing that the reality of human sinfulness stands voluminous writings on Christian theology, social eth-
in dynamic tension with the reality of human freedom. ics, and politics, as well as his extensive political activ-
He sought to lay a theological foundation for ism. However, the publication in March, 1941, and Janu-
“realistic” politics, including the ethical use of force ary, 1943, of his famous Gifford lectures (originally
to advance the cause of justice. delivered in Scotland in 1939) marked a particularly im-
portant turn in American Protestant political theology.
Also known as: Gifford Lectures in Natural Reli- Published in two separate volumes (Human Nature,
gion; Human Nature; Human Destiny; The Nature
1941; Human Destiny, 1943), The Nature and Destiny of
and Destiny of Man
Man: A Christian Interpretation crystallized a theory of
Locale: New York, New York
Christian social ethics that has come to be known as
Categories: Religion, theology, and ethics; philosophy
Christian Realism.
Key Figures The outline of Niebuhr’s theology had emerged in his
Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971), Christian theologian, earlier writings (for example, in his 1932 book Moral
activist, and social philosopher Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Poli-
Adam Gifford (1820-1887), Scottish jurist and endower tics), but the sharper formulation in The Nature and Des-
of the Gifford Lectures in Natural Religion tiny of Man represented the wartime evolution of Nie-
45
Niebuhr Extols a Theory of Christian Realism The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
buhr’s thinking. He shifted away from idealistic Christian broader Western cultural response to the catastrophic de-
pacifism and toward an advocacy of the situational use of struction of World War I and the looming disaster of
force (political, legal, or military) as a legitimate re- World War II. Niebuhr’s work at this time was also
sponse to the unfolding catastrophes of mid-twentieth strongly influenced by the social trauma of the world-
century Europe, as well as the persisting racial and eco- wide Depression of the 1930’s and the continued tragedy
nomic problems facing the United States. of American racism. The Nature and Destiny of Man
Niebuhr’s theology in The Nature and Destiny of Man sounded a theological and political alarm for progressive
and the importance of its publication can best be under- theologians and activists, especially those who pinned
stood in the broader context of intellectual history. In messianic hopes either on a God who would intervene di-
particular, the late nineteenth and early twentieth centu- rectly in human affairs to correct them or on delusionally
ries were periods of vigorous debate internationally unrealistic political solutions to these historical tragedies.
among Christian social activists regarding how best to Niebuhr argues in the first volume, Human Nature,
conceive of human nature and how one’s conception of it that sin is a reality of the human self and of human com-
should influence political and social action. There were munities and that sin stands in continued and inescapable
significant disagreements among Christian thinkers as tension with human freedom. Niebuhr—a longtime ac-
they defined categories such as “sin,” “freedom,” “evil,” tivist familiar with the progressive Social Gospel move-
and “grace,” and the ways those definitions affected their ment in the United States and himself active in the inter-
political activities varied widely. The turn that Niebuhr national and pacifist social justice Left—defines sin as
makes in The Nature and Destiny of Man is not only the universal human tendency to make a distorted idol of
theological but also political, emerging from his experi- the self (or of one’s nation, class, or other category of
ence as not only a pastor but also an activist on the Amer- identity). This idolatry entails the exertion of unjust
ican left with strong commitments to economic and ra- power over others and thus embodies an inherent human
cial justice. capacity for violence and evil. This capacity for evil,
When Lord Adam Gifford established the Gifford lec- however, which expresses itself across the political spec-
tures in Scotland in 1888, he stipulated that invited schol- trum, coexists for Niebuhr with the reality that all human
ars somehow address “natural theology” in their lectures. beings are good, because they stand as the created image
Natural theology is quite varied, even in just its Christian of God. Furthermore, he argues, Christians are able to
forms, but it generally involves the claim that human rea- experience the “actualization of good in history,” which
son is sufficient to apprehend the existence and nature of is effected by the grace and power of Christ.
God through the evidence provided by the “created uni- For Niebuhr, Christian Realism takes these tensions
verse.” Natural theology in its Christian forms generally between sin and evil on one hand and freedom and grace
places less emphasis on the New Testament as God’s re- on the other seriously, especially as the tensions bear di-
velatory self-disclosure and instead tends to see biblical rectly on social and political life. Niebuhr’s focus in The
texts as historically bound human writings that, however Nature and Destiny of Man is strongly social and histori-
profound, interpret the reality of God and Christ from a cal, and many interpreters are interested in him as a
human standpoint. thinker in the tradition of American philosophical prag-
Natural theology also tends to reject truth claims that matism.
are based on the authority of biblical texts, if those truth Despite what some have labeled his essentially tragic
claims run counter to the evidence available to all hu- view of human experience, Niebuhr still retained his
mans through reason and experience. Natural theology confidence in human reason and its progressive capaci-
tends to treat the natural world as a reliable theological ties. Before and after the publication of The Nature and
textbook, to be optimistic about the reliability of human Destiny of Man, he worked extensively and pluralis-
reason, to posit that human nature is essentially good, tically with secular thinkers and activists and with reli-
and to be confident that human societies can and will de- gious modernists from other traditions, many of whom
velop progressively. were impressed by the fusion of philosophy and compar-
While it can be a risky oversimplification to mark his- ative religion in these volumes.
torical eras by their wars, Niebuhr’s decision to use his
Gifford lectures to criticize—rather than applaud—the Significance
optimism embodied in natural theology was a political The philosophical, theological, and political questions
choice that can be fully understood only as part of a addressed in The Nature and Destiny of Man have not
46
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Niebuhr Extols a Theory of Christian Realism
disappeared: What is the nature of “the human being”? brother, theologian and scholar H. Richard Niebuhr.
How is the reality of human nature expressed in the Gilkey, Langdon. On Niebuhr: A Theological Study.
“facts of history”? How should individuals and societies Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. Re-
1941
deal ethically with perpetual human problems of vio- markably substantive and detailed critique of Nie-
lence, war, injustice? What constitutes the good? How buhr’s political theology by an important scholar of
can societies nourish political forms that advance social theology and ethics. Close attention paid to The Na-
justice? What sorts of relationships between religion and ture and Destiny of Man and strong focus on Christian
politics can be sustained in a pluralistic democracy? How social ethics.
does the experience of war influence intellectual life? In Lovin, Robin. Introduction to The Nature and Destiny
what ways does, or should, Christian Realism remain of Man: A Christian Interpretation, by Reinhold Nie-
limited to Christianity, and in what ways, if any, is it of buhr. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press,
philosophical or political value in secular or non-Chris- 1996. Introduces the category of Christian Realism to
tian religious contexts? readers in historical, theological, and philosophical
After its initial publication, The Nature and Destiny of context.
Man was of interest to a varied audience: leftist and lib- _______. Reinhold Niebuhr and Christian Realism. New
eral progressives internationally, who supported the use York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Extensive
of force to contain fascism in World War II; African critical analysis of Niebuhr’s thought by an important
American civil rights activists in the 1940’s and beyond, Niebuhr scholar.
who built a philosophical case for nonviolent social Sifton, Elisabeth. The Serenity Prayer: Faith and Poli-
force; and politically conservative “cold warriors,” who tics in Times of Peace and War. New York: W. W.
espoused a “pro-American” ethic of just war. Norton, 2003. A memoir by Niebuhr’s daughter, with
Niebuhr’s Gifford lectures continue to interest a wide good focus on the 1940’s as the context for Niebuhr’s
range of interpreters, perhaps because The Nature and thought. Sifton argues for the continued relevance
Destiny of Man remains a text that grapples with endur- and importance of her father’s political theology and
ing ethical questions while demanding that readers stay social ethics.
alert to the sometimes hazardous influence of their own West, Cornell. The American Evasion of Philosophy: A
uncritical self-interest. Genealogy of Pragmatism. Madison: University of
— Sharon Carson Wisconsin Press, 1989. Places Niebuhr in the cross-
currents of American philosophical pragmatism, with
Further Reading
special attention to issues of democracy and race.
Fox, Richard Wightman. Reinhold Niebuhr: A Biogra-
phy. Reprint. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, See also: 1941: Bultmann Offers a Controversial Inter-
1996. Biography as intellectual history. Good presen- pretation of the Christian Scriptures; 1955: Teilhard
tation of Niebuhr’s interactions with a wide range of de Chardin Attempts to Reconcile Religion and Evo-
other theologians and political thinkers of his time, lution; Mar. 10, 1967: White Explores the Judeo-
with close attention to his thought in relation to his Christian Roots of Environmental Problems.
47
Bulgaria Joins the Tripartite Pact The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
March 1, 1941
Bulgaria Joins the Tripartite Pact
After Benito Mussolini failed in his invasion of Greece, key joined the war on the side of Great Britain. There was
Germany made plans to invade the Balkans through no requirement for Bulgaria to participate in the Russian
Bulgaria. Bulgaria’s formal signing of the Tripartite campaign, and in fact throughout World War II Sofia
Pact signaled its consent for German troops to traverse never declared war on Moscow. Later in the year, Jo-
its territory and brought the country into the war on achim von Ribbentrop, the German foreign minister,
the Axis side. made it quite clear to the Bulgarian ambassador in Berlin
that Macedonia, Sofia’s main irredentist goal, would not
Locale: Vienna, Austria be given to Bulgaria, as the Germans were also planning
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations; to have Yugoslavia join the pact and remain neutral in the
World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil unrest Greek campaign.
Key Figures Boris assured Hitler of Bulgaria’s friendship, but he
Boris III (1894-1943), king of Bulgaria, r. 1918-1943 was not ready to make a commitment. The Germans con-
Bogdan Filov (1883-1945), prime minister of Bulgaria, tinued to pressure Bulgaria for the rest of the year.
1940-1943 Finally, at the end of December, Bogdan Filov, the Bul-
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933-1945 garian prime minister, assured the German foreign min-
Joachim von Ribbentrop (1893-1946), German foreign ister that Bulgaria was ready to sign the pact when the
minister, 1938-1945 time was right. In early January, 1941, Filov traveled to
Wilhelm List (1880-1971), German field marshal and Salzburg to see Ribbentrop. They agreed that Bulgaria’s
commander of the Twelfth Army military officials should meet with the German com-
Benito Mussolini (Il Duce; 1883-1945), Italian dictator, mander of the operation, Field Marshal Wilhelm List, as
1922-1943 soon as possible to discuss details.
After the meeting between Filov and Ribbentrop at
Summary of Event the latter’s estate in Fuschl, the two men went to Berch-
In the summer of 1940, German chancellor Adolf Hitler tesgaden to meet Hitler. Filov expressed concern over
decided to launch an attack against the Soviet Union. The the Soviet reaction if Bulgaria joined the pact. Hitler re-
countries of the Balkans, then neutral in World War II, assured him that the Soviets would not be a concern. On
remained friendly to the German Third Reich, which the other hand, he said, without German protection, Bul-
controlled the Continent and on which they depended garia could easily be swallowed up by Moscow, as the
economically. Hitler was satisfied to allow the peninsula Baltic states had been. Hitler’s reassurance did not per-
on his southern front to remain neutral, while England suade Filov, who was also concerned with Turkey and
unsuccessfully tried to persuade the Balkan countries to Yugoslavia, especially if the latter acquired Thessa-
join the Allies against Germany. loniki. He told Hitler, however, that Sofia would join the
Then, in October, 1940, Italian leader Benito Musso- pact when it was ready.
lini ordered his armies to invade Greece from Italian- When Turkey sent diplomatic messages suggesting it
controlled Albania. When the attack failed, Hitler was would not impede Bulgaria from joining the pact, Filov
forced to order an invasion of the peninsula, codenamed became more agreeable to Berlin’s overtures. Military
Operation MARITA. The German forces were charged talks began. When Berlin accepted Sofia’s demands for
with conquering Greece, now a British ally, in order to concessions, Filov agreed to join the pact on January 23,
bail out the Italian dictator. but the official signing was coordinated with the German
Bulgaria’s King Boris III traveled to Berlin in No- entry into the country. In February, German technicians
vember to discuss with Hitler his nation’s role in the up- arrived in Bulgaria to prepare the way for the Wehr-
coming campaign. The führer required Sofia to join the macht’s march through the nation to Greece. British am-
Tripartite Pact (1940)—the so-called Axis alliance bassador George Rendel raised a protest, and after a pri-
among Germany, Italy, and Japan—and to allow Ger- vate meeting with the king, he left the country along with
man troops to pass through the country on their way to the ambassadors of several German-occupied Western
Greece. After the campaign was over, Bulgaria would European nations who represented their governments-
occupy parts of Thrace and remain on guard in case Tur- in-exile in London.
48
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Bulgaria Joins the Tripartite Pact
Germany had planned to accom- Mussolini on the War’s Progress

plish the passage through Bulgaria in
three stages. Stage one was expected In a speech before the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations given in Rome, It-
aly, June 10, 1941, Benito Mussolini reported the status of Italy’s cooperation
1941
to be completed by January 26 and
the final stage on February 28, but with Germany and Japan (the Tripartite Pact) in World War II:
the winter weather more than the
Collaboration between the powers of the Tripartite Pact is under way. But
diplomatic impasse prevented im- above all, collaboration between Germany and Italy is under way. . . .
plementing these plans. New plans Added to this Japan . . . is in perfect line with the Tripartite Pact. The Japa-
delayed stage one until February 16 nese are a proud and loyal people who would not remain indifferent in the face
and stage three until March 28. Fur- of American aggression against the Axis powers.
ther complications regarding trans- With the other powers adhering to the Tripartite Pact, namely, Hungary,
portation delayed the timetable even Slovakia, Rumania and Bulgaria, relations are more than cordial even where
further. Bulgaria also raised new ob- special political accords do not exist.
jections because of the minimal sup- Regarding Turkey, that country has until now refused to all English solicita-
port that Germany was willing to tions. President Inonu has seen the tragic fate that awaits all nations which in
any way trust themselves to Britain. But I wish to take this occasion to say to
provide to protect Bulgaria from a
President Inonu that Italy intends to follow toward Turkey that policy of com-
British or Turkish attack. Filov in-
prehension and collaboration which was inaugurated in 1928 and which for us
sisted that Bulgaria’s signing of the is still in effect.
pact coincide with the Germans en- If Spain and Turkey are out of the fighting there is one transoceanic State
tering the country. On February 28, which seems likely to enter it. It is well that it be known that American interven-
bridges across the Danube River— tion does not bother us excessively. A specific declaration of war would not
marking Bulgaria’s border—were in change the present situation, which is one of de facto war, if not de jure. Ameri-
place at three points, and the German can intervention, when employed completely, would be late, and if it were not
army was ready to cross. late, would not remove the terms of the problem. American intervention will not
On March 1, 1941, Filov traveled give victory to Britain but will prolong the war; will not limit the area of war but
to Vienna officially to sign the Tri- will extend it to other oceans; will change the United States regime into an au-
thoritarian, totalitarian one in comparison with which the European forerun-
partite Pact. He considered having
ners—fascist and nazi—will feel themselves far surpassed and perfected. . . .
Sofia declared an open city, but the
How long it may last cannot be known, but it is certain that resistance will be
Germans vetoed that suggestion. protracted to the limits of human possibility.
There was nervousness on the Bul- Even the whole conquest of the empire by the English has no decisive im-
garian side about the Soviet Union, portance toward the ending of the war. This is a vendetta of strictly personal
which at the time was still allied to character which could have no influence on the results of a war which has dug
Germany, but Ribbentrop assured even deeper chasms between Italy and Britain. I cannot tell you today when or
the prime minister that the Soviets how, but I affirm in the most categoric manner that we shall return to that land
would not react. Since joining the bathed by our blood and—Our dead shall not go unavenged.
pact was a judicial act, he said, it
would not violate any military agree-
ments. Ribbentrop also reassured
Fivol that there would be no Turkish hostilities: Hitler Army began its entry into the country on March 2, and,
had personally telegrammed President Ismet Inönü to en- with a few setbacks, accomplished the operation accord-
sure his continued respect of Bulgarian territory. In any ing to plan.
case, the German foreign minister promised, Berlin
would not ask Sofia to carry out any military engage- Significance
ments to which the Bulgarians did not agree. Bulgaria’s decision to join the Axis and allow German
The Bulgarian parliament greeted the signing of the troops into its territory brought the Balkans completely
pact with cheers, as the national anthem was played. into the war. The nation did not fully join in the war effort
Only the small opposition (20 representatives out of 160, until November 25, however, when it signed a treaty of
the largest group being nine Communists) refused to join alliance with the Axis Powers. Yugoslavia agreed to sign
in the applause. Also on March 1, the first antiaircraft the Tripartite Pact as well, but the day after its representa-
units began to enter Bulgaria. The bulk of List’s Twelfth tives did so (March 25, 1941), a military coup d’état
49
United States Enters the Battle of the Atlantic The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
overthrew the government, to the delight of much of the of Bulgaria, including World War II, by a world-
populace. Hitler interpreted this coup as an insult, even renowned history.
though the new rulers said they would not impede the Filov, Bogdan. “Diary.” Translated and edited by Fred-
Germans’ Greek campaign, and on April 6, Germany in- erick B. Chary. Southeastern Europe 1, no. 1 (1974):
vaded both Greece and Yugoslavia. Both nations were 70-83. The prime minister’s personal, firsthand ac-
rapidly conquered. Bulgaria was then allowed to occupy count of the relations between Bulgaria and the Ger-
Macedonia and a small portion of western Serbia in addi- mans during World War II.
tion to Thrace. Fowler, Will. Blitzkrieg 4: The Balkans and North Af-
The German invasion of the Soviet Union took place rica, 1941-1942. Hersham, Surrey, England: Ian
in June, rather than the scheduled April. Most historians Allan, 2002. A military history by a prolific author of
agree that this delay was critical in preventing the German the Balkan campaign with pictures and line drawings.
army from defeating the Soviet Union. In December, Miller, Marshall. Bulgaria During the Second World
Bulgaria declared war on the United States, which had War. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press,
entered the war that month. As a consequence, English 1975. A definitive study of Bulgaria during World
and American bombing severely damaged Sofia. At War II.
war’s end, the victors forced Bulgaria to return the terri- Van Creveld, Martin. Hitler Strategy, 1940-1941: The
tories it had occupied, allowing it to keep only the region Balkan Clue. London: Cambridge University Press,
of Dobruja, which in 1913 it had ceded to Romania, an- 1973. An excellent scholarly monograph covering the
other German ally, and received back in 1940. The Allies diplomatic and military aspects of the Balkan cam-
also placed the country in the Soviet sphere of influence, paign.
where it fell under Communist rule for forty-seven years.
See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
—Frederick B. Chary
European Theater; Apr. 6-30, 1941: Germany
Further Reading Mounts the Balkan Offensive; May 20-June 1, 1941:
Crampton, R. J. A Concise History of Bulgaria. New Germany Invades Crete; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8, 1942:
York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. A history Germany Invades Russia.
March 1, 1941
United States Enters the Battle of the Atlantic
Prior to the United States’ official entry into World Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), chancellor of Germany,
War II, U.S. naval forces began escorting Anglo- 1933-1945
Canadian supply and passenger convoys across the Erich Raeder (1876-1960), grand admiral of the
North Atlantic in the face of German U-boat attacks. German navy
Several “short of war” engagements with U-boat
forces during this period hastened the involvement of Summary of Event
the United States in the war. Great Britain, being an island nation, has always de-
pended on seafaring not only for its commerce but also
Locale: North Atlantic
its very survival. In the years immediately preceding the
Categories: World War II; military history; wars,
outbreak of World War II, Adolf Hitler, mindful of the
uprisings, and civil unrest; diplomacy and
critical role played by German submarines in harass-
international relations
ing British shipping during World War I, focused the
Key Figures Reichsmarine’s attention on the production of new sub-
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), British prime minister, marines. Although German submarine production had
1940-1945, 1951-1955 been specifically forbidden by the terms of the Treaty of
Karl Dönitz (1891-1980), commander of the German Versailles, Hitler managed to subvert the treaty by hav-
navy’s U-boat forces ing German-manufactured submarine parts shipped to
L. H. Frost (fl. mid-twentieth century), captain of the the Netherlands (ostensibly for sale there) and then co-
USS Greer vertly reshipped to Germany, where the parts were stock-
50
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United States Enters the Battle of the Atlantic
piled until needed in warehouses of the Deutsche Werke The period beginning in June, 1940, and extending
engineering firm in Kiel. Likewise, crews for the new through the latter half of that year was an exceptionally
submarines were covertly trained at the Ubootsabwehr- favorable time for U-boat crews. During that first so-
1941
schule (antisubmarine warfare school), also located in called “happy time” (as it was called by the Germans),
Kiel. more than two million tons of enemy shipping was
The most effective weapons system to emerge from sunk. U-boat wolf packs roamed relatively unmolested
the Atlantic conflict was the German U-boat (Unterzee- throughout the lightly defended Atlantic convoy routes,
boot) in its several variant designs. These U-boats oper- and by spring of 1941 the Atlantic conflict had begun to
ated alone or in wolf packs of up to fifteen. The U-boats quicken in its intensity.
of 1941, particularly the Type-VII boats operating in the At this time as well, conferences between U.S. mili-
North Atlantic in 1941, were considerably more capable tary chiefs of staff and their British counterparts led to an
than the coastal-type UB boats that had served in the agreement known as the ABC-1 Staff Agreement, which
Kaiserliche Marine of World War I, which were barely outlined specific collaborations between the U.S. and the
capable of submerging to a depth equal to their own British militaries should the United States be drawn into
length (40 meters, or 131 feet). In contrast, the Type- war. One of the most significant of these points of collab-
VIIBs, although relatively small (66.5 meters, or 218 oration was the U.S. Navy’s agreement to assume the pri-
feet, in length and 800 tons of approximate displace- mary responsibility for escorting transatlantic convoys
ment) were fast, maneuverable boats with a top speed of bound for Britain. Thus, on March 1, 1941, a U.S. Naval
17.2 knots (8 knots submerged) and a surface range of Support Force dedicated to convoy escort duty for “the
6,500 nautical miles. protection of shipping” was formally constituted, consist-
Once the war’s hostilities began, Hitler set his naval ing of three destroyer squadrons and four patrol squad-
commanders, Grand Admiral Erich Raeder and Rear- rons of Navy Catalina and Mariner seaplanes, along with
Admiral Karl Dönitz (who would later succeed Raeder as suitable tenders. Though still not technically at war, the
naval commander in chief), to the task of severing En- United States became enmeshed in operations that would
gland’s mercantile and naval supply lines. This action lead inexorably to open conflict with Germany. It was
would imperil not only Britain’s food supply but also not long before significant confrontations occurred.
Britain’s access to lend-lease military goods being sent Convinced of the strategic importance of Iceland as a
from the United States to assist England in its war effort. site for naval and air stations in the event of war, U.S.
Because neither the British nor
their Canadian allies possessed suffi-
cient warships to escort the numerous
convoys along their entire routes, a
partial escort system was adopted.
Under this system convoys leaving
Halifax in Canada or any of the U.S.
eastern seaboard ports were typically
escorted for a portion of their voyage
across the Eastern Sea Frontier, as it
was called in the United States. The
critical middle portion of the convoy
route, from the point where the ini-
tial support force of warships peeled
off until a British escort was resumed
in the western approaches to the Brit-
ish Isles, held the most danger. The
convoys traveled and faced U-boat
attacks in an area bordered by Green-
land, Iceland, and the United King-
dom (the GIUK Gap). The area re- Officers on the bridge of a destroyer watch for enemy submarines as they escort a con-
mains a critical one strategically. voy through the North Atlantic Ocean. (Library of Congress)
51
Battle of the Atlantic, 1939-1945
Greenland
Iceland
Great Soviet
La
br Britain Union
ad Newfoundland
or
C a na d a
o p e
u r
E
New York
United
S tat e s
Bermuda
A
t
l
West
a
Cuba Indies
n
t
A f r i c a
i
c
O
c
e
a
South n
Natal
America
Brazil
P a c i f i c
Rio de Janeiro
O c e a n
= Main areas of submarine activity

= Main Allied convoy routes
52
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United States Enters the Battle of the Atlantic
admiral Harold Raynsford Stark ordered the destroyer alistic reasons—it remains the case that few branches of
Niblack to perform a preliminary reconnaissance of the the Wehrmacht were as effective as Admiral Dönitz’s
island’s coast. On April 10, while nearing the Icelandic “grey wolves” in reducing the enemy nearly to submis-
1941
coast, Niblack was diverted to rescue several boatloads sion. Most tellingly, British prime minister Winston
of survivors from a torpedoed Dutch freighter. As the Churchill once remarked that the only thing that really
seamen were being taken aboard, Niblack’s sonar opera- frightened him during the war was the U-boat peril. Later
tor reported a submerged contact, unidentified, appar- in the war, the Battle of the Atlantic would eventually be
ently closing for an attack. Niblack promptly counterat- won by a combination of improved submarine-detection
tacked with depth charges. Although no blood was technology applied with improved antisubmarine tactics
drawn on either side, this engagement marks the first pre- that coordinated naval air and surface forces in effective
sumed engagement between U.S. and German forces of hunter-killer teams.
World War II. (The United States was not yet an official The U.S. Navy’s escorts of British and Canadian
combatant.) ships across the volatile North Atlantic in the wake of at-
Prior to the Niblack incident several U-boat attacks al- tacking German U-boats marked the start of the United
ready had been made against U.S. ships and passengers, States’s entry into World War II, an entry made official
most notably the SS Lehigh (sunk on October 19, 1940); after Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in December, 1941,
the SS Zamzam, a neutral passenger ship of Egyptian and after Germany declared war on the United States a
registry sunk by a German raider (with the loss of more few days later.
than one hundred U.S. citizens who were passengers); —Larry Smolucha
and the SS Robin Moor, a U.S. merchant ship (torpedoed
off the coast of Brazil on May 21, 1941). The Robin Moor Further Reading
incident particularly inflamed the American public since Hague, Arnold. The Allied Convoy System, 1939-1945:
it had not been carrying contraband war material, nor had Its Organization, Defence, and Operation. Annapo-
it been operating in a war zone at the time of its sinking. lis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2000. Explores the
Within days of the Robin Moor incident, nine ships of workings of the convoy system provided by the Allies
Convoy HX-126 (Halifax to the United Kingdom) carry- during World War II. A comprehensive work.
ing lend-lease goods to Britain, were sunk off the coast of Hickam, Homer H., Jr. Torpedo Junction: U-boat War
Greenland. On May 27, the much vaunted German bat- off America’s East Coast, 1942. Annapolis, Md.: Na-
tleship Bismarck, which had obliterated the British battle val Institute Press, 1996. A U.S. Navy research publi-
cruiser HMS Hood in the Denmark Straits with a single cation that examines German U-boat attacks off the
salvo from its massive deck guns, was itself lost in action coast of the Eastern United States in the early stages of
against the combined power of the British navy and air World War II.
force. These events clearly demonstrated German bellig- Morison, Samuel Eliot. “The Battle of the Atlantic.” In
erence in the North Atlantic. History of United Sates Naval Operations in World
The situation finally came to a head on September 4, War Two. Vol. 1. Edison, N.Y.: Castle Books, 1947-
when, en route to Iceland, the U.S. destroyer Greer (with 2001. This fifteen-volume set, written by a U.S. Navy
Lieutenant Commander L. H. Frost at the helm) detected duty officer and Harvard historian, presents a detailed
a German submarine, U-652, by sound contact. Three history of World War II naval operations. Contains
hours later the submarine turned toward the Greer and many charts, tables, and illustrations pertaining to
fired a torpedo, which the Greer evaded. The Greer tonnage losses, actions and battles, and so forth.
counterattacked with depth charges but, after evading a Smith, Kevin. Conflict over Convoys: Anglo-American
second torpedo, lost contact with the U-boat and re- Logistics Diplomacy in the Second World War. New
sumed course for Iceland. The Greer incident marked the York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. A compre-
beginning of a de facto state of war between the United hensive overview of the role of the United States in se-
States and Nazi Germany. curing British and Canadian shipping during World
War II.
Significance Stern, Robert C. The Type-VII U-Boats. London: Arms
Although many Allied chroniclers of the lengthy Battle and Armour Press/Cassell Group, 2002. A well-illus-
of the Atlantic have downplayed the German U-boats’ trated book with historical photographs and annotated
significance and effectiveness—presumably for nation- engineering plans.
53
Roosevelt Signs the Lend-Lease Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Williamson, Gordon. Wolf Pack. Oxford, England: Os- War II: European Theater; Mar. 11, 1941: Roosevelt
prey, 2005. Presents a detailed analysis of the com- Signs the Lend-Lease Act; May 26-27, 1941: Sinking
plete U-boat weapons system, including boat types, of the German Battleship Bismarck; Dec. 7, 1941:
operations, tactics, bases, crews, equipment, and re- Bombing of Pearl Harbor; Dec. 7, 1941: Canada De-
lated information. Well illustrated with numerous clares War on Japan; Dec. 11, 1941: Germany and It-
period photographs, drawings, and diagrams. aly Declare War on the United States; Oct. 23-Nov. 3,
See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: 1942: Second Battle of El Alamein; Aug. 15, 1944:
Pacific Theater; Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World Operation Dragoon.
March 11, 1941

Roosevelt Signs the Lend-Lease Act
The Lend-Lease Act authorized President Franklin D. tentions to break with the Treaty of Versailles, rearm
Roosevelt to allow other nations to “borrow” war Germany, and expand Nazi control throughout Europe.
supplies from the United States, to be either returned At the same time, Italy’s Benito Mussolini advanced ag-
or replaced only after the war in Europe was gressively against Ethiopia, and Japan continued mili-
concluded. It represented a means for the United tary operations in China.
States to support Great Britain against Germany while Keenly aware of these developments, the U.S. Con-
technically maintaining its official neutrality. gress in 1935 passed the first in a series of neutrality
laws. A six-month renewable act, the legislation prohib-
Also known as: An Act to Promote the Defense of ited the United States from selling arms or transporting
the United States; U.S. Code Title 22, sections 411 munitions to belligerent nations. When it was renewed, a
et seq. ban against making loans to warring nations was added.
Locale: Washington, D.C. Congress and the president believed such a foreign pol-
Categories: World War II; diplomacy and icy would prevent the United States from being dragged
international relations; trade and commerce; laws, into another European war, should one arise.
acts, and legal history The following year, developments in Europe proved
Key Figures peace to be but an illusion. Hitler’s forces moved unop-
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of posed into the Rhineland, a French territory; in 1937,
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 Germany involved itself in the Spanish Civil War and
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the sealed the Rome-Berlin alliance. The United States re-
United States, 1933-1945 sponded with the Neutrality Act of 1937, which retained
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933-1945 the principal features of the 1935 act but, at the urging of
President Franklin D. Roosevelt, allowed the president
Summary of Event discretion to sell military goods to belligerents on a “cash
Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, and carry” basis, provided the material was not trans-
1939, plunged Europe into its second major war in ported on U.S. ships. The altered policy pleased manu-
twenty-five years—a war that would prove to be the facturers who wanted to profit while the nation remained
worst in human history. As in the beginning of World officially neutral. The new policy also pleased those in
War I, the United States hoped to remain neutral, al- the United States who thought it essential to aid the coun-
though popular American sentiment weighed heavily to- try’s traditional allies.
ward Great Britain and France. With memories of World Germany’s expansion continued, and in his state of
War I still fresh in the minds of most Americans, isola- the union address on January 4, 1939, President Roose-
tionist views prevailed. velt announced his dismay over the course of European
For six years prior to Germany’s move against Po- affairs and his dissatisfaction with existing neutrality
land, the United States had watched developments in laws. He believed that the 1937 act benefited Hitler more
Europe with concern. Adolf Hitler, whose Nazi Party than it did France or the United Kingdom. If Hitler’s ene-
governed Germany, made no attempt to conceal his in- mies were unable to acquire sufficient material for de-
54
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Signs the Lend-Lease Act
Lend-Lease Act tended that the United States needed

to strengthen its own defenses in
The following text is from the Lend-Lease Act of 1941, “an act, further to pro- preparation for Nazi actions in the
mote the defense of the United States, and for other purposes”:
1941
Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt
chose to follow both courses. He
Sec. 3. (a) Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, the President
gained approval from Congress to ap-
may, from time to time, when he deems it in the interest of national defense, au-
thorize the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, or the head of any other
propriate funds for U.S. rearmament
department or agency of the Government, and for a peacetime compulsory mil-
(1) To manufacture in arsenals, factories, and shipyards under their jurisdic- itary training law. In June, using ex-
tion, or otherwise procure, to the extent to which funds are made available ecutive authority, Roosevelt autho-
therefore, or contracts are authorized from time to time by the Congress, or rized the supply of outdated aircraft
both, any defense article for the government of any country whose defense and rifles to Great Britain; in Sep-
the President deems vital to the defense of the United States. tember, he arranged with Britain the
(2) To sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to exchange of fifty U.S. naval destroy-
any such government any defense article, but no defense article not manu- ers for leases of British naval bases.
factured or procured under paragraph (1) shall in any way be disposed of Great Britain’s financial reserves
under this paragraph, except after consultation with the Chief of Staff of
dwindled as autumn faded. In De-
the Army or the Chief of Naval Operations of the Navy, or both. The value
of defense articles disposed of in any way under authority of this para-
cember, Prime Minister Winston
graph, and procured from funds heretofore appropriated, shall not exceed Churchill informed Roosevelt that
$1,300,000,000. . . . the cash-and-carry system needed
(3) To test, inspect, prove, repair, outfit, recondition, or otherwise to place in modification. Roosevelt understood
good working order, to the extent to which funds are made available there- that Britain could not withstand fur-
fore, or contracts are authorized from time to time by the Congress, or ther Nazi attacks without direct U.S.
both, any defense article for any such government, or to procure any or all aid and that the United States’ own
such services by private contract. security was largely dependent on
British resistance to Hitler. In mid-
December, Roosevelt conceived the
idea of “lend-lease”: War goods
fense, Germany would find the western nations unable to could be provided to Britain with the understanding that
halt Nazi aggression. Surely, the president hinted, the they would be either returned or paid for at war’s end.
United States could devise methods short of war to aid In both a press conference and a radio “fireside chat,”
British and French military defense preparations. Roosevelt stated that the best defense for the United
Early that summer, the British government made a di- States was a strong United Kingdom. Every step short of
rect appeal to Roosevelt for military supplies, and in war should be taken to help the British Empire defend it-
June, the president suggested revision of the Neutrality self. Britain’s inability to pay cash for U.S. supplies
Act of 1937 to broaden the cash-and-carry provision. should not relegate the empire to Nazi conquest. To lend
Fearful that such a program of support for Britain would or lease the necessary goods would provide for Britain’s
cast the United States in an image of cobelligerent, isola- immediate war needs and indirectly benefit the United
tionists in Congress blocked Roosevelt’s efforts. Ger- States by making Britain the United States’ front line of
many’s invasion of Poland on September 1 and the defense. Roosevelt presented an analogy to clarify the
British-French declaration of war that followed changed proposal: “Suppose my neighbor’s home catches fire,
the congressional mood. By year’s end, revisions to the and I have a length of garden hose four hundred or five
1937 act were sanctioned, making it easier for Britain to hundred feet away. If he can take my garden hose and
obtain needed supplies. connect it up with his hydrant, I may help him to put out
France fell to the Nazis in June, 1940. The United his fire.” If the hose survived the fire, it would be re-
Kingdom was the sole surviving power in Europe. Many turned. Should it be damaged, the neighbor would re-
thought that the United States should provide direct mili- place it. Military aid would be treated in the same way.
tary aid to the British, the United States’ front line against The United States must become the “arsenal of democ-
Germany. If Britain collapsed, they believed, the United racy” and provide the goods necessary to halt Nazi ex-
States would become Hitler’s next target. Others con- pansion.
55
Roosevelt Signs the Lend-Lease Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
To secure permission and funding to aid Great Brit- lend-lease. Others contend the president hoped to avoid
ain, the House of Representatives introduced the Lend- intervention in Europe’s war. Lend-lease was a practical
Lease Bill. The bill generated intense debate. Opponents method for the United States to aid the Allies while re-
said the measure would move the United States from maining a nonbelligerent nation. Regardless of Roose-
neutrality to the status of active nonbelligerent and risk velt’s motives, Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor on De-
war with Germany. They believed that it would be more cember 7, 1941, sealed the United States’ fate, as war
logical to plan to build the United States’ own defenses. came to the United States.
Supporters argued that Hitler posed a real, direct threat to —Kenneth William Townsend
the United States, and that aiding Great Britain would
make U.S. entry into the war less likely. Public opinion Further Reading
favored the president. Although 82 percent of Americans Crabb, Cecil V., Jr., Glenn J. Antizzo, and Leila E.
believed war was inevitable, nearly 80 percent opposed Sarieddine. Congress and the Foreign Policy Pro-
entry unless the nation was directly attacked first. cess: Modes of Legislative Behavior. Baton Rouge:
After two months of congressional debate, the Lend- Louisiana State University Press, 2000. Study of con-
Lease Act was passed on March 11, 1941; its official gressional participation in U.S. foreign policy; in-
name was An Act to Promote the Defense of the United cludes a chapter on the Lend-Lease Act. Biblio-
States. Roosevelt signed it the same day. The law permit- graphic references and index.
ted the president to lend or lease war materiel to any na- Dobson, Alan P. U.S. Wartime Aid to Britain, 1940-
tion whose defense was deemed critical to the United 1946. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986. Investi-
States, up to a maximum value of $1.3 billion. In June, gates the economic relationship between the United
following Germany’s invasion of Russia, Roosevelt ex- States and Great Britain.
tended lend-lease to the Soviet Union. The Lend-Lease Herring, George C., Jr. Aid to Russia, 1941-1946: Strat-
Act retained official U.S. neutrality, but the measure also egy, Diplomacy, the Origins of the Cold War. New
placed the United States more squarely in opposition to York: Columbia University Press, 1973. While U.S.
Nazi Germany. In March, 1941, the United States tee- aid to the Soviet Union was meager and a slow pro-
tered on the brink of war. cess initially, it came to symbolize the cooperative
Allied spirit in war.
Significance Jones, Robert Huhn. The Roads to Russia: United States
Over the course of World War II, the ceiling of $1.3 bil- Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union. Norman: University
lion in aid specified in the act was vastly exceeded. By of Oklahoma Press, 1969. Asserts that lend-lease aid
the end of the war, the United States had appropriated was critical to Soviet survival but, at war’s end, be-
slightly more than $50 billion under the lend-lease pro- came a central issue in decaying Soviet-United States
gram. Great Britain received $27 billion worth of aid, the relations.
Soviet Union was provided $10 billion worth, and the re- Kimball, Warren F. The Most Unsordid Act: Lend-
maining funds supplied goods to other Allied nations. Lease, 1939-1941. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-
Without this aid, especially the aid provided before the sity Press, 1969. Shows the slow legislative process
United States entered the European theater in force in involved in securing passage of the Lend-Lease Act.
1942, Britain and the Soviet Union would have been Examines the issue of whether the act made United
much weaker in their resistance to Hitler, and it is con- States entry into the war inevitable.
ceivable that one or both might have fallen to the Nazis. Langer, William L., and S. Everett Gleason. The Unde-
President Roosevelt’s contemporaries and postwar clared War, 1940-1941. Gloucester, Mass.: Peter
scholars have questioned the president’s prewar direc- Smith, 1968. Chapters 8 and 9 are centered on the ori-
tion of U.S. policy, particularly with regard to the Lend- gin and enactment of lend-lease.
Lease Act. Some have argued that Roosevelt desperately Van Tuyll, Hubert P. Feeding the Bear: American Aid to
wanted U.S. entry into the war long before the Japanese the Soviet Union, 1941-1945. New York: Greenwood
attack on Pearl Harbor but was restrained by popular Press, 1989. Examines U.S. lend-lease aid to the So-
opinion and political realities. Therefore, they argue, viet Union and its promises of continued aid follow-
Roosevelt worked within the system to place the United ing the war.
States on an ever-advancing course toward war by mold- Weeks, Albert L. Russia’s Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to
ing public opinion, relaxing neutrality laws, and securing the U.S.S.R. in World War II. Lanham, Md.: Lexing-
56
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Germany Mounts the Balkan Offensive
ton Books, 2004. Argues that the Soviet Union would See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II:
not have survived the war without the aid from the Pacific Theater; Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World
United States made possible by the Lend-Lease Act. War II: European Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of
1941
Bibliographic references and index. Pearl Harbor.
April 6-30, 1941

Germany Mounts the Balkan Offensive
To secure his southern flank and protect his source of to resist the invaders; within months, the Greeks had
oil, Adolf Hitler ordered German forces to invade beaten back the Italians and established a foothold in Al-
Greece and Yugoslavia, conquering both countries and bania northeast of their homeland. Fearful that there
effectively bringing all nations of the Balkan region might be counterattacks from the Italians or reprisals
under Axis domination. from the Germans, Metaxas directed that Greek forces be
stationed in Albania and established a strong defensive
Locale: Southeast Europe line across the northeastern border of his country.
Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; World Rebuffed and humiliated, Mussolini sought Hitler’s
War II aid in repelling the Greeks from Albania and bringing all
Key Figures of the Balkans under Axis control. Despite being furious
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- with Mussolini for creating political instability in the re-
1945 gion, Hitler decided that he could not risk leaving Greece
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Italian dictator, 1922- in such a favorable position. Although Greece was offi-
1943 cially neutral with respect to Germany, the Greek gov-
Ioannis Metaxas (1871-1941), premier of Greece, ernment had strong ties to Britain. Hitler feared that the
1936-1941 British might convince the Greeks to let them use their
Alexandros Papagos (1883-1955), commander of country as a jumping-off point for an Allied invasion of
Greek forces, spring, 1941 Germany from the south. By fall, 1940, Hitler was en-
Paul Karadjordjevi6 (1893-1976), regent of gaged in developing highly secret plans to invade the So-
Yugoslavia, 1934-1941 viet Union in the spring of 1941, but he decided that he
Dušan Simovi6 (1882-1962), leader of the coup in could not do so without first protecting his oil supply and
Yugoslavia, March, 1941 securing his southern flank. Therefore, in November,
1940, Hitler directed his generals to draft a plan for con-
Summary of Event quering Greece before proceeding with the Russian of-
At the outset of World War II, Adolf Hitler realized that, fensive.
to succeed in conquering the major European nations and The Germans’ Operation MARITA called for the
the Soviet Union, he would need to establish alliances swift invasion of mainland Greece to begin in April. The
with the various nations in southeastern Europe that were plan depended, however, on Germany securing assis-
known collectively as the Balkans. The region was im- tance from several Balkan nations in launching its mili-
portant strategically. Romania’s oil fields were one of tary offensive. During the early spring of 1941, the Ger-
Germany’s principal sources for the fuel it needed to mans began serious negotiations with Hungary and
conduct military operations. Collectively, the Balkan Bulgaria to use those countries as staging areas for troops
states served as a buffer shielding Hitler’s Axis forces who would attack Greece. Combining promises of aid
from the British, who had significant interests—and with strong-arm tactics designed to bully the govern-
troop presence—in the Mediterranean. ments of these nations into cooperating, Hitler managed
From 1938 until 1940, Hitler relied on diplomacy to to gain the necessary agreements. By March, his army
secure good relationships with Balkan nations, but in the and air force were moving from bases in Germany and in
fall of 1940 his ally, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, Romania, where they had been engaged in training mis-
launched an ill-fated military campaign against Greece. sions for some time, into the territory of their new allies.
Greek premier Ioannis Metaxas rallied his countrymen Greece, recognizing its peril, appealed to the Allied
57
Germany Mounts the Balkan Offensive The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
nations for assistance but received little military aid. tile toward the Germans, Hitler decided to take no
Only the British responded with direct support, sending chances on Yugoslavia’s allegiance: On the following
ground troops and limited air support units to the region day, he directed his field commanders to invade Yugo-
in March, 1941, to assist the Greek army in any future slavia simultaneously with their strike into Greece.
hostilities. The double invasion began on April 6, 1941, although
At the same time it was negotiating with Hungary and some preliminary skirmishes occurred in the week pre-
Bulgaria, the German government had also been in the ceding the official launch of Operation MARITA. As
process of securing a similar agreement from Yugosla- they had done in fall of 1939 when invading Poland and
via. Governed by a regent, Prince Paul Karadjordjevi6, in spring of 1940 when moving against France, the Ger-
Yugoslavia was actually a federation of ethnically di- man army and air forces launched a blitzkrieg against
verse states that had joined after World War I to protect Yugoslavian and Greek forces. Combining tank and
themselves from Italian expansionism. Paul seemed to mechanized infantry attacks that swept away opposing
be ready to acquiesce to German demands when, on forces with relative ease, the Germans managed to drive
March 26, 1941, rebels led by General Dušan Simovi6 quickly toward Belgrade across the border from Bulgaria
overthrew his regency and established a new govern- and into Salonika in northeastern Greece.
ment. Convinced that the new leadership would be hos- Much to the surprise of German military commanders
and planners, the strong resistance expected from the
large Yugoslavian army never materialized. Instead,
members of various ethnic factions in the Yugoslavian
armed forces sabotaged efforts to fight the invaders.
Those of Serbian descent mounted a fierce resistance,
but many Croatians decided that collaborating with the
Axis Powers was in their best interest and hence did little
to prevent the advance of German forces. Belgrade fell to
the Germans on April 12. By April 15, the German army
was on the outskirts of Sarajevo, and the Yugoslavian
government capitulated; an unconditional surrender was
signed on April 17.
At the same time, General Alexandros Papagos, com-
mander of Greek forces, brought his troops back from
Albania to mount a last-ditch effort to keep the Germans
from invading the Greek peninsula. His efforts were fu-
tile, however, and even the assistance of troops from
Britain, Australia, and New Zealand proved insufficient
to stem the Germans’ advance. German ground forces,
aided by air strikes that were virtually unimpeded by the
ineffective and outmanned Greek air force, swept across
the Greek mainland. German troops entered Athens on
April 27. On April 30, hostilities came to an end, and the
Greek government surrendered. The island of Crete re-
mained a stronghold of resistance, however, so Opera-
tion MERKUR, an airborne invasion, was mounted al-
most immediately. German paratroopers landed on Crete
in early May, and by June 1 the island had been subju-
gated and the British had been completely expelled.
Significance
The conquest of the Balkans brought an immediate short-
Two German soldiers patrol a small town in the Balkans. (Na- term gain to Germany. With his southern flank secure,
tional Archives) Hitler was able to launch an invasion against Russia in
58
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Germany Mounts the Balkan Offensive
June, 1941, storming into a country with which he had Further Reading
signed a nonaggression pact only two years earlier. Blau, George E. Balkan Invasion! The German Cam-
Though the Soviet leadership had foreseen this possibil- paign in the Balkans, Spring, 1941. Shippensburg,
1941
ity, they had acted tentatively in the Balkan region, using Pa.: Burd Street Press, 1997. Examines the political
only diplomacy to try to counter the Germans’ military background that led to Hitler’s decision to invade the
actions. Their failure to convince nations such as Turkey Balkans; offers extensive assessment of military op-
and Bulgaria to disrupt Hitler’s plans had serious conse- erations in both Yugoslavia and Greece.
quences, as the Russian population suffered three years Gallagher, Tom. Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-
of devastation during the Germans’ invasion of their 1989—From The Ottomans to Miloševi6. New York:
homeland. The fall of the Balkans to Germany was a seri- Routledge, 2001. Focuses on the political dimensions
ous setback for the Allies as well. They were denied a se- of the conflict, outlining reasons Hitler felt compelled
cure base of operations from which to launch a southern to fight against Yugoslavia and Greece to preserve re-
offensive against the Axis Powers and instead were sources vital to Germany.
forced to make seaborne intrusions into Italy two years Glenny, Misha. The Balkans, 1804-1999: Nationalism,
War, and the Great Powers. London: Granta, 1999.
later, exposing their forces to greater risk and incurring
Extensive study of the history of the region; examines
greater loss of life and materiel than they otherwise
international political upheavals that led the Axis
would have.
Powers to move in to stabilize the area and secure
The Balkan nations suffered both short-term and
their interests.
long-term effects. They were subjugated for nearly four
Zapantis, Andrew L. Hitler’s Balkan Campaign and the
years to Axis domination, but the freedom they enjoyed
Invasion of the USSR. Boulder, Colo.: East European
when finally liberated by the Allies was short-lived.
Monographs, 1987. Discusses the Germans’ invasion
Many of the nations fell almost immediately under So-
of the Balkans in the context of Hitler’s overall strat-
viet hegemony, spending another forty or more years
egy to secure this region before proceeding with his
suffering economic deprivation and political repression.
planned invasion of the Soviet Union.
Furthermore, in Yugoslavia, the hatred built up between
ethnic groups during the Balkan campaign and subse- See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
quent years of occupation continued to smolder under the European Theater; Mar. 1, 1941: Bulgaria Joins the
surface during the years of communist rule, erupting a Tripartite Pact; May 20-June 1, 1941: Germany In-
half-century later into one of the bloodiest civil wars of vades Crete; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8, 1942: Germany In-
the twentieth century. vades Russia; 1943-1948: Soviets Take Control of
—Laurence W. Mazzeno Eastern Europe.
59
Ho Chi Minh Organizes the Viet Minh The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
May, 1941
Ho Chi Minh Organizes the Viet Minh
Ho Chi Minh formed a broadly based nationalist presented an opportunity for the Communist Party to
organization known as the Viet Minh to mobilize the unify the Vietnamese people on the basis of shared na-
Vietnamese people to achieve national independence. tionalist convictions and thereby to assure the Commu-
As a result of his actions, the growing Vietnamese nists of control over the Vietnamese independence move-
drive toward independence was organized and ment.
channeled by the Communist Party, helping to Many sections of the Vietnamese population were re-
determine the political organization and struggles of ceptive to the Communists’ criticism of foreign rule. De-
post-independence Vietnam. spite intermittent attempts by the colonial administration
to regulate French industry in Indochina, harsh employ-
Also known as: Vietnam Independence League ment conditions persisted. Hundreds of thousands of
Locale: Northern Vietnam Vietnamese peasants were dragooned into work on
Categories: Government and politics; colonialism French rubber, coffee, and tea plantations in southern
and occupation; independence movements Vietnam. Brutalities at the hands of both French and
Key Figures Vietnamese overseers, poor food, and minimal medical
Ho Chi Minh (Nguyen That Thanh; 1890-1969), care led to high death tolls and the need for continuous
Vietnamese nationalist leader and later president, recruitment and relocation of workers from northern and
1945-1969 central Vietnam. At the same time, northerners were
Truong Chinh (1907-1988), secretary-general of the pressed into employment in French-owned industrial en-
Indochinese Communist Party terprises.
Le Hong Phong (1902-1941?), Vietnamese Communist Vietnamese men were drafted into work in coal and
leader phosphate mines, while women worked in spinning and
Vo Nguyen Giap (b. 1911), Vietnamese teacher and textile factories. In both cases, pay was pitifully low,
military leader hours were long (often up to fifteen hours per day), and
Pham Van Dong (1906-2000), close associate of Ho working conditions were dangerously unsafe, again re-
Chi Minh sulting in high rates of work-related injuries and deaths.
In addition, many former agricultural laborers employed
Summary of Event in French businesses during the industrial expansion of
At its plenary meeting in November, 1939, the Indo- the 1920’s were left jobless as global markets contracted
chinese Communist Party (ICP) approved a new policy in the 1930’s; thousands were left with neither jobs in in-
under which Japanese military expansionism and French dustry nor lands to till. One of the Communists’ objec-
colonial power in Indochina were identified as equally tives in forming the Viet Minh front in 1941 was to har-
dangerous to the Vietnamese people. Both Japan and ness for the Communist-led independence movement the
France thus became legitimate targets of Communist general anti-French resentment engendered by such de-
Party operations. To gain support for those operations, velopments.
the ICP leadership approved in principle a policy which, Among the Communist leaders who recognized the
instead of emphasizing divisions within Vietnamese so- potential utility of this approach was Nguyen That
ciety and seeking the support of disadvantaged and pow- Thanh, who later became known as Ho Chi Minh. He had
erless people, emphasized the unity of all Vietnamese participated in the founding of the French Communist
people, whatever their class status, in the face of the Party and the Communist Parties of Thailand and Ma-
threat posed by external enemies. laya, and he was involved in the reorganization of the
This approach, known as the “united front strategy,” ICP itself in 1930. After a period in political eclipse, Ho
had been endorsed by the Communists at various points regained influence within the ICP between 1939 and
earlier in the 1930’s. In late 1939, however, adoption of 1941. His reemergence coincided with the failure of
this political strategy took on a new urgency: War had other party leaders to orchestrate anti-French protests in
begun in Europe, and Japan’s military expansion into September and October, 1939, and with the crushing of
Chinese territory continued apace. In the view of some Communist-led insurrections in southern Vietnam in
ICP strategists, changing international circumstances November and December, 1940.
60
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Ho Chi Minh Organizes the Viet Minh
These failures resulted in waves of arrests of Commu- squads,” and each was overseen through a network of
nist activists, including key leaders such as Le Hong Communist Party members. Although ICP leaders cre-
Phong, the senior Comintern representative in Vietnam. ated the Viet Minh as a vehicle for unifying the Vietnam-
1941
More than two thousand party members were arrested in ese people under Communist Party control, most ordi-
late 1939, and French records show that in only four nary people who joined the Viet Minh did so because
provinces in southern Vietnam, more than fifty-six hun- they supported its goal of achieving Vietnam’s indepen-
dred arrests were made in late 1940. Many suspects were dence from foreign powers.
executed, while others were imprisoned. Some leaders In the period just after May, 1941, recruitment to the
were exiled to Poulo Condore island, southeast of Saigon new Viet Minh affiliates was severely inhibited both by
in the South China Sea, where they are reported to have French and Japanese security forces active in Indochina
been treated inhumanely, as was common for political and by the emergence of rival Vietnamese political par-
prisoners at the time. ties, some of which were sponsored by the French or Jap-
By the middle of 1940, the French colonial adminis- anese. Intrigues, arrests, and assassinations became al-
tration in Indochina had been placed under the authority most commonplace, as different intelligence agencies
of the pro-German French government at Vichy. The In- and political parties competed for political influence
dochina administration entered into a de facto coopera- over the Vietnamese people. Over time, however, the
tive relationship with the Japanese, who wanted access to Viet Minh was able to take advantage of the growing po-
Indochina’s airfields and rice supplies. The Commu- litical and economic dissatisfactions that accompanied
nists’ assessment of the twin dangers presented by Japa- the tense Franco-Japanese cooperation in Vietnam dur-
nese militarism and French colonialism thus appeared ing World War II.
more valid in early 1941 than it had when it was first For example, the new organization provided a mecha-
stated in November, 1939. In these circumstances, Ho
nism for the mobilization of Vietnamese women, long
Chi Minh convened the ICP’s Eighth Plenum in northern
excluded from mainstream political activity by both tra-
Vietnam in May, 1941, to launch a program for widening
ditional Vietnamese political culture and French colonial
popular participation in the Communist-directed inde-
rule. The Viet Minh included women as members, estab-
pendence movement.
lished a Women’s Association for National Salvation as
Three fundamental decisions were reached at the
an affiliate, encouraged the involvement of female tex-
May, 1941, party conference. First, a new party leader-
tile workers in the Communists’ industrial strike strate-
ship was chosen, including Truong Chinh, who was
gies, and to some extent welcomed women’s participa-
named secretary-general of the ICP. The promotion of
Truong Chinh—a student of Chinese Communist leader tion in armed propaganda and combat units. Some
Mao Zedong, who advocated revolutionary mass ac- women were active in the latter roles at least as early as
tion—illustrated a shift in ICP policy toward greater pop- July, 1941. The founding of the Viet Minh and its inclu-
ular participation in the independence struggle. Second, sion of Vietnamese women thus marked a significant de-
the conference resolved to create a Communist military velopment in the broadening of popular participation in
force. Two key leaders present at the meeting, Pham Van national resistance politics.
Dong and Vo Nguyen Giap, are believed to have re- Beginning in 1943, the Viet Minh began to garner ad-
ceived some military training from the Chinese Commu- herents in much greater numbers. At another clandestine
nists and to have been tasked with organizing secret mili- ICP conference held in February, 1943, the Communist
tary training courses in Hanoi and in the Tonkin Delta Party leadership approved additional steps to expand the
area. activities and membership of the Viet Minh. Pro-Japanese
Finally, a new broad-based umbrella organization student unions in Hanoi and pro-French ethnic minority
was created by the ICP in May, 1941. This new institu- populations in the uplands of central and northern Viet-
tion, which was separate from but dominated by the nam were the targets of intense recruitment efforts. Thus,
Communist Party, was known as the Vietnam Indepen- the group not only drew adherents from the general pop-
dence League, or Viet Minh. It was composed of a num- ulace but also began to draw its membership from the
ber of “national salvation organizations,” distinct politi- ranks of its opponents as well, weakening the opposition
cal units for specific groups such as peasants, women, in the process of increasing its own strength. The Viet
youth, students, and Catholics. Each constituent unit Minh slowly became a force to be reckoned with on a na-
made contributions to the Viet Minh’s “self-defense tional scale.
61
Ho Chi Minh Organizes the Viet Minh The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Significance Chen, King C. Vietnam and China, 1938-1954. Prince-

The Viet Minh’s greatest early successes came in re- ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Examines
sponse to the disastrous consequences of an emerging the range of contacts made by Communist and non-
food crisis, especially in northern and central Vietnam. Communist Chinese with Vietnamese political and
French policy required that increasing amounts of rice military groups during the early years of the Viet
produced in Vietnam be sold to Japanese forces or stock- Minh. Most useful for its focus on the movements and
piled in government warehouses, rather than allowed activities of key leaders, including Ho Chi Minh.
onto domestic markets for consumption by Vietnam’s Khanh, Huynh Kim. Vietnamese Communism, 1925-
own population. Even as rice shortages worsened in 1945. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982. A
1944, French policy authorized the conversion of stored comprehensive, detailed treatment of the growth of
rice to fuels for vehicles. The massive food shortages the Vietnamese Communist movement and its links to
of 1944-1945 are believed to have resulted in more international communism. Chapter 5 focuses on the
than one million Vietnamese deaths. The Viet Minh re- Communists’ responses to the German victory over
sponded both with isolated armed raids on rice store- France in 1940 and on the formation of the Viet Minh.
houses and with intensified propaganda that portrayed Lockhart, Greg. Nation in Arms: The Origins of the Peo-
the famine as the fault of French economic and military ple’s Army of Vietnam. Sydney: Allen & Unwin,
policies. 1989. Emphasizes the military dimension of the Viet-
In part because of the success of these efforts, the Viet namese Communist movement. Chapter 3 discusses
Minh was able to accelerate recruitment, to build “base the early 1940’s, while a helpful appendix discusses
areas” in north-central Vietnam, and, in 1944, to create the influence of Chinese Communist military think-
the nucleus of a Communist-directed guerrilla army. By ing upon the Vietnamese.
the middle of 1945, the Viet Minh’s military wing num- Marr, David G. Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920-
bered around 5,000 active combatants, supported by be- 1945. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.
tween 150,000 and 200,000 village defense forces and A learned and lively treatment of the origins of mod-
auxiliary personnel. Following Japan’s surrender to the ern Vietnamese political culture, this work remains
Allies in August, 1945, Ho Chi Minh activated these one of the best-documented, most sophisticated
forces and the Viet Minh’s urban networks to seize scholarly examinations of the conditions that made
power in many Vietnamese cities. On September 2, the emergence of the Viet Minh possible.
1945, Ho Chi Minh declared the founding of the Demo- Smith, Ralph. Viet-Nam and the West. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cor-
cratic Republic of Vietnam. Like the Viet Minh, the new nell University Press, 1971. A knowledgeable presen-
government was designed and managed by the Indo- tation of the relationship between political culture and
chinese Communist Party to win broad popular support modern nationalism in Vietnam. Chapter 7 deals with
for the pursuit of Vietnamese independence under Com- the revolutionary period and places the founding of
munist rule. the Viet Minh in the context of modern radical politics
—Laura M. Calkins in Vietnam.
Further Reading See also: Nov. 9, 1953: Cambodia Gains Independence
Attfield, Neal. “Revolutionary War: The Viet Minh and from France; Sept. 8, 1954: SEATO Is Founded; Dec.
the First Indo-Chinese War.” In The Changing Face 9, 1960: Collapse of the Laotian Government Leads
of War: Learning from History, edited by Allan D. to Civil War; Nov. 1-2, 1963: Vietnamese Generals
English. Buffalo, N.Y.: McGill-Queen’s University Overthrow Diem Regime; Aug. 7, 1964-Jan. 27, 1973:
Press, 1998. A study of the organization and tactics of United States Enters the Vietnam War; Sept. 3, 1967:
the Viet Minh in their war for independence. Biblio- Thieu Is Elected President of South Vietnam; Apr. 29,
graphic references and index. 1970: United States Invades Cambodia.
62
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks with Traditional Filmmaking
May 1, 1941
Welles’s CITIZEN KANE Breaks with Traditional Filmmaking
1941
Orson Welles’s first film represented a powerful Welles was also extremely active in radio work,
challenge to the Hollywood studio system. His career partly to help finance his theatrical projects—especially
arguably suffered as a result, but over time the film the Mercury Theater, which he and John Houseman
came to be regarded as among the greatest films ever formed in 1937—but also partly because radio offered
produced. remarkable challenges and opportunities. Through radio,
Welles could tell stories in new ways, often playing sev-
Locale: Hollywood, California eral roles himself, and he could reach a mass audience.
Category: Motion pictures and video On October 30, 1938, the extent of that audience and ra-
Key Figures dio’s influence upon it became apparent: Welles’s Mer-
Orson Welles (1915-1985), American actor, writer, and cury Theater performed a radio adaptation of H. G.
director Wells’s novel The War of the Worlds (1898). Thousands
Gregg Toland (1904-1948), American cinematographer of people—tuning into the middle of the broadcast when
Herman J. Mankiewicz (1897-1953), American programs on other stations ended—mistook the radio
screenwriter play for an authentic report of an alien invasion and pan-
William Randolph Hearst (1863-1951), American icked. Welles was struck by this tangible proof of the
media magnate power of art when carried by a mass medium. He soon
Bernard Herrmann (1911-1975), American composer traveled to Hollywood to participate in the most power-
and conductor ful such medium of the time.
John Houseman (1902-1988), Romanian-born Film companies had already expressed interest in
American producer and later actor Welles before the infamous War of the Worlds broadcast,
but in its aftermath he became an especially hot property;
Summary of Event he was the radio broadcast personality of the year, as well
Before 1940, Orson Welles was not a filmmaker. Iron- as a household name. George J. Schaefer, president of
ically, this fact helped make it possible for him to make Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO), was particularly inter-
Citizen Kane (1941), one of the most controversial and ested in Welles’s high visibility and signed him to a two-
influential films of all time. Welles was an outsider to the picture deal on August 21, 1939. Welles was won over
Hollywood studio system, a system in place between not only by financial backing that would allow him to
roughly 1917 and 1960. The studio system was designed keep the Mercury troupe together while making a film
to organize film production like any other industry, to but also by a unique clause in his contract guaranteeing
maximize efficiency and profit. Despite his lack of fa- him complete creative control over his films once they
miliarity with the industrial side of film production, how- were approved by the studio.
ever, much of Welles’s prior experience had prepared Welles went to Hollywood with the intention of mak-
him for a career in film, an art that required the unique ing a film adaptation of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Dark-
combination of visual, verbal, intellectual, dramatic, mu- ness (serial, 1899; book, 1902), a story he had already
sical, technical, and organizational skills that he had de- presented as a radio play. Both Conrad’s novella and
veloped. Welles’s planned adaptation involved the rise and fall of
Since early childhood, Welles had acted in, directed, a larger-than-life person, as related by an unreliable nar-
and adapted or written a variety of plays, and as he gained rator or witness to isolated events in that person’s life.
experience and confidence, his projects became increas- Welles was particularly intrigued by Conrad’s theme,
ingly experimental and innovative. For example, in 1936, which inextricably linked greatness of character with
he directed an all-black cast in what is sometimes re- murderous corruption and decay. Welles soon left this
ferred to as a “voodoo” version of William Shakespeare’s project behind, but he continued to brood over many of
Macbeth (pr. 1606), and his original production of The Conrad’s themes and narrative strategies as he turned to
Cradle Will Rock (wr. 1936, pr. 1937), a radical anticapi- the project that was to become Citizen Kane.
talist people’s opera by Marc Blitzstein, had to be staged Welles had written a three-hundred-page screenplay
in a completely improvisational way when bills for cos- entitled John Citizen, U.S.A., which provided a starting
tumes, props, and even theater space could not be paid. point for Herman J. Mankiewicz’s radically revised
63
Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks with Traditional Filmmaking The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
script (worked on also by Welles and

Houseman); the revision was initially
entitled American. The central char-
acter in the screenplay, Charles Fos-
ter Kane, was rather transparently
modeled on William Randolph
Hearst, the head of a powerful news-
paper syndicate who lived in luxuri-
ous retreat at San Simeon on the Cal-
ifornia coast. The intention of the
film, though, was to use Hearst’s fic-
tional analogue as a starting point
for an analysis of the perils of a par-
ticularly twentieth century Ameri- To view image, please refer to print edition
can style of greatness.
Citizen Kane depicts the life of
Charles Foster Kane, who had wealth
thrust upon him as a young child,
which both raised and ruined him.
The film is organized as a mystery,
as a reporter attempts to determine
the meaning of Kane’s dying word,
“Rosebud,” on the theory that know-
ing what it means will reveal the es-
sence of the man who said it. As a re-
sult, the film tells Kane’s life story
through a series of narrators, each of
whom knows only part of his story,
and each of whom filters even that
part through his or her own particular
perspective. As the reporter inter-
views each narrator, that person’s
point of view is represented by a
flashback in which a portion of Orson Welles directs a scene from Citizen Kane. Cinematographer Gregg Toland op-
Kane’s life is portrayed. Even when erates the camera. (AP/Wide World Photos)
all the narratives are put together, the
basic mystery of Kane’s life—who,
ultimately, was he?—remains insoluble. At the end of circulated, and there was great legal and media pressure
the film, the meaning of “Rosebud” is finally revealed applied to stop or hinder its release. Offers were made to
to the audience (and only to the audience—the charac- buy the negative so it could be destroyed; when these of-
ters never learn the truth), but it remains an open ques- fers were refused, the Hearst syndicate did what it could
tion what the solution to the puzzle actually reveals about to shun the film and restrict its distribution.
the man. Citizen Kane finally premiered on May 1, 1941, to
Even before Citizen Kane was released, it encoun- great critical success, but it was initially a commercial
tered many problems. Because of his secretive and idio- failure and helped earn Welles a reputation as a trouble-
syncratic working methods and the many delays in the some, unreliable director. He would never again be
film’s release, Welles was ridiculed by some journalists granted both solid financial backing and total creative
as Hollywood’s most famous director who had not yet control, and although he made other innovative, even
made a picture. As Citizen Kane neared completion, re- brilliant films, he would never again be in a position to
ports of its allegedly slanderous treatment of Hearst were make a film such as Citizen Kane.
64
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks with Traditional Filmmaking
Citizen Kane challenged and expanded the conven- Sound as well as sight was extremely important in the
tional notion of what kind of story a mainstream Holly- film, and Bernard Herrmann’s music played a particu-
wood film should tell, how such a film should tell such a larly important role in conveying the mood of key
1941
story, and what it should look like. There had, of course, scenes. Music is not merely incidental in the film, it is
been earlier Hollywood films showing the corrupt side central to the plot. Kane’s second wife, Susan Alexander,
of powerful people, and there had been many far more is, by his design, an opera singer, and the music she
radical films than Citizen Kane produced in the first sings—increasingly strained and hysterical—charts her
forty-five years of cinema. Most of these experimental response to Kane’s bullying. The music that surrounds
films, however, were produced outside the studio sys- Kane also helps dramatize his rise and fall, from the
tem altogether and therefore did not receive wide distri- buoyant background music as he takes control of his first
bution. The majority of filmgoers had no conception newspaper to the wailing jazz song that sets the tone for
of the wide variety of cinematic styles being employed his final argument with Susan.
in the world, because Hollywood films were the only Welles’s themes and stylistic choices in Citizen Kane
ones they saw. proved to be influential models for later generations of
Traditional Hollywood films created an ideal posi- filmmakers, although it took several decades for this in-
tion of total knowledge for a spectator. In other words, fluence to become evident. Different subsequent direc-
even if the films temporarily kept secrets (such as the tors took stylistic and thematic elements of Welles’s
identity of the killer in a murder mystery), by the end work in different directions. For example, Roman Po-
of the film, all ambiguities were resolved and all se- lanski’s Chinatown (1974) owed something of its linger-
crets were revealed: The audience knew everything it ing robber-baron ethos and metaphysical and epistemic
wanted to know. Welles aimed instead for what he called uncertainty to Citizen Kane; Francis Ford Coppola’s
a “prismatic” style, consciously fragmenting Kane’s life Godfather trilogy (1972, 1974, 1990) was deeply in-
by reflecting him through various characters, each of debted to Welles’s epic analysis of a hero who is both
whom saw a somewhat different Kane. The various captivating and revolting; and even though such films as
Kanes described by the various narrators never resolved Robert Altman’s The Long Goodbye (1973) and Nash-
into a single coherent picture, so the film left the audi- ville (1975) perhaps owed more to later films by
ence with unanswered questions and ambiguities forever Welles—especially Touch of Evil (1948) and The Lady
unresolved. from Shanghai (1958)—their rambling, decentered nar-
The formal style of the film contributed to its narra- rative style also recalled sections of Citizen Kane. Out-
tive ambiguity. Two of Welles’s cinematic techniques side Hollywood, the ability of Welles to realize his own
are particularly important in this regard: “long takes” vision despite working in an industrialized film industry
(shots that last for several minutes without editing) and inspired the French New Wave filmmakers, especially
“depth of field” (shots in which the foreground, middle- François Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard, when they be-
ground, and background are all clearly visible simulta- gan making films themselves at the end of the 1950’s.
neously). Because it is through editing more than any
other single technique that directors control an audi- Significance
ence’s interpretation of a film, long takes allow audience Citizen Kane is consistently ranked as one of the best films
members more free play to decide for themselves how of all time; in fact, over the years it has been voted the sin-
to interpret a given scene. Similarly, depth of focus al- gle greatest film of all time in several polls of critics, film
lows a spectator to decide which part of the screen to professionals, and cineastes. Perhaps behind these rank-
pay attention to at any given moment, rather than beings one may detect not only respect for the film’s techni-
ing forced by more conventional focus to look at the cal virtuosity, stylistic variety, and probing analysis of a
object the director dictates. Cinematographer Gregg contemporary crisis, but also astonishment at Welles’s
Toland was instrumental in this aspect of the film. audacity and achievement. If Citizen Kane is basically a
Toland was an experienced and award-winning cinema- fable about the hollowness at the core of a man of power,
tographer before he met Welles, but he welcomed the it is also an illustration of the world of creative possibili-
opportunity to work with a new director, because it alties open to a man of great cinematic imagination.
lowed him to experiment. He had used deep focus pho- Perhaps the deepest ambiguity surrounding the leg-
tography before, but never so insistently or adventur- acy of Citizen Kane, however, is precisely that it can be
ously as in Citizen Kane. used both to prove and to disprove the theory that great
65
Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks with Traditional Filmmaking The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
films are produced by auteurs—invididual cinematic ge- ticulously researched, carefully argued, balanced ex-
niuses—rather than being the products of collaboration. amination of the production history of Citizen Kane.
On one hand, despite Welles’s reputation for indepen- Details the important contributions of many techni-
dence, individuality, and boundless personal creativity, cians and artists without denying the role of Welles’s
Citizen Kane can be regarded as in some ways the tri- talents. Contains many rare illustrations. Particularly
umph of the studio system—perhaps not the conven- interesting sections on art direction, special effects,
tional Hollywood studio system, but a system of collec- and Citizen Kane’s relation to the Heart of Darkness
tive enterprise and imagination nevertheless. The script project.
was a collaborative effort involving Welles, Mankie- Heylin, Clinton. Despite the System: Orson Welles Ver-
wicz, and Houseman. The actors were primarily mem- sus the Hollywood Studios. Chicago: Chicago Review
bers of the Mercury Theater troupe who had worked Press, 2005. Explores Welles’s struggle against the
together for several years, and the film was directed as Hollywood studio system, his successes and his fail-
an ensemble presentation rather than a series of individ- ures. Bibliographic references and index.
ual performances. Finally, key members of the technical Higham, Charles. Orson Welles: The Rise and Fall of an
staff—especially Herrmann and Toland—were highly American Genius. New York: St. Martin’s Press,
skilled, even “star” performers in their own right, and 1985. Critical overview of Welles’s life and career
these experts were skillfully blended into the ensemble that repeatedly blames Welles for his exile from Hol-
production. lywood and failure to live up to his great potential.
On the other hand, without denying that the film could Useful corrective to the image of Welles as martyred
not have been made without such collaboration, Citizen by the Hollywood studio system, but contains many
Kane is often used as an example of how an auteur overstated and quirky judgments on Welles. Illus-
stamps a distinctive mark even on an ensemble produc- trated.
tion. Welles was by no means the sole creative force be- Kael, Pauline. The “Citizen Kane” Book. Boston: Little,
hind the film, but it was primarily his vision that was Brown, 1971. Contains both the shooting script (the
elaborated, and his contributions are everywhere. The plan for the film) and the cutting continuity (a shot-
myth in the film, its powerful story of the rise and fall of a by-shot description of the final form taken by the
modern hero, is matched by the myth of the film, its affir- film) of Citizen Kane, illustrated with many shots
mation of the creative force of the independent film from the film, as well as Kael’s long essay “Raising
auteur working successfully in the midst of a mecha- Kane.” Disputes Welles’s claims of how much of the
nized, bureaucratized, and commodified industry and so- film was his creation and emphasizes Herman J.
ciety. Mankiewicz’s contributions. Many valuable com-
—Sidney Gottlieb ments comparing Citizen Kane to other films of its
time.
Further Reading Naremore, James. The Magic World of Orson Welles.
Bazin, André. What Is Cinema? Vol. 1. Reprint. Berke- Rev. ed. Dallas: Southern Methodist University
ley: University of California Press, 2005. The classic Press, 1989. Arguably the best critical book on
articulation of film theory that celebrates long takes, Welles’s entire career. Contains separate chapters on
depth of field, and ambiguity in cinema. Indispens- each of his major films, including Citizen Kane. Gives
able for placing Welles within the history of film the- recurrent attention to Welles as an illusionist, but bal-
ory and practice. ances this with continual analysis of the social and po-
Brady, Frank. Citizen Welles: A Biography of Orson litical aspects of his work. Illustrated with shots from
Welles. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1989. his films.
Comprehensive, illustrated, and fully documented _______, ed. Orson Welles’s “Citizen Kane”: A Case-
study of Welles’s life and career. Particularly good on book. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. In-
Welles’s public and political activities. Contains an cludes an interview with Welles by fellow director
extraordinary amount of useful background material Peter Bogdanovich, as well as scholarly essays on the
and quotations from primary sources, letters, and re- politics, style, and meaning of Welles’s film.
views of Welles’s productions.
Carringer, Robert L. The Making of “Citizen Kane.” See also: 1946-1960: Hollywood Studio System Is
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Me- Transformed; Sept. 10, 1951: Kurosawa’s Rashomon
66
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 FCC Licenses Commercial Television
Wins the Grand Prize at Venice; Sept. 6, 1954: La International Fame with The Seventh Seal; June 16,
Strada Solidifies Fellini’s Renown as a Brilliant Di- 1960: Psycho Becomes Hitchcock’s Most Famous
rector; 1956-1960: French New Wave Ushers in a Film; Jan. 30, 1964-1971: Kubrick Becomes a Film-
1941
New Era of Cinema; May 17, 1957: Bergman Wins Industry Leader.
May 2, 1941
FCC Licenses Commercial Television
Commercial television became a reality when the been on the verge of becoming a reality; however, funding
Federal Communications Commission awarded licenses was a major problem. The history of television is not so
to broadcasters to offer regular television programming, much the history of the work of isolated scientists as the
touching off a ratings war that shaped American history of the large corporations that were able to commit
broadcasting. The first licenses were granted to ten huge sums of money to research and development.
stations, which began broadcasting on July 1, 1941. Two corporations undertook such a commitment. One
was the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), which was
Locale: Washington, D.C. organized by General Electric in 1919. Arrangements
Categories: Radio and television; communications were made for RCA to acquire the assets of the American
and media; business and labor Marconi Company, and David Sarnoff, who had moved
Key Figures up through the ranks at Marconi, in 1921 became the new
David Sarnoff (1891-1971), president of RCA company’s general manager. In 1929, Sarnoff became
Vladimir Zworykin (1889-1982), director of electronic executive vice president and general manager of RCA; in
research at RCA Laboratories 1930, he became president (a position he was to hold un-
William S. Paley (1901-1990), president of CBS til 1947, when he became chairman of the board).
Frank Stanton (b. 1908), audience researcher and During his long career, Sarnoff made three far-reaching
executive at CBS decisions in the face of tremendous opposition within
Peter Carl Goldmark (1906-1977), engineer at CBS and without RCA. First, in 1926, when RCA was the
Laboratories leading manufacturer of radio sets, he insisted on found-
Edward John Noble (1882-1958), American ing the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) as a sub-
entrepreneur and first head of ABC sidiary, to ensure that people who bought RCA radios
Leonard Goldenson (1905-1999), head of United would have something to listen to on them. NBC lost
Paramount Theatres and later of ABC money at first, but Sarnoff’s faith in the enterprise was
eventually justified; during the 1930’s, NBC became the
Summary of Event nation’s most prestigious broadcasting network.
Scientists had worked out in principle the technology Second, during the 1930’s, Sarnoff could see that tele-
needed to transmit pictures by means of electronic im- vision would replace radio as the preeminent medium of
pulses long before the Federal Communications Commis- communication. He channeled huge sums of money into
sion (FCC) authorized commercial telecasting in May of research and development. In November of 1929, Vladi-
1941. A form of television was invented in Germany in mir Zworykin joined RCA as director of its electronic
1884 by Paul Nipkow, an engineer who devised a me- research laboratory. (Zworykin had invented his all-
chanical “scanning” disk that provided a means of con- electronic television system at Westinghouse Electric,
verting an image into electric impulses. In formulating the but his colleagues there had found his work impractical.)
scanning principle, Nipkow took a giant step toward re- When Sarnoff asked Zworykin how much it would cost
alizing practical television; all early television systems to perfect his system, the latter replied that it would take
utilized a version of Nipkow’s mechanical scanner. Vladi- $100,000. In fact, as Sarnoff frequently pointed out,
mir Zworykin took another giant step in 1929, when he RCA spent fifty million dollars on television before real-
developed the iconoscope camera tube and the kinescope izing a penny in profit. The production of television sets
picture tube, which together formed the first all-electronic was halted during World War II, but beginning in 1947,
television system. Commercial television might then have sales skyrocketed. Again, Sarnoff’s faith was justified.
67
FCC Licenses Commercial Television The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Third, during the 1940’s, Sarnoff decided that color hours of network programs, doubling the ten offered by
television would replace black-and-white television. NBC. With the stations in place, he began his search for
RCA began to manufacture color sets, and the NBC net- talent. Initially, he recruited such relatively unknown
work transmitted broadcasts in color as often as possible. performers as Bing Crosby, Kate Smith, and the Mills
For several years, NBC found itself alone in this enter- Brothers, all of whom went on to great success. Begin-
prise, and, not surprisingly, RCA lost a considerable ning in 1930, Paley balanced the lowbrow soap operas
amount of money during the period. Again, though, and the thrillers that had become staples on radio with
Sarnoff’s faith was justified, for during the 1960’s color regular Saturday-afternoon broadcasts from the New
broadcasting became universal. York Philharmonic Orchestra.
The history of NBC is inseparable from the history of In 1931, CBS entered television, with regular sched-
its parent company, RCA. In 1926, NBC purchased radio uled programming over W2XAB (New York). Paley’s
stations owned by American Telephone and Telegraph commitment to entertainment was matched by his com-
(AT&T) and became the major, if fledgling, network in mitment to news. When newspaper publishers, worried
the United States. NBC split this network into two sec- by competition, barred wire services from supplying news
tions, known as the Red Network and the Blue Network. to broadcasters, CBS responded by setting up its own
NBC then entered the television business on April 4, 1928, news-gathering unit. During World War II, CBS News
when it obtained permission from the Federal Radio Com- established the network—and Edward R. Murrow—as
mission—the precursor of the Federal Communications the most prestigious source of broadcast journalism.
Commission (FCC)—to operate experimental television Paley surrounded himself with the very best people.
station W2XBS (New York), which in 1931 began trans- Frank Stanton joined CBS in 1935, first as promotions
mitting from the top of the Empire State Building. NBC consultant and then as audience researcher. Ohio State
introduced television as a regular service in April of 1939, University had recently awarded Stanton a doctorate in
beginning with a broadcast of President Franklin D. Roo- psychology for his research into audience behavior. For
sevelt’s opening speech from the New York World’s Fair. many years, Stanton served as Paley’s “point man,” turn-
The NBC Television Network dated from January 12, ing the latter’s creative ideas into realities. Stanton be-
1940, when two stations, WNBC (New York) and WRGB came program analyzer in 1937 and director of research
(Schenectady), began broadcasting NBC programs. in 1938. During this period, he developed the first re-
The Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), NBC’s cording device that could be placed inside radio sets to
major rival in radio, also committed itself to research and record the operations of the sets. In 1945, Stanton be-
development of television. This company was founded came vice president and general manager of CBS, one of
in 1927 by two talent promoters, George Coats and Ar- the youngest and best known executives in the radio in-
thur Judson. When Sarnoff turned down their request for dustry. By the time he became president in 1965, Stanton
an exclusive contract to supply performers to the NBC had turned his attention to the problem of diversification.
network, Coats and Judson organized their own network, Almost immediately, Paley set up a research unit in
which they called United Independent Broadcasters. anticipation of the shift from radio to television broad-
Within a year, sixteen stations had become affiliates of casting. Peter Carl Goldmark joined CBS in 1935. The
United, but the company ran into financial difficulties. University of Vienna had recently granted him a doctor-
The Columbia Phonographic Company invested $163,000 ate in physics for his pioneering work in the fields of ra-
in United with the proviso that the network be renamed dio and television engineering. Goldmark had tried to
the Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System. The find work at RCA, but Sarnoff had found his application
name was shortened to the Columbia Broadcasting Sys- unsuitable. Goldmark spent more than three decades at
tem when Leon and Isaac Levy took it over in 1928. That CBS as chief television engineer (until 1944), director of
year, William S. Paley bought the controlling interest in engineering research and development (until 1950), vice
the company for $417,000, a sum he raised from his president in charge of research and development (until
shares in his family’s thriving cigar company. 1954), and president of CBS Laboratories (until he re-
On September 16, 1928, two days before his twenty- tired in 1971). Goldmark made a number of important
seventh birthday, Paley became president of CBS. A bril- contributions in the fields of sight and sound; one of the
liant executive, Paley turned CBS into the most powerful first practical color-television systems was developed at
communications company in the world. Paley quickly CBS Laboratories under his direction. (Goldmark liked
signed forty-nine radio stations, offering them twenty to point out that his work helped bring color television to
68
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 FCC Licenses Commercial Television
1941
To view image, please refer to print edition
Television quickly became a component of the American middle-class lifestyle, as it was integrated into the nation’s living rooms dur-
ing the 1940’s and 1950’s. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
the public a decade faster than it might otherwise have Berle was the most famous name on NBC television dur-
come.) The first color broadcast in history was transmit- ing the 1940’s and 1950’s. NBC pioneered early-morning
ted in August of 1940 by CBS’s experimental transmitter programming with The Today Show, first seen in 1952,
in New York. In addition, Goldmark in 1948 invented the and late-night television with The Tonight Show, first
long-playing microgroove phonograph record, which aired in 1954.
quickly revolutionized the recorded-music industry. Toward the end of the 1940’s, CBS challenged NBC
for preeminence. By offering performers huge sums of
Significance money for the rights to their shows, Paley was able to
Thanks to Sarnoff’s drive, NBC achieved preeminence sign such artists as Jack Benny, George Burns and Gracie
during the 1930’s and 1940’s. During the summer of Allen, and Edgar Bergen. Soon, the majority of the top-
1941, NBC signed its first sponsors, Procter and Gamble, rated shows in each broadcast period were CBS shows. It
Lever Brothers, Sun Oil, and Bulova. During the summer took Paley nineteen years to hire Freeman Gosden and
of 1946, Gillette became the first advertiser to sponsor a Charles Correll, the two white actors who created and
television program, coverage of the Joe Louis-Billy Conn played Amos ’n’ Andy, the most popular radio program
heavyweight title fight. On October 27, 1946, Bristol- and the cornerstone of NBC’s schedule. In 1948, they
Myers became the first sponsor of a network television signed with CBS, where the show was turned into an
series, Geographically Speaking. The network intro- equally successful television series. NBC never really re-
duced coast-to-coast television coverage in 1951 and be- covered from “Paley’s raids,” as they were called.
gan broadcasting programs in color in 1954. By 1966, In 1951, CBS began broadcasting the most popular
NBC was broadcasting all its programs in color. Milton television series of the decade, I Love Lucy. In fact, the
69
FCC Licenses Commercial Television The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1950’s may be considered the CBS decade, for during Paley, William S. As It Happened: A Memoir. Garden
this period CBS introduced some of the most popular City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979. In this memoir, Paley
soap operas to television, including Search for Tomor- tells his side of the story about the CBS radio and tele-
row in 1951, The Guiding Light in 1952, and As the vision empire he founded. Covers the purchase of the
World Turns in 1956. CBS also produced the long- foundering network, the heyday of radio and televi-
running children’s show Captain Kangaroo, which ran sion programming, and the controversies Paley en-
from 1955 to 1981. countered with Edward R. Murrow.
In 1943, Edward John Noble, who had built the Life Paper, Lewis J. Empire: William S. Paley and the
Savers candy company into a multimillion-dollar enter- Making of CBS. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987.
prise, acquired NBC’s Blue Network of radio stations for Moves beyond Paley’s autobiography, providing
eight million dollars. (Sarnoff was forced to dispose of some insight into his leadership style. Offers many in-
the network, because in 1941 the FCC had promulgated teresting facts, especially about the history of radio
the Chain Broadcasting Regulations, which mandated and television broadcasting, but he stuffs them into a
that no organization could maintain more than one difficult chronological framework.
broadcasting network.) The name of the network was Slater, Robert. This . . . Is CBS: A Chronicle of Sixty
changed to the American Broadcasting Company Years. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1988.
(ABC), with Noble as chairman of the board. This history of CBS explores the development of ra-
On April 19, 1948, ABC entered television with its dio and television from 1928 to the present. Slater’s
broadcast of On the Corner, starring Henry Morgan. account is firmly linked to the individuals who were
ABC ranked as the poor cousin among the networks until involved. Asserts that Paley damaged CBS by cling-
1976, when it surpassed CBS in the ratings. The most ing to power when he should have been choosing a ca-
popular of the early ABC series was The Adventures of pable successor.
Ozzie and Harriet, starring Ozzie and Harriet Nelson, Slide, Anthony. The Television Industry: A History Dic-
which was first broadcast on October 3, 1952. In 1953, tionary. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991. This re-
Leonard Goldenson merged his company, United Para- markable book identifies production companies, dis-
mount Theatres (UPT), with ABC. Noble relinquished tributors, and organizations; explains terms widely
control but remained with the company as a director. used in television; and illuminates a wide variety of
ABC’s first major programming success was Disney- genres, including children’s programming, detective
land, first seen on October 27, 1954. In 1955, Warner dramas, news, sitcoms, soap operas, and sports. Con-
Bros. began an exclusive production program with ABC. cludes with an appendix, which includes page-long
Three years later, ABC began morning and late-after- essays on Leonard Goldenson, William Paley, and
noon television broadcasts. The network introduced David Sarnoff.
color programming in 1962, with full color in 1966. Smith, Sally Bedell. In All His Glory: William S. Paley,
—Robert M. Seiler the Legendary Tycoon and His Brilliant Circle. New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1990. This entertaining bi-
Further Reading
ography conveys an impressive amount of informa-
Abramson, Albert. The History of Television, 1942 to
tion about Paley’s public and private life. Offers a fas-
2000. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2003. Includes
cinating glimpse into CBS’s corporate culture.
separate chapters on World War II-era television,
Webb, Richard C. Tele-visionaries: The People Behind
postwar development, the rise of color, and the divi-
the Invention of Television. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley
sion in format between the United States and Europe.
& Sons, 2005. Details both the technical details of
Campbell, Robert. The Golden Years of Broadcasting: A
television’s invention and the creation of broadcast-
Celebration of the First Fifty Years of Radio and TV
ing networks to capitalize on the new medium. Bib-
on NBC. New York: Scribner, 1976. Resembling a
slick annual report, this document gives inside but
never intimate details about the people responsible for See also: May 2, 1941: NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself
NBC’s success. Includes more than 250 pictures, a of a Radio Network; Apr. 19, 1948: ABC Begins Its
great many in full color. Campbell, though, makes lit- Own Network Television Service; 1949: Community
tle effort to assess the impact television has had on the Antenna Television Is Introduced; 1950’s: Golden
United States. Age of Television.
70
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself of a Radio Network
May 2, 1941
NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself of a Radio Network
1941
Threats of antitrust prosecution forced the National AT&T and then Westinghouse united the stations they
Broadcasting Company, a subsidiary of Radio owned to form networks. These networks were then
Corporation of America, to divest itself of one of two joined by independent stations that wanted to share pro-
radio networks, which became the American gramming with the network stations. Soon, the Westing-
Broadcasting Company. house network came under the RCA umbrella. Both the
RCA and AT&T networks were amalgams of indepen-
Also known as: Chain Broadcasting Regulations dent stations and those owned by the parent companies.
Locale: New York, New York NBC was organized in 1926, when RCA purchased
Categories: Radio and television; business and AT&T’s radio stations, the most important of which was
labor; laws, acts, and legal history WEAF in New York. The new entity was to be called the
Key Figures American Broadcasting Company, but this designation
David Sarnoff (1891-1971), president of RCA was soon dropped. RCA would own 50 percent of the
James Fly (1898-1966), chairman of the Federal company, with 30 percent owned by General Electric
Communications Commission, 1939-1944 and 20 percent by Westinghouse. The AT&T network
Frank McNinch (1873-1950), chairman of the Federal became the Red Network of RCA, and the Westinghouse
Communications Commission, 1937-1939 network with other stations became the Blue Network.
Mark Woods (1901-1958), treasurer at RCA These designations originated from the colors of crayon
Edward John Noble (1882-1958), American lines drawn on a map of the United States by RCA’s ex-
entrepreneur and media mogul ecutives as they plotted station locations.
Sosthenes Behn (1882-1957), chairman of International For a while, the networks continued to operate much
Telephone and Telegraph as they had under their previous owners. The Red Net-
work concentrated on commercial broadcasting, while
Summary of Event the Blue Network was geared toward public-service pro-
The most important company in the early history of grams. Thus, at first there was little overlap between the
American radio broadcasting was Radio Corporation of two networks’ programming. This soon changed, how-
America (RCA). Certainly, the Columbia Broadcasting ever, and the Blue Network came to resemble the Red
System (CBS) was an important network, and companies Network. In order to save money, the networks used the
such as Philco, Atwater Kent, and Crosley manufactured same facilities and shared talent. Artists appearing on the
radio receivers. RCA, however, not only was a major networks were under contract to NBC, which decided the
manufacturer of radio receivers but also, through its Na- programs to which they would be assigned. It was not un-
tional Broadcasting Company (NBC) subsidiary, con- usual for an artist to appear on both networks, and on oc-
trolled the nation’s two largest radio networks. casion an entire program would be switched from one
RCA was organized after World War I. It was based network to the other.
on American Marconi, which the United States had The networks were quite small in 1926, when be-
seized from its parent, British Marconi, at the beginning tween them they owned a total of nineteen stations. They
of the war. After the war, the company was purchased by expanded each year, however, passing the one-hundred-
a consortium of four companies: General Electric, West- station mark in 1936. By then, the networks had overlap-
inghouse Electric, American Telephone and Telegraph ping stations in many major markets. In New York City,
(AT&T), and United Fruit, all of which had an interest in for example, the Red Network had WEAF and the Blue
the emerging wireless technology. In its early days, wire- Network had WJZ. In Boston, there were WNAC (Red)
less communication was considered to be a form of com- and WBZ (Blue); in Providence, Rhode Island, WJAR
munication between business and individuals rather than (Red) and WEAN (Blue); and in Chicago, WMAQ (Red)
a medium of entertainment. and WENR (Blue). NBC’s rivals and critics within the
Westinghouse and AT&T began experimenting with government claimed that this overlap constituted a viola-
what would become broadcasting. At first, each com- tion of antitrust laws.
pany established a set of independent stations, each with In order to regulate the fast-growing radio industry,
its own management and programming. In time, first Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover convened a se-
71
NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself of a Radio Network The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ries of conferences, out of which, in 1927, the Federal and sell the Blue Network. As early as 1936, Woods and
Radio Commission arose. That commission took no im- NBC President Nick Trammel had tried to purchase the
mediate action upon the antitrust accusations leveled Blue Network from its parent company: They wanted to
against NBC. In 1934, the Federal Radio Commission leave NBC and oversee the new network on their own,
was replaced by the Federal Communications Commis- but at that time Sarnoff was not ready to negotiate. As
sion (FCC), which had broad regulatory powers. At the time passed, his reluctance faded. By 1941, Sarnoff was
time, it was said that the radio industry “live[d] in fear of prepared to place the Blue Network on the block.
the FCC and in love with the sponsors of commercial Sarnoff had little choice, because Fly was applying
programs.” Since in theory the airwaves belonged to the pressure. On May 2, 1941, the FCC issued the first com-
public, and radio stations existed at the sufferance of the mercial licenses for broadcast television stations. On the
FCC, such a belief was understandable. same day, it came out with a series of regulations forbid-
In the mid-1930’s, the FCC decided that the existence ding any company from owning more than one broad-
of two networks owned by the same company was no casting network, whether radio or television. NBC was
longer satisfactory. Talk began of forcing NBC to divest the only such entity, and the regulations clearly were
itself of one of its networks. Frank McNinch was named aimed at it. If it wanted to enter the new market for televi-
acting chairman of the FCC in 1937 after the death of sion programs, it would have to signal its willingness to
Chairman Anning Prall. Under the leadership of Mc- follow the regulations immediately. The rule was so nar-
Ninch—a Democrat from North Carolina—some move- row, though, that NBC’s attorneys first recommended an
ment in the direction of forced divestiture began. That appeal on constitutional grounds. The appeal took two
action was continued and accelerated by James Fly, the years to work its way through the courts, but the Supreme
Texas Democrat who became FCC chairman in 1939. Court in National Broadcasting Co. v. U.S. (1943) ulti-
Fly was even more activist than was McNinch. From mately found in favor of the FCC, although it granted
the first, he spoke of the need for divestiture. This RCA leeway in making the divestiture.
prompted David Sarnoff, RCA’s president and future
chairman and the radio industry’s leading figure, to Significance
brand him as “irresponsible, dangerous, and socialistic.” Late in 1941, Sarnoff and Woods considered potential
Fly was hardly a radical. He wanted more competition purchasers. Their asking price was in the wide range of
on the airways, more public-service programming, and $6-12 million dollars, depending on which stations were
greater freedom for the networks’ affiliated stations. Ar- to be included in the deal. More than one hundred pro-
guably, none of these goals posed problems for NBC: spective purchasers expressed interest, but all thought
NBC had provided optional programming for its net- the price was too high and withdrew. Dampening their
works since 1935, something CBS refused to do. Still, interest was that in 1942 the NBC Blue Network earned
Sarnoff remained cautious in regard to Fly, especially only $66,000 after taxes.
after Fly called upon NBC and CBS to divest themselves Meanwhile, NBC took measures to separate the two
of their captive talent agencies, which he said created a networks. Everything was divided, including equipment,
conflict of interest. offices, and talent. Early in 1942, the Blue Network was
When speaking of the need for NBC to sell one of its incorporated as a separate company, with Woods as its
networks, Fly observed that in 1927, 7 percent of all ra- chief executive officer. The process of separating the as-
dio stations, or 48 stations, had been affiliated with NBC. sets of the two networks continued into 1943, however.
Ten years later, the figure had risen to 25 percent, or 161 The investment banking house of Dillon Read offered
NBC affiliates. Indications were that NBC meant to add to form a syndicate, one that included Woods, to pur-
more stations to its rosters. Moreover, the two NBC net- chase the network for $7,750,000. This offer might have
works shared talent and facilities, which Fly believed been accepted immediately had it come earlier. Shortly
was clearly unfair to the competition. before the offer was made, however, Edward John No-
Despite his rhetoric, Sarnoff thought Fly’s recom- ble, who had made his fortune with Life Savers candy
mendation in this area was at least justifiable. Mark and who already owned New York station WMCA, had
Woods, NBC’s treasurer who had been with the com- joined with publisher James McGraw of McGraw-Hill to
pany since 1922, agreed. He thought that both networks offer $8 million for the network. Part of the agreement,
would benefit by being separated. Because the Red Net- however, was that RCA would sponsor a series of pro-
work was stronger, he recommended that NBC retain it grams on the newly independent network, for which
72
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself of a Radio Network
RCA would pay the new network more than $1 million. ings as possible in the form of dividends. ITT had cash to
In effect, the Woods offer was the higher of the two be- invest, and Behn hoped to use its treasury to rebuild
cause of the $1 million that would flow back to Noble ABC.
1941
and McGraw. Noble asked for $28 million in cash, and Behn offered
Any deal would require FCC approval. Fly grilled $22 million in ITT stock. At first neither side would
Noble and Woods, attempting in the process to discover budge. Behn countered with a share-for-share exchange
the views of both men on the First Amendment, specifi- offer. Noble rejected this offer, and while negotiations
cally whether either man would object to selling time continued on and off for the next year, Noble looked else-
to certain advertisers, such as labor unions. Woods re- where for a buyer. He found one in 1953. Leonard
fused to discuss the matter, insisting that he was more in- Goldenson at United Paramount Theatres, which had
terested in profits than in having opinions aired. Noble, been taken from Paramount Pictures as a result of an
on the other hand, said that he would have an open mind antitrust action, was seeking a partner corporation, and
on such matters, indicating a vague support for free Noble provided one. The new company was renamed
speech. American Broadcasting-Paramount, but soon after was
By this time, McGraw had dropped out of the syndi- renamed American Broadcasting Companies.
cate with Noble for health reasons. Noble continued his —Robert Sobel
quest for the Blue Network, now offering $4 million in
cash and $4 million in the form of a three-year note. Part Further Reading
of the money was obtained by selling a one-eighth inter- Archer, Gleason. Big Business and Radio. New York:
est in the proposed company to Time, Inc., and another American Historical, 1939. An early history of radio,
one-eighth share to Chester LaRoche, an advertising with an emphasis on management. Archer offers a
executive. Sarnoff accepted the offer, and the sale was contemporary view of the development of networks
completed on October 12, 1943, five months after the and the role of the FCC.
Supreme Court case was decided. Barnouw, Erik. A Tower in Babel, to 1933. Vol. 1 in A
Noble was not interested in the network as an ongoing History of Broadcasting in the United States. New
business; he merely recognized that it would make a fine York: Oxford University Press, 1966.
investment. For the next decade, he attempted to build it _______. The Golden Web, 1933 to 1953. Vol. 2 in A
up in preparation for its profitable sale. The generally History of Broadcasting in the United States. New
good market for network programming helped, for even York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Barnouw’s is
though the network was deemed inferior to its rivals, its the standard history of radio and television. The first
listenership expanded. In 1945, Noble changed the net- volume contains an account of the origins of RCA and
work’s name to the American Broadcasting Company NBC. The second volume has the details of the FCC
(ABC). That year, ABC had time sales of $40 million, crusade to force divestiture and the divestiture itself.
and Noble was able to sell a minority interest for $15 mil- Bilby, Kenneth. The General: David Sarnoff and the
lion, almost twice the price he had paid RCA for the en- Rise of the Communications Industry. New York:
tire company in 1943. Harper & Row, 1986. An adulatory biography of the
Noble continued to advertise the company to inter- RCA chairman, written by one of his chief aides.
ested buyers, and in 1951 it appeared that he had located Bilby is defensive of Sarnoff and strong in his criti-
one in the person of Sosthenes Behn, the chairman of In- cism of the FCC. One chapter deals with the divesti-
ternational Telephone and Telegraph (ITT). By then, ITT ture.
had lost most of its overseas businesses and was concen- Hilmes, Michele, and Jason Loviglio, eds. Radio
trating on defense contracting and making acquisitions, Reader: Essays in the Cultural History of Radio. New
among them Capehart-Farnsworth, a radio manufac- York: Routledge, 2002. Collection of essays discuss-
turer. From Behn’s point of view, the combination of ing the cultural meaning and effects of radio upon
Capehart-Farnsworth with ABC would transform ITT (predominantly) American society. Contains many
into an entity that resembled RCA. At the time, ABC had essays on the 1930’s and 1940’s, providing back-
sixty-three affiliate stations, five of which it owned, and ground on the importance of the network divestiture.
the network was well positioned to obtain space on the Morton, David L. A History of Electronic Entertainment
television spectrum. Behn recognized that Noble had Since 1945. New Brunswick, N.J.: IEEE History Cen-
starved the network by withdrawing as much of its earn- ter, Rutgers University Press, 1999. History of broad-
73
Anglo-Iraqi War The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
casting beginning with the fledgling ABC competing See also: May 2, 1941: FCC Licenses Commercial
with the established NBC and CBS networks. Television; Mar. 12, 1945: Alcoa Is Convicted of Vi-
Quinlan, Sterling. Inside ABC: American Broadcasting olating the Sherman Antitrust Act; Apr. 19, 1948:
Company’s Rise to Power. New York: Hastings ABC Begins Its Own Network Television Service;
House, 1979. The first history of ABC. Contains May 3, 1948: Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios to
chapters dealing with its early history following the Divest Theaters; Dec. 29, 1950: Celler-Kefauver Act
divestiture. Amends Antitrust Legislation; May 22, 1961: U.S.
Sobel, Robert. RCA. New York: Stein & Day, 1986. The Supreme Court Orders Du Pont to Disburse GM
first full-scale history of RCA. Contains a long sec- Holdings; Apr. 11, 1967: Supreme Court Rules
tion on the development of NBC and the divestiture Against a Procter & Gamble Merger; Jan. 16, 1970:
problem. Flood Tests Baseball’s Reserve Clause.
May 2-June 13, 1941

Anglo-Iraqi War
Having become Iraqi prime minister through a military fluence over the nation’s political affairs throughout the
coup, Rashtd 4Alt al-Kaylant sought aid from the Axis 1930’s. Iraqi nationalists opposed this influence, and
Powers against British forces landing in Basra. The pan-Arabists saw Great Britain as the principal obstacle
RAF responded to Iraqi troop movements with to a unified Arab state across the Middle East. Particu-
bombing runs, and, with reinforcements from larly hated was the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930, which
Transjordan, the British occupied Baghdad and Mosul, gave London veto power over Iraqi foreign policy deci-
thus securing oil reserves and a pro-British Iraqi sions, as well as control over the Iraqi army. The treaty
government for the remainder of World War II. also allowed British forces to be stationed in Iraq.
With the outbreak of World War II, Iraq assumed
Locale: Iraq
great strategic importance for Great Britain because of its
Categories: Colonialism and occupation; World
geographic location and its oil reserves. An anti-British
War II; wars, uprisings, and civil unrest
government came to power on April 1, 1941, through a
Key Figures coup d’état organized by four military leaders known as
Rashtd 4Alt al-Kaylant (1892-1965), prime minister of the Golden Square, who restored the nationalist Rashtd
Iraq, March-October, 1933, March, 1940-January, 4Alt al-Kaylant to the nation’s premiership. Rashtd 4Alt
1941, and April-May, 1941 had been prime minister on two earlier, extremely brief
Amtn al-Wusaynt (c. 1895-1974), mufti of Jerusalem occasions, from March 20 to October 29, 1933, and from
and revolutionary military leader, 1936-1939 March 31, 1940, to January 31, 1941.
Ghazi I (1912-1939), king of Iraq, r. 1933-1939 Anti-British resentment in Iraq had been cultivated
4Abd al-Il3h (1913-1958), regent of Iraq, r. 1939-1953 for decades by the educational reforms of the ardent pan-
Nnrt al-Sa4td (1888-1958), prime minister of Iraq, Arabist S3ti4 al-Husrt, director general of education, and
intermittently, 1930-1958 by propaganda from the widely popular Muthanna Club
Fritz Grobba (b. 1886), German ambassador to Iraq of Baghdad, which opposed partitioning Palestine be-
Sir Kinahan Cornwallis (1883-1959), British tween Jews and Arabs. However, such pan-Arab senti-
ambassador to Iraq ment, largely Sunni in motivation, made the Shia and the
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- Kurds into pronounced minorities in Iraq, dividing rather
1945 than unifying the populace. Iraqi nationalists therefore
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of focused upon the nation’s ancient Mesopotamian heri-
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 tage and upon secular identity, adopting in this attitude
Western ideas, and were sometimes led to take a more
Summary of Event ambivalent attitude toward cooperation with Great Brit-
Although Iraq had become an independent monarchy in ain. On the other hand, since the British relied upon polit-
1932, Great Britain continued to exert considerable in- ical elites and powerful tribal sheikhs to govern, left-
74
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Anglo-Iraqi War
wing reformers such as members of the Iraqi Communist British in Egypt, the Wehrmacht believed an anti-British
Party were drawn toward the more egalitarian rhetoric of coup in Iraq would benefit its war strategy, and the Ger-
the Soviet Union. man envoy in Baghdad, Fritz Grobba, was instructed to
1941
Pro-German attitudes had particular strength in the pursue this goal.
army, where it was hoped that Iraqi military might could On April 1, 1941, the members of the Golden Square
accomplish for Arab unification what Prussian might (colonels Salah al-Din al-Sabbagh, Kamil Shabib, Mah-
had done for German unification in the last century. Dur- mud Salman, and Fahmi Said) brought about the Rashtd
ing World War I, moreover, many Iraqi officers had 4Alt coup, driving Nnrt (now foreign minister) and the
served in the Ottoman army as allies of Germany. The regent from the country. The new government under
paramilitary youth groups of the Futuwwa movement Rashtd’s restored premiership pushed for closer ties with
could also identify with Nazi heroic virtues. the Third Reich. One of the coconspirators, Yunis al-
After 1932, the Iraqi army repeatedly became in- Sabawi, had in fact started an Arabic serial publication of
volved in political matters and pushed for alignment with German dictator Adolf Hitler’s autobiographical mani-
the Axis. Pan-Arabism was also furthered in 1933 by the festo Mein Kampf (1925-1926; English translation,
death of King Faisal I, who had been put into power by 1939) in 1933. Nevertheless, the new prime minister,
the British. His dashing son, Ghazi I, supported the Pal- Rashtd 4Alt, promised to honor the 1930 treaty that al-
estinian cause and advocated annexation of Kuwait, lowed Great Britain military transit across Iraq. On the
which—again, by analogy with German expansion- other hand, British ambassador Sir Kinahan Cornwallis,
ism—he likened to the Sudetenland. Germany’s suc- who had been removed from an advisory role by Rashtd
cessful annexation of the Sudentenland under the 1938 some years previously, rebuffed Iraqi proposals to
Munich Agreement would then seem to validate Iraqi achieve an equitable diplomatic compromise, believing
ambitions to absorb Kuwait as well. they were simply tactics to forestall an inevitable break
In 1936, a coup led by General Bakr Sidqi drove into in relations.
exile the pro-British Nnrt al-Sa4td, architect of the Anglo- In accordance with the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, British
Iraqi treaty. However, a series of coups in 1937 and 1938 troops often landed in Basra on their way to Palestine and
led to the assassination of Sidqi and put Nnrt back in Egypt, and in April, 1941, preserving this route was con-
power. The reckless Ghazi was killed in a car accident in sidered a military imperative. Cornwallis promised to
1939, widely suspected to be the result of a Nnrt-British give full recognition to the Kaylant government once he
plot, and with Faisal II only a minor, the former king’s received permission to march imperial troops through
cousin and brother-in-law, 4Abd al-Il3h, was appointed Iraq, and Rashtd accepted this request, but with heavy re-
regent. With the outbreak of World War II, Iraq severed strictions upon the number of troops in transit. Accord-
its ties with Germany. ingly, British prime minister Winston Churchill in-
During these political struggles, pressure mounted on structed the army to cease reporting that number to
the Iraqi government to seek military assistance from It- Baghdad. He also decided to build up a concentration of
aly or Germany. Amin al-Wusayni, the mufti of Jerusa- troops at Basra.
lem, arrived in Baghdad in 1939 after being exiled from As the British strategy became evident, Germany fi-
Palestine. However, overtures to the Axis Powers for as- nally agreed to make arms available to Iraq. With their
sistance either to eject the British from Iraq or to enable a campaign in the Balkans slowed and with the invasion of
second Palestinian rebellion were met with ambivalence. Russia code-named Operation Barbarossa planned for
The Third Reich was using Palestine for the forced emi- late June, however, the Germans had few resources to
gration of Jews and, moreover, wanted to placate British spare. In the meanwhile, convinced that Britain intended
fears of German Middle Eastern expansion in order to to occupy Iraq, Rashtd and the colonels decided to mount
pursue its goals in central Europe. an armed resistance, and nine thousand troops were sent
After the fall and occupation of France in 1940, Ger- to encircle the British air base at Hawr al Habb3ntyah
many also hesitated to promote Arab rebellion against (Lake Habbaniyah).
Vichy-controlled Syria. At the same time, Italy had colo- On May 2, the Royal Air Force (RAF) began to bomb
nial interests in Libya and Abyssinia, and Germany ini- Iraqi positions, soon destroying the meager Iraqi air
tially deferred to its Axis partner in the Middle East and force. The next day, Hitler approved plans to provide as
North Africa. However, when Italian dictator Benito much military assistance as possible to Iraq, and Grobba
Mussolini’s troops failed to make progress against the returned to Baghdad on May 11. Berlin also came to an
75
Anglo-Iraqi War The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
agreement with the Vichy government to allow some fif- cuted, making them martyrs in the eyes of many soldiers,
teen thousand rifles, four cannons, two hundred machine who would achieve revenge in the revolution of 1958,
guns, and other French military hardware to enter Iraq. which placed the Ba4th Party in power. Well into the
Germany and Italy promised further military support, in- twentieth century, Baghdad had been known for its
cluding aircraft, but Iraqi resistance was crushed before prominent Jewish population, but almost all Jews were
most of it could arrive. expelled from Iraq in another farhnd of 1950-1951,
North of Basra, Iraqi troops destroyed railroad and which some scholars argue arose from lingering frustra-
telegraph lines and blew up dams along the Euphrates tion over the failure to repel the British and defend Pales-
River, but British reinforcements from Palestine under tine a decade earlier.
the command of General George Clark soon captured Al — Bland Addison
Fallnjah. By May 30, the British were at Baghdad, but
when Cornwallis delayed the entrance of British troops Further Reading
into the city, some 150-180 Jews were murdered in a po- Hirszowicz, Lukasz. The Third Reich and the Arab East.
grom known as the Farhnd. Mosul fell on June 13, essen- London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966. A diplo-
tially ending the conflict. Nnrt was once again in power matic history told from the perspectives of Allied,
by October, 1941. Axis, and Middle Eastern countries.
The Iraqi defeat—entailing the loss of some two thou- Khadduri, Majid. Independent Iraq, 1932-1958: A Study
sand soldiers—arose both because Iraq’s army could not in Iraqi Politics. 2d ed. London: Oxford University
delay the British advance long enough for Axis military Press, 1960. A political history by an author who in-
assistance to arrive and because the Axis failed to re- terviewed many key participants.
spond rapidly enough to numerous requests for aid. Marr, Phebe. The Modern History of Iraq. 2d ed. Boul-
Rashtd 4Alt and the mufti of Jerusalem spent most the rest der, Colo.: Westview Press, 2004. Important text by a
of the war in Berlin competing for Nazi attention. While leading authority on modern Iraqi history.
the four colonels behind the coup were captured by the Simon, Reeva S. Iraq Between the Two World Wars: The
British and eventually executed in Baghdad, Rashtd es- Creation and Implementation of a Nationalist Ideol-
caped the collapsing German Reich, eventually receiv- ogy. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.
ing asylum in Riyadh. He returned to Iraq after the Iraqi Examines the Ottoman, military, educational, and po-
Revolution (1958). litical factors leading to the Iraqi solicitation of Ger-
man support.
Significance Solh, Raghid el-. Britain’s Two Wars with Iraq: 1941,
Churchill believed that Hitler’s failure to intervene more 1991. Reading, Berkshire, England: Ithaca Press,
forcefully in Iraq represented a squandered German op- 1996. A comparison between Britain’s two wars
portunity, since control of Iraq’s fuel resources and stra- against Iraq, with an excellent presentation of the
tegic location could have contributed significantly to the Iraqi point of view.
Nazi war effort. As it was, the “second British occupa-
tion” built up internal cohesion and constitutionality in See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
Iraq, but in the long run Anglo-Iraqi relationships were European Theater; July 14, 1958: Iraq’s Monarchy Is
not strengthened. The leaders of the Iraqi army were exe- Toppled; 1960’s: Kurds Suffer Genocide in Iraq.
76
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First Jet Plane
May 15, 1941

Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First Jet Plane
1941
Frank Whittle developed one of the earliest turbojet Whittle’s contribution to the development of turbojet
engines, critical for the future of the Allied war effort engines began in 1928, when, as a twenty-one-year-old
during World War II. Royal Air Force (RAF) flight cadet at Cranwell Acad-
emy, he wrote a thesis entitled “Future Developments in
Also known as: Gloster/Whittle E.28/39 Aircraft Design.” One of the principal conclusions of
Locale: Cranwell, Lincolnshire, England Whittle’s earliest research was that if future aircraft were
Categories: Space and aviation; inventions; science eventually to achieve very high speeds over long dis-
and technology; World War II tances, they would have to fly at very high altitudes, ben-
Key Figures efiting from reduced resistance in lower-density atmo-
Frank Whittle (1907-1996), British Royal Air Force spheric conditions.
officer and engineer Although Whittle later stated that the speeds he had in
H. H. Arnold (1886-1950), commander of the U.S. mind at that time were about 805 kilometers (500 miles)
Army Air Forces, 1941-1946 per hour—close to those of the first jet-powered aircraft—
Gerry Sayer (fl. mid-twentieth century), chief test pilot his earliest idea of the engines that would be necessary
for Gloster Aircraft Ltd. for such planes focused on rocket propulsion. (That is,
Hans Pabst von Ohain (1911-1998), German engineer “jets” in which the fuel and oxygen required to produce
the explosion needed to propel an air vehicle forward are
Summary of Event entirely self-contained in the engine, or, alternatively,
On the morning of May 15, 1941, some eleven months gas turbines driving propellers at very high speeds.) Later,
after the fall of France to Adolf Hitler’s advancing Ger- it occurred to him that gas turbines could be used to pro-
man army, the experimental jet-propelled aircraft bear- vide forward thrust by what would become “ordinary” jet
ing the official name Gloster/Whittle E.28/39 was suc- propulsion (that is, “thermal air” engines that take the ox-
cessfully tested in the air by test pilot Gerry Sayer. The ygen they need to ignite their fuel from the surrounding
airplane had been developed in a little more than two atmosphere). Eventually, such ordinary jet engines would
years by Gloster Aircraft Company after England’s Air function following one of four possible systems: the so-
Ministry Overseer, Wing Commander J. H. McC. Reyn- called athodyd, or continuous-firing duct; the pulsejet, or
olds, introduced Frank Whittle—inventor of England’s intermittent-firing duct; the turbojet, or gas-turbine jet;
first jet engine—to the person in charge of aircraft design or the propjet, which uses a gas-turbine jet to rotate a con-
functions, George Carter, in April, 1939. Since March, ventional propeller at very high speeds.
1936, Whittle had been the main organizer of a joint stock The principle of jet propulsion, the turbojet, was tested
company called Power Jets Limited. The entire venture successfully in flight in May, 1941. Turbojets involve a
depended on Whittle’s contribution of technical skills. straightforward technical improvement over the simplest
The plane that was tested in May, 1941, like the jet en- form of jet propulsion, the continuous-firing duct jet. The
gine that powered it, had a number of predecessors. In latter consists of an open-ended tube that receives an in-
fact, the May, 1941, flight was not the first jet-powered flow of air that is heated by burning fuel passing through
test flight: That event occurred on August 27, 1939, holes located midway along the duct. The heated air ex-
when a Heinkel aircraft powered by a jet engine devel- pands, instantly creating increased pressure inside the
oped by Hans Pabst von Ohain accomplished a success- tube. The resulting phenomenon, forward thrust, comes
ful test flight in Germany. During this period, Italian air- as the heated air passes out of the back of the duct under
plane builders were also engaged in jet aircraft testing, pressure, at the same time sucking more air in through the
with lesser degrees of success. front, thus reinforcing thrust process continuously.
Without the knowledge that had been gained from In the next stage, the turbojet, increased levels of pres-
Whittle’s experience in experimental aviation, the test sure, and therefore increased thrust, are obtained by plac-
flight at the Royal Air Force’s Cranwell airfield might ing an air compressor near the front of the engine duct
never have been possible. It was Whittle’s repeated ef- ahead of the combustion chamber. This compressor gains
forts to develop turbojet propulsion engines that guaran- its energy by tapping, out of the rear section of the jet duct
teed the success of the flight. into a gas turbine mounted around its outer circumference,
77
Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First Jet Plane The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
only a carefully calculated amount of pressure from the detailed plans created some difficulties. These problems
thrust force leaving the combustion chamber. Turbojet concerned not so much security of information as the air-
turbines do not contribute in any direct way to the thrust craft manufacturers’ disagreements with what Power
of the overall engine. Their sole purpose is to drive the Jets insisted should be incorporated into the test aircraft’s
compressors that—as a result of their key function—lit- design. Such disagreements delayed progress on the
erally push a greater mass of heat-expandable air into the plane. The Air Ministry’s insistence that work not be sus-
combustion chamber, creating the increased force of jet pended, however, prevented any actual stop. In fact, once
propulsion characteristic of this engine design. it became apparent that England’s declaration of war
When Whittle demonstrated his interest in designing would lead to an extension of hostilities from eastern to
a workable combination of turbojet-propulsive engines western Europe, completion of the first jet aircraft’s test-
and an airplane most aerodynamically capable of utilizing process immediately became urgent.
ing the power produced by such jets, he did not receive By the time of the 1941 flight, several different engine
enthusiastic support. In fact, many aspects of technical and aircraft models had been developed as candidates for
progress that were incorporated eventually into the air- the first test experience. Such diversity of prospective
plane tested in 1941 were finished and patented in the engine models stemmed in part from an interchanging
early 1930’s, well before a viable economic market ex- process. This meant incorporating either technical prin-
isted for their practical use. One example is that of Bristol ciples or actual parts (such as engine mounts) that had
Aircraft Manufacturing Limited and its persistent em- been tested in earlier design models, both of engines and
phasis on costly research and development of what be- aircraft, into a chain of later versions.
came standard features of standard-performance aircraft The aircraft that was to be used to test the flight per-
by World War II—the so-called sleeve valve radial air formance was completed by April. On April 7, tests were
cooling system for ordinary piston engines. When Whit- conducted on the ground at Gloster Aircraft’s landing
tle approached Bristol Aircraft in the mid-1930’s with a strip at Brockworth by Gloster’s chief test pilot, Sayer.
scheme to perfect his plans for jet engine technology and At this point, all parties concerned tried to estimate if the
faster-flying aircraft, the company’s directors indicated jet engine’s revolution-per-minute capacity would be
that all available research funding was committed to proj- sufficient to push the aircraft forward with enough speed
ects such as the sleeve valve cooling system. Such deci- to make it airborne. Sayer dared to take the plane off the
sions would be regretted a few years later, when the pros- ground for a limited distance of between 183 meters (600
pects for a European war involving competition with more feet) and 273 meters (895 feet), despite the technical
advanced German aviation technology loomed closer. staff’s warnings against trying to fly in the first tests.
The first sign of developments that would appear in- On May 15, the real first flight test was conducted at
creasingly logical only in 1938 and 1939, when clouds of Cranwell. During that test, Sayer flew the plane, now
war were forming, occurred in January, 1936, when the called the Pioneer, for seventeen minutes at altitudes ex-
founders of Jet Power Limited, supported financially by ceeding 305 meters (1000 feet) and at a conservative test
a London venture capital investment firm (O. T. Falk and speed exceeding 595 kilometers (370 miles) per hour,
Partners), signed an agreement with two other parties which was equivalent to the top speed then possible in
that allowed serious development of Whittle’s turbojet the RAF’s most versatile fighter plane, the Spitfire.
engine to proceed. The Air Ministry granted to Whittle Once it was clear that the tests undertaken at Cranwell
the special privilege of serving semiofficially in the newly were not only successful but also highly promising in
formed research and development alliance among inves- terms of even better performance, a second, more exten-
tors, civilian manufacturers, and inventor-engineers. sive test date was set for May 21. It was this latter demon-
As the project proceeded between 1936 and 1941, stration that induced the Ministry for Air Production
several essential liaisons would develop. By the time of (MAP) to initiate the first steps to produce what would be
the May, 1941, flight, this meant that Rover and Gloster called the Meteor jet fighter aircraft on a full industrial
Aircraft would share in the complicated construction and scale in barely more than a year after the Cranwell test
testing phases that preceded plans for the flight. Because flight.
the two big manufacturing concerns, BTH and Rover,
needed exact specifications, particularly concerning Significance
power thrust, of the engines that would be mounted on At the time activities that would lead to the flight were
the aircraft, “wholesale” communication of Power Jets’ taking form in England (specifically, in July, 1936), the
78
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First Jet Plane
Junkers engine and aircraft companies in Hitler’s Ger- experts available only four years earlier. Ironically, what
many created a new secret branch dedicated to the devel- Whittle’s effort to develop the turbojet accomplished by
opment, under the highly qualified engineer Herbert the first successful test flight in 1941 was far from ade-
1941
Wagner, of a turbojet-driven aircraft. In the same period, quate to assure the Allied cause that if jet propulsion
Junkers’ rival in the German aircraft industry, Heinkel, technology was to assume a key role in running the war, a
Inc., engaged von Ohain, who was far enough along in balance could be held between England and Germany.
his work on the turbojet principle to have patented a de- On one hand, the British Ministry for Aircraft Produc-
vice very similar to Whittle’s in 1935. A later model of tion reacted immediately to the prospect of using jet-
this jet engine would power a test flight aircraft in Au- propulsed aircraft against the German air raid threat in
gust, 1939, shortly before the outbreak of World War II. the so-called Battle for Britain. This was done despite
To measure the potential impact of what Whittle’s signals in the second half of 1941 from Whittle and oth-
project accomplished by 1941, however, it is essential to ers that a number of technical complications still needed
realize that as each year went by between 1936 and 1941, to be worked out before considering the original jet en-
the critical nature of competition obviously would be gine used for testing to be fully operational in the air.
magnified. In the last stages before testing the Gloster/ On the other hand, the English defense establishment
Whittle jet—specifically during November and Decem- had to consider what had to be done immediately to carry
ber, 1940—the staff of Power Jets was increased by fifty- on an air war over Europe against Hitler’s Luftwaffe. The
three skilled personnel. This was a major expansion course of aircraft production over the next few years after
when one compares the modest number of jet propulsion the Meteor’s May, 1941, test flight indicates that because
Frank Whittle (left) stands by the turbojet engine he designed. (Smithsonian Institution)
79
Turbojet Engine Is Used in the First Jet Plane The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
of the high number of aircraft losses inflicted on the RAF more space than any other technically oriented publi-
during 1940 and the first half of 1941, the most immedi- cation to the evolution of what became the Gloster/
ate practical need was a life-or-death issue: replacement Whittle experimental jet plane tested in 1941.
of English Spitfire propeller-driven fighters. This meant Cumpsty, Nicholas. Jet Propulsion: A Simple Guide to
that the RAF’s demand for conventional aircraft re- the Aerodynamics and Thermodynamic Design and
mained a priority over the next few years. Performance of Jet Engines. 2d ed. New York: Cam-
In the meantime, the wider impact of the flight was the bridge University Press, 2003. Comprehensive over-
result of decisions made by General H. H. Arnold, chief view of the history, function, and design of turbojet
of staff of the U.S. Army Air Corps. Arnold had visited engines. Bibliographic references and index.
the Power Jets testing site in March of 1941. Even before Golley, John, and William Gunston. Whittle: The True
learning of the successful flight in May, he made ar- Story. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
rangements to have one of Whittle’s engines shipped to Press, 1987. Aside from Whittle’s autobiography
the United States to be used by General Electric Cor- (1953), this is the most complete account of his expe-
poration as a model for separate U.S. production. The riences developing the plane.
engine arrived in October, and within one year, a General Griffith, A. A. “Report on the Whittle Jet Propulsion Sys-
Electric-built engine powered a Bell Aircraft plane, the tem.” Report No. E 3545 (ARC 2897). Farnborough,
XP-59 A Airacomet, in its maiden flight. This was six England: Royal Aircraft Establishment, February,
months prior to the formal inauguration of the first En- 1937. Although compiled before World War II, this
glish Meteor aircraft. The October, 1942, inauguration of official report on the development of the Whittle en-
the XP-59 A was not witnessed by Whittle, but he visited gine was kept closed until several years after the war.
the United States in May, 1942, to confer with American Whittle, Frank. “The Early History of the Whittle Jet-
engineers working on the project. Propulsion Gas Turbine-1.” In The Aeroplane. Lon-
Meanwhile, German engineers had scored even more don, 1945. Written for the layperson, this account of
impressive advances, as their research and development how the Whittle turbojet worked is one of the earliest
projects did not depend (as General Electric’s did) on descriptions made available to the general public.
borrowed technology. One result of German technology, _______. Gas Turbine Aero-Thermodynamics: With
the V-1 unpiloted jet-propelled bomb, would become no- Special Reference to Aircraft Propulsion. New York:
torious when it began flying against English targets at a Pergamon Press, 1981. This textbook contains techni-
fairly early stage in the war. Less effective than the V-l or cal material on subjects such as dealing with shock
its successor, the (rocket-propelled) V-2, was the only jet waves in the air, effect of height and speed on perfor-
aircraft that was actually used in the war: the Messer- mance, and Whittle’s ideas on designing a “Super-
schmidt Model 262. It appeared late in 1944 and far sur- Thrust Engine” in the 1980’s, “regardless of fuel con-
passed any possible rival that the Allied powers had sumption.”
been developing. It could achieve speeds of more than _______. Jet: The Story of a Pioneer. London: Frederick
805 kilometers (500 miles) per hour. Although this air- Müller, 1953. Whittle’s autobiographical account of
craft was conceived as a fighter plane, it ended its brief his pre-World War II experiences in the Royal Air
career (still the only operational jet aircraft used during Force and Power Jets, as well as his immediate post-
World War II) in a series of bombing attacks. All of the war career as a paramount representative of a strug-
wartime experimental jet aircraft developments that gling new area of aviation technology.
were either sparked by the flight in 1941 or preceded it
See also: June 13 and Sept. 8, 1944: German V-1 and
essentially prepared the way for the research and devel-
V-2 Weapons Are Deployed; Oct. 14, 1947: Yeager
opment projects that would leave a permanent revolu-
Breaks the Sound Barrier; Nov. 20, 1953: Test Air-
tionary mark on aviation history in the early 1950’s.
craft Exceeds Twice the Speed of Sound; Oct. 14,
—Byron Cannon
1957-Dec. 10, 1963: Dyna-Soar Space Plane Is De-
Further Reading veloped; June 8, 1959-Dec. 31, 1968: X-15 Rocket
Constant, Edward W., II. The Origins of the Turbojet Aircraft Program; Apr. 28, 1967: McDonnell and
Revolution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Douglas Aircraft Companies Merge; July 21, 1968:
Press, 1980. This book covers a wide variety of tech- Congress Acts to Control Noise Pollution; Dec. 13,
nical questions of turbojet functioning, but it devotes 1969: First Jumbo Jet Is Delivered to Airlines.
80
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Germany Invades Crete
May 20-June 1, 1941

Germany Invades Crete
1941
Germany overwhelmed British Commonwealth and ily evacuated by ship from mainland Greece to Crete and
Greek defenses on Crete with an unprecedented Egypt in what was known as Operation Demon.
airborne offensive, the largest glider and parachute The commander of the Allied troops in Crete was a
assault attempted to that date. decorated veteran of World War I, Major General Ber-
nard Cyril Freyberg. At the beginning of World War II,
Also known as: Operation Mercury; Battle of Crete Freyberg had been appointed commander of the Second
Locale: Crete, Greece New Zealand Expeditionary Force and its combat com-
Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; World ponent, the Second New Zealand Division. He had taken
War II part in Operation Demon, landing with some fifteen
Key Figures thousand troops on Crete on April 29. Another twelve
Kurt Student (1890-1978), commanding general of the thousand landed a few days later. Freyberg expected to
Luftwaffe XI Flying Corps and inspector of regroup his troops shortly in Egypt, but under pressure
parachute and air-landing troops from British prime minister Winston Churchill and field
Bernard Cyril Freyberg (1889-1963), commander of marshal Archibald Wavell—the latter of whom was
the Second New Zealand Division and Allied commander of the British army in the Middle East—he
commander on Crete reluctantly agreed to remain. Besides his own forces,
Hermann Göring (1893-1946), commander of the Freyberg also had about nine thousand Greek troops at
Luftwaffe his disposal, but he believed that he lacked the necessary
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- arms, tranport, and air cover to mount an effective de-
1945 fense of the island.
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of After the conquest of mainland Greece, Lieutenant
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 General Kurt Student and his superior, Reichsmarschall
Archibald Wavell (1883-1950), commander in chief of Hermann Göring, had proposed to Hitler that German
British forces in the Middle East, 1939-1941 forces attack Crete initially from the air. Their plan was
to land 750 troops by glider and 10,000 by parachute in
Summary of Event order to capture the airfields at the northern towns of
Lying about fifty-six miles southeast of the Greek main- Máleme, Rethymnon, and Iráklion, allowing the landing
land, Crete is the largest Greek island and occupies a stra- of conventional aircraft. It was to be the first large-scale
tegic position in the Eastern Mediterranean. By 1941, it airborne invasion in history and was codenamed Opera-
had assumed critical importance as one of a series of tion Mercury. Student himself supervised the invasion
Allied territories that included the British colony of Gi- from German headquarters in the newly captured Greek
braltar at the western end of the Mediterranean, British- capital of Athens, and he ordered heavy aerial bombard-
controlled Egypt and the Suez Canal at its eastern end, ment of the island beginning May 1.
continental Greece, and the British island colonies of Ostensibly unaware of his enemy’s plans, Freyberg
Malta and Cyprus. prepared his troops for possible invasion by both sea and
After his armies successfully swept through much of air. Freyberg was later criticized for this action, as he had
western and central Europe, German führer Adolf Hitler access to secret, albeit ambiguous, intelligence suggest-
had one overriding goal: the conquest of the Soviet ing that the Germans would first attack by air. However,
Union. It was imperative, however, that his armies guard it was feared that preparations for this eventuality alone
against any attack from Greece or Yugoslavia. Greece in would have warned the Germans that their code had been
particular posed a threat, as it was not only an ally of broken.
Great Britain but also a base for some fifty-seven thou- The Germans opened their attack soon after 6:00 a.m.
sand British and Commonwealth troops, including four- on May 20, 1941, with an hour of intense bombardment
teen thousand on Crete. Hitler chose to attack both coun- of the airfield at Máleme and the Suda Bay area to the
tries on April 6, 1941, crushing organized resistance in east. This bombardment was followed by waves of glid-
Yugoslavia in eleven days and in Greece in eighteen ers and paratroopers. In the chaotic hours that followed,
days. Allied troops and a number of civilians were hast- both sides took heavy losses, with the Germans suffering
81
Germany Invades Crete The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
four thousand casualties. Similar attacks took place troops disappeared into Crete’s hills and mountains to
farther east at the smaller airfields at Rethymnon and form the core of a determined resistance movement.
Iráklion that afternoon. A German convoy carrying arms
Significance
and materiel also left mainland Greece on May 20, but it
The Battle of Crete involved the first large-scale airborne
was intercepted by the Royal Navy during the night and
invasion in history. The Germans won the battle, but
largely destroyed. Naval action near the island continued
their victory was a near-disaster, exacerbated by their de-
throughout the following days, but German air power
termination to win at practically any cost. Underesti-
was to prove superior to British sea power.
mating the strength of resistance, they suffered at least
Resistance on the ground by Allied troops and Cretan
six thousand and perhaps as many as seventeen thousand
civilians was so effective that by nightfall on May 20, the
casualties—more than they had suffered during the en-
Germans found themselves in an unexpectedly weak po-
tire Balkan campaign. The cost discouraged Hitler from
sition. When informed of the situation, Hitler ordered
undertaking any further large-scale airborne operations.
Student to abandon the operation unless at least one air-
In addition, the scale of continuing Cretan resistance
field could be secured the following day. For their part,
forced Hitler to station tens of thousands of troops on the
Freyberg and his officers seemed unaware of their ad-
island, making them unavailable for other campaigns.
vantage and failed to act on it. In fact, New Zealand
Despite such heavy garrisoning, he failed to take advan-
troops were withdrawn during the night from a highly
tage of the occupation by using the island as a base in
strategic position, Kazvakia Hill (also known as Hill
connection with the Axis campaign in North Africa. He
107), overlooking the Máleme airfield. As a result, the
focused his attention instead on the Soviet Union, the in-
Germans were able to take control of the field the follow-
vasion of which he had been forced to delay as a result of
ing day and to land several thousand fresh troops by
the drawn-out battle.
plane. By the time Freyberg mounted a counterattack, the
Out of some forty-eight thousand troops, the Allies
German lines holding the area had grown too strong.
suffered almost fifty-five hundred killed and wounded,
Freyberg’s critics have charged that his failure to de-
losing more troops at sea than on land. Over twelve thou-
fend Máleme more aggressively cost the Allies the bat-
sand Allied troops were taken prisoner. Nine large and
tle, but control of the other airfields remained undecided
sixteen small Royal Navy ships were sunk, and seven-
until May 29. Resistance in the Iráklion area was so
teen others were seriously damaged. After reviewing the
fierce that on May 24 the Germans rounded up forty-two
battle, the Royal Navy was forced to acknowledge its
civilians—men, women, and children—for execution by
vulnerability to concentrated air power, while the Royal
firing squad. The same day, German planes ruthlessly
Air Force quickly developed a plan to defend its bases
bombed and strafed the defenseless capital of the island,
from future attack.
Canea. These were the first of many atrocities committed
— Grove Koger
by the Germans during their occupation.
Freyberg had begun a gradual withdrawal on May 26 Further Reading
toward the port of Sphakia on the island’s southwestern Barber, Laurie, and John Tonkin-Covell. Freyberg:
coast. Reviewing the grim situation the following day, Churchill’s Salamander. London: Hutchinson, 1990.
Wavell notified Churchill that Crete could not be held Biography of the Allied commander defending Crete.
any longer, and Freyberg ordered an evacuation begin- Bell, Kelly. “Costly Capture of Crete.” World War II 14
ning the night of May 28-29 from Khóra Sfakíon and (May 1999): 50-56. Succinct account with black-and-
other ports. The Royal Navy embarked between sixteen white and color photographs.
thousand and eighteen thousand troops for Egypt, al- Forty, George. Battle of Crete. Hersham, Surrey, En-
though one of its ships was sunk by German fighters in gland: Ian Allan, 2001. Heavily illustrated analysis of
the process and several more were damaged. As the Ger- the battle, supplemented with a useful chronology,
mans had already redeployed some of their air units for glossary, bibliography, very detailed maps, and ap-
the projected invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation pendixes.
Barbarossa), Allied losses during the evacuation were Kiriakopoulos, G. C. The Nazi Occupation of Crete,
significantly lighter than they might otherwise have 1941-1945. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1995. Opens
been. The five thousand Allied troops remaining in with a summary of the German invasion before pro-
Khóra Sfakíon surrendered on June 1, but Greek forces ceeding to an analysis of the subsequent occupation.
and some five hundred British and Commonwealth _______. Ten Days to Destiny: The Battle for Crete,
82
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Sinking of the German Battleship Bismarck
1941. New York: F. Watts. 1985. Description written Thomas, David. Nazi Victory: Crete, 1941. New York:
from the Greek point of view by an author of Cretan Stein and Day, 1973. Account by a retired Royal
descent and drawing on firsthand Cretan accounts. Navy officer emphasizing naval aspects of the battle.
1941
Map, extensive bibliography. Photographs, appendixes, bibliography.
MacDonald, Callum. The Lost Battle: Crete, 1941. New See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
York: Free Press, 1993. Definitive, evenhanded ac- European Theater; Apr. 6-30, 1941: Germany
count of the battle analyzing miscalculations by both Mounts the Balkan Offensive; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8,
German and Allied commanders. Map, photographs, 1942: Germany Invades Russia; Nov. 8, 1942: Inva-
good bibliography. sion of North Africa.
May 26-27, 1941

Sinking of the German Battleship BISMARCK
The Bismarck became Germany’s most feared chant ships in the North Atlantic, lure away their armed
battleship after destroying the pride of the British escorts, and destroy them all. The commander of the op-
Royal Navy, the Hood. The Bismarck was disabled by eration was Admiral Günther Lütjens, who had led the
a torpedo bomber on May 26, 1941, and sank on the similar Operation Berlin a few months earlier and who
following day. The event caused a shift in naval now traveled aboard the Bismarck with his staff.
warfare strategy, which thereafter began to recognize Under the command of Captain Ernst Lindemann, the
the value of subsurface and air assets. Bismarck sailed from the Baltic Sea port of Gotenhafen
(Gdynia) on Monday, May 19, 1941, and later in the day
Locale: Bay of Biscay, North Atlantic Ocean was joined by the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen and three
Categories: Military history; World War II destroyers. The task force encountered the Swedish
Key Figures cruiser Gotland in one of the narrow passages connecting
Trevenen Penrose Coode (fl. mid-twentieth century), the Baltic and North seas on May 20, and although Swe-
strike commander of the planes whose torpedoes den’s ostensibly neutral status suggested that news of the
disabled the Bismarck sighting might not reach the Allies, Lütjens chose to de-
Philip Vian (1894-1968), commander of the destroyer lay his progress. Accordingly, the task force lay up the
flotilla responsible for sinking the Bismarck following day in fjords on the southwest coast of German-
Sir John Cronyn Tovey (1885-1971), commander in occupied Norway and only at nightfall continued its jour-
chief of the Home Fleet, Royal Navy ney into open waters. At this point, the destroyers accom-
Günther Lütjens (1889-1941), fleet commander of the panying the two larger ships dropped away.
Kriegsmarine (German navy) and commander of The allies were keenly aware of the Bismarck’s dan-
Operation Rheinübung gerous capabilities and made every effort to track it. Be-
Ernst Lindemann (1894-1941), captain of the Bismarck sides the sighting by the Gotland (a report of which was
Erich Raeder (1876-1960), grand admiral of the forwarded), a British Spitfire plane photographed the
German navy ships in the Norwegian fjords on May 21. Another flight
the following day revealed that the ships were gone, but
Summary of Event the British could not be sure where they were headed.
At the time of its completion in 1941, the Bismarck was After assessing the situation, the commander in chief
one of the most formidable battleships of the time. Pro- of the British Home Fleet, Admiral Sir John Cronyn
tected by heavy armor, carrying eight primary guns in Tovey, guessed that the German task force might round
four turrets, and capable of speeds of more than 30 knots northern Iceland and proceed southward through the
(nautical miles per hour), it was designed to prey upon Denmark Strait between Iceland and Greenland. Thus he
commerce in the open sea. The new ship was pressed into ordered two of his fleet’s best ships, the battleships Hood
service by Grand Admiral Erich Raeder to take part in and the Prince of Wales, to take up positions south of Ice-
Operation Rheinübung (Rhine exercise), whose purpose land. The heavy cruisers Suffolk and Norfolk were to pa-
was to intercept convoys of British and American mer- trol the Denmark Strait. On the chance that the Germans
83
Sinking of the German Battleship Bismarck The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
might choose another route, Tovey positioned his re- Lindemann gave the order to scuttle the Bismarck, and its
maining ships between Iceland and the British base of sailors struggled to abandon ship. At this point most of
Scapa Flow in northern Scotland. This last group in- the British ships withdrew, leaving the Dorsetshire to
cluded the battleship King George V, aboard which To- finish the attack with torpedoes. The Bismarck sank in
vey himself traveled. heavy seas at 10:39 a.m., only a few days after beginning
On Friday, May 23, the Bismarck and another Ger- its first operational deployment. Of its more than 2,200
man ship, the Prinz Eugen, were sighted by the Suffolk, officers and crew, only 116 were rescued. Both Lütjens
which managed to radio the news to Tovey while avoid- and Lindemann perished.
ing an engagement. Early the following day, May 24, the
Significance
German ships encountered the Hood and the Prince of
Although German chancellor Adolf Hitler celebrated the
Wales. In the ensuing exchange of fire, a shell from the
completion of the Bismarck in 1941, Grand Admiral Rae-
Bismarck struck the Hood, setting off a conflagration and
der believed that Hitler undervalued the country’s sur-
detonating its magazines. The ship sank in the space of
face fleet and underestimated the danger that Great Brit-
three minutes, dooming virtually all its crew. The Prince
ain’s naval strength posed. Adding to his concerns was
of Wales was also hit but managed to escape.
the fact that Operation Berlin seemed to have had only
The brief Battle of the Denmark Strait marked a sig-
minimal impact on the enemy. When given an opportu-
nificant defeat for the British fleet. Although aging and
nity to mount a similar operation that might vindicate his
poorly armored, the Hood was nevertheless the pride of
beliefs, Raeder rushed the Bismarck into action before it
the Royal Navy, and its loss was a severe blow to British
had undergone optimal sea trials and before its men had
morale. As a result, the British determined to sink the
received the best possible training. In addition, Raeder
Bismarck at all costs, diverting as many ships as possible
and Fleet Commander Lütjens both knew that the Prinz
to its pursuit.
Eugen was poorly armored and that its pairing with the
As it turned out, the battle had not left the Bismarck
larger ship was not ideal.
unscathed. It had been hit by three shells from the Prince
Yet the larger issue at stake had little to do with
of Wales, resulting in a loss of fuel and a reduction in its
any shortcomings in the initial phases of Operation Rhein-
top speed to 28 knots. Consequently, Lütjens decided to
übung. The Bismarck’s loss, traceable to a single torpedo
make for the port of Saint-Nazaire on the western coast
dropped by a slow biplane, revealed that Raeder’s over-
of occupied France for repairs. The British ships shad-
all strategy was flawed and outdated. The sinking of the
owing it lost contact early on the morning of May 25 but
Bismarck, and of the Hood before it, marked the end of
were able to estimate its approximate location using ra-
the era of large—and vulnerable—battleships. Hence-
dio direction finding equipment. Its precise location was
forth. submarines and aircraft carriers dominated naval
reestablished the morning of Monday, May 26, when a
warfare.
Catalina aircraft, on loan to the Royal Air Force by the
— Grove Koger
United States, sighted the Bismarck approaching the Bay
of Biscay. Further Reading
As Tovey’s ships were too far away to reach it before Bercusson, David J., and Holger H. Herwig. The De-
the Bismarck entered port, the task of interception was struction of the Bismarck. New York: Overlook,
given to a flotilla of destroyers commanded by Captain 2001. Emphasizes the American role in the hunt for
Philip Vian and sailing north from the British colony of the Bismarck. Includes short biographies of key fig-
Gibraltar. Fifteen Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers ures and histories of the ships involved. Illustrations,
launched from the carrier Ark Royal under the direction maps, extensive bibliography.
of Lieutenant-Commander Trevenen Penrose Coode at- Brower, Jack. The Battleship Bismarck: Anatomy of the
tacked the Bismarck at nightfall. At least two torpedoes Ship. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2005.
struck the ship, one of them jamming its rudders and Detailed chronology of the ship’s construction and
leaving it unable to maneuver. subsequent career, followed by a short text, photo-
By the following morning, May 27, Tovey’s flotilla graphs, and an extensive series of diagrams.
reached the area. The King George V, the Norfolk, the Rhys-Jones, Graham. The Loss of the Bismarck: An
battleship Rodney, and the heavy cruiser Dorsetshire Avoidable Disaster. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute
began their attack on the German ship shortly before Press, 1999. A comprehensive account of the ship’s
9:00 a.m., besieging it with 2,876 shells. An hour later, career and an examination of the role of the German
84
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Yankee Baseball Great Lou Gehrig Dies
high command in its loss. Photographs, maps, de- on a Famous Engagement. Annapolis, Md.: Naval In-
tailed notes, bibliography, glossary. stitute Press, 1998. Examines inconsistencies in pre-
Steury, Donald P. “Naval Intelligence, the Atlantic Cam- vious accounts of the ship’s pursuit and destruction.
1941
paign, and the Sinking of the Bismarck: A Story in the Maps, photographs, short bibliography.
Integration of Intelligence into the Conduct of Naval
Warfare.” Journal of Contemporary History 22
European Theater; Mar. 1, 1941: United States Enters
(1987): 209-233. Attributes the loss of the ship to
the Battle of the Atlantic; Mar. 11, 1941: Roosevelt
British superiority in the strategic use of intelligence.
Signs the Lend-Lease Act; Dec. 11, 1941: Germany
Winklareth, Robert J. The Bismarck Chase: New Light
and Italy Declare War on the United States.
June 2, 1941
Yankee Baseball Great Lou Gehrig Dies
Lou Gehrig, the star first baseman on the great New five. He had batted .351 in 1937, but he started the 1938
York Yankee teams of the 1920’s and 1930’s, was season poorly, batting just .133 in April. Teammates and
diagnosed with ALS in 1939 and died of the disease opponents noticed that he frequently stumbled running
two years later. His illness and death brought national the base paths and fielding his position. In May, Gehrig
attention to a disease that few Americans had heard of complained of back pains, but he completed the 1938
and few medical researchers had studied or treated. season with respectable statistics—a .295 batting aver-
age, 29 home runs, and 114 runs batted in—and the Yan-
Locale: Bronx, New York kees won the World Series for the third straight season. It
Categories: Sports; health and medicine was the first time since 1925, however, that Gehrig had
Key Figure not achieved a .300 seasonal batting average.
Lou Gehrig (1903-1941), American Hall of Fame Gehrig’s physical problems persisted during the win-
baseball player ter of 1938 and 1939. After seeing a physician, Gehrig
was informed that he had gallbladder problems, and he
Summary of Event was placed on a strict diet. When he reported for spring
Lou Gehrig, the son of German immigrants, played first training in 1939, however, he appeared weak and unco-
base on six World Series-winning New York Yankee ordinated. His arm, leg, and torso muscles seemed signif-
teams during the 1920’s and 1930’s. During his career, icantly diminished. He swung the bat feebly, stumbled
Gehrig, who reached the major leagues in 1923, amassed running the bases, and made errors on routine fielding
493 home runs, 1,990 runs batted in, and a batting aver- plays. He began the season for the Yankees at first base,
age of .340. The feat of which Gehrig was proudest, how- but after eight games it became clear that Gehrig could
ever, was his record consecutive-game-playing streak of not compete. His batting average was .143, and he had
2,130 games. The streak, which began on June 1, 1925, batted in only one run. On May 2, Gehrig asked Yankee
and ended on May 1, 1939, marked Gehrig as baseball’s manager Joe McCarthy to remove him from the Yankee
most durable player and earned him the nickname the lineup for a game in Detroit against the Tigers. McCarthy
Iron Horse. (Cal Ripken, Jr., of the Baltimore Orioles complied with his first baseman’s request, and Gehrig’s
broke Gehrig’s consecutive-game-playing streak on streak of 2,130 consecutive games came to an end. He
September 6, 1995, and went on to play in 2,632 consec- never played another major-league game.
utive games.) Gehrig’s Yankee teammates included Gehrig assumed that after a few weeks of rest he
Babe Ruth, Bill Dickey, and Joe DiMaggio. might return to the Yankee lineup, but the time off did not
During spring training in 1938, Gehrig, age thirty- improve his condition. In June, he reported to the Mayo
four, began to complain about sore hands and unsteady Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, for a series of medical
legs. Blisters and bruises formed on his hands and arms. tests. Doctors at the clinic diagnosed Gehrig as having
Gehrig surmised that he was merely dealing with the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a little-known neu-
same physical problems that all professional athletes be- rological disorder that gradually shuts down the body’s
gin to experience as they approached the age of thirty- central nervous system—first attacking the hands, arms,
85
Yankee Baseball Great Lou Gehrig Dies The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
and legs, then destroying the respiratory system, leading cans were familiar with polio—President Franklin D.
eventually to death, usually within three years of diag- Roosevelt suffered from it—and they assumed that the
nosis. disease would end Gehrig’s career but would not soon be
In 1939, few Americans had heard of ALS. The dis- fatal. As his condition worsened, Gehrig, at least in pub-
ease had been first identified by Jean-Martin Charcot, a lic, remained upbeat, maintaining that his disease had
French neurologist, in 1874, and in Europe the disease been arrested and that his condition might improve with
carried his name. There was no known cure. More than treatment.
fifty years after ALS had been classified, few American On July 4, 1939, the Yankees held Lou Gehrig Appre-
physicians and medical researchers knew very much ciation Day at Yankee Stadium. Between games of that
about it. Dr. Paul O’Leary of the Mayo Clinic, who had day’s doubleheader, Gehrig was praised by baseball dig-
diagnosed Gehrig, and Dr. Israel Wechsler, a New York nitaries and accepted gifts from teammates and oppo-
neurologist, had to treat Gehrig’s illness with experimen- nents. The highlight of the ceremony, which attracted
tal procedures, which included histamine injections and more than sixty thousand fans, was a moving speech by
large doses of vitamin E. Gehrig. He acknowledged that he had gotten a bad break,
In a letter to the New York Yankees, doctors at the but he still considered himself the “luckiest man on the
Mayo Clinic incorrectly compared ALS to infantile pa- face of the earth” for having played with the Yankees for
ralysis, another term for polio. Subsequent news stories more than fifteen seasons. He concluded his speech by
also compared Gehrig’s illness to polio. In 1939, Ameri- asserting that he had a lot to live for. At the end of the
Lou Gehrig slides into home plate, scoring a run for the Yankees in a game against the Washington Senators in 1925 or 1926. (Library
of Congress)
86
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Yankee Baseball Great Lou Gehrig Dies
Lou Gehrig’s Farewell-to-Baseball Speech rig’s body at the Church of the Divine
Paternity in Manhattan, and about
Fans, for the past two weeks you have been reading about the bad break I one thousand mourners attended his
got. Yet today I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of this earth. I
1941
funeral. In 1942, Hollywood saluted
have been in ballparks for seventeen years and have never received anything
but kindness and encouragement from you fans.
Gehrig by releasing The Pride of the
Look at these grand men. Which of you wouldn’t consider it the highlight of Yankees starring Gary Cooper as
his career just to associate with them for even one day? Sure, I’m lucky. Who Gehrig and Babe Ruth as himself.
wouldn’t consider it an honor to have known Jacob Ruppert? Also, the builder The film, generally acknowledged
of baseball’s greatest empire, Ed Barrow? To have spent six years with that as one of the best baseball films ever
wonderful little fellow, Miller Huggins? Then to have spent the next nine years produced, earned nine Academy
with that outstanding leader, that smart student of psychology, the best man- Award nominations.
ager in baseball today, Joe McCarthy? Sure, I’m lucky.
When the New York Giants, a team you would give your right arm to beat, Significance
and vice versa, sends you a gift—that’s something. When everybody down to Lou Gehrig gave ALS a human face.
the groundskeepers and those boys in white coats remember you with tro-
Even before Gehrig succumbed to
phies—that’s something. When you have a wonderful mother-in-law who
takes sides with you in squabbles with her own daughter—that’s something.
the disease, Americans began call-
When you have a father and a mother who work all their lives so you can have ing ALS Lou Gehrig’s disease. So
an education and build your body—it’s a blessing. When you have a wife who little was known about the disease
has been a tower of strength and shown more courage than you dreamed ex- in Gehrig’s time, however, that a
isted—that’s the finest I know. season-long slump by the Yankees in
So I close in saying that I may have had a tough break, but I have an awful lot 1940 was blamed on Gehrig. A New
to live for. York Daily News reporter suggested
that Gehrig had spread his disease to
his teammates the previous season
and that these Yankees were now
1939 baseball season, the Baseball Hall of Fame waived showing its effects on the baseball diamond. (The Yan-
its requirement that players wait five years after retire- kees finished in third place in 1940.) At the time of Geh-
ment before being considered for admission and admit- rig’s death, medical researchers knew little about ALS,
ted Gehrig. but they were certain that the disease was not contagious,
Few baseball fans believed that Gehrig would be dead and they assured the public of that fact. Gehrig’s ordeal
in less than two years. In October, 1939, he accepted an also made clear that ALS was not simply a form of polio.
offer from New York mayor Fiorello La Guardia to serve Since Gehrig’s death, millions of research dollars have
as commissioner of the city’s parole board. He drove to been raised to study ALS. Various remedies have been
work every day and fulfilled the duties of his position. He tested. At least one unsuccessful treatment—ingesting
remained optimistic, carefully followed the regimen of large doses of vitamin E—was abandoned shortly after
therapies prescribed by his doctors, and stoically en- Gehrig’s death. Despite extensive research, however,
dured the slow deterioration of his once-powerful body. medical researchers of the twenty-first century still do not
In letters to his physicians, he carefully documented his know what causes the disease, and they have discovered
diminishing physical capabilities, providing researchers no effective treatment or cure. Most ALS patients still die
with detailed information about the progress of his dis- within three years of diagnosis. Since 1941, however, in-
ease. By the end of 1939, Gehrig could no longer write. dividuals suffering from Lou Gehrig’s disease have had as
Nonetheless, he still maintained publicly, with his doc- a role model a person who endured the disease with sto-
tors’ encouragement, that his disease had been arrested. icism, dignity, and even hope before losing his life to it.
By the start of 1941, Gehrig began to accept the notion — James Tackach
that ALS would soon take his life. Sapped of energy, his
motor skills deteriorating, Gehrig resigned from his pa- Further Reading
role board job in April and confined himself to his Bronx Creamer, Robert W. Baseball in 1941. New York: Vi-
home. He died on June 2, 1941. Baseball and New York king, 1991. Discusses Gehrig’s death in the context of
Yankee officials issued statements of appreciation and the 1941 baseball season.
condolence. Thousands of New Yorkers viewed Geh- Eig, Jonathan. Luckiest Man: The Life and Death of Lou
87
Germany Invades Russia The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Gehrig. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. The fi- See also: Apr. 15, 1947: Robinson Breaks the Color
nal third of this detailed biography of Gehrig focuses Line in Major-League Baseball; Sept. 30-Oct. 6,
on the final two years of his life. 1947: NBC Broadcasts the Baseball World Series;
Robinson, Ray. Iron Horse: Lou Gehrig in His Time. July 2, 1952: Salk Develops a Polio Vaccine; Oct. 8,
New York: W. W. Norton, 1990. An excellent biogra- 1956: Larsen Pitches a Perfect Game in Baseball’s
phy of Gehrig. World Series; 1957: Sabin Develops the Oral Polio
Smith, Richard Alan, ed. Handbook of Amyotrophic Lat- Vaccine; Fall, 1957: Brooklyn Dodgers Move to Los
eral Sclerosis. New York: Dekker, 1992. A complete Angeles; Jan. 16, 1970: Flood Tests Baseball’s Re-
guide to ALS. serve Clause.
June 22, 1941-January 8, 1942

Germany Invades Russia
Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union initiated a Kampf (1925-1926; English translation, 1939), Hitler
four-year conflict whose outcome did much to decide laid out his plans for Germany once he achieved power:
the outcome of World War II as a whole. It also dictatorship, preparations for war, and a series of wars to
marked the true beginning of the Holocaust, Nazi gain Lebensraum (living space), agriculturally produc-
Germany’s systematic mass murder of some six million tive land to be colonized by racially superior Germans.
European Jews. Since the future Nazi dictator identified the Soviet
Ukraine as the chief source of Lebensraum in Europe,
Also known as: Operation Barbarossa war against Russia was a necessity.
Locale: Soviet Union Once in power, Hitler never wavered from his deter-
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil mination to conquer Russia, although in 1939 he agreed
unrest to a nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union that bene-
Key Figures fited Germany strategically and economically during the
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933-1945 first twenty-two months of World War II. For Hitler, the
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; 1939 pact was a tactical agreement to be discarded when
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central he so chose. In late July, 1940, following Germany’s
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet stunning victories in western Europe, the Nazi dictator
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 ordered immediate preparations for an attack against
Georgy Zhukov (1896-1974), Soviet general and Russia to take place the following spring.
deputy commissar of defense During the last months of 1940 and the first months of
1941, Germany’s military leadership concentrated 73
Summary of Event percent of its army and 58 percent of its air force on the
In the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, June 22, 1941, Nazi Soviet frontier. Divided into three army groups—Army
Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion Group North, commanded by Field Marshal Ritter von
of the Soviet Union. Believing themselves racially and Leeb, Army Group Center, commanded by Field Mar-
militarily superior and thus confident they would defeat shal Fedor von Bock, and Army Group South, com-
the Soviets in only eleven to fourteen weeks, the Ger- manded by Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt—the
mans scored impressive victories throughout the summer Barbarossa invasion force included 3.3 million German
and fall and advanced to within twenty miles of Moscow troops, 2,700 planes, 3,300 tanks, 7,200 artillery pieces,
by early December. Barbarossa ultimately failed, how- 600,000 motor vehicles, 650,000 horses, and 100,000
ever, and Germany found itself involved in a brutal strug- wagons, supported by 500,00 Axis troops.
gle that lasted until May, 1945, destroyed its military Additionally, special police formations, including
power, and paved the way for its defeat in World War II. four Einsatzgruppen and nine Order Police battalions,
When Barbarossa commenced, war against the Soviet were assigned, on Hitler’s orders, to take part in the inva-
Union had been on Nazi leader Adolf Hitler’s agenda for sion. Their task was to eliminate specific categories of
nearly two decades. In his political autobiography, Mein racial and ideological enemies, Soviet Jews in particular.
88
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Germany Invades Russia
The presence of these units, along with special orders ture Moscow by year’s end. Codenamed Tyhoon, this
pertaining to the execution of commissars and the mal- operation produced major tactical victories—and the
treatment of prisoners of war issued to the army, guaran- capture of an additional 700,000 prisoners—at Vyazma
1941
teed Hitler’s intention that the campaign would be waged and Bryansk (October 7) and witnessed Army Group
as a Vernichtungskrieg (war of annihilation) against peo- Center fight its way through increasing Soviet resistance
ples deemed racially inferior by Nazi ideology. and the onset of bad weather to the outskirts of Moscow.
Barbarossa caught the Soviets unprepared. Although There, on December 5, its offensive capabilities al-
the Soviet high command deployed 2.8 million men, ready spent, von Bock’s army group fell victim to an un-
1,800 tanks, and 6,500 aircraft near the western frontier, anticipated Soviet counterattack. Planned and directed
these forces suffered from incomplete defensive posi- by General Georgy Zhukov, whom Stalin had entrusted
tions, obsolete technology, and an officer corps still trau- with Moscow’s defense on October 10, the counterattack
matized by Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin’s 1937 purge of would last until January 8, 1942. It engendered panic
the military leadership. Moreover, Stalin,
who refused to believe that Hitler would
attack while Moscow supplied Germany German and Soviet Officials Meet
with vast quantities of raw materials and
foodstuffs and while the war against Brit- U.S. and British forces obtained documents from the archives of the
ain remained unresolved, ignored multiple German Foreign Office in 1945, after the Germans fled Berlin. One of
warnings—from foreign governments and those documents is a memorandum of the conversation between Reich
Soviet agents abroad—of the impending Foreign Minister Paul Otto Gustav Schmidt and Soviet Ambassador
Vladimir G. Dekanosov in the Reich Foreign Office on June 22, 1941,
invasion and failed to place his forces on
the day Germany declared war on Russia:
high alert.
Achieving operational surprise against a The Reich Foreign Minister began the conversation with the remark
grossly unprepared foe and employing the that the hostile attitude of the Soviet Government toward Germany and
blitzkrieg tactics responsible for previous the serious threat that Germany saw in the Russian concentration on the
victories in Poland and France, German eastern border of Germany, had forced the Reich to military counter-
forces quickly overwhelmed Soviet frontier measures. Dekanosov would find a detailed statement of the reasons
defenses and advanced rapidly, annihilating for the German attitude in the memorandum, which the Reich Foreign
entire Soviet armies ordered to stand their Minister then handed him. The Reich Foreign Minister added that he
regretted very much this development in German-Russian relations as
ground and counterattack when possible.
he in particular had made every attempt to bring about better relations
Army Group North pushed through the Bal-
between the two countries. It had, however, unfortunately transpired
tic states and closed in on Leningrad, all but that the ideological conflict between the two countries had become
isolating the city from September 9, when stronger than common sense, upon which he, the Reich Foreign Minis-
they initiated a nine-hundred-day siege that ter, had pinned his hopes. He had nothing further, the Reich Foreign
would cost more than one million Soviet Minister said in conclusion to add to his remarks.
citizens their lives. Army Group South pen- Dekanosov replied that he had asked for an interview with the Reich
etrated the Ukraine and captured Kiev on Foreign Minister because, in the name of the Soviet Government, he
September 19, taking in excess of 600,000 wanted to pose a few questions that, in his opinion, required clarification.
prisoners in the process. Von Rundstedt’s The Reich Foreign Minister thereupon replied that he had nothing to
forces then drove farther east, eventually add to what he had already stated. He had hoped that the two countries
would contrive a sensible relationship with each other. He had been de-
seizing, albeit temporarily, Rostov on the
ceived in this great hope for reasons that were explained in detail in the
Don River (November 20).
memorandum just delivered. The hostile policy of the Soviet Govern-
Army Group Center enjoyed even more ment toward Germany, which had reached its climax in the conclusion
spectacular successes. By early August, it of a pact with Yugoslavia at the very time of the German-Yugoslav
had driven more than four hundred miles, conflict, had been evident for a year. At a moment when Germany was
occupied both Minsk (June 28) and Smo- engaged in a life-and-death struggle, the attitude of Soviet-Russia, par-
lensk (July 16), and captured more than ticularly the concentration of the Russian military forces at the Soviet
600,000 prisoners. Then, after a controver- border, had presented so serious a threat to the Reich that the Führer
sial pause of six weeks, von Bock’s forces had to decide to take military countermeasures.
on September 30 launched a drive to cap-
89
Germany Invades Russia The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
among the Germans, prompted Hitler to relieve many of year. Thus, when Stalin called upon the Soviet citizens to
his field commanders and to assume personal command defend their motherland, the vast majority responded,
of the army, and pushed the Germans back from the im- providing the soldiers and workers whose efforts lay at
mediate approaches to Moscow—up to 130 miles in the heart of the Soviet Union’s victory.
some places.
Zhukov’s December, 1941, counteroffensive sig- Significance
naled Barbarossa’s failure. This failure is frequently at- Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union might be consid-
tributed to poor weather—autumn rains and the onset of ered one of the turning points of World War II. Producing
winter slowed Army Group Center’s push toward Mos- the first major defeat suffered by Hitler’s forces in the
cow in October and November—to Hitler’s military de- war—the 1940 Battle of Britain notwithstanding—it em-
cisions, specifically his decision to halt von Bock in Au- broiled the Germans in a bloody, four-year struggle to
gust rather than allow him to push on toward Moscow, or which they committed the bulk of their forces and during
to a combination of both factors. However, neither poor which their military power was fatally emasculated.
weather nor Hitler’s decisions explain adequately Ger- Operation Barbarossa also marked the onset of the
many’s failure to defeat the Soviet Union in a single cam- Holocaust. Conceived of and planned as an ideological
paign. In reality, Barbarossa failed, because the Soviet war of annihilation, the German invasion featured the
regime did not collapse and proved able
to mobilize Russia’s enormous human
and material resources. Hitler’s Proclamation on Invading Russia
Although initially shaken by the Ger-
man invasion, Stalin quickly recovered On June 22, 1941, Adolf Hitler announced to the German people his in-
and commenced raising reserve armies tention to invade Russia, in a speech mixing truth with lies:
at a frantic pace to replace those armies
Today something like 160 Russian divisions are standing at our fron-
annihilated as the Germans drove ever
tiers. For weeks constant violations of this frontier have taken place, not
deeper into the Soviet interior. Between only affecting us but from the far north down to Rumania. Russian airmen
the beginning of July and the beginning of consider it sport nonchalantly to overlook these frontiers, presumably to
December, the Soviet regime committed prove to us that they already feel themselves masters of these territories.
forty-two new field armies to the fighting, During the night of June 17 to June 18 Russian patrols again penetrated
while the Germans simultaneously suf- into the Reich’s territory and could only be driven back after prolonged
fered hundreds of thousands of casualties firing. This has brought us to the hour when it is necessary for us to take
that they simply could not replace. By steps against this plot devised by the Jewish-Anglo-Saxon warmongers
September 1, even before Operation Ty- and equally the Jewish rulers of the Bolshevist center in Moscow.
phoon, the Germans had suffered more German people! At this moment a march is taking place that, as re-
gards extent, compares with the greatest the world hitherto has seen.
than 409,000 casualties while having al-
United with their Finnish comrades, the fighters of the victory of Narvik
ready committed twenty-two of twenty-
are standing in the Northern Arctic. German divisions commanded by the
four available reserve divisions. conqueror of Norway, in cooperation with the heros of Finnish freedom,
Stalin’s ability to replace combat under their marshal, are protecting Finnish soil. Formations of the Ger-
losses combined with Hitler’s inability to man eastern front extend from East Prussia to the Carpathians. German
do so guaranteed that the Germans could and Rumanian soldiers are united under Chief of State Antonescu from
not destroy Soviet military power, which the banks of the Pruth along the lower reaches of the Danube to the shores
effectively doomed Barbarossa. Addi- of the Black Sea. The task of this front, therefore, no longer is the protec-
tionally, the crimes perpetrated by the tion of single countries, but the safeguarding of Europe and thereby the
German army and its accompanying po- salvation of all.
lice formations—mass shootings of Jews, I therefore decided today again to lay the fate of the future of the Ger-
man Reich and our people in the hands of our soldiers.
executions of commissars, the premedi-
May God help us especially in this fight!
tated decimation of prisoners—made the
Soviet regime look relatively benign. Of Source: “Hitler’s Proclamation on Invading Russia, 1941.” In The Great
Documents of Western Civilization, edited by Milton Viorst (New York:
the more than 3 million Soviet prison-
Grosset & Dunlap, 1965).
ers of war captured in 1941, fewer than
100,000 remained alive by the end of the
90
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Bans Discrimination in Defense-Industry Employment
systematic mass murder of Soviet Jews. It set the stage Megargee, Geoffrey P. War of Annihilation: Combat and
for the extension of the so-called Final Solution by the Genocide on the Eastern Front, 1941. Lanham, Md.:
Nazi regime to the Jews living throughout the remainder Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. Covers the invasion as
1941
of German-dominated Europe. both military and ideological campaign. Based on the
—Bruce J. DeHart most up-to-date scholarship.
Murray, Williamson and Allan R. Millett. “Barbarossa,
Further Reading
1941.” In A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second
Boog, Horst, et al. The Attack on the Soviet Union. Vol. 4
World War. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
in Germany and the Second World War. Oxford, En-
Press, 2000. A chapter in an excellent, single-volume
gland: Clarendon Press, 1998. Written by a team of
history of World War II; demonstrates the signifi-
leading historians at Germany’s Research Institute
cance of logistics in Barbarossa’s failure.
for Military History. Comprehensive in its coverage
Weinberg, Gerhard L. Germany and the Soviet Union,
of the invasion from the German perspective.
1939-1941. Reprint. Leiden, the Netherlands: E. J.
Glantz, David. Barbarossa: Hitler’s Invasion of Russia
Brill, 1972. Older but as-yet-unsurpassed analysis of
in 1941. Charleston, S.C.: Tempus, 2001. Authored
the Nazi-Soviet relationship in the era of the non-
by arguably the leading Western expert on the Soviet
aggression pact, providing valuable background to
side of the Russo-German conflict and based on So-
Barbarossa.
viet sources, this brief account emphasizes Russia’s
ability to commit reserves as the critical factor in See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
Barbarossa’s failure. European Theater; Apr. 6-30, 1941: Germany
Jukes, Geoffrey. The Second World War: The Eastern Mounts the Balkan Offensive; May 20-June 1, 1941:
Front, 1941-1945. Oxford, England: Osprey, 2002. Germany Invades Crete; Aug. 19, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943:
From Osprey’s Essential History series, this slim vol- Battle of Stalingrad; 1943-1948: Soviets Take Con-
ume covers the entire course of the war on the Eastern trol of Eastern Europe; Feb. 11, 1945: Soviet Exiles
Front and offers a clear account of background to and and Prisoners of War Are Forced into Repatriation;
the invasion itself. 1948: Soviets Escalate Persecution of Jews.
June 25, 1941

Roosevelt Bans Discrimination in Defense-Industry
Employment
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Executive Order Walter White (1893-1955), secretary of the National
8802 banned racial discrimination in defense-industry Association for the Advancement of Colored People
employment. The order, as well as the March on Fiorello Henry La Guardia (1882-1947), mayor of
Washington Movement that led to it, was a landmark New York City, 1934-1945, and chief of the U.S.
in U.S. civil rights history. Office of Civilian Defense, 1941-1942
Joseph L. Rauh, Jr. (1911-1992), lawyer in the U.S.
Office of Emergency Management
Also known as: Executive Order 8802
Paul V. McNutt (1891-1955), chair of the War
Locale: Washington, D.C.
Manpower Commission
Categories: Government and politics; civil rights
and liberties; business and labor
Summary of Event
Key Figures In one sense, the 1930’s marked the nadir of the plight of
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the African Americans in the postemancipation era. Cotton
United States, 1933-1945 overproduction and the New Deal programs to reduce
A. Philip Randolph (1889-1979), organizer of the acreage resulted in thousands of African American
March on Washington Movement sharecroppers and tenant farmers in the South being
Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962), First Lady of the driven from the land. Equally bleak was the situation in
United States, 1933-1945 urban areas. Typically the last hired and first fired, black
91
Roosevelt Bans Discrimination in Defense-Industry Employment The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
workers were probably the group hardest hit by the Great tive bargaining rights to unions that excluded blacks.
Depression. The defense buildup beginning in 1939 re- The organization’s goals did not differentiate the
sulted in only minimal gains for blacks. In 1940, for ex- MOWM from other civil rights groups. However, many
ample, there were only 240 African American aircraft black leaders, such as Walter White, the secretary of the
workers out of a total of 100,000, and those 240 were National Association for the Advancement of Colored
mostly janitors. For the most part, whites received the People (NAACP), were disturbed by, and even suspi-
higher-paying new jobs in the defense industries, while cious of, the MOWM’s organizational structure and tac-
blacks filled the lower-paying, less desirable service jobs tics. The MOWM consciously aimed to mobilize the
whites vacated. black masses and did not rely for its support upon the
There were also, by the late 1930’s, signs of growing black middle class. It sought to force concessions
support for black rights. Agitation by far-left political through direct action instead of behind-the-scenes nego-
groups, the rise of the Congress of Industrial Organiza- tiations. The MOWM also excluded whites from all par-
tions, the intellectual attack upon racism by social scien- ticipation. Randolph feared the danger of communist in-
tists, pro-civil rights Supreme Court decisions, and the filtration if whites were allowed to participate, and he
increasing black vote in northern cities all indicated sup- was convinced that it was time for African Americans to
port for the cause. Perhaps most important was the intake the lead in efforts in their own behalf. Since “no one
creased militancy found among the nation’s blacks. A. will fight as hard to remove and relieve pain as he who
Philip Randolph sought to channel this militancy by suffers from it,” Randolph took the position that “Ne-
launching the March on Washington Movement (MOWM) groes are the only people who are the victims of Jim
to pressure President Franklin D. Roosevelt into outlaw- Crow, and it is they who must take the initiative and as-
ing racial discrimination by defense industries. Randolph sume the responsibility to abolish it.”
had taken the lead in unionizing the black workers on the Randolph’s threat to lead a march of 50,000-100,000
Pullman cars of the nation’s railroads. In 1937, his Broth- African Americans on Washington, D.C., on July 1,
erhood of Sleeping Car Porters, an affiliate of the Amer- 1941, put the Roosevelt administration in a quandary.
ican Federation of Labor, had succeeded in gaining Roosevelt’s fear was that the march would result in seri-
recognition from the Pullman Company and winning im- ous violence, which would not only damage the image of
pressive benefits for its members. the United States abroad but also impair the nation’s
On January 15, 1941, Randolph first publicly called unity at home at a time when war appeared imminent. His
for a march by blacks upon Washington, D.C., to demand response was a mix of concessions and arm-twisting to
an end to racial discrimination in defense employment induce Randolph to call off the march.
and in the military services. In March, his new March on The Office of Production Management (OPM)
Washington Committee issued a formal call for the stepped up its efforts to persuade defense contractors to
march to take place on July 1, 1941. He believed that hire more blacks; Roosevelt himself in mid-June issued
such a protest, by publicizing the gap between America’s a public statement along the same lines. To pressure
professed ideals and its practice, would force Roosevelt Randolph, Roosevelt announced that he could “imagine
to act. “The administration leaders in Washington,” nothing that [would] stir up race hatred and slow up prog-
Randolph proclaimed, “will never give the Negro justice ress more than a march of that kind.” He even had his
until they see masses—ten, twenty, fifty thousand Ne- wife, Eleanor Roosevelt, whose championship of black
groes—on the White House lawn!” rights had won for her the warm affection of the black
All but one of Randolph’s demands could be met by community, intercede with Randolph and warn that the
executive orders: withholding defense contracts from march would be a “very grave mistake” that might result
manufacturers guilty of discrimination; authorizing gov- in a dangerous “incident” and thus “set back the progress
ernment seizure of recalcitrant plants; abolishing “dis- which [was] being made.”
crimination and segregation” in the armed forces and Randolph’s intransigence forced Roosevelt to make
federal government departments; ending discrimination further concessions. On June 18, Roosevelt named Mayor
in federally funded vocational training programs; and re- Fiorello Henry La Guardia of New York City, a man
quiring the United States Employment Service to make known for his sympathy for black aspirations, to head a
nondiscriminatory job referrals. The only demand that committee to work out a plan that Randolph would accept.
would require congressional action was amendment of The task of drafting an executive order formalizing the
the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 to deny collec- government’s concessions was assigned to a young law-
92
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Bans Discrimination in Defense-Industry Employment
sulted from Executive Order 8802 and the Fair Employ-

ment Practices Committee and how much resulted from
the worsening labor shortage resulting from the war. The
1941
FEPC’s chairs—Mark Ethridge, the publisher of the Lou-
isville Courier Journal; Malcolm S. MacLean, the presi-
dent of Hampton Institute; Catholic educator Monsignor
Francis J. Haas; and former newspaperman Malcolm
Ross—were staunch Roosevelt loyalists who shied from
politically embarrassing the president. The situation was
aggravated, moreover, by the FEPC’s placement under
the control of agencies with different priorities.
The FEPC was located first in the Office of Production
Management and then in the War Production Board. At
the end of July, 1942, Roosevelt placed the FEPC under
the new War Manpower Commission, whose chair was
former Indiana governor Paul V. McNutt. McNutt’s hos-
tility to the FEPC resulted in the agency’s near strangula-
tion. After several FEPC members resigned in protest,
Roosevelt intervened. On May 23, 1943, he issued Exec-
utive Order 9346, reaffirming the ban against discrimi-
nation in government contracts on the basis of race,
color, creed, or national origin, reorganizing and strength-
ening the FEPC, and making the FEPC an independent
agency—subject only to the authority of the president—
within the Office of Production Management.
Although this new setup gave the agency more auton-
President Franklin D. Roosevelt. (Library of Congress) omy than before, the FEPC continued to be of limited ef-
fectiveness. The FEPC lacked the funds or personnel to do
much and could act only upon a formal complaint. Even
yer in the Office of Emergency Management, Joseph L. if its investigation found a complaint justified, the FEPC,
Rauh, Jr., who would later become one of the country’s lacking statutory authority, could not require compliance
leading civil liberties and civil rights lawyers. Negotia- with its orders. It had to rely upon moral pressure and the
tions with Randolph finally resulted in a bargain. backing of other government war agencies. Its ultimate
On June 25, 1941, Roosevelt issued Executive Order sanction, cancellation of a war contract, was an empty
8802, forbidding government agencies and defense con- threat given the administration’s commitment to avoid-
tractors from discrimination in hiring on the basis of ing interference with war production. Only one-third of
race, creed, color, or national origin and establishing the the eight thousand complaints filed with the FEPC were
Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to inves- resolved successfully, and only one-fifth of those from
tigate complaints and “take appropriate steps to redress the South. Compliance orders were ignored by thirty-
grievances.” In return, Randolph called off the march. five of the forty-five affected companies and unions. The
Randolph had not gained all he had asked for, as Roose- FEPC faced continuous sniping from southern Demo-
velt balked at ending segregation in the armed forces, crats in Congress. In the summer of 1945, the FEPC’s op-
but he had won what he regarded as his “main objec- ponents in Congress succeeded in cutting its appropria-
tive.” The threatened march was mostly bluff, since tion in half and ordering its termination by June 30, 1946.
Randolph privately had grave doubts whether he could
carry out the plan. Significance
World War II resulted in substantial employment gains Randolph attempted to maintain the MOWM as an active
for blacks. The resulting improvement in black economic organization, but his calls for mass demonstrations and
status laid the foundation for black advances in other ar- civil disobedience to challenge Jim Crow were too mili-
eas. There is a question as to how much of those gains re- tant for most black leaders. Although the NAACP’s Wal-
93
Roosevelt Bans Discrimination in Defense-Industry Employment The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ter White had cooperated with the MOWM up to the issu- MOWM and the National Council for a Permanent
ance of Roosevelt’s executive order, a widening schism FEPC), extensive research in the black press, and a
developed between Randolph and the NAACP leadership large number of personal interviews.
by mid-1942. As the MOWM lost its momentum, direc- Kersten, Andrew Edmund. Race, Jobs, and the War: The
tion of the battle for civil rights was resumed by more tra- FEPC in the Midwest, 1941-1946. Urbana: Univer-
ditional organizations such as the NAACP and the Urban sity of Illinois Press, 2000. Study of the effects of
League. The late 1950’s, however, would see the rise of a Roosevelt’s executive order and the FEPC in the Mid-
new black mass movement modeled upon the MOWM. west. Bibliographic references and index.
The termination of the FEPC involved no more than a Moreno, Paul D. Black Americans and Organized Labor:
temporary setback for the supporters of equal opportu- A New History. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Univer-
nity in employment. New York, in 1945, became the first sity Press, 2006. History of African American em-
state to adopt laws against employment discrimination. ployment and the relations between black workers
President Harry S. Truman established a Fair Employ- and labor unions. Includes a chapter on the New Deal
ment Board within the United States Civil Service Com- and World War II. Bibliographic references and
mission in 1946 and a Government Contract Compliance index.
Committee in 1951. President Dwight D. Eisenhower is- Pfeffer, Paula F. A. Philip Randolph, Pioneer of the Civil
sued an executive order in 1955 barring discrimination in Rights Movement. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State Uni-
federal employment. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy versity Press, 1990. A thoroughly researched and doc-
issued Executive Order 10925, prohibiting discrimina- umented study that focuses upon Randolph’s activi-
tion in government contracts and government employ- ties in the area of civil rights rather than upon his work
ment and requiring government contractors to take affir- as a union leader. Illuminating on how Randolph’s
mative action to prevent discrimination. strategies provided the blueprint for the Civil Rights
Finally, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 pro- movement of the late 1950’s and early 1960’s.
hibited discrimination in private employment against Polenberg, Richard. War and Society: The United States,
any person on the basis of race, color, religion, national 1941-1945. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1972. The
origin, or sex and created the Equal Employment Oppor- best overall treatment of the American home front
tunity Commission (EEOC), which had the power to in- during World War II. Includes a brief but illuminating
vestigate and reconcile complaints. The Equal Employ- examination of the impact of the conflict upon black
ment Act of 1972 authorized the EEOC to enforce Title status and rights.
VII by filing suit in the federal courts. Ruchames, Louis. Race, Jobs, and Politics: The Story of
— John Braeman FEPC. New York: Columbia University Press, 1953.
Although based upon the then-available public record
Further Reading
this work remains the fullest account of the wartime
Burstein, Paul. Discrimination, Jobs, and Politics: The
FEPC—its organizational structure, activities, and
Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity in the
troubles with Congress.
United States Since the New Deal. Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1985. A perceptive analysis See also: 1941-1945: 6.6 Million Women Enter the
covering the forces responsible for congressional leg- U.S. Labor Force; Jan. 30, 1942: Roosevelt Signs the
islation against discrimination in employment. Cov- Emergency Price Control Act; Aug. 4, 1942: United
erage begins in the early 1940’s. States Begins the Bracero Program; Feb. 20, 1946:
Dalfiume, Richard M. Journal of American History 55 Employment Act; June 23, 1947: Taft-Hartley Act
(June, 1968): 90-106. A landmark article showing Passes over Truman’s Veto; July 26, 1948: Truman
how World War II was a watershed in the struggle for Orders Desegregation of U.S. Armed Forces; May 17,
black rights. 1954: Supreme Court Ends Public School Segrega-
Garfinkel, Herbert. When Negroes March: The March on tion; May 6, 1960: Civil Rights Act of 1960; July 2,
Washington Movement in the Organizational Politics 1964: Congress Passes the Civil Rights Act of 1964;
for FEPC. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959. A detailed Dec. 14, 1964: Supreme Court Prohibits Racial Dis-
organizational history of the March on Washington crimination in Public Accommodations; Apr. 11,
Movement. Based on the files of the Brotherhood of 1968: Fair Housing Act Outlaws Discrimination in
Sleeping Car Porters (including the records of the Housing.
94
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Atlantic Charter Declares a Postwar Right of Self-Determination
August 14, 1941

Atlantic Charter Declares a Postwar Right of
Self-Determination
1941
The Atlantic Charter, agreed to by Franklin D. The desire to declare public support for the principle
Roosevelt and Winston Churchill at their first wartime of self-determination was not the primary reason for the
meeting, committed their countries to a peace meeting that produced the Atlantic Charter. That meet-
recognizing the right of self-determination. In the ing was primarily motivated by wartime circumstance.
aftermath of the war, the agreement helped shape both By mid-1941, the war in Europe was almost two years
the global foreign policies and the international old. Great Britain had held out against Adolf Hitler’s ini-
rhetoric of the triumphant Allied Powers. tial onslaught and had been joined by the Soviet Union
after the German invasion of Russia on June 22, 1941.
Locale: Placentia Bay, Newfoundland (now in
The United States was not yet at war, though Presi-
Canada)
dent Franklin D. Roosevelt had made no secret of his be-
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations;
lief that supporting Britain against Germany was neces-
independence movements; World War II
sary to the security of the United States and its interests.
Key Figures He had extended to the British a variety of material aid,
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the most notably under the Lend-Lease Act, thereby skirting
United States, 1933-1945 the line between neutral power and cobelligerent. British
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of prime minister Winston Churchill certainly hoped that
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 the United States would become a full-fledged belliger-
Alexander Cadogan (1884-1968), British permanent ent. Roosevelt for his part probably believed that Ameri-
undersecretary of state for foreign affairs can entry into the war would ultimately be necessary to
Sumner Welles (1892-1961), U.S. undersecretary of defeat the Axis Powers; at the very least, he hoped that
state American public opinion would support further mea-
Summary of Event sures that would aid Hitler’s enemies.
Although the Atlantic Charter did much to extend its im- It was against this background that Roosevelt and
pact, the idea of national self-determination was already at Churchill arranged to meet for the first time in the sum-
least a century and a half old by 1941. This idea holds that mer of 1941. The place and time of the meeting was a
each nationality should be free to determine its own politi- closely guarded secret. On August 9, 1941, the USS
cal arrangements, including establishing its political in- Augusta, carrying the president, rendezvoused in Pla-
dependence if desired. The concept of self-determination centia Bay, off the coast of Newfoundland, with Chur-
emerged from the romantic nationalism that developed chill’s ship, HMS Prince of Wales. Over the next three
in the first half of the nineteenth century and was used to days, the two men discussed a range of topics, including
justify a variety of revolutions and national unification implementation of lend-lease arrangements, closer co-
movements in Europe and elsewhere. Historically, the operation in the Atlantic, and how best to deal with the
idea was viewed in generally favorable terms by the U.S. threat of Japanese expansion in Asia. The president,
government, which saw it as consistent with the nomi- however, was determined that the conference would also
nally anticolonialist nature of American foreign policy. result in a joint statement of war aims that would make
In World War I, the principle of national self-determi- clear to the American people and to the rest of the world
nation figured implicitly in several of President Wood- the differences that existed between the values of the
row Wilson’s Fourteen Points, in which form it was ac- Allied democracies and those of the Axis Powers.
cepted by the Allies as a war aim. It also shaped aspects Although Churchill was not convinced of a pressing
of the peace settlement, notably in the creation of new need for such a declaration, he was willing to go along and
states in Central and Eastern Europe out of the former in fact took the initiative. Alexander Cadogan, the British
Russian, German, and Austro-Hungarian empires. Its permanent undersecretary for foreign affairs, drew up a
application, however, was far from consistent, especially draft statement that Churchill revised before inviting Roo-
outside Europe. The idea nevertheless contributed to the sevelt’s comments. Roosevelt’s Wilsonian sentiments
stirrings of colonial populations in Asia and Africa. about self-determination were well known to the British,
95
Atlantic Charter Declares a Postwar Right of Self-Determination The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
torial gains from the war and that they

looked forward to a world in which all na-
tions would have access to trade and pros-
perity, in which there would be freedom of
the seas, and in which there would be fewer
arms, less fear, and a new system of inter-
national security.
Two of the charter’s points dealt directly
with the issue of self-determination: There
were to be no territorial changes that were
contrary to the wishes of the peoples living
in those territories, and the right of people to
choose their own form of government was
affirmed. In adhering to the charter, Roose-
velt indicated the United States’ intention
to shape the postwar world, even though
the country was not yet a belligerent.
The immediate reaction to the Atlantic
Charter was positive in both countries, but
there was also an element of disappoint-
ment. In Britain, it had been hoped that
something more dramatic, such as full-
fledged American entry into the war, would
This cartoon celebrates the second anniversary of the Atlantic Charter as a be announced. The charter itself seemed
great document in the cause of liberty. The Allies had recently completed the slightly anticlimactic. In the United States,
successful invasion of Sicily and were poised to take mainland Italy. (National the charter’s principles were widely ap-
Archives) proved, but public opinion did not shift sig-
nificantly in favor of American entry into
the war, as Roosevelt had hoped it would.
and the draft included statements endorsing the concept. Over the course of the war, however, the Atlantic
Subsequent drafts followed, with much of the work fall- Charter proved to be a document of immense importance
ing to Sumner Welles, the U.S. undersecretary of state. in defining Allied goals. After the United States entered
A number of points proved controversial in reaching a the war in December, 1941, Churchill made another voy-
final agreement on the statement, but not those points age across the Atlantic. That meeting laid the ground-
dealing with self-determination. Churchill made clear work for military cooperation and also for the Declara-
his view that the British Commonwealth’s commitment tion of the United Nations of January 1, 1942. Those
to eventual colonial self-government (if not indepen- signing that statement agreed to embrace the principles
dence) made the principle inapplicable to the British Em- announced in the Atlantic Charter and also agreed not to
pire. Roosevelt did not press the point. The greatest diffi- make a separate peace with the enemy. The original dec-
culties came in trying to reconcile Roosevelt’s desire for laration was signed by twenty-six nations, a number that
postwar free trade with Britain’s commitments to impe- subsequently doubled. The Atlantic Charter—including
rial preference and in phrasing a reference to postwar se- the principle of self-determination—officially described
curity that would not frighten American isolationists. the war aims of the Allies.
Eventually, an eight-point joint declaration of war The charter’s self-determination provisions were,
aims was hammered out, one that was in many ways rem- however, open to varying interpretations and provided
iniscent of the Fourteen Points of the previous war. The the substance for much debate within the alliance. The
document was made public on August 14, 1941, and im- British maintained that the provisions applied primarily
mediately came to be known as the Atlantic Charter. Six to the European countries overrun and occupied by the
of its points were devoted to topics other than self-deter- Nazis and that they did not apply to the British Empire. In
mination. Both powers declared that they sought no terri- the United States, the Atlantic Charter contributed to an
96
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Atlantic Charter Declares a Postwar Right of Self-Determination
increasing anticolonialist trend in public opinion. The velt, Churchill, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin—took
U.S. State Department showed a growing willingness place at the Yalta Conference in February, 1945. The
to see the concept of self-determination as applicable three issued the joint Declaration on Liberated Europe
1941
outside Europe—certainly to the colonies of the Axis that called for free elections and application of the princi-
Powers and possibly to those of the Allies as well. The ples of the Atlantic Charter.
Soviets took a public stand in favor of self-determination The Atlantic Charter’s eighth point had called for a
everywhere, although their commitment was clouded by new system of international security. This began to take
their clear expectation of beneficial territorial rearrange- shape in the form of the infant United Nations (U.N.), cre-
ments in Eastern Europe and Asia. Overseas, supporters ated at a San Francisco conference in April-June, 1945.
of independence, or home rule, in Asia and Africa were Grounding itself in the Declaration of the United Nations
inspired by the Atlantic Charter and wished to use it as a of 1942, the new organization embraced the principles of
lever against their colonial masters. the Atlantic Charter. The organizing conference gave rise
In short, the charter was a source of disagreement on to a lively debate on the issue of self-determination, with
the Allied side, even as it remained a common point of predictable differences of opinion arising.
reference to which all pledged allegiance. It was in this The United Nations Charter ultimately allowed for a
context that the last meeting of the “Big Three”—Roose- system of international trusteeship (involving administra-
tion by member nations under U.N.
auspices) where the colonies of the
The Atlantic Charter Axis Powers were concerned. Article
73, regarding non-self-governing ter-
The President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister, Mr. ritories, stated that self-government
[Winston] Churchill, representing His Majesty’s Government in the United
through free political institutions
Kingdom, being met together, deem it right to make known certain common
principles in the national policies of their respective countries on which they should be the goal of all countries
base their hopes for a better future for the world. with respect to their colonies and
First, their countries seek no aggrandizement, territorial or other; trust territories. This represented a
Second, they desire to see no territorial changes that do not accord with the compromise between the British and
freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned; American positions. The United
Third, they respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government States foresaw the need to maintain,
under which they will live; and they wish to see sovereign rights and self gov- for strategic reasons, some of the for-
ernment restored to those who have been forcibly deprived of them; mer Japanese colonies in the Pacific,
Fourth, they will endeavor, with due respect for their existing obligations, while the British were as reluctant as
to further the enjoyment by all States, great or small, victor or vanquished, of
before to embrace a definition of self-
access, on equal terms, to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which
determination that would apply to
are needed for their economic prosperity;
Fifth, they desire to bring about the fullest collaboration between all nations their empire. Independence was not
in the economic field with the object of securing, for all, improved labor stan- ruled out, but self-government short
dards, economic advancement and social security; of independence would also be ac-
Sixth, after the final destruction of the Nazi tyranny, they hope to see estab- ceptable. As the war drew to a close,
lished a peace which will afford to all nations the means of dwelling in safety there remained an ambiguity about
within their own boundaries, and which will afford assurance that all the men the principle of self-determination
in all lands may live out their lives in freedom from fear and want; that would continue into the future.
Seventh, such a peace should enable all men to traverse the high seas and
oceans without hindrance; Significance
Eighth, they believe that all of the nations of the world, for realistic as well
The absence of a comprehensive
as spiritual reasons must come to the abandonment of the use of force. Since no
treaty after World War II compli-
future peace can be maintained if land, sea or air armaments continue to be em-
ployed by nations which threaten, or may threaten, aggression outside of their cates any attempt to evaluate the At-
frontiers, they believe, pending the establishment of a wider and permanent lantic Charter’s impact on the peace
system of general security, that the disarmament of such nations is essential. it was intended to shape. Neverthe-
They will likewise aid and encourage all other practicable measure which will less, it is evident that the charter’s
lighten for peace-loving peoples the crushing burden of armaments. principles exerted a powerful influ-
ence on the postwar world, particu-
97
Atlantic Charter Declares a Postwar Right of Self-Determination The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
larly in terms of self-determination. One example of this Further Reading

influence is provided by the functioning of the U.N. Chamberlain, M. E. Decolonization: The Fall of the Eu-
trusteeship system. Unlike the mandate system instituted ropean Empires. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985. A
by the League of Nations after World War I, under which short but reliable overview of the process of decoloni-
only a few countries obtained independence, the U.N. zation that followed World War II. Credits the Atlantic
trusteeship has overseen the transition to independence Charter with contributing to the worldwide growth of
of all of the territories placed under its auspices, a task anticolonialist opinion and providing a moral weapon
completed in 1994. for nationalist movements. Bibliography and index.
The foreign policies of the United States and other Churchill, Winston. The Grand Alliance. Vol. 3 in The
signatories to the charter showed varying degrees of Second World War. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950.
commitment to the principle of self-determination. The Contains Churchill’s personal account of the drafting
Atlantic Charter remains an official statement of U.S. of the charter. Gives a sense of the wartime context,
foreign policy, and the United States has often supported although tending to downplay the differences of
the emergence of former colonies as independent states. viewpoint involved. Contains a photocopy of the first
On the other hand, the onset of the Cold War in the imme- draft with Churchill’s comments and prints the text of
diate postwar period often caused ideological consider- the entire document. Index.
ations to influence policy. The decision of President Cobban, Alfred. National Self-Determination. Chicago:
Harry S. Truman’s administration to support the restora- University of Chicago Press, 1947. An eminent histo-
tion of French colonial rule in Indochina and elsewhere, rian’s discussion of the concept of self-determination,
for example, put American policy on the side of colonial- written during wartime. Stresses the need for the great
ism in Southeast Asia and laid the foundation for even- powers to remain united. Footnotes and index, but no
tual American involvement in the Vietnam War. U.S. bibliography.
foreign policy with regard to Latin America, moreover, Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American
often involved supporting right-wing dictatorial govern- Foreign Policy, 1932-1945. New York: Oxford Uni-
ments and opposing left-wing democratic governments versity Press, 1979. The standard account of Roose-
during the Cold War period. The Soviet Union’s failure velt’s foreign policy. Places the Atlantic Charter in
to live up to the Atlantic Charter in its actions in Eastern the context of Roosevelt’s efforts to support the Brit-
Europe was equally blatant. ish while preparing American public opinion for in-
The long-term impact of the Atlantic Charter’s en- tervention. Bibliography and index.
dorsement of self-determination has been most visible in Hannun, Hurst. Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Deter-
Asia and Africa. World War II weakened the European mination. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
colonial powers militarily, and the Atlantic Charter con- Press, 1990. Not about the Atlantic Charter itself, but
tributed to the development of a climate of opinion hos- provides an interesting treatment of self-determina-
tile to colonialism that was one of World War II’s most tion from the perspective of international law. Sees
important legacies. The charter itself was often cited by the desire for self-determination as a major source of
those leading movements as diverse as the Viet Minh in conflict in the late twentieth century. Nine case stud-
Indonesia and the Congress Party in India. ies illustrate the influence of the concept in the post-
The three decades following the war witnessed one of World War II world. Bibliography and index.
the most sudden and massive transfers of political author- Louis, William Roger. Imperialism at Bay: The United
ity in world history. In Africa alone, some fifty-one newly States and the Decolonization of the British Empire,
independent countries emerged from the former colonial 1941-1945. New York: Oxford University Press,
empires. Many would eventually have achieved indepen- 1978. Essential to understanding the self-determina-
dence without the Atlantic Charter; however, by com- tion aspects of the Atlantic Charter in the context of
mitting the victors of World War II to the principle of wartime diplomacy. Brings out the divergent British
self-determination, the Atlantic Charter provided unique and American interpretations and the relationship be-
encouragement to those seeking to throw off outside con- tween the charter and the eventual development of the
trol. It invested them with the moral force of the victori- United Nations. Extensive footnotes and index but no
ous crusade against Nazi racism and challenged the bibliography.
Allied Powers to live up to their own pronouncements. Sands, Philippe. Lawless World: America and the Mak-
—William C. Lowe ing and Breaking of Global Rules from FDR’s Atlan-
98
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Nazis Ban Nolde’s Paintings
tic Charter to George W. Bush’s Illegal War. New Mifflin, 1969. Well researched. The fullest account of
York: Viking, 2005. An examination of U.S. foreign the meeting and the drafting of the charter. Considers
policy, international law, and the successes and fail- Roosevelt’s disregard for the self-determination
1941
ures of the United States in upholding its commit- clause as applied to the British Commonwealth. Bib-
ments on the world stage. liographical essay and index.
Thompson, Robert Smith. The Eagle Triumphant: How
America Took over the British Empire. Hoboken, N.J.: See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
John Wiley & Sons, 2004. Reads U.S. foreign policy European Theater; Mar. 11, 1941: Roosevelt Signs
and British-American diplomacy in World War II the Lend-Lease Act; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8, 1942: Ger-
through the lens of the subsequent rise of the United many Invades Russia; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl
States and decline of Great Britain as world powers. Harbor; 1943-1948: Soviets Take Control of Eastern
Welles, Sumner. Where Are We Heading? New York: Europe; Feb. 4-11, 1945: Yalta Conference; Apr. 25-
Harper & Brothers, 1946. The best firsthand account June 26, 1945: United Nations Charter Convention;
of the drafting of the charter, by the producer of the fi- Nov., 1946-July, 1954: Nationalist Vietnamese Fight
nal draft. Makes it clear that other points were more French Control of Indochina; Aug. 15, 1947: India
controversial at the time than self-determination. In- Gains Independence from the United Kingdom; Mar.
dex but no bibliography. 8, 1949: Vietnam Is Named a State; Aug. 12, 1949:
Wilson, Theodore A. The First Summit: Roosevelt and Geneva Conventions Establish Norms of Conduct
Churchill at Placentia Bay, 1941. Boston: Houghton in War.
August 23, 1941

Nazis Ban Nolde’s Paintings
The banning of Emil Nolde’s art as “degenerate” by expressionism. At times, Nolde’s paintings appeared vi-
the Nazis signaled the end of freedom of expression in olent or grotesque, defeating his stated purpose of mov-
Germany. The Nazi attack on modernism, which the ing away from nature while remaining natural. However,
ban exemplified, caused German artists to flee to other his works exhibited an originality that few could match.
nations and forced those who remained to modify their Although his name is associated with Die Brücke (the
work, thereby changing the history of modern art bridge), a group of expressionist artists to which he be-
throughout and beyond Europe. longed in 1906 and 1907, Nolde always remained dis-
tanced from the group’s members. Nolde was almost a
Locale: Berlin, Germany generation older than the rest of Die Brücke’s artists, and
Categories: Arts; social issues and reform his art was rooted in nineteenth century traditions, mak-
Key Figures ing stylistic and temperamental differences between him
Emil Nolde (1867-1956), German expressionist painter and the group unavoidable. Nolde’s religiosity, ultra-
Joseph Goebbels (1897-1945), German minister of individualism, and love of the soil contrasted sharply
propaganda with the intellectual, communal, and humanistic work
Alfred Rosenberg (1893-1946), head of the Combat of Die Brücke, and these differences eventually led to
League for German Culture Nolde’s withdrawal in 1907.
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- Following his involvement with Die Brücke, Nolde
1945 retreated with his wife, Ada, to the town of Seebüll in his
native province of Schleswig-Holstein. During this pe-
Summary of Event riod, Nolde was briefly involved with the artistic groups
By the early 1930’s, Emil Nolde was one of the leading New Secession and Der Blaue Reiter (the blue rider). It
expressionist painters in Germany. His work was highly was also at this time that Nolde focused his attention on
regarded by other artists, as well as by art critics, accord- the religious, landscape, and flower paintings for which
ing to whom he expressed better than any other painter of he became most famous. Nolde’s religious paintings of
his age the forceful, emotional, and intuitive character of the time include Wise and Foolish Virgins (1910), Christ
99
Nazis Ban Nolde’s Paintings The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
and the Children (1910), Pentecost (1910), and the nine- Rosenberg attacked Nolde’s art and sought to have it
part Life of Christ altar (1912); his landscape and flower banned from all German museums, while Goebbels ini-
paintings are represented by such notable works as Tug- tially sympathized with those who defended Nolde as an
boat on the Elbe (1910), Blue Iris (1915), Horses in the example of “indigenous Nordic art” and the Gothic ten-
Meadow (1916), and Nordermühle (1924). dency toward “destruction of form.” Soon, however,
Nolde especially emphasized the countryside and Goebbels bowed to the will of Hitler and began a cam-
people of Germany in his paintings. His deep conviction paign against Nolde. By attacking Nolde and other Ger-
that these subjects needed to be painted encouraged him man expressionists such as Ernst Barlach, Goebbels was
in his work. Nolde’s grotesque portrayal of some of his able to prove to Hitler his ability to manage cultural af-
subjects and his experimentation with techniques remi- fairs and to silence rivals, including Rosenberg. Goeb-
niscent of African tribal art placed him, however, on a bels’s success allowed him to consolidate permanently
collision course with the Nazi Party after 1933. his political power over Nazi Germany’s art and culture.
When the Nazis seized power in 1933, the artistic In 1937, in preparation for a “degenerate art” exhibi-
community in Germany was pressured to conform to tion organized by the Nazis in Munich, Goebbels autho-
the new government’s art guidelines. In a speech at the rized Professor Adolf Ziegler, the president of the Reich
Nuremberg Nazi Party rally in 1934, Adolf Hitler out- Chamber of Visual Arts, to seize works of art that failed
lined his vision for the future form and style of artwork to meet Nazi standards. As a result, a staggering 1,052 of
in Germany. According to Hitler, German art hence- Nolde’s paintings were confiscated from German muse-
forth would emphasize only traditional values that cor- ums and art galleries. Twenty-six were exhibited in Mu-
responded to Nazi doctrine. These guidelines would nich. Of the roughly 16,000 artworks by some fourteen
protect the average citizen from the “degenerate,” mind- hundred artists confiscated by the Nazis, Nolde’s 1,052
poisoning art that the Nazis claimed was sweeping Ger- constituted the greatest number by a single artist. He con-
many. The goal of the new Nazi concept of art was to tinued to paint, but his art came under close government
prevent the perceived moral degeneration of the German scrutiny. This scrutiny was particularly ironic, because
people and to announce the ideals of Nazi Germany to Nolde had been a member of the Nazi Party since 1920
the world. and fancied himself a painter of Nordic, Germanic, and
As a result of Nazi policy, many German artists found Aryan art. In fact, it was probably Nolde’s Nazi Party
that they were no longer free to exhibit their works. In membership that marked him for especially severe treat-
particular, the government attacked modern artistic ment; because Nolde’s works did not meet the party’s
styles such as cubism, Dadaism, Futurism, and expres- guidelines for new art, he was slowly forced under-
sionism. The Nazis labeled artists who produced works ground.
in these styles “saboteurs of art” and accused them of Nolde thus became a victim of the new Nazi policy to-
“cultural bolshevism.” The Nazis were intent upon im- ward art, along with hundreds of other painters, sculp-
plementing their party’s policy of making traditional tors, writers, and musicians. The Nazi assault on the arts
Nordic art—or rather their limited conception of such included not only confiscation of art but also book burn-
art—the official German standard, and any artists who ings and censorship of music and film. At first, condi-
did not meet Hitler’s guidelines had their works removed tions were somewhat tolerable, but any real freedom for
from public view. artists in Germany was drastically curtailed after 1937,
Because Hitler opposed modern art in general and as the attacks begun by Rosenberg, Goebbels, and Zieg-
Nolde’s work in particular, Nolde faced constant attacks ler against modern art steadily increased.
from the government. Nolde’s modern tendencies and By 1940, many German artists had emigrated to other
his use of what Hitler termed “impure” elements from countries. A few, including Nolde, remained to face the
tribal art made him a special target for Nazi repression. wrath of the Nazis. In a letter dated July 2, 1938, Nolde
Not everyone, however, favored the harsh tactics em- wrote to Goebbels to request the return of his seized
ployed against Nolde. Disagreement over Nolde’s style paintings and an end to the defamation of his character.
created a rift in the Nazi leadership. Nazi repression of Nolde’s argument that his work was “German, strong,
Nolde sparked a debate between Alfred Rosenberg, the austere, and sincere” had no effect. His paintings were
head of the Combat League for German Culture, and Jo- never returned to him. Finally, on August 23, 1941, the
seph Goebbels, the president of the Reich Chamber of Nazis progressed from repression of Nolde to outright
Culture. censorship. Nolde was forbidden to paint, his Berlin stu-
100
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Nazis Ban Nolde’s Paintings
dio was closed, and all works still in his possession were cluded Nolde and some Die Brücke artists such as Willi
confiscated by the government. Baumeister, Oskar Schlemmer, Alexey von Jawlensky,
The ban on Nolde’s work marked a significant shift in Karl Hofer, and Ernst Barlach. Other artists, including
1941
the treatment of the arts in Germany. The already bad Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner,
conditions for those modern artists who remained wors- Max Beckmann, Oskar Kokoschka, and Hans Hoff-
ened progressively after 1941. Forbidden to paint, Nolde mann, were forced to emigrate.
worked surreptitiously, using watercolor paints to avoid The persecution of German artists changed the face of
the telltale odor of oils, which might be detected during modern art forever. Emigration spread German art to
the frequent searches conducted by the Gestapo of other countries. Hans Hoffmann became the catalyst for
Nolde’s home in Seebüll. These “unpainted pictures”— a group of artists who would develop a uniquely Ameri-
more than thirteen hundred small watercolor paintings, can style in New York City; Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
completed and hidden in the years between 1938 and exerted an influence over art in Switzerland, and Max
1945—show the maturity of Nolde’s work and his ability Beckmann left his mark in both Holland and the United
to adapt to changing circumstances. Already in his sev- States. The influence of immigrants from Nazi Germany
enties, Nolde knew that he had little time to waste in was even felt at the center of the art world, the École de
completing the paintings that were to be the crowning Paris, where Hans Hartung pushed contemporary paint-
achievements of his artistic career. ing in new directions.
In addition to causing changes in the world art scene
Significance by provoking the emigration of artists, Nazi domination
When the Nazis succeeded in preventing Nolde from significantly influenced the styles of those artists who
painting and exhibiting his work in 1941, they won a stayed in Germany. Artists such as Nolde waged a con-
great victory in the battle for control of the arts. After stant battle to produce and protect their works under Nazi
1941, all aspects of art and culture in Germany were con- surveillance. The use of smaller canvases, watercolors,
trolled by the Nazi regime. A stifling artistic atmosphere and other less traditional artistic styles, begun in order to
developed; mediocre artists’ works were exhibited regu- hide works of art from the Nazis, continued even after the
larly, and talented artists’ works were sold, destroyed, or end of World War II and contributed to the changing face
hidden in government storerooms. The disappearance or of modern art. Nazi repression influenced the develop-
emigration of the German modern artists attested to the ment of modern art for years to come.
regime’s ferocity in carrying out its program. As a result of his persecution by the Nazis, Emil
The global artistic community was shocked by the Nolde gained immense respect in the artistic community
Nazi actions against Nolde and the avant-garde and pro- after the end of World War II. His resistance to Nazi dic-
tested vehemently; however, protest was to no avail. tates made him famous. He outlived his persecutors and
Censorship continued, and Nazi art replaced modern art contributed to the developing art scene of the 1950’s.
in museums and galleries. Nazi suppression of modern Even at the age of eighty, Nolde produced paintings that
art occurred quickly and forcefully, until no creative art- were a source of inspiration. He served as an example to
ist was safe from attack. Resistance to the Nazification of other artists that adversity could be overcome and that art
art was organized, but Nazi control of the government, could triumph over those who sought to repress it. His ir-
the Reich Chamber of Culture, and the Combat League repressible vigor, his individualism, and his bold style
for German Culture gave them a significant advantage in left a lasting mark on modern art.
numbers and power over small groups of individual art- —Gregory Weeks
ists. The strength of the Nazi onslaught eventually over-
whelmed these isolated groups and succeeded in estab- Further Reading
lishing a Nazi style for the arts. All aspects of culture Boa, Elizabeth, and Rachel Palfreyman. Heimat: A
were regulated, from architecture and painting to litera- German Dream—Regional Loyalties and National
ture and film. The Nazis left no area untouched. Identity in German Culture, 1890-1990. New York:
The heroism of the artists in the face of these attacks Oxford University Press, 2000. Study of German self-
was tremendous, but no amount of sacrifice could stop perception and the role of the idea of a “homeland” in
the determined Nazi oppressors. Many artists remained the nation’s culture. Includes a chapter on Nolde’s
in Germany and were forced underground at a time when paintings and their relation to German national iden-
their styles were beginning to mature. This group in- tity.
101
Nazis Ban Nolde’s Paintings The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Bradley, William S. Emil Nolde and German Expres- German expressionist art. Historical background on
sionism: A Prophet in His Own Land. Ann Arbor: each artist and his work accompanies the plates.
University of Michigan Research Press, 1986. An Chapter 17 deals exclusively with Nolde. Includes
interesting but somewhat academic study of Nolde’s bibliography and index.
relationship to the Volkish view of art advocated by Osterwold, Tilman, and Thomas Knubben, eds. Emil
the Nazis. Bradley’s book discusses the Volkish ten- Nolde: Unpainted Pictures: Watercolours, 1938-
dencies in Nolde’s work and offers a good general dis- 1945, from the Collection of the Nolde-Stiftung
cussion of Nolde’s style. Well researched; includes Seebüll. Ostfildern-Ruit, Germany: Hatje Cantz,
endnotes, bibliography, and index. 2000. Catalog from a 1999 exhibition of Nolde’s
Gosebruch, Martin. Nolde: Watercolors and Drawings. clandestine, Nazi-era watercolors. Includes scholarly
Translated by E. M. Küstner and J. A. Underwood. essays on the artist and his work. Bibliographic refer-
New York: Praeger, 1973. Discussion of Nolde’s wa- ences.
tercolors and drawings. Reprints famous sketches and Uhr, Horst. Masterpieces of German Expressionism at
paintings. Includes a short bibliography of German the Detroit Institute of Arts. New York: Hudson Hills
sources. Press, 1982. Provides an overview of the major Ger-
Haftmann, Werner. Emil Nolde: Unpainted Pictures. man expressionist artists and samples of their work.
Translated by Inge Goodman. New York: Praeger, Well composed and edited. Includes endnotes, bibli-
1965. A discussion of the watercolor paintings that ography, and index.
Nolde completed during World War II. Offers an Vogt, Paul. Expressionism: German Painting, 1905-
analysis of Nolde’s technique and the changes in his 1920. Translated by Antony Vivis and Robert Erich
style. Good reproductions of many paintings. Wolf. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1978. A detailed
Hinz, Berthold. Art in the Third Reich. Translated by discussion of the origins of German expressionism,
Robert Kimber and Rita Kimber. New York: Pan- with color plates of early works by expressionist art-
theon Books, 1979. Examines art under the Nazis and ists. Includes bibliography and index.
the fate of avant-garde artists such as Nolde. Hinz pro- See also: 1941-1945: U.S. Censorship and War Propa-
vides a thorough discussion of the political situation ganda During World War II; 1947-1951: Blacklisting
in Germany and its effect on the arts. Examples of Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool; 1959: Grass Pub-
Nazi-sponsored art are reprinted in black and white. lishes The Tin Drum; Feb. 20, 1963: Hochhuth Stages
Includes endnotes, bibliography, and index. a Critique of Pope Pius XII’s Silence During the Ho-
Myers, Bernhard S. The German Expressionists: A Gen- locaust; 1967: Soviet Intellectuals Begin to Rebel
eration in Revolt. New York: Praeger, 1956. An over- Against Party Policy; July 26, 1968: Theatres Act
sized book featuring a collection of color plates of Ends Censorship of British Drama.
102
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Davies Reflects on His Post to Moscow
October, 1941
Davies Reflects on His Post to Moscow in MISSION TO MOSCOW
1941
Encouraged by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, ria and Japanese-occupied Manchuria. The Soviet mili-
Joseph Edward Davies’s Mission to Moscow helped tary presence in the North Pacific discouraged Japanese
shape American public opinion toward a more designs on Alaska. If there was any doubt in Americans’
favorable view of the Soviet Union at a critical minds about where their national interest lay, the Japa-
juncture in the war. Cold War analysts would dismiss nese attack of December 7, 1941, would dispel it. Coop-
the author as a naï ve idealist duped by Stalin. eration with the Soviet Union appeared essential to
America’s survival. Consequently, any efforts that
Locale: New York, New York helped to bring about that cooperation appeared in the
Categories: Publishing and journalism; political most favorable light.
science; diplomacy and international relations; In a sense, Mission to Moscow represented a continu-
World War II ation of the policies that prompted Davies’ appointment
Key Figures as ambassador in 1936. The United States formally rec-
Joseph Edward Davies (1876-1958), American ognized the Soviet Union in 1933, but the reestablish-
economist and ambassador to the Soviet Union, ment of commercial relations between the two nations
1936-1938 proceeded slowly. Seasoned members of the Diplomatic
Maksim Maksimovich Litvinov (1876-1951), Russian Corps, not least the staff of the Moscow embassy, found
diplomat Roosevelt’s appointment of Davies disconcerting.
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the A personal friend of Roosevelt who had served as
United States, 1932-1945 chairman of the Federal Trade Commission under Presi-
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; dent Woodrow Wilson, Davies had no training or experi-
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central ence in international diplomacy. His marriage to the
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet breakfast-food heiress Marjorie Post Hutton had enabled
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 him to live an opulent lifestyle seemingly incompatible
with the philosophy of, much less actual conditions in,
Summary of Event Communist Russia. His overwhelming optimism and
Mission to Moscow appeared in bookstores at the end of disposition to look for the best in every person and situa-
October, 1941. In it, Joseph Edward Davies, the United tion likewise appeared to be a poor fit for a tense situation
States’ ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1936 to in which the other side had a history of non-cooperation
1938, presented an account of relations between the two and failure to adhere to agreements. Possibly, Roosevelt
countries in the years immediately prior to the outbreak appointed Davies knowing that a more experienced and
of World War II. He was encouraged to publish the book pragmatic diplomat might offend the Soviets and would
by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who granted Davies balk at making concessions without which relations be-
permission to include previously classified diplomatic tween the two countries could not progress.
correspondence in a deliberate attempt to shape Ameri- Mission to Moscow sold more than 400,000 copies in
can public opinion toward a more favorable view of the its first year of publication, making it a best seller. Few
Soviet Union at a critical juncture in the war. purchasers read it cover to cover, as the main points were
At the time of publication, Nazi forces had already available in reviews and summaries, and the actual
penetrated deep into Russia, and many Western observ- text—with the exception of a few anecdotes—was dull,
ers predicted a German victory. Davies and Roosevelt repetitious, and diffuse. Most of the book is a chronologi-
were among a minority who believed that the Soviets cal potpourri of excerpts from Davies’ diary, inter-
were capable of rallying but that they required the un- spersed with diplomatic correspondence, selected and
equivocal support of the United States, coupled with im- edited to create the impression that the United States and
mediate, substantial aid. Both men also recognized that a the Soviet Union were natural allies. Efforts of American
Soviet defeat in Europe would encourage Japanese ag- and Soviet diplomats to prevent the debacle of the Mu-
gression in the Pacific. nich Agreement (1938)—in which Germany was al-
Since 1937, the Soviet Union and Japan had been lowed to annex the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia—
fighting a low-level war along the border between Sibe- figured prominently, while the British were portrayed
103
Davies Reflects on His Post to Moscow The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
as unreasonable and lacking in foresight. The 1939 ing the war. During the McCarthy era, its screenwriter,
nonaggression pact between the Soviet Union and Ger- Howard Koch, was blacklisted as a Communist Party
many, in contrast, was depicted as a necessity that lack of sympathizer.
Western backing had forced upon the Soviets.
Significance
Davies devoted a considerable portion of the book to
The propaganda campaign in which both the book and
internal conditions in the Soviet Union in 1936-1938. He
the film version of Mission to Moscow played a promi-
sought to dispel any notion that disastrous economic pol-
nent role unquestionably helped sway American popular
icies and state terrorism had crippled that country’s de-
opinion in favor of the Soviet Union as an ally. This in
fense systems or that its regime was so far removed from
turn translated into substantial material aid. Cold War-
rationality in government that no justification existed for
era histories from both sides downplay the role this aid
defending it, even against Nazi Germany. He toured
played in defeating Nazi Germany. Soviet sources dis-
showcase collective farms, industries, and social institu-
miss such aid as trivial compared with the tremendous
tions, making no attempt to determine how representa-
sacrifices the Russian people made in the Great Patriotic
tive they were, and accepted official explanations for
War. American accounts credit German blunders and
those problems that no amount of orchestration could
Russian weather with a greater role than Soviet military
conceal.
resistance in the German defeat on the eastern front. It
Davies’ account of the 1937 Moscow show trials of
became popular to view Stalin as a cynical schemer who
prominent Communist Party officials drew particularly
used American aid and American goodwill to establish
harsh criticism from postwar commentators such as
communist hegemony in Eastern Europe. According to
George F. Kennan. Davies had accepted the analysis of
this construction of events, cooperation with the Soviet
Russia’s minister of foreign affairs, Maksim Maksim-
Union was never necessary, and those who favored it
ovich Litvinov, who argued that since no one could be in-
were foolish or worse.
duced to confess to a capital crime except by severe
Since the end of the Cold War and the breakup of the
physical torture and since the trials’ defendants gave no
Soviet Union, several historians have challenged Ken-
evidence of such torture in the courtroom, their confes-
nan’s stereotype of Davies as an unrealistic optimist who
sions must be substantially true. This analysis led Davies
played into Stalin’s hands. The complete body of his cor-
to believe that there had been a widespread and danger-
respondence, especially after the Potsdam Conference of
ous Trotskyite conspiracy in the Red Army and the
1945, reveals that he chose to overlook a great deal in the
Communist Party. He praised Joseph Stalin for having
interests of furthering cooperation. An objective assess-
thwarted it.
ment of the extent to which that cooperation served both
Two decades later, at the height the Cold War, with
nations during the war has yet to be written. Any such
“de-Stalinization” in full swing in the Soviet Union, offi-
analysis would take into account the critical role Ameri-
cial opinion would swing to the opposite pole, dismiss-
can supplies played in sustaining the Soviet Union dur-
ing the conspiracy as purely the product of Stalin’s
ing the rapid turnaround in the winter of 1942-1943, the
paranoia and ascribing the Soviet Union’s poor initial re-
overwhelming military defeat the Soviets inflicted on
sponse to German aggression entirely to decimation of
Germany, and a conflict in the North Pacific that never
the Red Army during the purges. Were today’s historians
escalated, because the Soviet Union resisted Japanese in-
to reassess this episode, Davies’ observations—which
cursions in 1937-1939.
are by no means as superficial and naïve as Kennan
—Martha A. Sherwood
claims—would be a valuable original source.
In late April, 1943, Warner Bros. released the film Further Reading
version of Mission to Moscow, directed by Michael Ditzen, Eleanor Davies Tydings. My Golden Spoon:
Curtiz under Davies’ supervision. More frankly propa- Memoirs of a Capital Lady. Lanham, Md.: Madison
gandistic than the book, the film overstated Davies’ role, Books, 1997. Memoir of Davies’ daughter that in-
portrayed U.S. foreign policy as more foresighted and cludes accounts both of her father’s career as ambas-
less isolationist than it really was, idealized the Russian sador and of her own political experiences during the
people, and depicted Stalin as a wise and benevolent same period, when she was married to a U.S. senator.
leader. The film concluded with a pitch for the United Kennan, George F. Russia and the West under Lenin and
Nations. Popular and influential when it first appeared, Stalin. Boston: Little, Brown, 1960. The classic Cold
Mission to Moscow disappeared into the archives follow- War-era account of the same diplomatic negotiations
104
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 The Maltese Falcon Establishes a New Style for Crime Films
described in Mission to Moscow, written by a former rian’s Personal Reflections. Charlottesville, Va.:
official of the Moscow embassy and adviser to presi- Leopolis Press, 2000. Traces the historiography of
dents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Soviet-American relations from an academic per-
1941
MacLean, Elizabeth Kimball. Joseph E. Davies: Envoy spective; considers Mission to Moscow “a remarkably
to the Soviets. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1992. A de- silly book.”
tailed and generally sympathetic biography reassess-
ing Davies’ career in the light of post-Cold War devel-
European Theater; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8, 1942: Ger-
opments.
many Invades Russia; 1943-1948: Soviets Take Con-
Troianovskii, Oleg A. Cherez Gody i Rasstoianiia:
trol of Eastern Europe; Mar. 5, 1946: Churchill
Istoriia Odnoi Semi (across years and distances: the
Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech; 1947-1951: Black-
history of a family). Moscow: Vagrius, 1997. Ac-
listing Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool; Jan. 15,
count of Alexander Troianovskii, Soviet ambassador
1953-Dec. 2, 1954: McCarthy Hearings; Mar. 5,
to the United States, 1933-1939, written by his son,
1953: Death of Stalin; Feb. 25, 1956: Khrushchev De-
also a diplomat. In Russian.
nounces Stalinist Regime.
Ulan, Adam. Understanding the Cold War: A Histo-
October 3, 1941
THE MALTESE FALCON Establishes a New Style for Crime Films
Director John Huston’s faithful film adaptation of responsible for the murders of Floyd Thursby and Cap-
Dashiell Hammett’s hard-boiled detective novel tain Jacobi.
became a classic in the film noir style, influencing John Huston, best known up to that time as the son of
filmmakers worldwide. prominent Hollywood star Walter Huston, had a check-
ered career before winning the opportunity to direct The
Locale: Hollywood, California Maltese Falcon. He had been working as a Hollywood
Category: Motion pictures and video screenwriter, and his experience as a writer proved in-
Key Figures valuable to him during the rest of his life. He believed
John Huston (1906-1987), American director that the most important ingredient of a good film was the
Dashiell Hammett (1894-1961), American mystery story.
writer Dashiell Hammett’s hard-boiled detective novel The
Humphrey Bogart (1899-1957), American actor Maltese Falcon (serial, 1929-1930; novel, 1930) had
Mary Astor (1906-1987), American actor been already been adapted into two motion pictures be-
Sydney Greenstreet (1879-1954), English actor fore Huston became involved with it. Hammett’s writing
Peter Lorre (1904-1964), Hungarian-born actor appealed to filmmakers for several reasons. He had been
Elisha Cook, Jr. (1903-1995), American actor a private detective for many years and wrote about crime
and detection with authority. He favored a completely
Summary of Event objective style of storytelling, describing only what his
The release of The Maltese Falcon on October 3, 1941, characters said and did, not what they were thinking
marked a turning point in the careers of three Americans: or feeling. This objectivity made his novels easily trans-
screenwriter and director John Huston, actor Humphrey posable to the screen. Furthermore, Hammett has been
Bogart, and novelist Dashiell Hammett. It also greatly called one of the best dialogue writers the United States
boosted the careers of four other actors: Mary Astor, has ever produced. The dialogue in the talking films of
who played the compulsive liar and murderess Brigid the late 1920’s and early 1930’s had been mostly crude
O’Shaughnessy; Sydney Greenstreet, who delivered a and obvious, and Hollywood was becoming sensitive to
spectacular performance as the jovial but sinister fat this shortcoming as motion pictures attempted to attract
man, Kasper Gutman; Peter Lorre, a veteran film actor more sophisticated and affluent audiences.
who was cast perfectly as the effeminate but dangerous The earlier film versions of Hammett’s novel, one ti-
Joel Cairo; and Elisha Cook, Jr., who played “the punk” tled The Maltese Falcon (1931) and the other Satan Met
105
The Maltese Falcon Establishes a New Style for Crime Films The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
a Lady (1936), had been bowdlerized Hollywood pro- ture of good and bad, kindness and cruelty, honesty and
ductions. Huston wanted to film the story the way dishonesty, ugliness and animal sexuality. For Holly-
Hammett had written it, retaining its original rapid-fire wood, this was a significant development. Previously,
dialogue and its cynical view of human motivations. characterizations were often clearly defined, with heroes
Huston shot the film using a script that was little more and villains in unambiguous roles. Relatively few films
than a trimmed down version of the novel. mixed good and bad characteristics in a single individ-
The role of detective Sam Spade went to Humphrey ual. World War II changed the perspectives expressed by
Bogart. Bogart went on to become internationally idol- mainstream American culture. Europe had been em-
ized as a symbol of the modern existential hero, one who broiled in war for two years in 1941, and the United
has no illusions about human character but sticks to his States was being relentlessly dragged into it. People were
principles even though he is doomed to go down in de- becoming more aware that the world was a brutal place
feat. “Bogie,” as the world came to know him, had almost and that good guys could not always act like gentlemen.
invariably played villains on the screen to that point and The entry of the United States into World War II also
had become typecast as a “heavy.” One of his most fa- saw many of the popular and strikingly handsome male
mous roles was that of killer Duke Mantee, who escaped stars of the period going into military service, including
from prison and terrorized a group of innocent people in James Stewart, Henry Fonda, Tyrone Power, Clark Ga-
The Petrified Forest (1936). ble, and Robert Taylor, the biggest names of the time.
It was a shock to film audiences to see Bogart playing This created an unusual opportunity for Humphrey Bo-
a hero. As Bogart portrayed him, Sam Spade was a mix- gart, who was too old for military service and was shorter
and less obviously attractive than the typical Hollywood
leading man. John Huston joined the Army as a film-
maker and went on to enjoy an extremely successful ca-
reer as a director. Among his most memorable postwar
films were Key Largo (1948), The Treasure of the Sierra
Madre (1948), and The African Queen (1951), all star-
ring his friend Humphrey Bogart.
Dashiell Hammett, though he was in his late forties
and in poor health when the Japanese bombed Pearl Har-
bor in 1941, joined the Army and served in the Aleutian
Islands. The motion-picture versions of his novels The
Maltese Falcon, The Glass Key (1930), and The Thin
To view image, please refer to print edition Man (1934) made Hammett one of the most famous writ-
ers of his time, with money pouring in from book royal-
ties, radio serials based on his characters, and payments
for rights to use his characters Nick and Nora Charles in
the many film sequels to The Thin Man made between
1936 and 1947. Hammett, however, had a serious drink-
ing problem and also ran into trouble with the House
Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), which
investigated Hollywood artists for Communist Party af-
filiations at the inception of the Cold War. The combina-
tion of these factors led to Hammett’s physical and finan-
cial ruin, and he died a pauper. His reputation has grown
steadily through the years, however, and he is now re-
garded as one of America’s best writers.
Significance
By 1941, the American public was getting used to the new
Humphrey Bogart as Sam Spade in The Maltese Falcon. (AP/ realities of mid-twentieth century life. It read about the
Wide World Photos) incredible atrocities being committed in Europe and real-
106
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 The Maltese Falcon Establishes a New Style for Crime Films
ized that the modern weaponry being employed in war- faithful to the original novel than Huston’s The Maltese
fare threatened to destroy civilization, just as H. G. Wells Falcon had been. Nonetheless, Bogart’s portrayals of
had predicted in a novel that was made into the chilling Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe in these two films cre-
1941
British film Things to Come (1936). John Huston’s film ated a mania for private detective stories that has yet to
adaptation of Dashiell Hammett’s The Maltese Falcon run its course. Film noir and the hard-boiled detective
might have seemed out of place in the glamorous 1920’s film genre have influenced many filmmakers since their
or the isolationist 1930’s, but it sounded exactly the right appearance, from Alfred Hitchcock to Jean-Luc Godard,
note for the beginning of the brutal 1940’s, when sons and each subsequent generation of filmmakers has
and husbands were being torn from their families by the placed its own spin upon the genre, simultaneously rein-
millions and taught to kill for their country. venting and paying homage to the work of John Huston
The public’s favorable reception of Huston’s film nat- and his contemporaries.
urally inspired imitations. One of the first of these was —Bill Delaney
This Gun for Hire (1942), which introduced audiences to
another “tough-guy” actor, Alan Ladd. Ladd immediately Further Reading
starred in a remake of Hammett’s The Glass Key, in which Agee, James. Reviews and Comments. Vol. 1 in Agee on
he was beaten by William Bendix in some of the most bru- Film. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1969. Agee, an
tal scenes shown on film up to that time. The Glass Key admirer of John Huston and author of the screenplay
had been filmed in 1935 with Edward Arnold and George for Huston’s The African Queen, writes trenchant re-
Raft. The contrast between these two film versions of views of Huston’s films and an excellent profile of
Hammett’s novel is as great as the contrast between the Huston titled “Undirectable Director.”
1941 The Maltese Falcon and the 1936 Satan Met a Lady. Astor, Mary. A Life on Film. New York: Delacorte Press,
Within a few short years, Hollywood’s angle on the same 1971. Recounts this actor’s film career, which lasted
stories became much darker, as the studios allowed the from 1922 to 1964. Fully illustrated with photo-
cynical, pessimistic attitude of Hammett and other writ- graphs. Contains many interesting anecdotes about
ers to be preserved and amplified in the films of the early her experiences working with Bogart, Huston, Green-
1940’s. Such films, dark both in narrative tone and in for- street, and Lorre in The Maltese Falcon and Across
mal style, would come to be known as film noirs, a term the Pacific (1942).
coined by French critics once French audiences were ex- Benchley, Nathaniel. Humphrey Bogart. Boston: Little,
posed to these films after the end of the war. Brown, 1975. An insightful and frequently amusing
The American public’s taste for hard-boiled films biography of the dedicated but temperamental actor
with dialogue crackling with cynical witticisms led pro- who put his indelible stamp on the role of Sam Spade
ducers to search for stories with similar qualities. They and whose career skyrocketed after his appearance in
discovered Raymond Chandler and James M. Cain, two The Maltese Falcon. Contains many photographs of
other outstanding writers of the hard-boiled school of Bogart at work and at leisure.
American crime fiction. Director Billy Wilder, working Brill, Lesley. “Theater, Identity, and Reality in The Mal-
closely with Raymond Chandler on the adaptation of tese Falcon (1941).” In John Huston’s Filmmaking.
Cain’s novel, created a film noir masterpiece with Dou- New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Places
ble Indemnity (1944). Wilder went on to make many the film in the context of Huston’s career, his style,
films in the same realist genre, notably The Lost Week- and his thematic concerns. Focuses on the dissimula-
end (1945) and Sunset Boulevard (1950), and James M. tion of characters in the film as a study of theatricality
Cain had many of his other novels made into memorable and identity. Bibliographic references, index, filmog-
films, including Mildred Pierce (1945) and The Postman raphy.
Always Rings Twice (1946). Bruccoli, Matthew J., and Richard Layman, eds. Hard-
The list of American films influenced by Huston’s boiled Mystery Writers: Raymond Chandler, Dashiell
version of The Maltese Falcon is nearly endless, but no Hammett, Ross Macdonald: A Literary Reference.
discussion of the genre can fail to highlight Raymond New York: Carroll & Graf, 2002. Study of the authors
Chandler. After Bogart’s success as Sam Spade, the actor who most greatly influenced the development of
starred as private eye Philip Marlowe in Howard American film noir. Places Hammett’s work in the
Hawks’s 1946 adaptation of Chandler’s novel The Big context both of his peers and of larger cultural devel-
Sleep (1939)—albeit an adaptation that was much less opments. Bibliographic references and index.
107
Mount Rushmore National Memorial Is Completed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Chandler, Raymond. “The Simple Art of Murder.” In Luhr, William, ed. “The Maltese Falcon”: John Huston,
The Simple Art of Murder. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Director. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University
1950. This essay is required reading for anyone who Press, 1995. Compilation of studies of The Maltese
wishes to understand the evolution of crime fiction Falcon, from its making to its place in film noir and
and crime films, in both of which Dashiell Hammett the greater cinematic canon. Bibliographic refer-
and Raymond Chandler were dominant figures. ences.
Everson, William K. The Detective in Film. Secaucus,
N.J.: Citadel Press, 1972. This lavishly illustrated See also: May 1, 1941: Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks
overview of detective films in the United States and with Traditional Filmmaking; Nov. 26, 1942: Casa-
Great Britain contains an outstanding description and blanca Marks the Artistic Apex of 1940’s War-
comparison of all three film versions of Hammett’s Themed Films; 1948: Mailer Publishes The Naked
The Maltese Falcon, complete with photos from all and the Dead; Sept. 3, 1949: The Third Man Pre-
three films. mieres; Aug. 10, 1950: Sunset Boulevard Premieres;
Long, Robert Emmet, ed. John Huston: Interviews. Jack- Sept. 10, 1951: Kurosawa’s Rashomon Wins the
son: University Press of Mississippi, 2001. Collection Grand Prize at Venice; Mar. 16, 1960: Godard’s
of interviews wtih the filmmaker about his life and art. Breathless Revolutionizes Film; June 16, 1960: Psy-
Filmography and index. cho Becomes Hitchcock’s Most Famous Film.
October 31, 1941

Mount Rushmore National Memorial Is Completed
Mount Rushmore National Memorial, a colossal Summary of Event
engineering and artistic project, depicts four U.S. The carving of Mount Rushmore was an undertaking that
presidents—George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, required the skill of an experienced sculptor, financial
Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln—in a support from the U.S. Congress, and the hard (and often
carved-stone monument also known as the “Shrine dangerous) labor of workers who did the drilling, blast-
of Democracy.” The Rushmore monument remains ing, and chipping. The project was started in the boom
the largest work of art in the United States if not the economy of the 1920’s, but it almost died for lack of
world. funds during the Great Depression of the 1930’s. The
monument as conceived by sculptor Gutzon Borglum
was to have a five-hundred-word inscription carved in
Also known as: Shrine of Democracy
granite next to the carved depictions of four U.S. presi-
Locale: Black Hills, South Dakota
dents and a Hall of Records to house documents from the
Categories: Monuments; engineering; arts;
U.S. National Archives. Borglum’s ideas had to be can-
government and politics
celed when the start of World War II shifted national pri-
Key Figures orities. The monument has remained unchanged since
Gutzon Borglum (1867-1941), sculptor and promoter construction ended in 1941.
of the monument Borglum, whose parents had emigrated from Den-
Peter Norbeck (1870-1936), U.S. senator from South mark to the United States in the 1860’s, grew up in
Dakota who obtained funding from Congress Fremont, Nebraska, but left home at age sixteen to study
Doane Robinson (1856-1946), South Dakota historian art in California. He became a successful portrait painter
who initiated the idea of carving a monument in the and sculptor. In 1904, he received a gold medal at the St.
Black Hills Louis World’s Fair for one of his sculptures. In 1915, he
Calvin Coolidge (1872-1933), U.S. president, 1923- was approached by the United Daughters of the Confed-
1929 eracy to create a memorial to the Confederate Army at
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), U.S. president, Stone Mountain, Georgia. A huge mural was to be carved
1933-1945, who dedicated the carving of Jefferson into a nearly vertical mountain wall, showing an army of
in 1936 Confederate soldiers and their most famous generals.
108
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Mount Rushmore National Memorial Is Completed
For the Stone Mountain project, Borglum had to de- matching funds. It was time for the work to begin.
velop new carving techniques, techniques that were far After studying the exposed granite at Mount Rush-
different from those used in a studio. For example, work- more, Borglum made a scale model showing how the
1941
ers learned to cut sticks of dynamite into short pieces, faces of four presidents could be placed. Each face would
which were then inserted into shallow drill holes and ex- be about sixty feet tall, located four hundred feet above
ploded to peel away thin layers of rock. The sculpture of the valley floor. A carving of such gigantic size had never
the head of Robert E. Lee was unveiled in 1924 with before been attempted, so some major construction prob-
much fanfare, but disputes between Borglum and the lems had to be solved. To reach that height, it was not fea-
Stone Mountain Monument Association over the even- sible to erect scaffolding. Instead, a long stairway was
tual size of the project led to its cancellation. built for the workers to climb to the top, from where they
While Borglum was working at Stone Mountain, he were let down by ropes and harnesses. Suspended far
received a letter from Doane Robinson, South Dakota’s above the valley, they had to operate heavy drills and
state historian, to inquire about his availability for a jackhammers run by compressed air. A machine shop
mountain-carving project proposed for the Black Hills. was kept in continuous operation to sharpen drill bits as
Robinson had a vision that such a carving would provide they became dull. Based on Borglum’s experience at
a unique tourist attraction for the state. When Borglum Stone Mountain, dynamite was inserted into small drill
came for a visit, he told Robinson that the site was perfect holes and then exploded.
for a national monument; the site’s construction costs, A particular difficulty at Mount Rushmore was to
Borglum added, would quickly be made up by the in- transfer the shape of the scale model to the mountain.
come from increased tourist traffic. Since the faces were to be three-dimensional, it was nec-
Raising funds for the Mount Rushmore project was a essary to specify horizontal, vertical, and outward facing
slow process. Local businessmen contributed only a few distances where granite had to be removed. Borglum
hundred dollars. Robinson, with Peter Norbeck, former solved the problem by inventing an ingenious “pointing
governor of South Dakota and now its U.S. senator, urged machine.” Starting from a fixed point of his scale model
the state legislature to appropriate $10,000, but they were on top of Washington’s head, he used a horizontal boom
unsuccessful. The future of the project looked bleak. thirty inches long from which a plumb bob was lowered
Then came a lucky break. In the summer of 1927, Presi- to make contact with any point on the model. The same
dent Calvin Coolidge decided to vacation in the Black arrangement was set up on top of the mountain, except
Hills. Seeing a great opportunity for national recogni- the boom there was thirty feet long. With a scale-up fac-
tion, Norbeck invited Coolidge for a grand dedication tor of one inch on the model to one foot on the mountain,
ceremony at the proposed site. With the resulting public- this procedure worked very well and was used eventually
ity and a booming stock market, individuals and corpora- for all four faces.
tions became willing donors. In 1928, Norbeck was able The carving of Washington was completed in about
to get an appropriation from Congress for $250,000 in two years. At the dedication ceremony on July 4, 1930, a
Time Line of Mount Rushmore National Memorial

1923 Black Hills sculpture is suggested by South Dakota state historian Doane Robinson
March 3 and 5, 1925 U.S. government and state of South Dakota authorize carving in the Harney National Forest
Oct. 1, 1925 Dedication of Mount Rushmore as a national memorial
Aug. 10, 1927 President Calvin Coolidge presides at a second dedication ceremony
Oct. 4, 1927 Carving begins on Mount Rushmore
July 4, 1930 Dedication of the George Washington sculpture
Aug. 30, 1936 Dedication of the Thomas Jefferson sculpture
Sept. 17, 1937 Dedication of the Abraham Lincoln sculpture
July 2, 1939 Dedication of the Theodore Roosevelt sculpture
March 6, 1941 Project director Gutzon Borglum dies in Chicago
1941 Gutzon’s son, Lincoln Borglum, begins directing project
Oct. 31, 1941 Mount Rushmore National Memorial completed
109
Mount Rushmore National Memorial Is Completed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
huge U.S. flag, draped over the carving, was slowly pulled lawsuit in 1980 was dismissed in federal court, and the
away to reveal the face. Several thousand spectators ap- controversy remains unresolved.
plauded enthusiastically while newsreel cameras recorded — Hans G. Graetzer
the event for the nation. Work then started on Thomas
Jefferson’s head, which was to be located to the right of Further Reading
Washington. Unfortunately, the granite was found to be Cohen, Stan. Borglum’s Mountain: A Pictorial History
faulty there, so Borglum had to redesign his model, plac- of the Mount Rushmore Memorial. Marceline, Mo.:
ing Jefferson on Washington’s left. In 1932, funds ran Walsworth, 1983. A collection of photographs with
out and the work had to be shut down. (Crops had failed annotations, showing construction in progress and
due to a severe drought and the Depression was at its notable visitors to the site.
worst.) After President Franklin D. Roosevelt took office Larner, Jesse. Mount Rushmore: An Icon Reconsidered.
in 1933, money became available through federal unem- New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press/Nation Books,
ployment relief, allowing the hiring of a crew of fifty 2002. A controversial assessment of Mount Rush-
workers. In 1936, Roosevelt came to South Dakota on his more from the point of view of Native Americans who
reelection campaign and dedicated the Jefferson carving. were forcibly displaced from the area in the 1870’s.
Abraham Lincoln’s carving was completed one year Includes an extensive bibliography.
later, and the fourth carving, of Theodore Roosevelt, was National Park Service. Mount Rushmore National Mon-
dedicated on July 2, 1939. Twelve thousand people at- ument. http://www.nps.gov/moru. The official fed-
tended that ceremony at Mount Rushmore, and a national eral government site for the monument.
radio audience heard the stirring new song, “God Bless Perrottet, Tony. “Mount Rushmore Makeover.” Smith-
America.” The following year, Borglum added some sonian 37, no. 2 (May, 2006): 78-83. Describes clean-
hollows and wrinkles to the faces, which gave them a re- ing and maintaining the monument and the appoint-
markable, lifelike appearance. ment of a Native American as National Park Service
Borglum died after a short illness in March of 1941. superintendent for the site.
His son, Lincoln Borglum, who had already been in- Price, Willadene. Gutzon Borglum, Artist and Patriot.
volved in the project, completed the unfinished details. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1961. A laudatory biogra-
Significance phy of Borglum, describing his numerous sculptures
Mount Rushmore has become what Borglum had hoped: in addition to his masterpiece at Mount Rushmore. In-
a national monument. The four presidents represented cludes sixty historic photographs.
the founding of the United States, the expansion of the Smith, Rex Allen. The Carving of Mount Rushmore.
nation after the Louisiana Purchase, the preservation of New York: Abbeville Press, 1985. A comprehensive
the Union during the American Civil War, and the description of the construction process as well as the
growth of American influence beyond U.S. borders. In political battles to obtain funding. Photographs and a
1991, on the fiftieth anniversary of the completion of the bibliography. Highly recommended.
monument, President George H. W. Bush rededicated Taliaferro, John. Great White Fathers: The Story of the
the site, accompanied by an extravaganza of fireworks Obsessive Quest to Create Mount Rushmore. New
and famous entertainers. York: Public Affairs, 2002. Mount Rushmore as a pa-
The American Indian Movement (AIM), which occu- triotic shrine of democracy is contrasted with the des-
pied the site in protests in the early 1970’s (the major ecration of nature as viewed by Native Americans and
protest was in 1970), has strongly objected to the monu- environmentalists. Describes the 1970 occupation of
ment’s existence, because it celebrates those who ban- the site by members of the American Indian Move-
ished Native Americans from their lands. AIM considers ment.
the monument a desecration of a Black Hills holy site.
In 1980, a long-standing lawsuit by the Sioux Nation See also: Mar. 15, 1943: Roosevelt Creates Jackson
against the U.S. government resulted in an offer of about Hole National Monument; Jan. 27, 1956-1966: Mis-
$600 million as compensation for Black Hills land and sion 66 Plan Is Implemented; July 16, 1965: Mont
resources that had been illegally seized in 1877. The Blanc Tunnel Between France and Italy Opens; Oct.
Sioux Nation refused to accept this money, however, 2, 1968: Johnson Establishes North Cascades Na-
stating that the Black Hills are not for sale. A follow-up tional Park.
110
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Bombing of Pearl Harbor
December 7, 1941
Bombing of Pearl Harbor
1941
Japan’s surprise attack on the United States’ Pacific Japanese military and political situation. According to
Fleet, part of a massive series of attacks throughout the dictates of Japanese strategic thinking, the attack was
the Pacific, forced the United States to enter World the logical result of a series of confrontations between Ja-
War II. pan and the United States.
Although U.S. interest was focused primarily on Eu-
Locale: Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii rope between 1939 and 1941, events in the Far East
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil aroused increasing concern in Washington, D.C., as Ja-
unrest pan carried forth its ambitious creation of a Japanese-
Key Figures dominated Greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere,
Cordell Hull (1871-1955), U.S. secretary of state, which dubiously championed “Asia for Asians.” Much
1933-1944 of China had fallen under Japanese control by 1939. Ja-
Husband Edward Kimmel (1882-1968), commander in pan officially became an Axis power in September,
chief of the U.S. Fleet and the Pacific Fleet, 1940, with the signing of the Tripartite Pact—a “defen-
February-December, 1941 sive” alliance among Germany, Italy, and Japan. By the
George C. Marshall (1880-1959), chief of staff of the summer of 1941, Japan had gained concessions in Indo-
U.S. Army, 1939-1945, and later secretary of state, china and was threatening to engulf Thailand, Russia’s
1947-1949 Siberian provinces, the British bastion of Singapore,
Kichisaburo Nomura (1887-1964), Japanese Burma, the Dutch East Indies, and the Philippines. Japa-
ambassador to the United States nese imperialist ambitions, then, were without doubt a
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the principal motive of its deliberate and stealthy attack on
United States, 1933-1945 Pearl Harbor.
Walter Campbell Short (1880-1949), commander of The United States opposed this Japanese expansion
the U.S. Army’s Hawaiian Department primarily with moral and economic sanctions. Through-
Harold Raynsford Stark (1880-1972), U.S. chief of out the 1930’s, as Japan seized Manchuria and moved
naval operations, 1939-1942 against China, the United States proved unable or unwill-
Hideki Tojo (1884-1948), prime minister of Japan, ing to oppose Japan by force. Although sympathetic to-
1941-1944 ward China, President Roosevelt was more concerned
Isoroku Yamamoto (1884-1943), commander in chief about Germany than about Japan. Supported by navy
of the Japanese Combined Fleet spokesmen who feared that a two-ocean war would lead
the United States to disaster, Roosevelt adopted a policy
Summary of Event of caution toward Japanese expansion in the hope that
The surprise attack by Japanese naval air forces upon the liberal Japanese leaders would wrest power from the
huge U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on Decem- more militant imperialists and reverse Japan’s course.
ber 7, 1941, has become synonymous with duplicity and Despite British and Dutch pressure, the United States
cunning. American reaction to it was both captured and was slow to accept the necessity of economic sanctions
shaped by President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s responding until August, 1940, when Roosevelt imposed an em-
speech to the U.S. Congress, in which he called for a dec- bargo on aviation gasoline. Restrictions on the export of
laration of war, referring to the date of the attack as one scrap iron and steel followed in September, 1940, and
that would “live in infamy.” Nevertheless, the circum- Japanese assets in the United States were frozen in July,
stances of the attack engendered bitter controversy over 1941.
the reasons for the failure of U.S. leaders to anticipate Japanese leaders, almost all of whom supported the
and to defend themselves against this devastating blow. program of expansion and differed only on how it should
Although the Pearl Harbor attack can be explained in be accomplished, came to believe that Japan was being
part by a “devil theory of war”—namely, that Japan, un- encircled by the Western powers. If Japanese demands
provoked by the United States, deliberately and wan- were not achieved by diplomacy, military force would
tonly struck the Navy’s Pacific command center—a become necessary. Economic sanctions by the United
more complete assessment must take into account the States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands—especially
111
Bombing of Pearl Harbor The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the embargo—meant that Japan had to choose between pan presented to Hull what was to be the final Japanese
peace and war within a year, before its oil reserves were proposal for peace on November 10. Hull declared it un-
exhausted. In July, 1941, an advance into Southeast Asia acceptable and on November 26 made a counteroffer,
for oil and other resources was approved by the Japanese which he knew from intercepted Japanese messages
Imperial Council, even if it meant war with the United would be rejected. Diplomacy proved futile. On Sunday,
States. On September 6, an Imperial Conference set what December 7, while Japanese planes were making their
amounted to a time limit on diplomatic efforts for the set- bombing runs over Pearl Harbor, a Japanese diplomatic
tlement of negotiations with the United States. Negotia- note was handed to the secretary of state; it implied dis-
tions continued, with neither side offering concessions. ruption of relations, but it was not a declaration of war.
Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull were pes- Japan’s preparations for the attack on Pearl Harbor
simistic but believed that discussions should continue, in had begun with tactical planning in the early months of
order that the United States might gain time for defense 1941. Japanese strategists recognized that an advance
preparations. into Southeast Asia would likely generate a U.S. military
Meanwhile, Army and Navy intelligence at Pearl response. Destruction of the United States Pacific Fleet
Harbor and in Washington, D.C., learned that Japan based in Hawaii was essential if Japan’s move into the re-
might be planning to mount a surprise attack, but the evi- gion was to succeed. A daring plan by Admiral Isoroku
dence was fragmentary. U.S. military planners knew Yamamoto to destroy or cripple the fleet at anchor in
from intercepted messages that things would happen au- Pearl Harbor was at first considered impractical, if not
tomatically if the U.S. rejected a final Japanese proposal, suicidal, but the proposal was later accepted when table-
but most indications pointed to an attack somewhere in top games proved it workable and Yamamoto exerted his
Southeast Asia. Ambassador Kichisaburo Nomura of Ja- powerful influence in favor of it. Pilots began training in
Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor, 1941

ds
an
l
Is
r il
Ku P a c i f i c
Japan O c e a n
Tokyo
Hawaiian
Islands
Honolulu
Pearl
Harbor
Dec. 7
112
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Bombing of Pearl Harbor
“Day of Infamy”
U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke to Congress on December 8, 1941, the day after the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the
Japanese. His “Day of Infamy” speech, as it has come to be known, is presented here.
1941
Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliber-
ately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.
The United States was at peace with that Nation and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation with its Govern-
ment and its Emperor looking toward the maintenance of peace in the Pacific. Indeed, one hour after Japanese air squadrons had
commenced bombing in the American Island of Oahu, the Japanese Ambassador to the United States and his colleague deliv-
ered to our Secretary of State a formal reply to a recent American message. And while this reply stated that it seemed useless to
continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint of war or of armed attack.
It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from Japan makes it obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many
days or even weeks ago. During the intervening time the Japanese Government has deliberately sought to deceive the United
States by false statements and expressions of hope for continued peace.
The attack yesterday on the Hawaiian Islands has caused severe damage to American naval and military forces. I regret to
tell you that very many American lives have been lost. In addition American ships have been reported torpedoed on the high
seas between San Francisco and Honolulu.
Yesterday the Japanese Government also launched an attack against Malaya.
Last night Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong.
Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam.
Last night Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands.
Last night the Japanese attacked Wake Island. And this morning the Japanese attacked Midway Island.
Japan has, therefore, undertaken a surprise offensive extending throughout the Pacific area. The facts of yesterday and today
speak for themselves. The people of the United States have already formed their opinions and well understand the implications
to the very life and safety of our Nation.
As Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy I have directed that all measures be taken for our defense.
But always will our whole Nation remember the character of the onslaught against us.
No matter how long it may take us to overcome this premeditated invasion, the American people in their righteous might
will win through to absolute victory. I believe that I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we will
not only defend ourselves to the uttermost but will make it very certain that this form of treachery shall never again endanger us.
Hostilities exist. There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory, and our interests are in grave danger.
With confidence in our armed forces—with the unbounding determination of our people—we will gain the inevitable tri-
umph—so help us God.
I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7, 1941, a state
of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire.
September, and all objections were overcome. To cope 3,500 miles to a rendezvous point 275 miles north of
with the shallow waters of Pearl Harbor, wooden-finned Pearl Harbor. The strike force was not to attack until final
torpedoes were devised, together with a new method of clearance for action was issued from the Japanese high
delivering them on target; elaborate precautions were command. On December 2, the signal “Climb Mount
undertaken to preserve secrecy; and abundant intelli- Niitaka” was received by Nagumo and the date of attack
gence was gathered concerning the movements of the confirmed. Early on December 7, the strike force reached
U.S. Pacific Fleet. position, so that the first Japanese planes were flying
Under the command of Vice Admiral Chuichi Na- over Pearl Harbor by 7:55 a.m., local time.
gumo, a special task force of thirty-one vessels, in- The weather was ideal for an attack, and Pearl Harbor
cluding six aircraft carriers that carried 432 airplanes— was caught totally unprepared. The blow was deliber-
fighters, dive-bombers, high-level attack bombers, and ately planned for Sunday morning, when the ships of the
torpedo planes—left Japanese ports in early November. Pacific Fleet were moored in perfect alignment and their
On November 22, this force gathered in the Southern crews were ashore, having breakfast, or relaxing on
Kuriles. Four days later, it headed out to sea for a run of board ship. There was no advance warning in Hawaii. An
113
Bombing of Pearl Harbor The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
operator at a temporary U.S. radar post observed the on- still existed in 1941. Within a few days, the United States
coming Japanese squadrons at 7:02 a.m.; he reported the was at war with Japan, and, because of the Tripartite
blips shown on the radar screen, but the watch officer did Pact, with Germany as well. It was only a matter of time
not pass on the information, thinking they were a group before American military capacities were decisively ex-
of U.S. bombers expected to arrive that morning from the hibited in both the Pacific and European theaters, with
West Coast. the complete defeat of the Axis Powers, in the case of Ja-
The Japanese planes swooped to the attack. Fighters pan almost exclusively at the hands of American forces,
and dive-bombers strafed and bombed the neat rows of provoked by the day of “infamy” to exact total victory
aircraft at Wheeler Field and the Naval Air Station. Tor- over Japanese forces, symbolized in part by the Ameri-
pedo planes and dive-bombers also attacked Battleship can insistence on Japan’s unconditional surrender.
Row in the devastating first phase, which lasted thirty — Theodore A. Wilson and Kenneth William Townsend
minutes. After a fifteen-minute lull, the Japanese
launched high-level bombing attacks on the harbor, air- Further Reading
fields, and shore installations, followed by more attacks Edwards, Bernard. Japan’s Blitzkrieg: The Rout of
by dive-bombers, which pressed through mounting anti- Allied Forces in the Far East, 1941-1942. Barnsley,
aircraft fire. The last planes withdrew at 9:45 a.m., less South Yorkshire, England: Pen & Sword, 2006. Anal-
than two hours after the attack had begun. ysis of the attack on Pearl Harbor and the early war in
The Japanese attack left behind a scene of destruction the Pacific theater. Places the attack in the context of
and carnage without parallel in U.S. history. Casualties Japan’s overall strategy and details its effects and af-
were 2,403 dead and 1,178 wounded. Three battle- termath.
ships—the West Virginia, Arizona, and California— Layton, Edwin T. “And I Was There”: Pearl Harbor and
were sunk; the Oklahoma lay capsized; and the Tennes- Midway—Breaking the Secrets. New York: William
see, Nevada, Maryland, and Pennsylvania suffered Morrow, 1985. A personal recollection of one U.S.
varying degrees of damage. Several smaller warships naval officer in Hawaii during the Pearl Harbor at-
were sunk, and others were seriously crippled. Almost tack.
all combat aircraft on the islands were damaged or Prange, Gordon. At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of
destroyed. Twenty-nine Japanese airplanes were lost, Pearl Harbor. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. An
along with one full-sized submarine and five midget sub- objective study of the principal participants of Pearl
marines. The U.S. forces in Hawaii fought courageously Harbor, both Japanese and American. The book pro-
and recovered quickly from their initial shock. However, vides an examination of personalities and events as
they proved tragically unprepared to repel the skillful they unfolded over a span of two years.
blows rained down by the Japanese strike force. _______. Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1986. Examines the Pearl Har-
Significance bor attack to determine responsibility for the United
At Pearl Harbor, the Japanese were successful far be- States’ loss and Japan’s victory.
yond the expectations of their high command; the United Richardson, K. D. Reflections of Pearl Harbor: An Oral
States Pacific Fleet lay grievously wounded and would History of December 7, 1941. Westport, Conn.:
not, Japan believed, be able to undertake offensive oper- Praeger, 2005. Detailed look at the events of Decem-
ations for months. The attack failed, however, in two par- ber 7, 1941, in the words of the eyewitnesses to those
ticulars. First, the Japanese missed their prime targets: events. Bibliographic references and index.
the aircraft carriers Lexington and Enterprise (both of Satterfield, Archie. The Day the War Began. Westport,
which were at sea), and Saratoga (which was in dry dock Conn.: Praeger, 1992. A reexamination of the events
on the West Coast). Second, the Japanese failed to de- leading to and following the attack on Pearl Harbor.
stroy the huge oil storage facilities, without which the Toland, John. Infamy: Pearl Harbor and Its Aftermath.
Pacific Fleet would have been forced to retire to the West New York: Berkeley Books, 1982. Presents the
Coast. events leading to Pearl Harbor from both Japanese
While historical debate continues regarding the ne- and U.S. perspectives. Includes numerous interviews
cessity of the attack for Japan and the United States’ lack with officers, strategists, and general personnel of
of preparedness, the Pearl Harbor attack unified the U.S. both military forces. Presents a conspiracy theory to
people and eliminated whatever isolationist sentiment explain the U.S. defeat at Pearl Harbor.
114
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Canada Declares War on Japan
Weintraub, Stanley. Long Day’s Journey into War: De- See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II:
cember 7, 1941. New York: Dutton, 1991. Covers the Pacific Theater; Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World
Sunday morning Japanese air assault and the day’s War II: European Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Canada De-
1941
developments in Hawaii following the attack, with clares War on Japan; Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins At-
emphasis on popular reactions. tacks on Southeast Asia; Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942:
Wohlstetter, Roberta. Pearl Harbor: Warning and Deci- Japan Invades the Philippines; Dec. 11, 1941: Ger-
sion. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, many and Italy Declare War on the United States;
1962. The story of Pearl Harbor, grounded in the posi- Feb. 19, 1942-1945: United States Interns Japanese
tion that the U.S. loss was the result of human error. Americans.
December 7, 1941
Canada Declares War on Japan
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor prompted the Kong from a possible Japanese attack. Ottawa had opted
Liberal government of William Lyon Mackenzie King to send this contingent not because of any profound link
to declare war on Japan. Canada’s war effort in with Hong Kong or desire to bolster British defenses in
Europe overshadowed Canada’s war effort in the Asia, but mainly because of domestic political accusa-
Pacific, which was relatively limited. The declaration tions that it was not doing enough in the war. The deci-
of war, however, led to the more significant internment sion proved to inaugurate one of the blackest periods for
of Japanese Canadians for the duration of World the Canadian military during the war.
War II. The Canadian units arrived at Hong Kong on Novem-
ber 16, 1941. On December 7, Canada declared war on
Locale: Canada Japan in response to the attack on Pearl Harbor. The dec-
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations; laration was confirmed by a proclamation of the king of
wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; World War II Great Britain on December 8. At this point, the vehicles
Key Figures and heavy equipment of the Canadian units sent to Hong
William Lyon Mackenzie King (1874-1950), prime Kong were still in transit. The war in the Pacific pre-
minister of Canada, 1921-1926, 1926-1930, and vented the equipment from ever reaching the Canadian
1935-1948 soldiers. Moreover, the British underestimated the Japa-
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the nese threat, believing it could easily be repelled. On De-
United States, 1933-1945 cember 8, the Japanese attacked swiftly and breached the
British defenses on the Chinese mainland that bordered
Summary of Event the island. On December 18, the Japanese launched an
Canada’s involvement in World War II began on Sep- amphibious assault on Hong Kong.
tember 10, 1939, when Parliament officially declared Horribly outnumbered, poorly equipped, and suffer-
war against Germany. For the next two years, the governing shortages of water, food, and medicines, the Canadi-
ment of William Lyon Mackenzie King paid little atten- ans managed to mount a fierce defense before being
tion to events in Asia. This was partly due to a lack of in- pushed back. Over the following week, the remaining
telligence and diplomatic resources in the region, which Canadian and British forces launched repeated counter-
forced the Canadian government to rely on information attacks, but to no avail. On Christmas Eve, the British
supplied to it by Great Britain and America. It was also Command ordered the troops to surrender. The captured
due to the central focus that the government placed on the prisoners were treated brutally. A total of 128 Canadian
war’s European theater. prisoners of war died at Hong Kong of disease, starva-
Prior to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in De- tion, and harsh maltreatment by the Japanese. Of the
cember, 1941, the British formally requested a Canadian 1,975 Canadians who arrived in Hong Kong, a few more
brigade for the defense of the island colony of Hong than 1,400 lived to make it home.
Kong. King and his government agreed and sent a small The attack on Pearl Harbor, followed by the defeat at
force of 1,975 poorly trained troops to help defend Hong Hong Kong, had dire consequences for Canadians at
115
Canada Declares War on Japan The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
home. Anti-Asian sentiment had increased throughout embittered by life in Canada, chose to emigrate to Japan.
Canada in the 1930’s, especially in British Columbia, After the disaster at Hong Kong, King was cautious
where the majority of Canada’s Asian community lived. about making further defensive commitments in the Pa-
The Japanese Canadian community faced the brunt of ra- cific theater. Like Canada, Australia was a member of the
cial hostility that was fueled partly by Japanese milita- British Commonwealth, and both nations had historic
rism and partly by a predictable anxiety over culturally ties through this mutual link. Unlike Canada, however,
and racially different peoples immigrating to a nation Australia’s government believed that Japanese forces
with a relatively homogeneous population. The tensions would invade Australia by May, 1942. In February, the
that had built during the 1930’s were exacerbated by the Japanese bombed the northern Australian city of Darwin
advent of war with Japan, and they were further exacer- and captured Singapore, the largest British military base
bated by the fall of Hong Kong just weeks later. These in Asia. These events inflated Australian fears, and Can-
tensions were expressed in increasingly shrill expres- berra asked for Ottawa’s help. King demurred, citing
sions of concern over the possible invasion of the Cana- military commitments to the European theater, which
dian West Coast by Japan. were significant, and domestic concerns in Quebec about
The small community of Japanese Canadians bore the conscription. King’s was not a heroic decision, but it was
brunt of these fears. Fueled by racist agitators, the public, the right strategic choice for Canada, given the uncer-
particularly in British Columbia, demanded that Ottawa tainty of Japanese plans in the North Pacific—not to
move against Japanese Canadians living in British Co- mention the enormous logistical complications of send-
lumbia, fearing that the community might act as a fifth ing and supplying Canadian forces across the breadth of
column. While King believed that Japan might attack the Pacific Ocean. However, the Canadian decision-
Alaska and British Columbia, his government appeared making process was languid, making Ottawa appear in-
confident that no immediate threat existed from Japanese different to Australia’s plight.
forces. This was a view supported by the army and the Canada’s ambiguous policies toward the war in the
police, but it did little to dissipate the public outcry. Pacific were also evident during the Japanese invasion of
Many politicians in British Columbia became hysterical the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. In the spring of 1942, the
in their demands that something be done about the Japanese occupied the islands of Attu and Kiska, and
“threat.” In particular, they demanded the expulsion of American military officials sought two Royal Canadian
the Japanese community. Air Force squads to help shore up American defenses.
After demurring for weeks, the King government ac- U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt discussed Alaska’s
quiesced and announced in January, 1942, its plans to re- vulnerability with King and sought Canada’s support.
move Japanese nationals from the West Coast. On Feb- This request was supported by some of King’s principal
ruary 24, Ottawa introduced legislation that permitted advisers, who advised that Canada’s war effort need not
the evacuation of all persons of Japanese ancestry from solely be directed against Germany. King conceded, and
the West Coast. Some twenty-two thousand Japanese Canada’s military presence in the Aleutian campaign ex-
Canadians living in coastal British Columbia, including panded to a meager five naval vessels; three small anti-
women and children, were soon moved to camps in the aircraft batteries were despatched.
interior of British Columbia. Several hundred males In May, 1943, the Canadian government also agreed,
deemed “dangerous” were placed under armed guard at after considerable debate, to send an infantry brigade
an isolated camp in Ontario. group to Kiska. In the end, it was all for naught. On Au-
Those interned had their property confiscated and gust 15, 1943, Canadian and American forces landed on
sold at bargain prices, and thus at a considerable eco- Kiska, but the Japanese had already secretly withdrawn.
nomic loss to the owners. About one thousand Japanese Some of King’s senior generals and diplomats advocated
evacuees labored on sugar-beet farms in Alberta and that Canada expand its military role in the North Pacific,
Manitoba, taking on a job that most German prisoners of but King rebuked them as he grew concerned that Can-
war interned in Canada, let alone free Canadian citizens, ada would be unable to meet its future commitments in
refused to do. After the war, Ottawa resettled the Japa- the Pacific as the Canadian military became heavily en-
nese Canadians across Canada and even attempted to de- gaged in Europe.
port thousands, many of whom were Canadian citizens, By the end of 1943, Canada’s limited North Pacific
to Japan. Although the federal government abandoned operations had ended, and Canada’s military focused
these plans in 1947, hundreds of Japanese Canadians, on European operations. Still, King acknowledged that
116
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Canada Declares War on Japan
Canada was obligated to play some further role in defeat- Community, edited by John English, Kenneth Mc-
ing Japan: He merely wanted it to be the “right one.” De- Laughlin, and P. Whitney Lackenbauer. Toronto,
spite this nebulous desire, no further Canadian military Ont.: Robin Brass Studio, 2002. An insightful evalua-
1941
or naval units saw combat in the Pacific. The year 1943 tion of King’s attitudes and actions toward Japanese
marked the end of the Canadian war in that theater. Canadians during World War II.
Granatstein, J. L. Canada’s Army: Waging War and
Significance Keeping the Peace. Toronto, Ont.: University of To-
An assessment of the Canadian war effort against Japan ronto Press, 2002. A general survey of Canadian mili-
illustrates Canada’s ambiguous views and unease toward tary history since 1867. Provides an excellent starting
events in Asia and the Pacific during this period. Can- point for the study of Canadian military history.
ada’s Pacific military efforts were often indecisive and Perras, Galen. “No Need to Send an Army Across the Pa-
politically expedient, designed merely to show that Ot- cific: Mackenzie King and the Pacific Conflict, 1939-
tawa had some stake in the Pacific theater. The decision 1945.” In Mackenzie King: Citizenship and Commu-
hastily to send troops to Hong Kong was a poor one and nity, edited by John English, Kenneth McLaughlin,
stands as an example of political expediency trumping and P. Whitney Lackenbauer. Toronto, Ont.: Robin
good military decision-making. The result was tragic, Brass Studio, 2002. Based on declassified materials,
and the King government appeared haunted by its deci- this is one of the best studies of King’s perspective
sion. This was reflected in the excessive caution King and policies toward the Pacific theater.
demonstrated in his decisions regarding Australia and Roy, Patricia, et al. Mutual Hostages: Canadians and
the Aleutians. Japanese During the Second World War. Toronto,
The question of how and where Canadian forces Ont.: University of Toronto Press, 1990. Many Cana-
could best be used in the Pacific once war in Europe con- dian historians argue that Canada’s wartime policies
cluded lingered. At home, the reactions to Pearl Harbor toward the Japanese in Canada were motivated by
and the defeat at Hong Kong revealed the depth of long- long-standing racial hostility. This study provides a
standing racist sentiments on Canada’s West Coast. Ot- more sympathetic approach, suggesting that Ottawa
tawa’s willingness quickly and ingloriously to evacuate carried out the evacuation of Japanese Canadians for
the Japanese Canadians provides a fine example of how their own protection, as well as out of genuine na-
susceptible governments can be during times of crisis to tional security concerns.
rash public opinion. The decision also reflected King’s
political sensibilities to maintain national unity and or- See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II:
der. In September, 1988, the Canadian government offi- Pacific Theater; Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World
cially apologized for its internment of Japanese Canadi- War II: European Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of
ans and offered compensation to those members of the Pearl Harbor; Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on
Japanese Canadian community affected by the wartime Southeast Asia; Dec. 29-31, 1941: Churchill Visits
evacuation. Canada as World War II Ally; Feb. 19, 1942-1945:
—Ryan M. Touhey United States Interns Japanese Americans; Nov. 20,
1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pacific Offensive; Nov.
Further Reading 22, 1944: Canada Implements Conscription After
Bangarth, Stephanie. “Mackenzie King and Japanese Months of Crisis; July 1, 1946: Canada’s Citizenship
Canadians.” In Mackenzie King: Citizenship and Act Is Passed.
117
Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast Asia The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
December 7, 1941
Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast Asia
A surprise attack by the Japanese Imperial Army was self. On February 7 the city surrendered and more than
successful, resulting in the capture of the Philippines, 100,000 British prisoners fell into Japanese hands.
the Netherlands Indies, Malaya, and most of Burma. Burmese resistance proved to be ineffective as well.
General Shoyin Ida’s Fifteenth Army quickly overran
Locale: Southeast Asia most of Burma. Both British general Harold Alexander,
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil leading an army of British and Indian troops, and Ameri-
unrest can general Joseph Stillwell, commanding an army of
Key Figures Chinese Nationals, had to retreat to India in the face of
Hideki Tojo (1884-1948), prime minister of Japan, the ferocious Japanese attack.
1941-1944 The colonial forces of the Dutch in the East Indies also
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the proved to be no match for the invaders. As was the case
United States, 1933-1945 in Malaya, the Dutch troops, numbering more than
Tomoyuki Yamashita (1885-1946), commanding 100,000, surrendered to a Japanese army group one-
general in the Imperial Japanese Army fourth their size. The Dutch colonial army was composed
mostly of native Indonesians, who were convinced by
Summary of Event the motto of “Asia for the Asians” and saw little reason to
In the 1930’s, the Imperial Japanese Army, controlled by fight the Japanese. The single entirely Dutch division in
Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, developed long-range plans the East Indies was not well equipped, nor large enough,
for the domination of all of Asia by the Japanese Empire. to prevent the Japanese from capturing the capital, Java.
These plans entailed expelling the European colonial At the same time, in a naval battle on the Java Sea, the
powers from the continent. In December of 1941, the Japanese defeated a combined force of American and
Japanese military launched simultaneous attacks on a Dutch warships, ensuring the Japanese capture of their
wide range of geographical targets under the control of last major economic objective, the oil fields of the Neth-
the United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands. erlands Indies.
Categorizing their aggression under the appellation of The Philippine Island campaign proved to be a
the Greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere, the Japanese tougher challenge for the Japanese. After some initial
told the colonial subjects of the three Western countries successes, the Imperial Army found itself tied down in a
that the Japanese army had liberated Burma, Malaya, the lengthy struggle against the combined American and Fil-
Netherlands Indies (now Indonesia), and the Philippine ipino forces on the Bataan Peninsula. It was not until
Islands from domination by the white race. Thenceforth, May 27, 1942, that the Japanese could finally announce a
“Asia would be for the Asians.” victory. In the interim between the hostilities on Bataan
The Japanese army and navy demonstrated strategy, and the ultimate surrender of the American and Filipino
tactics, and fanatical courage in defeating their rivals. All soldiers, General Douglas MacArthur, their commander,
of their military units were well trained and in splendid had been ordered to leave the Philippines by President
condition. Moreover, many were veterans of the Second Franklin D. Roosevelt. He escaped to Australia and as-
Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). In contrast, the troops sumed the role of the Supreme Commander of the Allied
of the colonial powers—the United States, Great Britain, forces in the southwest Pacific.
and the Netherlands—were ill prepared, poorly armed, In addition to the vital oil supply, the Japanese Empire
and taken completely by surprise by the Japanese attack. now had quantities of rice, rubber, tin ore, cotton, and
The colonials proved to be incapable of withstanding the sugar to be taken from its recent conquests, providing the
invading forces for any length of time. wherewithal to feed its war machine. At this point, the
The British surrendered to the inferior numbers of Japanese had reached the apex of their Southeast Asian
their enemy in Malaya. On December 7, General Tomo- military campaign. However, the Japanese concept of
yuki Yamashita’s Twenty-fifth Army went ashore on the the Greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere turned out to
Kra Isthmus in northwestern Malaya and quickly ran the be a myth. The people of the colonies now under their
length of the peninsula, often using bicycles to move control learned quickly not only that their new masters
down the jungle paths until they reached Singapore it- were worse to deal with than the previous colonial offi-
118
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast Asia
cials but also that the Japanese occupiers were stripping Initially, the government believed that if it planted a local
the wealth of the islands and sending it back to Japan. So puppet infrastructure composed of native Filipinos and
much of the agricultural produce of the islands was announced its intention to grant the islands “indepen-
1941
seized that serious food shortages developed. dence,” the Philippines would be controllable and would
Moreover, the Japanese had not planned for the devel- provide a wide variety of raw materials for the Japanese
opment of an administrative section to supervise and war machine. However, the harsh rule of the military,
govern their newly acquired properties. Management combined with the complete lack of control by com-
ended up in the hands of the Imperial Army, almost by manders over the depredations of their troops in dealing
default. Local commanders were given full license to ad- with the local citizenry, resulted in the formation of Fili-
minister the occupation. Many officers literally turned pino guerrilla groups. Not only did such groups make it
their troops loose on the local peoples. As a result, physi- more difficult to exploit the resources of the Philippines,
cal abuse, theft, and insults became the regular fare for but they also meant that Japan was required to commit
the locals. Soon, the initial approach of freedom and more troops to the occupation, leaving fewer to fight the
cooperation promised under the Coprosperity Sphere war. In the three and one-half years of occupation, the
turned to one of exploitation. The population came to conquerors managed to alienate most of the Filipino pop-
hate their Japanese overlords who starved, beat, tortured, ulation. The same conditions developed, albeit to a lesser
and often murdered their charges. Underground resis- degree, throughout the occupied territories.
tance on the part of the former colonists began and con-
tinued throughout the war, seriously affecting the trans- Significance
fer of goods to the home islands. President Roosevelt, earlier in 1941, had demanded that
Japan’s operations in the Philippines demonstrated its Japan leave China or face restrictions on U.S. exports of
ineptitude in managing the countries that it conquered. critical supplies needed by the Asian nation, such as avi-
Troops marching through Pandu Ghat on their way to Myitkyina, Burma, in October, 1944. (National Archives)
119
Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast Asia The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ation fuel, lubricating oil, and heavy melting scrap. Further Reading
Faced with this threat, Hideki Tojo’s government, domi- Hoyt, Edwin P. Japan’s War: The Great Pacific Con-
nated by its military clique, opted to begin the island na- flict. New York: Cooper Square Press, 2001. Hoyt, a
tion’s conquest of Southeast Asian countries. Tojo and former soldier and a historian of World War II, uti-
his military supporters saw Burma, the Philippines, Ma- lizes the official 101-volume, Japanese-language his-
laya, and the Netherlands Indies as potential sources for tory of the war to provide a careful and accurate as-
the raw materials they required to continue the Imperial sessment of the Japanese viewpoint on the conflict.
Army and Navy’s operations. For this plan to work, how- Ienaga, Saburo. The Pacific War, 1931-1945. New York:
ever, Japan had to control the entire Pacific Ocean, which Random House, 1978. A Japanese college professor,
required the elimination of the American naval presence Dr. Ienaga is a committed pacifist and opponent of his
there. Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on the same day it at- country’s rearmament. He furnishes a detailed analy-
tacked Southeast Asia. sis of the Japanese domestic experience during World
In the first few months following its attacks, Japan War II.
was able to exploit the resources of the conquered na- Toland, John. The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of
tions. However, as the war continued, the United States the Japanese Empire, 1936-1945. New York: Ran-
was able to reestablish its Pacific naval power. The Japa- dom House, 1970. The author’s wife is Japanese, and
nese had been right to believe that they could not operate she aided him with interviews of Japanese partici-
with impunity if the U.S. Navy sought to prevent them
pants and survivors, as well as in his review of a mas-
from doing so: U.S. naval operations successfully inter-
sive amount of stenographic notes, transcripts, and a
dicted Japan’s supply line between Southeastern Asia
variety of other official records.
and the home islands of the empire. Ultimately, Japan’s
plan for Southeast Asia failed as a result American mili-
tary pressure, as well as the internal opposition of the lo- See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
cal populations. Ironically, however, the specious prom- cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
ises made by Japan to forestall indigenous resistance to Dec. 7, 1941: Canada Declares War on Japan; Dec.
the occupation were fulfilled. The Southeast Asian colo- 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan Invades the Philippines;
nies that Japan occupied during the World War II were Feb. 27-Mar. 1, 1942: Battle of the Java Sea; Oct. 25,
able to achieve their independence from their colonial 1943: Thai-Burma Railway Is Completed with
masters in the global decolonization that followed the Forced Labor; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central
end of the war. Pacific Offensive; June 12-20, 1944: Battle of the
— Carl Henry Marcoux Philippine Sea.
120
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japan Invades the Philippines
December 10, 1941-May, 1942

Japan Invades the Philippines
1941
Japan moved to consolidate its control over the sia and British colonies including Malaysia, Burma, and
Eastern Pacific with the invasion and occupation of the Singapore. The strike against Pearl Harbor took place on
Philippine Islands. The last American defenders held December 7, 1941.
out on the Bataan Peninsula and Corregidor, which When war broke out, General Douglas MacArthur, a
finally fell by May, 1942. former U.S. chief of staff (1930-1935), was in charge of
the American and Filipino forces in the Philippines. The
Locale: Philippines American forces included the U.S. Army Air Corps Far
Categories: Colonialism and occupation; World East Air Force, which consisted of more than one hun-
War II; wars, uprisings, and civil unrest dred fighter aircraft and thirty-five B-17 bombers. Japa-
Key Figures nese planners were concerned about this concentration
Masaharu Homma (1887-1946), Japanese general of air power.
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), commander of U.S. Japanese forces began landing in the Philippines on
forces in the Far East, 1941-1942, and supreme December 8, 1941, and seized most of the island of
commander of Allied forces in the Southwest Luzon by December 24. More than 120,000 Japanese
Pacific, 1942-1945 troops were committed during the battle against a force
Jonathan Wainwright (1883-1953), U.S. commander of 150,000 American and Filipino defenders. Amphibi-
of the Philippine Department, 1941-1942, and ous landings were supported by air attacks from fighters
Allied commander in the Philippines, 1942 and bombers based in Formosa (Taiwan). These air as-
saults devastated the Far East Air Force, much of which
Summary of Event was destroyed on the ground before fighting began in
Throughout the 1930’s, a series of Japanese expansionist earnest. The invasion force consisted of the Japanese
moves on the Asian continent created tension between Fourteenth Army under the command of General Ma-
Japan and the United States. In 1937, full-scale war saharu Homma. The American and Filipino forces on
broke out between Japan and China. The American gov- Luzon were hard pressed to stem the Japanese assault,
ernment opposed Japan’s attempt to dominate China and and most surrendered quickly to the invaders.
was uneasy because of the Asian power’s increasingly On December 23, as the situation for the defenders be-
close alliance with Nazi Germany. From mid-1941, the gan to look increasingly grim, General MacArthur or-
United States introduced a number of sanctions against dered the forces under his command to concentrate de-
Japan, including an oil embargo. Facing a quagmire-like fensive efforts on the Bataan Peninsula and the island of
conflict in China and an increasingly serious lack of stra- Corregidor, two strategic sites around Manila. The with-
tegic resources, the Japanese leadership decided to act. drawal of significant parts of the American and Filipino
In July of 1940, the Konoe Fuimimaro cabinet had an- forces to these areas was completed by early January,
nounced Japan’s Plan for the Establishment of a New Or- 1942, while the Japanese forces proceeded to occupy
der in East Asia. The plan promised the liberation of Manila. After Manila fell, some prominent Filipinos be-
Asian countries from Western imperialist domination gan to collaborate with the Japanese in setting up a new
and eventually the establishment of the Greater East Asia government, a move that made American resistance
Coprosperity Sphere, with Japan at its head. In Decem- seem increasingly untenable.
ber, 1941, the Japanese military acted to make this plan a MacArthur’s strategy was to delay the Japanese forces
reality. Most historians agree, however, that this concept at Bataan until the U.S. Pacific Fleet could provide sup-
of “coprosperity” was designed to support Japan. The port and, eventually, reinforcements. Japanese naval and
other countries within the sphere, such as the Philippines, air superiority coupled with the damage suffered by the
offered the natural resources needed to power the Japa- U.S. fleet in the Pearl Harbor raid, however, meant that
nese war machine. aid could not get through. Facing isolation, the American
Japan’s initial plan was to strike at the American fleet and Filipino troops continued their tenacious defense.
stationed at Pearl Harbor in order to secure naval domi- Throughout mid-January, Japanese forces conducted
nance in the Pacific and to capture the Philippines and a series of assaults against the Allied positions. The com-
other American holdings, as well as Dutch-held Indone- bined American and Filipino defenders were pushed
121
Japan Invades the Philippines The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
After the fall of Bataan, the Amer-

ican fortifications on the island of
Corregidor became literally the last
bastion of resistance. The fortress
was subjected to concentrated aerial
and naval bombardment, and a lack
of food and fresh water had become
critical. In early May, the Japanese
forces began a concentrated shelling
of Corregidor, using land-based ar-
tillery that had been moved into the
Bataan Peninsula.
An amphibious attack on Cor-
regidor commenced on May 5, and
the Japanese secured beaches after
heavy fighting. Soon after, the Japa-
nese forces succeeded in landing
tanks, and the defenders’ resistance
American prisoners of war carry their disabled comrades on the Bataan Death March crumbled. General Wainwright was
in May, 1942. (National Archives) concerned for the safety of sick and
injured American and Filipino sol-
diers housed in the tunnel complex
back and consolidated their positions at what was re- that lined Corregidor and decided to surrender on May 6
ferred to as the Abucay-Mauban Line. Japanese forces before the Japanese forces could enter these installations.
switched to a strategy of bombardment combined with
night attacks. There were breakthroughs at several Significance
points, and the Abucay-Mauban Line was abandoned on Following the surrender of American and Filipino troops
January 24. in the Bataan Peninsula, survivors were rounded up and
From late January until early February, the Japanese forced to march under harsh conditions to a prison camp
launched a series of large-scale offensives supported by about one hundred miles away. The prisoners were weak-
amphibious landings on the west coast of the Bataan Pen- ened by disease and malnutrition and subject to acts of
insula. These attacks were largely unsuccessful, and the violence by Japanese soldiers; it is believed that around
Japanese advance was effectively stalled. Despite this ten thousand of them died. News of what came to be
fact, support for the American and Filipino defenders known as the Bataan Death March shocked Americans.
looked increasingly unlikely, and MacArthur, along with It galvanized public opinion against Japan. This and
his family and members of his staff, left Corregidor on other war crimes carried out against Allied prisoners of
March 12 at the behest of U.S. president Franklin D. war are thought to have been important motivating fac-
Roosevelt. MacArthur was later flown to Australia, tors behind the decision to use atomic bombs on the Japa-
where he promised the Filipino people and the American nese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August, 1945.
troops that he had left behind “I shall return.” General The capture of the Philippines after five months of
Jonathan Wainwright succeeded MacArthur as com- fighting was an important step in the consolidation of Ja-
mander of the defending forces. pan’s gains in Asia and the Pacific. Despite this fact,
By the end of March, the Japanese forces had received however, the duration of the battle, which dragged on
reinforcements and began preparations to capture Bataan longer than Japanese military planners had expected be-
and the fortress of Corregidor. The defenders were weak- cause of the fierce resistance of the defenders, delayed
ened by poor supplies and sickness, and between April 3 the movement of Japanese troops into New Guinea and
and April 8, the defensive lines on the Bataan Peninsula the islands of the South Pacific. It was there that the
collapsed after repeated Japanese attacks. The American United States and Allied forces were able to turn the tide
and Filipino troops in Bataan surrendered on the morning against Japan, beginning with air, land, and sea battles in
of April 9. and around the Solomon Islands and culminating with an
122
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Germany and Italy Declare War on the United States
island-hopping campaign that eventually saw the Ameri- Young, Donald. The Battle of Bataan. Jefferson, N.C.:
can forces return to the Philippines in 1944. McFarland, 1992. Detailed account of the fighting
—Matthew Penney that took place on the Bataan Peninsula during the
1941
Japanese invasion of the Philippines.
Further Reading
Tarling, Nicholas. A Sudden Rampage: The Japanese See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
Occupation of Southeast Asia, 1941-1945. Honolulu: cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
University of Hawaii Press, 2001. Covers Japan’s con- Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast
quest of the Philippines and other parts of Southeast Asia; May 7-8, 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea; June 3-
Asia. Includes details of Filipino reactions to the battle. 5, 1942: Battle of Midway; Oct. 25, 1943: Thai-
Willmott, H. P. The Second World War in the Far East. Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor;
London: Cassell, 1999. A general history of the Pa- Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pacific Offen-
cific War. Includes excellent coverage of the fall of sive; June 12-20, 1944: Battle of the Philippine Sea;
the Philippines and the overall Japanese strategy in Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiro-
Southeast Asia. shima and Nagasaki.
December 11, 1941

Germany and Italy Declare War on the United States
By declaring war on the United States, Adolf Hitler 1940, because during these years, the U.S. government
and Benito Mussolini transformed previously separate and people were strongly isolationist. Moreover, Nazi
Pacific and European conflicts into one global war. Germany was preoccupied in Europe and not primarily
interested in the Western Hemisphere. Although most
Locale: Berlin, Germany; Rome, Italy Americans were opposed to Benito Mussolini’s invasion
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil of Ethiopia, the U.S. government did no more in re-
unrest sponse than invoke the first Neutrality Act (1935), which
Key Figures included an arms embargo designed to weaken Italy.
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- By 1936, it became clear that Germany and Italy were
1945 bent on territorial revisions. The Rome-Berlin Axis was
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Italian dictator, 1925- formed in 1936, and Japan joined Germany and Italy in
1943 the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1937. In response, the United
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the States government extended the Neutrality Act in 1937.
United States, 1933-1945 Despite their desire to stay out of war, President Roo-
sevelt and his advisers grew increasingly concerned
Summary of Event about the dangers of foreign aggression and human rights
On December 11, 1941, four days after the Japanese at- violations in both Europe and the Far East during the last
tack on Pearl Harbor, the governments of Germany and years of the 1930’s. In November, 1938, Roosevelt re-
Italy issued declarations of war against the United States. sponded to the German riots against Jews during Kris-
Although both the Germans and the Italians had pledged tallnacht (“night of broken glass”) by replacing the U.S.
Japan their aid in the event of a conflict between Japan ambassador in Berlin with a chargé d’affaires; in April,
and the United States, their declarations cited President 1939, the president sent letters to Adolf Hitler and Mus-
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s anti-Axis attitude and hostile solini asking for assurances that they would refrain from
U.S. actions as reasons for their decision to declare war. aggression and suggesting discussions on armament re-
In response, the U.S. Congress passed two joint resolu- ductions. Hitler’s invasion of Poland on September 1,
tions affirming a state of war against Germany and Italy. 1939, increased the Roosevelt administration’s belief
With these events, the war in Europe and the war in the that Germany posed a real threat to U.S. security.
Far East merged to become World War II. The year 1940 marked a turning point in U.S. foreign
That the United States would become involved in a policy. The fall of France seriously alerted people in the
war in Europe seemed highly unlikely from 1936 to United States to the might of Nazi Germany, while En-
123
Germany and Italy Declare War on the United States The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
gland’s dogged resistance to Hitler, exemplified in the the defeat of Germany should be given top priority. On
Battle of Britain, resulted in increased U.S. aid to the En- March 11, the United States Congress passed the Lend-
glish. During the last six months of 1940, the United Lease Act, authorizing Roosevelt to provide arms,
States responded to the Nazi Blitzkrieg in Europe with equipment, and supplies to “any country whose defense
billions of dollars for defense, destroyers for England, the President deems vital to the defense of the United
and the first peacetime Selective Service Act in U.S. States.”
history. In addition, Roosevelt, after winning an un- In a speech on May 27, Roosevelt stressed the Ger-
precedented third term in office in November, 1940, man danger to the Western Hemisphere and declared a
proclaimed the United States “the great arsenal of de- state of national emergency. In August, Roosevelt and
mocracy” and announced his intention to secure congres- British prime minister Winston Churchill issued the At-
sional approval of a Lend-Lease Act to aid all countries lantic Charter against the Axis Powers. Serious naval in-
fighting to preserve freedom. cidents occurred in September and October, when Ger-
During 1941, the United States inched ever closer to man submarines torpedoed the U.S. destroyer Greer and
war with Germany. In January, the Joint Chiefs of Staff sank the Reuben James. In November, the president ex-
of the U.S. armed forces met with their British counter- tended lend-lease to the Soviet Union, which had been
parts and discussed how to coordinate military actions in attacked by Germany on June 22, while Congress modi-
the event of U.S. entry into the war. It was decided that fied the Neutrality Act to permit the arming of U.S. mer-
chant ships. It is clear that by the fall
of 1941, Roosevelt believed Ger-
Germany Declares War on the United States many was bent on world domination
and was a great threat to the Western
German representatives delivered the following note to the U.S. chargé Hemisphere, and that war was a
d’affaires in Berlin on December 11, 1941, declaring war on the United States: strong possibility.
In spite of the increased U.S. pres-
The Government of the United States having violated in the most flagrant
ence in the European conflict, the ul-
manner and in ever increasing measure all rules of neutrality in favor of the ad-
versaries of Germany and having continually been guilty of the most severe timate initiative for war lay with Ger-
provocations toward Germany ever since the outbreak of the European war, many and its ally Japan. By 1941,
provoked by the British declaration of war against Germany on September 3, Hitler, who had first mentioned the
1939, has finally resorted to open military acts of aggression. possibility of a conflict with the
On September 11, 1941, the President of the United States publicly declared United States in his 1928 unpub-
that he had ordered the American Navy and Air Force to shoot on sight at any lished sequel to Mein Kampf (1925-
German war vessel. In his speech of October 27, 1941, he once more expressly 1926; English translation, 1939),
affirmed that this order was in force. Acting under this order, vessels of the clearly intended to wage war against
American Navy, since early September 1941, have systematically attacked the United States at some unde-
German naval forces. Thus, American destroyers, as for instance the Greer, the
termined point in the future. Hitler
Kearney and the Reuben James, have opened fire on German submarines ac-
believed the United States was cul-
cording to plan. The Secretary of the American Navy, Mr. Knox, himself con-
firmed that American destroyers attacked German submarines. turally and racially decadent and un-
Furthermore, the naval forces of the United States, under order of their Gov- derestimated its industrial capacity
ernment and contrary to international law have treated and seized German mer- and willingness and ability to fight a
chant vessels on the high seas as enemy ships. war. In this connection, he was im-
The German Government therefore establishes the following facts: pressed by the strength of U.S. iso-
Although Germany on her part has strictly adhered to the rules of interna- lationism. Thus, unlike many Ger-
tional law in her relations with the United States during every period of the man diplomats, Hitler failed to grasp
present war, the Government of the United States from initial violations of neu- the implications of U.S. power. Hit-
trality has finally proceeded to open acts of war against Germany. The Govern- ler’s contempt for the United States
ment of the United States has thereby virtually created a state of war.
turned to hostility when Roosevelt
The German Government, consequently, discontinues diplomatic relations
expressed his opposition to Nazi to-
with the United States of America and declares that under these circumstances
brought about by President Roosevelt Germany too, as from today, considers talitarianism and aided Great Britain
herself as being in a state of war with the United States of America. and the Soviet Union.
Despite Hitler’s intention to fight,
124
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Germany and Italy Declare War on the United States
Germany developed no military plans. The Italy Declares War on the United States
Nazi dictator wanted to postpone war with
Washington until Germany could construct a Italian dictator Benito Mussolini made the following public address
on December 11, 1941, joining Germany and Japan in declaring
1941
navy large enough to win what would cer-
tainly be a naval conflict. Consequently, Hit- war against the United States:
ler ordered the German navy to avoid any inci-
This is another day of solemn decision in Italy’s history and of
dents with U.S. ships in the Atlantic that might memorable events destined to give a new course to the history of
bring on war sooner than desired. Neverthe- continents. The powers of the steel pact, Fascist Italy and Nationalist
less, incidents did occur, the result being that Socialist Germany, ever closely linked, participate from today on
an undeclared, limited naval war between the the side of heroic Japan against the United States of America. The
United States and Germany existed by the au- Tripartite Pact becomes a military alliance which draws around its
tumn of 1941. colors 250,000,000 men determined to do all in order to win. Neither
Germany’s caution in the Atlantic was off- the Axis nor Japan wanted an extension of the conflict.
set by its reckless support of Japanese ambi- One man, one man only, a real tyrannical democrat, through a se-
tions in the Far East. Hoping that the Japa- ries of infinite provocations, betraying with a supreme fraud the
population of his country, wanted the war and had prepared for it day
nese would exacerbate Great Britain’s already
by day with diabolical obstinacy. The formidable blows that on the
difficult position and help check the United
immense Pacific expanse have been already inflicted on American
States’ commitment to Europe, Hitler began in forces show how prepared are the soldiers of the Empire of the Ris-
1940 to urge Tokyo to expand into Southeast ing Sun. I say to you, and you will understand, that it is a privilege to
Asia. To encourage the Japanese, the Nazi fight with them.
dictator and Mussolini entered into a defense Today, the Tripartite Pact, with the plenitude of its forces and its
mutual assistance agreement, the Tripartite moral and material resources, is a formidable instrument for the war
Pact, with Japan on September 27, 1940. Six and a certainty for victory. Tomorrow, the Tripartite Pact will be-
months later, on April 4, 1941, the Nazi dicta- come an instrument of just peace between the peoples.
tor went further, assuring Japan of his full sup- Italians! Once more arise and be worthy of this historical hour!
port in the event of a Japanese-American war, We shall win.
no matter who was the aggressor.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on
December 7, 1941, came as a pleasant surprise
to both Hitler and Mussolini. Believing that Japan would which by most measures of national power except troops
weaken the British, Soviet, and U.S. war efforts, the Nazi at arms was already the world’s most powerful country
dictator decided the time had come for war with the in potential. It was truly a sleeping giant, whose war-
United States. Hitler took the initiative for this conflict, making capacity would be realized in World War II and
ordering all-out submarine attacks on U.S. ships and, demonstrated repeatedly in subsequent years.
along with his Italian ally, declaring war on the United —Leon Stein and Bruce J. DeHart
States.
Further Reading
Significance Hearden, Patrick J. Roosevelt Confronts Hitler: America’s
In declaring war on the United States at a time when Axis Entry into World War II. De Kalb: Northern Illinois
military forces found themselves bogged down in the So- University Press, 1987. While admitting that Roose-
viet Union and under attack by the British in North Af- velt opposed the Nazi regime for both economic and
rica, Hitler and Mussolini may have made the most fatal ideological reasons, argues that the United States and
blunder of their careers. When the Nazi dictator said that Hitler’s Germany were primarily economic rivals.
his declaration of war on the United States would be “de- Heinrichs, Waldo. Threshold of War: Franklin D. Roo-
cisive not only for the history of Germany, but for the sevelt and American Entry into World War II. New
whole of Europe and indeed for the world,” he was right. York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Focusing on the
With their declaration of war, Germany and Italy not period from March to December, 1941, shows how
only unleashed a global conflict but also went a long way strategic and operational considerations helped trans-
toward guaranteeing their own ultimate defeat and the form Roosevelt’s policy toward Nazi Germany from
postwar superpower ascendancy of the United States, neutrality to belligerence.
125
Churchill Visits Canada as World War II Ally The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Herzstein, Robert E. Roosevelt and Hitler: Prelude to ern German and World History. New York: Cam-
War. New York: Paragon House, 1989. Traces Roo- bridge University Press, 1995. Argues that Hitler saw
sevelt’s evolution into the “most purposeful and con- Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor as the perfect time to
sequential anti-Nazi leader of his time.” begin a war he believed Germany would have to fight
Jäckel, Eberhard. “Hitler Challenges America.” In Hitler sooner or later.
in History. Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New _______. “The World Turned Upside Down” and “The
England, 1984. Argues that Hitler’s declaration of Expanding Conflict, 1940-1941.” In A World at
war on the United States was motivated by a desire to Arms: A Global History of World War II. New York:
guarantee that Japan would not make a separate Cambridge University Press, 1994. Establishes the
peace. strategic context of Hitler’s declaration of war by dis-
Leitz, Christian. Nazi Foreign Policy, 1933-1941: The cussing and explaining Germany’s efforts, in 1940
Road to Global War. New York: Routledge, 2004. and 1941, to persuade Japan to expand into Southeast
Details Hitler’s foreign policy up to the declaration of Asia.
war on the United States, including his alliances with See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II:
Italy and Japan. Bibliographic references and index. Pacific Theater; Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World
Weinberg, Gerhard L. “From Confrontation to Coopera- War II: European Theater; Mar. 11, 1941: Roosevelt
tion: Germany and the United States, 1917-1949.” In Signs the Lend-Lease Act; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of
Germany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Mod- Pearl Harbor.
December 29-31, 1941

Churchill Visits Canada as World War II Ally
With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Great called the Arcadia Conference, with U.S. president
Britain and Canada became allies in the struggle with Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington, D.C. Also partici-
Germany. In December, 1941, the war expanded when pating was Canadian prime minister William Lyon Mac-
Japan attacked U.S., British, and French interests in kenzie King.
the Pacific. British prime minister Churchill visited Churchill had traveled for ten days before arriving in
President Roosevelt in Washington, D.C., and then Washington on December 22 and then departed with
traveled to Canada, where he met with Canadian King by train for Canada on December 28. While en
prime minister King and addressed the Canadian route, King expressed his concern over the internal de-
parliament. The diplomatic visit sealed wartime bate on conscription that could polarize Canadian poli-
relations between Britain and Canada. tics. The two leaders arrived in Ottawa on the morning of
December 29 and were welcomed by more than 160,000
Locale: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Canadians. King and Churchill conducted meetings
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations; through the next few days, and Churchill returned to
World War II; government and politics Washington on January 1, 1942.
Key Figures On his arrival in Ottawa, Churchill settled at the Gov-
William Lyon Mackenzie King (1874-1950), Canadian ernment House and had a luncheon meeting with King’s
prime minister, 1921-1926, 1926-1930, and 1935- war cabinet. Minutes of the meeting show that the world
1948 leaders discussed a number of topics and updated the Ca-
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), British prime minister, nadian war cabinet on all aspects of Churchill’s discus-
1940-1945, 1951-1955 sion with Roosevelt and other leaders in Washington.
The war cabinet was briefed by King and Churchill on
Summary of Event the war efforts in Europe and Asia. Churchill reported
Within days of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (De- that a joint declaration, which would formalize the post-
cember 7, 1941) and the subsequent U.S. declarations of Pearl Harbor alliance, was under development. Relations
war against Japan, Germany, and Italy, British prime with France also were addressed, as was the progress of
minister Winston Churchill planned a series of meetings, the war and its future strategy. Also discussed was the
126
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Churchill Visits Canada as World War II Ally
state of Hong Kong, Canadian staff representation in the reception and dinner at Ottawa’s Government House.
United States, the Canadian army program for 1942- After the dinner he continued to work on the draft of his
1943, and shipbuilding programs. speech to the Canadian parliament. The following day
1941
Returning to the topic of Europe, Churchill pointed Churchill delivered that address, praising the Canadians
out that Canada’s liaison with the French Vichy regime for being in the struggle from the beginning and castigat-
should be sustained, because the liaison could prove to ing those who thought that Britain and its dominions and
be beneficial. The U.S. government, however, was op- colonies could not stand alone against Hitler’s Germany.
posed to any dealings with the Vichy government. On a The speech had many goals, including the following: to
strategic note, Churchill envisioned 1942 to be a period extend appreciation to all Canadians for their defense of
of assessment and “consolidation” (in fact, the first part the British Empire-Commonwealth, to warn against the
of the year witnessed additional defeats and the loss of continued difficulties that lie ahead with the expansion of
many human and material resources). He believed 1943 the war to the Pacific (Churchill still thought, incorrectly,
would be the beginning of the “war of liberation” in Italy that British forces could hold Singapore), and to stiffen
and France, and he expressed hope that 1944 was per- the resolve of all and to assure them that victory over des-
haps the “year of victory.” Churchill’s forecast was not potism was inevitable. Churchill’s rhetoric in this speech
correct, but his sequence was right. cast the struggle as one between the forces of freedom
Churchill commended the valor of the two Canadian and light and those of bondage and darkness. He de-
battalions that had been in Hong Kong and expressed nounced Hitler, Mussolini, and the Japanese as enemies
sympathy at their loss. He stated that a Canadian military of all that was good in Western civilization.
mission to Washington was probable and that Canadian
interests and ideas would be respected. Although Canada
recognized that it could not be as effective in the war ef-
fort as the more powerful United States and Britain, it
was sure that its contributions would help Canada access
power centers for the planning and execution of the war.
The Canadians reviewed the Canadian Army Pro-
gram for 1942-1943, which included the conversion of
an infantry division into an armored division and its
transfer to Britain. Churchill welcome this recommenda- To view image, please refer to print edition
tion and expressed his gratitude. With the program, Can-
ada had developed multiple divisions that were critical in
the invasion of Normandy and the fall of Germany. Also,
the Canadians informed Churchill that their shipbuilding
program specified one million tons of merchant shipping
in 1942, a figure that did not include naval shipping.
The nation’s shipbuilding industry, based on the east
coast of Canada, expanded dramatically between 1940
and 1945.
Churchill then discussed Roosevelt’s agreement to
appoint British general Archibald Wavell as supreme
commander of the Southwest Pacific Area (a joint com-
muniqué from Roosevelt and Churchill on this appoint-
ment was released later that day). However, Churchill
misread Roosevelt’s approval of Wavell as one that also
meant Roosevelt was willing to accept Churchill’s rec-
ommendations in the future. U.S. general Douglas Mac-
Arthur and U.S. admiral Chester W. Nimitz took over
command of the Pacific theater (now divided into two
command areas) in March, 1942.
On the evening of December 29, Churchill attended a Winston Churchill. (AP/Wide World Photos)
127
Churchill Visits Canada as World War II Ally The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
The day after his speech, Churchill held a press con- sonal diplomacy and his trips to Canada during World
ference to discuss a wide range of issues, including the War II.
war in the Pacific (especially the status of Singapore) and Dilks, David. “The Great Dominion”: Winston Chur-
the progress of the struggle against the Germans in Yu- chill in Canada, 1900-1954. Toronto, Ont.: Thomas
goslavia. Churchill was guarded in his optimism and Allen, 2005. An excellent secondary source on Chur-
referred repeatedly to ultimate victory. It was obvious chill’s visits to Canada, including his trip to Ottawa in
that Churchill was not aware of Japan’s resources or its December, 1941, The volumes include lengthy ex-
strategies unfolding in the Pacific. On December 31, cerpts from primary sources as well.
Churchill received information on the significant Japa- Gilbert, Martin. Churchill: A Life. New York: Henry
nese advances in Malaya; that evening, he departed Ot- Holt, 1991. A biography by Churchill’s “official” bi-
tawa for another series of meetings with Roosevelt in ographer, providing a balanced perspective and ex-
Washington. tensive and detailed information on all aspects of
Churchill’s work, including his trips to Canada during
Significance the war.
Churchill’s visit to Canada in December, 1941, assured a Goodal, Lian. William Lyon Mackenzie King: Dreams
primary ally that it would be intimately involved in deci- and Shadows. Montreal, Que.: XYZ, 2003. A general
sion making in the extended war and would be not far biography of King especially suitable for younger
from the center of power. Since 1939, Canada had pro- readers.
vided significant military and financial resources in sup- King, William Lyon Mackenzie. The Diaries of William
porting Britain in the war with Germany. The entry of the Lyon Mackenzie King. Library and Archives of Can-
United States into the war was welcomed by Churchill, ada. http://king.collectionscanada.ca/. A Web site
but the British would not accept junior status in the alli- provided by the library and archives of the Canadian
ance. Churchill used the Canadian visit to remind the government.
United States of the extent of British power throughout Ramsden, John. Man of the Century: Winston Churchill
the world—the dominions of Canada, India, Australia, and His Legend Since 1945. New York: Columbia
New Zealand, and South Africa provided real assets in University Press, 2002. This important work analyzes
the war struggle and provided Churchill with diplomatic the role Churchill played in the development of his
leverage with his new ally. own legend, and also looks at the interpretations of
The Canadian visit was also significant because it bol- others in the making of the Churchill legend.
stered the British-Canadian relationship and provided an Reynolds, David. In Command of History: Churchill
interlude between Churchill’s visits to Washington, dur- Fighting and Writing the Second World War. New
ing which he could formulate his strategy for conversa- York: Random House, 2005. An outstanding book
tions with Roosevelt. No less significant was that the that focuses on Churchill’s leadership as a diplomat
visit gave Churchill some time to recover from a heart at- and a politician, and as a historian who advanced an
tack he suffered during his first week in Washington, a interpretation of the war that was personal but has en-
medical emergency of which no one was aware, except dured.
his medical staff. The four-day diplomatic trip to Canada Robbins, Keith. Churchill. New York: Longman, 1992.
was a diplomatic and strategic success. The Canadians An excellent biography that focuses on Churchill’s
were recognized and applauded for their contributions, activities during World War II. Ideal for general read-
and Churchill had a respite during which he had time to ers, well written, and accurate.
physically recover and craft his plans for his critical
meetings with Roosevelt. See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
—William T. Walker European Theater; Mar. 1, 1941: United States Enters
the Battle of the Atlantic; Dec. 7, 1941: Canada De-
Further Reading clares War on Japan; Nov. 22, 1944: Canada Imple-
Best, Geoffrey. Churchill: A Study in Greatness. New ments Conscription After Months of Crisis; Nov. 15,
York: Hambledon and London, 2001. Perhaps the 1948: St. Laurent Becomes Canadian Prime Minister;
most readable single-volume biography of Churchill. May 12, 1958: Canada and the United States Create
Includes valuable insights on Churchill’s use of per- NORAD.
128
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 International League for the Rights of Man Is Founded
1942
International League for the Rights of Man Is Founded
The International League for the Rights of Man was The International League for the Rights of Man was
among the first and most influential of the officially founded in 1942, six years before the declara-
international nongovernmental organizations tion that would come to form its core platform. The
concerned with human rights. It had a direct influence league’s origins, however, can be traced to a citizens’
on the explicit commitment to human rights assumed league that was created in France in 1902 to monitor and
by the fledgling United Nations and worked to ensure criticize the French government in the aftermath of the
that the U.N. remained true to that commitment. Dreyfus affair and the rise of French anti-Semitism. The
Ligue Française pour la Défense des Droits de l’Homme
Also known as: International League for Human et du Citoyen (French League for the Defense of the
1942
Rights Rights of Man and of Citizens) soon became interested in
Locale: New York, New York broader international human rights issues and grew to
Categories: Human rights; organizations and more than 200,000 members by the eve of World War I.
institutions The French league fostered the formation of similar or-
Key Figures ganizations throughout Europe and the French colonial
Roger Nash Baldwin (1884-1981), principal founder of possessions of Tonkin, Martinique, and French Guiana.
the International League for the Rights of Man An international federation affiliating all these organi-
Henri Laugier (1888-1973), cofounder of the league zations, the Fédération Internationale des Droits de
and director of cultural relations for the Free French l’Homme (International Human Rights Federation), was
government founded in 1922 under the auspices of the French league.
Henri Bonnet (1888-1978), cofounder of the league, Roger Nash Baldwin, one of the principal founders of
member of the League of Nations secretariat, and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) in 1920,
later French ambassador to the United States, 1944- visited Paris in 1927 and was permitted to attend meet-
1955 ings of the French league as a foreign observer. Bald-
Charles Habib Malik (1906-1987), cofounder of the win’s interest in civil rights and liberties became increas-
league and later president of the U.N. General ingly international in focus, and he maintained contact
Assembly and chair of the U.N. Commission on with the league throughout the rest of the interwar pe-
Human Rights riod. With the fall of France in World War II, the French
Jerome Joseph Shestack (b. 1925), chair of the league league was disbanded. Shortly thereafter, Baldwin en-
after 1972 and the U.S. representative to the U.N. couraged the reconstitution of the organization in the
Commission on Human Rights United States. For this purpose, he gathered together a
group of French émigrés and other interested individu-
Summary of Event als, among them Henri Laugier, Henri Bonnet, and
Although probably less well known than either Amnesty Charles Habib Malik, in November of 1941. From this
International or the International Commission of Jurists, meeting emerged the new International League for the
the International League for Human Rights (ILHR, origi- Rights of Man, incorporated under the laws of the state of
nally known as the International League for the Rights of New York in 1942. The league was to change its name
Man) is one of the most important nongovernmental or- formally in 1976 to the International League for Human
ganizations (NGOs) concerned with human rights. The Rights.
league is not only older than either of the other two orga- The reconstitution of the league in 1942 was propi-
nizations but also distinct from them in that it is uniquely tious in that it occurred in the wake several events that
devoted to the full range of human rights issues. While brought human rights to international prominence.
Amnesty International is concerned primarily with tor- These included President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s fa-
ture and political prisoners and the International Com- mous Four Freedoms speech, asserting universal human
mission of Jurists with human rights and international rights to freedom of speech, freedom of worship, free-
law, the ILHR takes the wide-ranging Universal Decla- dom from need, and freedom from fear; the Atlantic
ration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations Charter, in which Great Britain and the United States de-
in 1948, as its platform. clared their commitment to the principle of self-determi-
129
International League for the Rights of Man Is Founded The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
“Four Freedoms” league’s efforts helped lead to seven

specific references to human rights in
U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt presented his “Four Freedoms” the U.N. Charter, the establishment of
speech to Congress in January, 1941, a speech that helped to inspire the for- the U.N. Commission on Human Rights,
mation of the International League for the Rights of Man in 1942: and the drafting of the commission’s
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
In the future days, which we seek to make secure, we look forward to a
world founded upon four essential human freedoms. in 1948.
The first is freedom of speech and expression—everywhere in the world. The International League for the
The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way— Rights of Man continued to emphasize
everywhere in the world. working within the United Nations sys-
The third is freedom from want—which, translated into world terms, tem in the postwar era. The league was
means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy given consultative status with the Eco-
peacetime life for its inhabitants—everywhere in the world. nomic and Social Council (ECOSOC),
The fourth is freedom from fear—which, translated into world terms, the International Labor Office (ILO),
means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a and the United Nations Educational,
thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of
Scientific, and Cultural Organization
physical aggression against any neighbor—anywhere in the world.
(UNESCO). It conducted lobbying ac-
That is no vision of a distant millennium. It is a definite basis for a kind of
world attainable in our own time and generation. That kind of world is the tivities in the U.N. General Assembly,
very antithesis of the so-called new order of tyranny which the dictators the Commission on Human Rights, and
seek to create with the crash of a bomb. other U.N. organizations to promote the
To that new order we oppose the greater conception—the moral order. A adoption of human rights declarations
good society is able to face schemes of world domination and foreign revo- and covenants.
lutions alike without fear. In the 1950’s and 1960’s, the league
Since the beginning of our American history, we have been engaged in paid particular attention to the issue of
change—in a perpetual peaceful revolution—a revolution which goes on decolonization, since it viewed the co-
steadily, quietly adjusting itself to changing conditions—without the con- lonial system as a chief violator of hu-
centration camp or the quick-lime in the ditch. The world order which we
man rights. By the 1970’s, the league
seek is the cooperation of free countries, working together in a friendly, civ-
had become disillusioned with the
ilized society.
This nation has placed its destiny in the hands and heads and hearts of its United Nations and its apparent inabil-
millions of free men and women; and its faith in freedom under the guid- ity to make much of an impact on hu-
ance of God. Freedom means the supremacy of human rights everywhere. man rights. The league believed that,
Our support goes to those who struggle to gain those rights or keep them. despite considerable pressure from non-
Our strength is our unity of purpose. governmental organizations, the U.N.
To that high concept there can be no end save victory. Commission on Human Rights and its
subcommission on the prevention of
discrimination and the protection of mi-
norities had failed to make effective use
nation for all postwar national governments; and the of their powers to investigate and make recommenda-
United Nations Declaration of early 1942, in which tions concerning human rights violations. Bureaucratic
twenty-six countries pledged themselves to reestablish a and procedural stonewalling kept most complaints about
collective security organization after the demise of the abuse and repression from reaching the stage of open dis-
League of Nations. cussion and recommendation by the commission. More-
Baldwin’s international league regarded the proposed over, the human rights commission attempted to restrict
United Nations as the principal organization through the consultative role and, thereby, the activist influence
which the league would exert its influence and promote of NGOs in the United Nations.
its interests. Working in cooperation with other NGOs, The league perceived that human rights had become
the league directed most of its early efforts at lobbying too closely linked to political relations between member
the drafters of the United Nations Charter to ensure that states for the United Nations to deal effectively with alle-
the relationship between international human rights gations of abuse and repression. Under its chair, Jerome
and world peace would be recognized explicitly. The Joseph Shestack, the league pursued an increasing pro-
130
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 International League for the Rights of Man Is Founded
portion of its activities outside the United Nations. The their own nations. The league established its headquar-
league expanded its efforts to conduct investigations of ters in New York City and counted among its affiliates
human rights abuses, send fact-finding missions to re- the ACLU, the National Council of Civil Liberties in
pressive nations, observe political trials, promote letter- Great Britain, the Canadian Civil Liberties Association,
writing campaigns, issue reports, and sponsor confer- the New Zealand Democratic Rights Council, and the
ences on human rights. Still, the research and findings of Japanese Civil Liberties Union. The structure of the in-
league investigations continued to be an important ternational league clearly reflected its belief that the prin-
source of information for the United Nations, which con- cipal protection of human rights must come through the
ducted almost no factual research of its own. implementation of national law.
The International League for Human Rights served as
Significance an adversarial human rights NGO. As an activist associa-
The expanded efforts and more formally organized and tion, the ILHR functioned as a consultative and educa-
1942
structured nature of the modern International League for tional organization. At times, it both prompted and re-
Human Rights stood in marked contrast to the character strained government action in the interests of human
of the early International League for the Rights of Man. rights. The ILHR concerned itself with such issues as the
In many respects, the early league was patterned on the treatment of prisoners, torture, visa restrictions, family
model of the early American Civil Liberties Union reunification, legal discrimination, religious intolerance,
(ACLU). Both organizations were influenced strongly labor and minority rights, national independence move-
by the policies and personality of Roger Baldwin. The ments, electoral fraud, and the death penalty. With such
early ACLU deliberately was created and maintained as wide-ranging interests, the ILHR ranked as one of the
a small, private, and informally organized association. most important human rights NGOs. The league contrib-
This decision corresponded with Baldwin’s social phi- uted significantly to the shaping of public debate about
losophy and operational ideology, drawn from nine- international human rights and helped influence the for-
teenth century concepts of noblesse oblige and private eign policies of many governments that reflected an in-
charitable service. Recruitment to the early ACLU was creasing concern over human rights issues.
based on an “old-boy” network of individuals known to — Douglas A. Lea
and trusted by people already in the organization.
The early ACLU emphasized discreet lobbying activ- Further Reading
ities and a faith in the rule of law and the judicial process Alvarez, José E. International Organizations as Law-
as the primary venue in which to promote civil-libertarian Makers. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
interests. “Members” of the association existed only as a Study detailing the role of NGOs and other interna-
source of financial contributions to sustain the profes- tional organizations in shaping and even codifying in-
sional and legal activities of the organization’s staff. The ternational law. Bibliographic references and index.
early international league was modeled after the early Archer, Peter. “Action by Unofficial Organizations on
ACLU; it operated initially as a small, private, and infor- Human Rights.” In The International Protection of
mally organized group and, in many ways, as a social or- Human Rights, edited by Evan Luard. New York:
ganization for Baldwin and his associates. It was with the Praeger, 1967. Examines in detail the activities of the
increasing importance in world affairs of international hu- ILHR in conjunction with the United Nations as well
man rights issues in the decades after World War II that as league campaigns outside the United Nations in the
the league became more formally organized and expanded 1960’s. Article references and a good bibligraphy.
its efforts first within and later outside the United Nations. Buergenthal, Thomas, ed. Human Rights, International
The structure of the international league distinguished Law, and the Helsinki Accord. Montclair, N.J.: Al-
it from other human-rights NGOs. The league was a con- lanheld, Osmun, 1977. Examines the programs of the
federation of affiliated national civil-libertarian associa- ILHR and its attempts to conduct more directly its hu-
tions, an arrangement very much in keeping with the man rights activities outside the United Nations.
ideology and structure of the old French league. The in- Good index and bibliography.
ternational league’s affiliates were not simply chapters Buergenthal, Thomas, Dinah Shelton, and David P.
or sections of the league in different countries. Instead, Stewart. International Human Rights in a Nutshell. 3d
they were established and functioning civil liberties ed. St. Paul, Minn.: West Group, 2002. A simple but
groups working for the furtherance of human rights in substantive introduction to the history, theory, and
131
Italian New Wave Gains Worldwide Acclaim The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
practice of international human rights. Indexes. Morsing, Johannes. The Universal Declaration of Hu-
Drinan, Robert. Cry of the Oppressed: The History and man Rights: Origins, Drafting, and Intent. Philadel-
Hope of the Human Rights Revolution. San Francisco: phia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999. Histor-
Harper & Row, 1987. Excellent general survey of hu- ical study of the document whose creation was
man rights issues and organizational activities. Exam- influenced by the International League for the Rights
ines briefly the organization and policy of the ILHR. of Man and which became the central platform of the
Index and bibliography. league after it was promulgated.
Lador-Lederer, J. International Group Protection.
Leiden, the Netherlands: A. W. Sijthoff, 1968. Al- See also: Aug. 14, 1941: Atlantic Charter Declares a
though somewhat dry and legalistic, a detailed and Postwar Right of Self-Determination; Dec. 10, 1948:
well-argued account of the organizational structures United Nations Adopts the Universal Declaration of
and functions of NGOs, including the ILHR. Excel- Human Rights; Aug. 12, 1949: Geneva Conventions
lent index and bibliography. Establish Norms of Conduct in War.
1942-1961
Italian New Wave Gains Worldwide Acclaim
A series of acclaimed films by innovative directors— (1945; Rome, Open City) of Roberto Rossellini, which is
beginning with the neorealists of the 1940’s and widely regarded as the original exercise in neorealism, a
continuing into more divergent trends in the 1950’s— film style that dictated much of the course and develop-
brought Italy to the forefront of post-World War II ment of the Italian New Wave.
international cinema. On the other hand, it is widely held that one of the ma-
jor exponents of neorealism was Vittorio De Sica and
Also known as: Italian neorealism that Il giardino dei Finzi-Contini (1971; The Garden of
Locale: Italy the Finzi-Continis) was De Sica’s swan song in that
Category: Motion pictures and video mode. To say, therefore, that the Italian New Wave was
Key Figures of artistic and cultural significance only between the
Vittorio De Sica (1901-1974), Italian neorealist years 1942 and 1961 begs as many questions as it em-
director braces. Nevertheless, in the roughly twenty years of cin-
Roberto Rossellini (1906-1977), Italian neorealist ema bracketed by these two dates, most of the Italian
director New Wave had effectively declared itself.
Federico Fellini (1920-1993), Italian director Not only had the leading directors of their generation
Luchino Visconti (1906-1976), Italian director established their careers by 1961, but they had also al-
Michelangelo Antonioni (1912-2007), Italian director ready begun to articulate a critique of the original style
and subject matter of postwar Italian cinema, demon-
Summary of Event strating the evolution rather than stagnation of the Italian
Together with the postwar French cinema, and in a man- New Wave. In addition, 1961 saw the premieres of a
ner which was at once more cohesive and more individu- number of films that may be regarded as distillations of
alistic, the Italian New Wave created a landmark in the the important emphases of postwar Italian cinema, and it
art of the cinema. What is generally known as the new may be regarded as the year of neorealism’s final eye-
wave of Italian film is a complex phenomenon, however, catching blooms. Among the films in question were Pier
the terms of reference of which cover broad cultural and Paolo Pasolini’s Accattone! (1961), Ermanno Olmi’s Il
artistic territory and the time span of which is not easy to Posto (1961; The Sound of Trumpets), and De Sica’s
define. Thus, it may be historically correct to say that explicit redaction of neorealist scenarios, La Ciociara
Luchino Visconti’s Ossessione (1942; obsession) is the (1960; Two Women).
first film indicative of the new mode and outlook of the The range and diversity of the Italian New Wave
modern Italian cinema. This film was made, however, make it most convenient to survey the movement as a
three years before the influential Roma, città aperta twofold phenomenon. At the outset, the New Wave was a
132
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Italian New Wave Gains Worldwide Acclaim
cultural phenomenon of the immediate postwar period. from society and already in some kind of critical relation-
As such, it reflected many of the social concerns of the ship to it. However, the fluctuating nature of this critical
day, many of which, not surprisingly, revolved around relationship, the terms and expectations of which are not
the status of Italy as an invaded and defeated country. conditioned by institutional affiliation or traditional ties,
The films that appeared during this first phase, which de- creates a somewhat menacing type of freedom and de-
fined the period by embodying the neorealist aesthetic, tachment. Many of the best-known Italian films of the
included Rossellini’s Rome, Open City and Paisà (1946; period are extravagant excursions into the semiotics of a
Paisan), De Sica’s masterpiece Ladri di biciclette (1948; hollow and evidently insubstantial world; what might be
Bicycle Thieves, better known as The Bicycle Thief ), and regarded as the culminating statement on this theme is
Riso amaro (1949; Bitter Rice) by Giuseppe de Santis. In Michelangelo Antonioni’s Blow Up (1966).
these films, the emphasis was on the characters’ social The nature and quality of such interests and empha-
destinies. The transmission of their innate humanity, ses, however, varies widely, from De Sica’s study of old
1942
which was accomplished by the various means of social age in Umberto D (1952) to the lavish representation of
exchange proposed by society at large and the more lim- various inner states in Fellini’s best-known films, La
ited means at the characters’ disposal, reached a point of dolce vita (1960; the sweet life) and Otto e mezzo (1963;
crisis in each film within the humble context of everyday 8½), to the existential romances of Antonioni such as
lives. L’Avventura (1960; the adventure), La Notte (1961; The
No sooner was this filmic idiom established than it be- Night), and L’Eclisse (1962; Eclipse). It was these films
gan to be diversified. For various personal and artistic and the early films of Bernardo Bertolucci, in particular
reasons, directors such as Rossellini and De Sica who Prima della rivoluzione (1964; Before the Revolution)
had been most directly involved in neorealist film began and Il conformista (1970; The Conformist), that had the
to modify and develop their interest in it. This departure greatest impact and received the most critical attention
may be seen as early as De Sica’s Miracolo a Milano outside Italy. In many ways, Bertolucci can be seen as the
(1950; Miracle in Milan), in which a strong element of artistic offspring of the first two phases of the Italian
fantasy was introduced. The broadening of Italian cin- New Wave, combining the social conscience of De Sica
ema’s scope during this period may be economically with an equally intense interest in psychology and sexu-
illustrated by the evolving career of Federico Fellini, ality.
one of the leading figures in postwar European—and Despite the rich and even provocative nature of Italian
world—cinema. New Wave cinema’s range, it was those films that ex-
Fellini began his career as an assistant to Rossellini on pressed a frankly existential dimension that received the
both Rome, Open City and Paisan, yet in Fellini’s La greatest attention. It would clearly be incorrect to suggest
Strada (1954), the emphasis was on the human condition that such films’ reputation for portraying—in various
rather than on its sociological manifestations. The inter- guises and with a considerable variety of stylistic varia-
national appeal of La Strada did much to create an audi- tion—isolated and alienated modern men is unjustified.
ence for subsequent Italian films. The sense of diversity At the same time, such a critical emphasis, while un-
that assisted in the development of the Italian cinematic doubtedly in keeping with the spirit of the times in which
imagination may also be glimpsed in Il Gattopardo the films in question were released, tends to limit appre-
(1963; The Leopard) and Rocco e i suoi fratelli (1960; ciation of their treatment of other, equally rich, thematic
Rocco and His Brothers), both by Visconti. The former is material. Regardless of the interpretation and transmis-
a stately adaptation of one of the most celebrated Italian sion of such themes, however, there remains no doubt
novels of the nineteenth century, with Burt Lancaster in that, in terms of vitality, range, technical expertise, and
the lead as the head of an aristocratic household. In con- imaginative daring, the golden age of Italian cinema re-
trast, Rocco and His Brothers deals with the black-and- mains one of the most impressive cultural phenomena of
white conflicts of characters who are very much at the the postwar period.
opposite end of the social spectrum.
The inner lives of some of the most accomplished Significance
films’ protagonists form a special area of interest—a rad- The effect of World War II on European thought and cul-
ical departure from the early neorealist films, which were ture may be perceived in terms of a number of disparate
rigorously external in their focus. This emphasis on sub- but, in hindsight, associated events. The establishment in
jective interiority typically portrays the individual as free Paris of the journal Les Temps modernes (modern times)
133
Italian New Wave Gains Worldwide Acclaim The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
under the editorship of Jean-Paul Sartre was one such much ambivalence; it was on this note of ambivalence
event. Another was the organization of writers in West that the Italian cinema began to focus.
Germany that became known as Group 47. The contribu- Personal experience was revealed not necessarily to
tion of the Italian publishing house Einaudi to the re- be a source of authenticity. Fellini’s elaborate variations
newal of Italian literature was also of related signifi- on the archetypes of the clown and the innocent, memo-
cance. It is in this context that the Italian New Wave must rably inaugurated in La Strada, enacted a schematic but
be approached. surpassingly fluid choreography of hauntings, each de-
On one level, the subject matter of Rome, Open City noting the peculiar frailty of the individual. The reso-
and the other neorealist films of the late 1940’s had, by nances of Fellini’s work and of its darker counterparts in
design, an obvious impact. That design, though, was also Antonioni’s films were central to the Western sensibility
a reflection of the historical circumstances in which the during the Cold War period, and they rendered that sensi-
films came to be made. The use of a mass medium such bility with as much conviction and often with rather more
as the cinema in order to dispel the cultural tone of Fas- panache than the other notable artistic innovation of the
cism received its inspiration from the generally mass day, the Theater of the Absurd. Fellini and Antonioni
character of social life in the immediate postwar period. were not the first, even in the postwar period, to create a
This character was not confined to Italy; it was reflected cinema of ideas. Their films are nonetheless notable for
in the widespread support received at the ballot box the rendering of ideas in primarily cinematic terms, pro-
throughout most of liberated Europe for socialist politi- viding a balance between image and word, or often in-
cal parties. After the oppressively institutional interwar sisting on an imbalance between them in such a way as to
reigns of the right-wing dictators, it was only to be ex- privilege image.
pected that there would be a cultural and political back- The work of both these directors with actresses was
lash toward the Left. The early neorealist Italian cinema
also a crucial feature of their achievement. The installa-
was fueled by that backlash’s energy.
tion of the female protagonist, whether it be Antonioni’s
Therefore, one of the mass medium’s most important
Monica Vitti or Fellini’s Giulietta Masina, was both a
tasks was to rehabilitate the image of the citizen, the low-
gloss on the idea of the new citizen that neorealism em-
est democratic denominator, in reaction against authori-
phasized and a reassessment of the function and imagina-
tarian leadership. It was for this reason, as well as for
tive possibilities of actresses. The concentration on the
practical reasons connected with technical and material
innovative place of actresses in the films of the Italian
filmic resources, that the sets of New Wave films were
bleak and sparsely furnished, that such films used a large New Wave should not, however, overshadow the role of
number of exterior shots, and that the New Wave ap- Marcello Mastroianni as a leading man in many of the
proach to filmmaking was reminiscent of that of the doc- productions.
umentary. In keeping with this approach, the perfor- These various innovations, together with the enthusi-
mances aimed for depth of expression rather than for astic critical reception that they received in the English-
breadth of gesture. The overall tendency was to avoid the speaking world, made a crucial contribution to the artis-
operatic mode in favor of the limited, the impoverished, tic liberation of Europe. This liberation was witnessed
the marginal. The ethos of survival pervades these films, and its relevance absorbed by a large international film
and the appeal of such a frankly populist perspective community. The Italian New Wave also extended the
proved undeniable. The portrayal of the new subject, of- flexibility of the medium, both in thematic and technical
ten coupled with the depiction of the hitherto cinemati- terms and in the sense of the performer’s role in film. In
cally unacknowledged worlds of rural Italy and the urban these and other significant ways, such as the emergence
poor, was an important rehabilitative gesture. of the director as the predominant artistic element in
In a more extended sense, however, the visibility of film, the Italian New Wave has proved to be a prototype
the peasant or proletarian raised questions about the very of the means whereby an international artistic commu-
process of rehabilitation. Rather than sentimentalize the nity comes into being and achieves its ends. The creation
new figures, the films made them central to a sense of the of such communities is a distinctive feature of postwar
inadequacy of society either productively to absorb such Western culture and is one of the continuing signs that
figures’ energy or, failing that, to provide means for that the role of the arts remains historically relevant and so-
energy to be self-sufficient. The connotation of freedom cially necessary.
that the rehabilitation of the image implied met with —George O’Brien
134
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Italian New Wave Gains Worldwide Acclaim
Further Reading nia Press, 1984. A detailed study of Italian cinema

Armes, Roy. Patterns of Realism: A Study of Italian Neo- from 1942 to 1982. All the main phases of filmmaking
realist Cinema. South Brunswick, N.J.: A. S. Barnes, during the period are covered, with attention being
1971. A thorough overview of neorealism. Contains valuably divided between the major works and lesser-
both a historical and an aesthetic introduction to the known ones. Contains an extensive bibliography.
subject, followed by more detailed analyses of neo- Solmi, Angelo. Fellini. New York: Humanities Press,
realism’s main works and themes. Concludes with a 1968. The approach to the subject is in two parts. The
chronology and a bibliography. first takes an intellectual overview; the second exam-
Bazin, André. What Is Cinema? Translated by Hugh ines the director’s output on a film-by-film basis.
Gray. 2 vols. Reprint. Berkeley: University of Cali- Contains a bibliography and a filmography.
fornia Press, 2005. One of the most important studies Witcombe, R. T. The New Italian Cinema. New York:
of cinema; includes one of the most influential read- Oxford University Press, 1982. The survey begins in
1942
ings of Italian neorealism and its significance for cin- 1960. Discussion of the later Fellini and Antonioni
ematic history, as well as readings of individual films works is included, but the main emphasis is on the di-
such as The Bicycle Thief. rectors who came of age in the 1960’s. In particular,
Brunette, Peter. Roberto Rossellini. New York: Oxford the films of Bernardo Bertolucci, Lina Wertmuller,
University Press, 1987. An exemplary study of a path- and the Taviani brothers receive close critical atten-
breaking director. Comprehensive analyses of all tion.
Rossellini’s films is provided. A detailed filmography Zavattini, Cesare. Sequences from a Cinematic Life. En-
is included. glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Zavattini
Gazetas, Aristides. An Introduction to World Cinema. scripted such classics as The Bicycle Thief and
Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000. Survey of world worked closely as a writer with Vittorio De Sica. The
cinema that includes chapters on Italian neorealism, work in question is his quirky, informal, imaginative,
Fellini and Antonioni, and Pasolini and Bertolucci. informative autobiography.
Bibliographic references and index. See also: Oct. 3, 1941: The Maltese Falcon Establishes
Leprohon, Pierre. The Italian Cinema. New York: a New Style for Crime Films; Oct. 15, 1942-1961:
Praeger, 1972. A survey grounded in a chronological Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and Screen;
approach. Italian cinema from 1895 to 1969 is cov- 1946-1962: Westerns Dominate Postwar American
ered, with three chapters devoted to the twenty-five Film; Sept., 1947: German Writers Form Group 47;
years prior to 1969. Contains a biographical dictio- Sept. 6, 1954: La Strada Solidifies Fellini’s Renown
nary and a select bibliography. as a Brilliant Director; 1956-1960: French New Wave
Liehm, Mira. Passion and Defiance: Film in Italy from Ushers in a New Era of Cinema; Mar. 16, 1960:
1942 to the Present. Berkeley: University of Califor- Godard’s Breathless Revolutionizes Film.
135
Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution” The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
January 20, 1942

Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution”
Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Security Main conditions, and a final extermination of the remaining
Office, convened this meeting to outline the steps survivors. Afterward, participants discussed various le-
through which Europe’s Jews would be eliminated. gal questions such as the status of “half ” or “quarter”
Annihilation was, in Nazi parlance, the “final solution Jews (those with one Jewish parent or grandparent)
of the Jewish problem in Europe.” Conference or World War I Jewish veterans who had earned Iron
attendees represented those agencies of the Nazi Party Crosses. The meeting was short, about ninety minutes
and the German government which would implement long, and remarkably congenial. It was a significant ac-
this process. complishment for Heydrich, for in the process of finaliz-
ing the details of genocide, he had manipulated partici-
Locale: Wannsee, a suburb southwest of Berlin, pants into a tacit recognition of his role as the coordinator
Germany and director of this “final solution.”
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; government After the war, a copy of the conference “minutes”—
and politics; human rights; World War II sometimes referred to as the Wannsee Protocol—were
Key Figures found and used in the Nuremberg Trials. The protocol was
Reinhard Heydrich (1904-1942), an SS represented as a unique document that outlined the insti-
Obergruppenfuehrer, or general, and chief of the tutional adoption of a policy of statewide murder of the
RSHA Jews. For more than forty years, the Wannsee Conference
Adolf Eichmann (1906-1962), head of the RSHA’s was identified as the moment in which the Third Reich
Referat IV B-4 abandoned its disjointed, harsh, and inconsistent anti-
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), chancellor of Germany, Jewish policies (which ranged from humiliation to expro-
1933-1945, who did not attend the conference but priation and “emigration”) to adopt an organized institu-
may have compelled the “final solution” and tional commitment to total annihilation—in short, the
certainly was complicit in it birth of an explicit policy of genocide. Later historical
debates would describe Nazi anti-Jewish policies as evo-
Summary of Event lutionary in nature; as a result, the Wannsee Conference
On January 20, 1942, a group of sixteen high-level bu- is now seen as a clear statement about genocidal policies
reaucrats representing the Nazi Party and various Ger- that were already being inconsistently applied in some
man government ministries met to discuss what was eu- areas of occupied Europe, as opposed to the instant in
phemistically referred to as the “final solution.” The which genocide was adopted. The key to this assessment
meeting had been called by Reinhard Heydrich, a mem- is the question of who created the genocidal policies.
ber of the Schutzstaffel (SS, literally the “protection Historians of the Reich’s Jewish policies fall into two
squadron”)—originally founded in the 1920’s as Adolf general groups. To one group, the “intentionalists,” the
Hitler’s bodyguards but, under the leadership of Hein- final solution was the inevitable consequence of Adolf
rich Himmler from 1929 to 1945, one of the most power- Hitler’s anti-Semitism. Basing their conclusions on pas-
ful Nazi organizations, considered the party’s “Praeto- sages from Hitler’s book Mein Kampf (1932; English
rian Guard.” The SS had become the Nazi Party’s armed translation, 1933), intentionalists claim that Hitler
wing, controlling the party’s security and police func- clearly outlined his intent to wipe out (“annihilate”) the
tions. Only the most loyal and “racially pure” were al- Jews. Other historians, labeled “functionalists,” ascribe
lowed among its ranks. Heydrich was head of the the final solution to the actions of subordinates seeking
Reichsicherheitshauptamt (RHSA, or Reich Security their patron’s favor. This argument is based on one es-
Main Office), which combined the Sicherheitsdienst sential reality of the Third Reich: Hitler’s deliberate pol-
(SD, or security police), the Kriminalpolizei (Kripo, the icy of “divide and conquer” to weaken his lieutenants.
state criminal police), and the Geheime Staatspolizei Hitler set himself as the arbitrator between subordinates
(Gestapo, the state secret police). involved in turf battles for recognition, scarce resources,
The conference consisted of a long presentation by independent fiefdoms, and promotions. Immersed in
Heydrich about how to make Europe “free of Jews” these constant internal squabbles, no underling could
through resettlement, death through hard labor in harsh find enough time or create sufficient prestige to chal-
136
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution”
The “Final Solution”

The minutes of the Wannsee Conference, referred to as the Wannsee Protocol, were translated by the U.S. government for
use as evidence in the Nuremberg Trials of 1945-1946. The excerpt below is remarkable for its juxtaposition of a bureau-
cratic, matter-of-fact tone against the horror of the proposals to “cleanse German living space of Jews in a legal manner”:
At the beginning of the discussion Chief of the Secu- which the authorities of the countries to which the flow of
rity Police and of the SD, SS-Obergruppenführer [Rein- emigrants was being directed would have to deal. Finan-
hard] Heydrich, reported that the Reich Marshal had ap- cial difficulties, such as the demand by various foreign
pointed him delegate for the preparations for the final governments for increasing sums of money to be pre-
solution of the Jewish question in Europe. . . . The wish of sented at the time of the landing, the lack of shipping
the Reich Marshal to have a draft sent to him concerning space, increasing restriction of entry permits, or the can-
1942
organizational, factual and material interests in relation celling of such, increased extraordinarily the difficulties
to the final solution of the Jewish question in Europe of emigration. In spite of these difficulties, 537,000 Jews
makes necessary an initial common action of all cen- were sent out of the country between the takeover of
tral offices immediately concerned with these questions power and the deadline of 31 October 1941. Of these
in order to bring their general activities into line. The
• approximately 360,000 were in Germany proper on
Reichsführer-SS and the Chief of the German Police
30 January 1933
(Chief of the Security Police and the SD) was entrusted
• approximately 147,000 were in Austria (Ostmark)
with the official central handling of the final solution of
on 15 March 1939
the Jewish question without regard to geographic bor-
• approximately 30,000 were in the Protectorate of
ders. The Chief of the Security Police and the SD then
Bohemia and Moravia on 15 March 1939.
gave a short report of the struggle which has been carried
on thus far against this enemy, the essential points being The Jews themselves, or their Jewish political organi-
the following: zations, financed the emigration. In order to avoid im-
poverished Jews’ remaining behind, the principle was
(a) the expulsion of the Jews from every sphere of life
followed that wealthy Jews have to finance the emigra-
of the German people,
tion of poor Jews; this was arranged by imposing a suit-
(b) the expulsion of the Jews from the living space of
able tax, i.e., an emigration tax, which was used for finan-
the German people.
cial arrangements in connection with the emigration of
In carrying out these efforts, an increased and planned poor Jews and was imposed according to income. . . .
acceleration of the emigration of the Jews from Reich Another possible solution of the problem has now
territory was started, as the only possible present solu- taken the place of emigration, i.e. the evacuation of the
tion. Jews to the East, provided that the Führer gives the appro-
By order of the Reich Marshal, a Reich Central Office priate approval in advance.
for Jewish Emigration was set up in January 1939 and the These actions are, however, only to be considered pro-
Chief of the Security Police and SD was entrusted with visional, but practical experience is already being col-
the management. Its most important tasks were lected which is of the greatest importance in relation to
the future final solution of the Jewish question.
(a) to make all necessary arrangements for the prepa-
Approximately 11 million Jews will be involved in the
ration for an increased emigration of the Jews,
final solution of the European Jewish question. . . .
(b) to direct the flow of emigration,
Under proper guidance, in the course of the final solu-
(c) to speed the procedure of emigration in each indi-
tion the Jews are to be allocated for appropriate labor in
vidual case.
the East. Able-bodied Jews, separated according to sex,
The aim of all this was to cleanse German living space will be taken in large work columns to these areas for
of Jews in a legal manner. work on roads, in the course of which action doubtless a
All the offices realized the drawbacks of such en- large portion will be eliminated by natural causes.
forced accelerated emigration. For the time being they The possible final remnant will, since it will undoubt-
had, however, tolerated it on account of the lack of other edly consist of the most resistant portion, have to be
possible solutions of the problem. treated accordingly, because it is the product of natural
The work concerned with emigration was, later on, selection and would, if released, act as a the seed of a new
not only a German problem, but also a problem with Jewish revival. . . .
137
Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution” The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
lenge Hitler’s position of control. Because Hitler’s anti- After Heydrich, perhaps the best-known attendee was
Semitism was so well known, the argument goes, up-and- Adolf Eichmann. Not a Staatssekretar, Eichmann was
coming functionaries used harsh anti-Jewish measures the head of the RSHA’s Referat IV B-4 (Department IV
to get his attention, curry his favor, and earn his patron- B-4). This RSHA office provided information on Eu-
age. Thus (the functionalists argue), the final solution de- rope’s Jews and oversaw the transportation of these Jews
veloped not by a linear progression of policies to meet first as part of the policy of emigration and later, after
Hitler’s goals as set forth in Mein Kampf but rather by Wannsee, as part of the process of extermination. Eich-
fits and starts, through local decisions driven by power- mann’s specialization in Jewish affairs began in 1938,
fixated underlings working for their own advancement. when he oversaw the deportation of Jews from Germany,
Certainly, Heydrich’s continued rise reflects this func- Austria, and Czechoslovakia and the appropriation of
tionalist argument. As head of the RHSA, he was subordi- their assets. In this capacity he witnessed deportation
nate to Himmler, who controlled state and party police and methods and was responsible for scheduling the removal
the armed SS, but Heydrich’s invitations stemmed from a of Jewish communities. He was an essential technocrat
request by Hermann Göring. Göring’s offices included su- who provided the data and the day-to-day organizational
pervision of the “Four Year Plan”; he was tasked with as- and administrative skills that turned slogans like “the fi-
suring the growth of Germany’s economy. Göring wanted nal solution” into action.
a conference to streamline the efforts of agencies with Both groups of historians—the intentionalists and the
conflicting intentions: Some wanted to eliminate the Jews, functionalists—agree that a policy of annihilation would
while others wanted to exploit the Jews as a labor force, neither have escaped Hitler’s notice nor have gone for-
rationalize the use of Germany’s transportation network, ward without his tacit approval. Nevertheless, the timing
or resettle Germans in the newly conquered territories. and format of the Wannsee meeting suggest that many of
Thus, Heydrich’s efforts would bridge multiple impor-
tant activities in the Reich and make him a key player in
the security sphere, the economic sphere, and, through
Jewish labor, the prosecution of the war effort.
There is much about the conference that supports
the functionalist view. Most of the participants were
Staatssekretare (state secretaries), a rank equivalent to
that of undersecretary in the U.S. government. These were
third-tier bureaucrats who converted the ideas of superiors
like Göring or Himmler into realities. Between the Nazi
Party and the German government ministries, there were
about fifty Staatssekretare, so the fourteen at Wannsee
represented about a quarter of the German government.
They represented those parts of the party that dealt either
with race issues (such as the SS Main Office for Race and
Settlement or the Reich Commissar for Strengthening of
Germandom) or with ministries that would be involved in
the final solution (such as the Ministry of the Interior, the
Foreign Office, the Ministry for the Occupied Eastern
Territories, the Ministry of Justice, and the Ministry of
Economics). These men were also well educated and
young: Two-thirds had university degrees, eight had the
title of doctor, and nearly half were under forty. All were
committed to Hitler’s ideology and were rising function-
aries. While they were willing to let Heydrich take respon-
sibility for a dirty policy that would be complex and diffi-
cult—and, should Germany lose the war, could imperil
their lives—participation at Wannsee made these men Reinhard Heydrich, architect of the so-called final solution.
important players in day-to-day running of the Reich. (NARA)
138
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution”
the details set forth there were settled by ambitious un- Further Reading
derlings looking for ways to promote themselves. De- Dederichs, Mario R. Heydrich: The Face of Evil. Lon-
bates like those over the utilization of slave labor versus don: Greenhill Books, 1998. A thorough biography of
Himmler’s desire to exterminate the Jews were largely Heydrich, this work also highlights the role that he ex-
settled at Wannsee, though killing and deportations had pected the conference to play in his personal climb to
already begun in some Balkan areas and in Poland. Ulti- power.
mately the Wannsee protocol streamlined interdepart- Gerlach, Christian. “The Wannsee Conference, the Fate
mental struggles and sanctioned a deadly new phase of of the German Jews, and Hitler’s Decision in Princi-
the Holocaust. ple to Exterminate All European Jews.” In The Holo-
Wannsee also shows historians the face of bureau- caust: Origins, Implementation, Aftermath, edited by
cratic murder—what Hannah Arendt would call “the ba- Omer Bartov. New York: Routledge, 2000. While
nality of evil.” The comfortable accommodations con- this chapter concerns the impact of the conference and
1942
trasted with the protocol that demanded “annihilation its place in the Holocaust, the book is a clear and con-
through labor.” Ultimately those present at the confer- cise analysis of many issues prominent in Holocaust
ence went down with the Nazi state. Of the fifteen, five studies.
died during the war (one other’s body was never found, Lehrer, Steven. Wannsee House and the Holocaust. Jef-
although he is generally thought to have died trying to es- ferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2000. Both an insightful
cape from Berlin), three were executed for their crimes at look at the conference and a history of the villa, this
Wannsee and elsewhere (although Eichmann escaped ar- work also provides thorough biographies of all at-
rest and trial until 1961), two served prison sentences, tendees.
and three were arrested for trial and released because of Roseman, Mark. The Wannsee Conference and the Final
ill health; hence, only one participant avoided death or Solution. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2002. This
trial: Gerhard Klopfer. excellent account of the conference includes the full
text of the protocol and details of the evolution of the
Significance
“final solution.”
While the Wannsee protocol has erroneously been de-
scribed as the decisive trigger that began the Holocaust, See also: 1941: Shirer Examines the Rise of Nazi Ide-
it was nevertheless a pivotal moment. Through Wann- ology in Berlin Diary; Aug. 23, 1941: Nazis Ban
see, Heydrich established himself as the major player in Nolde’s Paintings; Aug. 9, 1942: Stein Is Killed by
the destruction of European Jews and finalized the pro- the Nazis; Apr. 19-May 16, 1943: Warsaw Ghetto
cess in which they would be eliminated through deporta- Armed Uprising Against Nazis; Sept. 30-Oct. 1,
tion and annihilation through labor. While “resettle- 1943: Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from Germans;
ment,” mass killing, and even the use of camps were not Apr. 9, 1945: Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the Nazis;
in themselves new policies, the organized system that Oct. 24, 1945: Norwegians Execute Nazi Collabora-
smoothed interservice rivalries was. Finally, Wannsee tor Quisling; Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1, 1946: Nazi War
exposes the reality of how policies were made and how Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg; 1946: Jaspers Ex-
the Reich operated. amines Germany’s Collective Responsibility for War
—Kevin B. Reid Crimes; 1956: Wiesel’s Night Recalls the Holocaust.
139
Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
January 30, 1942

Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control Act
The Emergency Price Control Act gave the Office of war, while the supply of civilian goods and services
Price Administration the power to control prices of (measured in constant dollars) increased only from $77.6
civilian goods and rents during World War II. The billion to $95.4 billion. With so much money pursuing a
OPA was also given responsibility for rationing goods limited supply of goods, the government became con-
such as oil and sugar during the war. cerned with preventing runaway inflation, which could
seriously harm the economy.
Also known as: U.S. Code Title 50a, sections 901 The federal government followed a complex of strate-
et seq. gies to keep inflation under control. Higher taxes im-
Locale: Washington, D.C. posed by the Revenue Act of 1942 soaked up part of the
Categories: World War II; laws, acts, and legal increased consumer purchasing power. Expanded sales
history; trade and commerce of Series E government savings bonds to individuals
Key Figures similarly took out of circulation money that otherwise
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the would have gone to purchase goods and services. An-
United States, 1933-1945 other weapon was the wage stabilization program admin-
Leon Henderson (1895-1986), first administrator of the istered by the National War Labor Board, which was es-
U.S. Office of Price Administration and Civilian tablished in January, 1942, to settle labor disputes in war
Supply (OPACS) industries. The Office of Price Administration and Civil-
William Signius Knudsen (1879-1948), director- ian Supply (OPACS), however, constituted the linchpin
general of the U.S. Office of Production in the battle against inflation.
Management President Franklin D. Roosevelt established OPACS
Prentiss M. Brown (1889-1973), administrator of the by executive order on April 11, 1941. The office was
U.S. Office of Price Administration (OPA), given a dual responsibility: It was to prevent inflationary
January-October, 1943 price increases and to stimulate provision of the neces-
James Francis Byrnes (1879-1972), head of the U.S. sary supply of materials and commodities required for ci-
Office of Economic Stabilization, 1942-1943, and vilian use, in such a manner as not to conflict with mili-
of the Office of War Mobilization, 1943-1945, and tary defense needs. Concurrently, it was to ensure the
later secretary of state, 1945-1947 “equitable distribution” of that supply among competing
Chester Bowles (1901-1986), administrator of OPA, civilian demands. Roosevelt appointed as OPACS’s ad-
1943-1946 ministrator Leon Henderson, an economist who had
Paul Porter (1904-1975), last administrator of OPA risen from director of the Research and Planning Divi-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United sion of the National Recovery Administration to become
States, 1945-1953 one of the most influential New Deal leaders. In 1939,
Roosevelt had appointed Henderson to the Securities and
Summary of Event Exchange Commission (SEC). An outspoken champion
As the American military buildup in the face of the threat of competition, opponent of monopoly, and defender of
from the Axis Powers accelerated in the spring of 1940, consumers, Henderson was temperamentally and ideo-
the United States began to face shortages of critical mate- logically at odds with the business executives who were
rials. Shortages raised difficult and politically sensitive brought to Washington, D.C., to mobilize the economy
questions concerning the proportion of the nation’s re- for the impending war. Roosevelt aggravated the situa-
sources to reserve for civilian use and how to allocate the tion by his typical practice of dividing responsibility and
available supplies fairly. The problem was aggravated, leaving blurred the lines of authority among different of-
because government spending on defense was placing ficials.
large amounts of cash into the hands of consumers. The Henderson perceived a duty to act as spokesman for
United States spent an estimated $288 billion to fight civilian needs. He accordingly came into bitter conflict
World War II, compared to the $9 billion annual federal with William Signius Knudsen in the spring of 1941 over
budget in 1940. Disposable personal income (income af- control of the priority system for the allocation of scarce
ter taxes) rose from $92 billion to $151 billion during the materials. Knudsen, a former General Motors executive,
140
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control Act
as director-general of the Office of

Production Management (OPM) was
responsible for expanding military
production. Roosevelt’s establish-
ment of the Supply Priorities and Al-
locations Board (SPAB) in August,
1941, under former Sears, Roebuck
and Company executive Donald M.
Nelson placed that control in the
hands of those giving military de-
mands top priority. With the estab-
lishment of the SPAB, the functions
1942
of OPACS in the allocation of mate-
rials among competing civilian users
were transferred to the OPM. The re-
sult was the administrative separa-
tion of price control from production
control. OPACS was renamed the Of-
fice of Price Administration (OPA).
Rising prices accompanying the
defense buildup shifted the focus of This propaganda photograph from February, 1943, portrays a young boy learning to
Henderson’s attention to the prob- use a rationing book. (National Archives)
lem of inflation. The OPA lacked ef-
fective power to halt the spiral of ris-
ing prices, and the inflation rate reached 2 percent per ucts thus excluded from price controls, food prices in-
month by the end of 1941. Although Roosevelt asked creased 11 percent during 1942.
Congress in July, 1941, for prompt action on price stabi- The conflict over allocation of resources between mil-
lization, the lawmakers dragged their feet until after the itary and civilian needs resurfaced in the so-called “feasi-
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The Emergency Price bility” dispute that reached its climax in the fall of 1942.
Control Act, which Roosevelt signed into law on January Henderson took the lead in attacking the armed services
30, 1942, authorized the OPA to set maximum prices and for exaggerating their supply needs at the expense of the
to establish rent controls in areas in which defense activ- civilian economy. The immediate dispute was resolved
ity had affected rent levels. Because Henderson thought by a compromise, whereby the military program was cut
some price increases to be necessary as incentives to ex- back through extending scheduled delivery dates farther
pand production, he delayed acting under this new au- into the future. The military won the larger battle. In Oc-
thority until late April. The OPA then issued its first Gen- tober, 1942, Roosevelt established the Office of Eco-
eral Maximum Price Regulation, requiring that sellers nomic Stabilization under James Francis Byrnes, for-
charge no more than the highest price charged in March, merly a senator from South Carolina and Supreme Court
1942. This move slowed down, but failed to halt, the rise justice, to take charge of wage and price stabilization.
in the cost of living. Because of his political skills, his contacts in Con-
The regulation worked satisfactorily for standardized gress, and Roosevelt’s confidence, Byrnes was able to
articles but did not do so for products such as clothing, expand his control over all matters relating to the econ-
for which manufacturers and sellers could hide price in- omy. That control was formalized by the creation in
creases through changes in style, quality, or packaging. May, 1943, of the new Office of War Mobilization,
The biggest loophole, however, was the provision that which was to coordinate the activities of the different war
the congressional farm bloc wrote into the Emergency agencies. With Byrnes in charge, the armed services had
Price Control Act barring the imposition of price ceilings the upper hand when questions arose about military ver-
on farm products until their prices reached 110 percent of sus civilian needs. At the same time, the military services
“parity,” a level that would put product prices where successfully resisted the imposition of OPA price ceil-
farmers believed they ought to be. With most farm prod- ings on the purchase of military supplies. In the fall of
141
Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1942, Henderson had to agree to exempt “strictly mili- There were two types of rationing. One—applied, for
tary goods” from maximum price controls in return for a example, to gasoline and rubber tires—involved a prior-
promise by the services to try to hold down prices and the ity system under which different quotas were allotted
profits of suppliers. Although this exemption did not ap- on the basis of need. Equal rations for all were the rule,
ply to materials going into military end products, approx- with few exceptions. The second type of rationing, the
imately two-thirds of the War Department’s prime con- point system, was a scheme whereby a whole family of
tracts were outside OPA control. items (such as meats, fish, cheese, and butter) was lumped
The OPA was more successful in maintaining price together, with each item in the family given a point value.
ceilings on consumer goods. Faced with a continued rise Consumers were allotted a certain number of points
in the cost of living resulting from exemption of most per month and were free to spend those points as they
farm products from the Emergency Maximum Price Reg- wished. The OPA exercised control at the final stage
ulation, Roosevelt in September, 1942, warned Congress of the distribution chain. Retailers would collect ra-
that unless the lawmakers voted to rectify the situation, tion coupons or stamps from their customers and had
he would act himself on the basis of his war powers. After to give them to their suppliers before they could get a
a bitter struggle, Congress approved the Anti-Inflation new supply of the article. Administration at the con-
Act of October, 1942, giving Roosevelt most of what he sumer level was delegated to approximately fifty-six
wanted. The legislation authorized the president to freeze hundred local rationing boards. This arrangement had
wages and salaries, prices (including those of agricul- important political advantages, as the boards were made
tural products), and rents at their levels on September 15. up of respected and influential members of the local
Roosevelt proceeded immediately to institute freezes. community. The drawback was lack of uniformity across
The cost of living, however, continued to rise. the country.
By April, 1943, prices were on average 6.2 percent
above the September 15 level, with food prices rising Significance
even more. The OPA came under increasing pressure From the first, the OPA was a center of political infight-
from producer groups and their congressional allies to re- ing. As was the norm under Roosevelt, rival bureaucrats
lax price controls and from labor unions for higher maneuvered to expand their empires. Thus, Henderson
wages. The turning point in the battle against inflation clashed with Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes, the
came on April 8, 1943, when Roosevelt ordered the eco- petroleum administrator, over gasoline rationing, and
nomic stabilization agencies to “hold the line” against with War Food Administrator Chester C. Davis over
further price and wage increases. He followed this order food rationing. Patronage-hungry politicians strove to
with governmental seizure of coal mines to break a min- control appointments to OPA positions. A host of rival
ers’ strike for higher wages. The OPA simultaneously interests jockeyed for favored treatment. Henderson’s
launched an aggressive campaign to roll back food vocal championship of consumers against pressure
prices. That campaign culminated in a 10 percent reduc- groups from business, agriculture, and labor antagonized
tion in the retail prices of meat, coffee, and butter. producer groups and the conservative coalition of South-
Along with price and rent controls, the OPA adopted a ern Democrats and Republicans in Congress.
system of rationing for particularly scarce commodities. In December, 1942, Henderson resigned, officially
The purposes of rationing were to combat inflation by for reasons of health. He appears to have been pushed out
preventing a bidding war for scarce goods, to ensure eq- by Roosevelt, because he had become too much of a po-
uitable distribution, and to give priority to military needs litical liability. Roosevelt replaced Henderson as OPA
by restricting consumer demand. Rationing began at the administrator in January, 1943, with Prentiss M. Brown,
end of December, 1941, with automobile tires as the first a Democratic senator from Michigan who had just been
rationed good. A severe rubber shortage had resulted defeated for reelection partly because of his support for
from the Japanese seizure of Southeast Asia. Rationing agricultural price controls. Brown was succeeded in Oc-
was extended to sugar, coffee, and gasoline in 1942. Ra- tober, 1943, by former advertising executive Chester
tioning was instituted in 1943 for meats, fats and oils, Bowles. In February, 1946, New Deal lawyer and Fed-
butter, cheese, and processed foods. Shoes were added eral Communications Commission chairman Paul Porter
later. At the peak of rationing, the OPA administered became the last OPA administrator.
thirteen rationing programs. Rationed goods still repre- The OPA did not work perfectly. There were numer-
sented only one-seventh of total consumer expenditures. ous cases of evasion of price controls and rationing.
142
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control Act
Landlords in areas where housing was scarce, for exam- year but drastically cutting its powers and commanding it
ple, often demanded an under-the-table payoff before to decontrol prices “as rapidly as possible.” Instead of ac-
renting an apartment. There was a large black market in quiescing, Truman vetoed the bill on June 29 and al-
such goods as coffee and soap. Because of the time and lowed price controls to expire on July 1.
difficulties involved, the OPA rarely instituted criminal Prices rose sharply, while shortages of meat, sugar,
prosecutions of violators; its major enforcement tool was electrical appliances, housing, and automobiles contin-
a court injunction to prevent further illegal sales. Mis- ued. In late July, Congress approved a second bill ex-
takes in the handling of rationing were a major contribu- tending price and rent controls for one year. Truman re-
tor to the OPA’s unpopularity. The introduction of ra- luctantly accepted it, but the damage had been done. The
tioning for sugar and coffee was accompanied by what new measure was even weaker and more confusing than
many thought was excessively restrictive and pointless the one that Truman had vetoed. Republican speakers
bureaucracy and regulation. Even worse, the OPA had by and advertisements during the election campaign in the
1942
1944 issued food-rationing coupons far in excess of fall of 1946 made the confusion and failure in the price
available supplies. A survey in late fall showed that con- control program a major theme. One incident was partic-
sumers had an average of 2.8 months of unused food cou- ularly damaging to the Truman administration and the
pons. When the temporarily successful German counter- Democrats. When the OPA restored price ceilings on
attack in the Battle of the Bulge at the end of 1944 meat in August, 1946, farmers withdrew their cattle from
threatened to cut supplies further, authorities canceled the market to force a change in policy. While shoppers
the unused coupons despite their previous pledge that no waited in vain for meat, Republicans seized on the short-
such action would be taken. age as a campaign issue. After the Republicans won con-
The OPA was largely successful in keeping consumer trol of both houses of Congress, Truman gave up the
prices under control. Living costs had increased by al- fight. He ended all wage and price controls, except those
most two-thirds from 1914 to the end of World War I. In on rents, sugar, and rice, on November 9, 1946. The OPA
contrast, the cost of living rose only by approximately 28 began to wind up its affairs a month later.
percent from 1940 to the end of World War II. Most of — John Braeman
that increase came before adoption of the Anti-Inflation
Act of October, 1942. Living costs increased by less than Further Reading
2 percent during the last two years of the war. Perhaps Bowles, Chester. Promises to Keep: My Years in Public
most important, most Americans enjoyed a higher stan- Life, 1941-1969. New York: Harper & Row, 1971. An
dard of living at the war’s end than they had before it autobiography concerning Bowles’s years of public
began. service. Extensive account of Bowles’s struggles as
The end of the war led to a bitter struggle over contin- OPA administrator.
uation of the OPA. The new president, Harry S. Truman, Chandler, Lester V. Inflation in the United States, 1940-
backed Bowles in his plan for a gradual relaxation of 1948. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1951. An analy-
wartime controls over prices, wages, and scarce com- sis of the forces responsible for inflation during and
modities to smooth the transition to a peacetime econ- following World War II. Emphasizes the role of gov-
omy. On the day after the surrender of Japan, the OPA ernment fiscal and monetary policies.
ended rationing of gasoline, fuel oil, and processed Chandler, Lester V., and Donald H. Wallace, eds. Eco-
foods. By the end of 1945, only sugar remained under ra- nomic Mobilization and Stabilization: Selected Mate-
tioning. rials on the Economics of War and Defense. New
During late 1945 and early 1946, the OPA was able to York: Henry Holt, 1951. An anthology of materials
control price increases, but inflationary pressures were treating problems of economic mobilization and sta-
gaining momentum. Consumers were buying in black bilization during wartime, drawing heavily on the ex-
markets, labor unions were pushing for wage hikes, and perience of the United States in World War II. Part 4,
manufacturers and farmers had joined with Republican “Direct Stabilization Controls in Wartime,” focuses
leaders in Congress to demand an end to all controls. A on the OPA’s price control and rationing policies.
battle raged through the spring of 1946 over extension of Harris, Seymour. Price and Related Controls in the
the OPA. A conservative coalition of Republicans and United States. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1945. A
Southern Democrats passed through Congress in late sympathetic detailed account of OPA price and rent
June, 1946, a price control bill extending the OPAfor one controls by an economist who served with the agency.
143
Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil in The Screwtape Letters The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Hughes, Jonathan, and Louis P. Cain. American Eco- Cambridge University Press, 1984. A comprehensive
nomic History. 5th ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison- history of efforts to control wages and prices. Com-
Wesley, 1998. Comprehensive account of the history pares the United States’ experiences in World War I,
of the American economy and its relationship to the World War II, and the Korean War.
U.S. government. Somers, Herman M. Presidential Agency: OWMR, the
Lingeman, Richard R. Don’t You Know There’s a War Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion. Cam-
On? The American Home Front, 1941-1945. Updated bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950. An
ed. New York: Nation Books, 2003. Details all as- excellent account of James F. Byrnes’s coordination
pects of the American domestic experience during and direction of the wartime government manage-
World War II, from Japanese internment to rationing. ment of the economy.
Mansfield, Harvey C., et al. A Short History of OPA. U.S. Bureau of the Budget. The United States at War.
Washington, D.C.: Office of Temporary Controls, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,
OPA, 1948. The indispensable official history of the 1946. This official history is a comprehensive survey
OPA, written by a team headed by one of the coun- of the wartime government management of the
try’s leading experts in public administration. economy.
Polenberg, Richard. War and Society: The United States, See also: 1941-1945: 6.6 Million Women Enter the
1941-1945. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1972. An U.S. Labor Force; June 22, 1944: Roosevelt Signs the
excellent survey of all aspects of the American home G.I. Bill; Oct. 30, 1947: General Agreement on Tar-
front during World War II. Includes a brief but per- iffs and Trade Is Signed; July 10, 1954: Eisenhower
ceptive account of the struggle for economic stabili- Begins the Food for Peace Program; 1960’s: Service
zation. Economy Emerges in the United States; May 29,
Rockoff, Hugh. Drastic Measures: A History of Wage 1968: Congress Passes the Consumer Credit Protec-
and Price Controls in the United States. New York: tion Act.
February, 1942
Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil in THE SCREWTAPE LETTERS
With the publication of The Screwtape Letters, C. S. Battle of Britain began with bombs dropping on London
Lewis became famous in Great Britain and America. and British and German fighters crossing the skies over
The book addressed the nature of the moral life and the England. In a July 20, 1940, letter to his brother Warren
problem of small, everyday temptations by collecting (“Warnie”), C. S. Lewis wrote about listening to Hitler’s
letters purportedly written from a senior devil to a speech broadcast on the radio. Lewis mentioned that
younger devil that discussed strategies for corrupting he was surprised at how much Hitler’s words actually
an unnamed young man during the bombardment of moved him, even though he knew the major points of the
London in World War II. speech to be fabricated. Lewis was beginning to internal-
ize the dynamics of persuasion he would use so effec-
Locale: London, England
tively in The Screwtape Letters (1942).
Categories: Literature; religion, theology, and
In the letter to his brother, Lewis unveiled a new idea
ethics
for a book. The book was initially titled As One Devil to
Key Figures Another. As Lewis envisioned it, the book would be an
C. S. Lewis (1898-1963), British writer and scholar epistolary work collecting letters from an upper-echelon
Warren Lewis (1895-1973), British army officer and devil to an apprentice devil who had just started the pro-
brother of C. S. Lewis cess of temptation with a new “client.” Inspired by listen-
ing to the evil German dictator, Lewis thought his new
Summary of Event book would explore the psychology of temptation from
In the summer of 1940, Europe was torn apart by Adolf the opposite point of view. Lewis, an orthodox Christian
Hitler’s Nazi German army sweeping through Poland, apologist and a tutor in Renaissance and medieval litera-
Czechoslovakia, France, Denmark, and Norway. The ture at Oxford University, would become the ultimate
144
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil in The Screwtape Letters
devil’s advocate. Lewis planned to use the mind of Satan man fallacies, self-indulgence, distractions of modern
to expose the weakness of human character. life, and the peaks and valleys of human experience.
Lewis began to write the letters in 1941 and published The unnamed client has not yet converted to Chris-
them weekly from May until November in the Anglican tianity when Wormwood is first assigned to tempt him.
newspaper The Guardian, which paid him in total the The client soon converts to Christianity and falls in love
equivalent of about fifteen hundred dollars for all of the with a young woman. The client lives with his mother,
letters. Lewis donated the earnings from his nonac- and difficulties in their relationship are seen by Screw-
ademic books to religious charities, even during the tape as promising territory in which to move him toward
years of war rationing, when he was short of money. He hatred and selfishness. The client’s spiritual journey be-
wrote out all of the letters longhand with pen and ink, becomes more difficult because of the ongoing bombard-
cause he never learned to type. Warnie typed the final ment and the possibility of being drafted into the mili-
draft manuscript that was sent to the publisher. Ordi- tary. The young man endures a bleak night in which God
1942
narily, Lewis would have burned the handwritten pages seems to have forgotten him.
after the typed pages were submitted, because he did not While the latter episode is seen as a hopeful sign by
have room to keep them. Concerned that the Nazi bom- Wormwood, Screwtape argues that the emotional ups
bardment of London might destroy the manuscript, how- and downs of human experience sometimes increase
ever, Lewis kept the handwritten pages and sent them to a faith rather than diminishing it. The client renews his
friend for safekeeping. faith through conflict, and he rededicates himself to God,
The letters were an immediate sensation. Many people frustrating Wormwood. The client becomes an air-raid
started buying the newspaper just to read the letters. The warden and experiences much fear during the evacuation
London publisher Geoffrey Bles was convinced that if it of London. After the evacuation, Screwtape rightly per-
could secure the rights to the letters, the company would ceives that in spite of his fear, the client fulfilled his duty,
have a best seller on its hands. The Screwtape Letters be- and the experience did not weaken his faith. During the
came one of Lewis’s best-known works of theological second bombing raid, the client is killed, leading Screw-
fantasy. First published in book form in February, 1942, in tape to give an anguished description of his death, which
England and in 1943 in America, the first edition of two
thousand copies sold out before they made it to book-
stores. Geoffrey Bles reprinted the book eight times in The Devil Speaks
1942 alone. The Screwtape Letters subsequently sold mil-
lions of copies and inspired many people through its imag- The upper-echelon devil Screwtape wrote the following
inative exploration of temptation and human weaknesses. letter to his apprentice devil, Wormwood, in C. S. Lewis’s
The Screwtape Letters is a short book of thiry-one let- The Screwtape Letters (1942):
ters written from Screwtape—an experienced upper-level My Dear Wormwood,
bureaucrat in Hell’s administrative structure—to Worm- I wonder you should ask me whether it is essential to
wood, a young apprentice devil trying to tempt his first cli- keep the patient in ignorance of your own existence.
ent. The client is never given a name. Wormwood is in- That question, at least for the present phase of the strug-
structed by Screwtape in the subtle strategies used to win gle, has been answered for us by the High Command.
a soul for Hell. The purpose of the book is to document Our policy, for the moment, is to conceal ourselves. Of
how the typical human appears to the hierarchy of devils, course this has not always been so. We are really faced
with a cruel dilemma. When the humans disbelieve in
bent on turning people away from God toward evil.
our existence we lose all the pleasing results of direct ter-
The book had a tremendous impact, because Lewis
rorism, and we make no magicians. On the other hand,
did not use the cliché imagery of devils with pitchforks when they believe in us, we cannot make them material-
and burning lakes of fire in Hell. Instead, Lewis shifted ists and sceptics. At least, not yet. I have great hopes that
the focus to the subtle temptations of pride, convenience, we shall learn in due time how to emotionalise and my-
and false humility in normal, everyday interactions thologise their science to such an extent that what is, in
among people. Lewis wrote about small disturbances, effect, a belief in us (though not under that name) will
prayer, getting along with neighbors, human personality, creep in while the human mind remains closed to belief
the causes of laughter, varieties of churches, and God’s in the Enemy. The “Life Force,” the worship of sex, and
love for humankind. The letters addressed many topics, some aspects of Psychoanalysis may here prove useful.
such as the self-absorbed state of mind, hypocrisy, hu-
145
Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil in The Screwtape Letters The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
was a gateway into a new life and an escape from the dan- for temptations to Hell, the book succeeded because it
gers of Wormwood’s temptations. was fresh, original, and profoundly insightful about hu-
The relationship between Screwtape and Wormwood man personality. Instead of unrealistic drama or horrific
is an important subplot. Both devils fight to deceive and evil, Lewis focused on the spiritual weakness of the aver-
destroy each other, because Hell is essentially competi- age Christian in his or her attempt to lead a good life. The
tive. Wormwood can advance only through the demise of book spoke to millions of readers who treasured Lewis’s
his mentor. Screwtape blames Wormwood for mistakes insights on the dangers of pride and superficial religious
in trying to corrupt the client, and Wormwood blames his piety.
difficulties on the flawed suggestions received from his — Jonathan L. Thorndike
superior. The tone of Screwtape’s letters grows increas-
ingly impatient, as he realizes he will ultimately lose the Further Reading
battle for the young man’s soul. Hooper, Walter. C. S. Lewis: A Companion and Guide.
The overwhelming response to The Screwtape Letters New York: HarperCollins, 1996. A comprehensive
was matched by the reaction to a series of radio lectures review and discussion of the life work of C. S. Lewis
that Lewis had given for the British Broadcasting Com- written by his personal secretary, who became a
pany, which became the popular book Mere Christianity prominent scholar. Extensive index and topic list.
(1952). As a result, Lewis started to receive hundreds of Lewis, C. S. The Letters of C. S. Lewis. Edited and with a
letters each year. He usually wrote a personal reply to memoir by W. H. Lewis. London: Harcourt, 1966. Es-
each correspondent, but he began to rely on Warnie’s sential collection of the letters of Lewis that document
ability to answer the letters in the same style and manner. the growth of his imagination and his many important
Warnie also began to keep his brother’s appointment personal relationships with friends and scholars.
schedule and act as a general manager. Sayer, George. Jack: A Life of C. S. Lewis. Wheaton, Ill.:
In the book’s original preface, Lewis wrote that there Crossway Books, 1994. A very accurate biography
are two common mistakes with respect to devils. One is written by a personal friend and former student of
to disbelieve in them, and the other is to take an obses- C. S. Lewis.
sive, all-consuming interest in them. In the revised pref- Schultz, Jeffery D., and John G. West, Jr., eds. The C. S.
ace, Lewis answered the most often-asked question Lewis Reader’s Encyclopedia. Grand Rapids, Mich.:
about the book, “Do you believe in the Devil?” He said Zondervan, 1998. Brief encyclopedia entries on all of
that did not believe that “the Devil” was an equal and op- Lewis’s books and many book topics.
posite power to God but only a fallen, perverted kind of
angel. Lewis said he believed in “devils,” but not in the
traditional imagery of a red-faced, bearded man with clo-
European Theater; May 28, 1945: Evelyn Waugh
ven hooves. Lewis said he believed in the existence of
Captures Prewar English Life in Brideshead Re-
angels, and some of these, through abuse of free will, had
visited; 1948: Greene’s The Heart of the Matter Is
fallen into a state of depravity. These devils were para-
Published; June, 1949: Nineteen Eighty-Four Por-
sitic and could exist only by feeding upon other crea-
trays Totalitarianism and Mind Control; 1950-1956:
tures.
Children Delight in The Chronicles of Narnia; 1954:
Significance Golding’s Lord of the Flies Spurs Examination of Hu-
The Screwtape Letters was a breath of fresh air during the man Nature; June, 1954-Oct., 1955: Tolkien Pub-
dark days of World War II. Despite its focus on strategies lishes The Lord of the Rings.
146
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United States Interns Japanese Americans
February 19, 1942-1945

United States Interns Japanese Americans
The forced removal and internment during World Japanese sentiment held by many in the Pacific coast
War II of approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans states. The result was loud demands from local patriotic
living on the Pacific coast was one of the gravest groups, newspapers, and politicians for removal of all
violations of civil liberties in United States history. Japanese Americans. Leading the clamor was California
state attorney general Earl Warren, who warned that their
Also known as: Executive Order 9066 race made all Japanese Americans security risks.
Locale: Pacific United States Within the military, the lead in pushing for the
Categories: World War II; civil rights and liberties; roundup of Japanese Americans on the Pacific coast was
social issues and reform taken by Major General Allen Gullion, the Army’s pro-
1942
Key Figures vost marshal general, or chief law enforcement officer.
Allen Gullion (1880-1946), provost marshal general of Gullion’s key lieutenant in pushing this program was his
the U.S. Army ambitious aide, Major (later Colonel) Karl R. Bendetsen,
Karl R. Bendetsen (1907-1989), Gullion’s aide chief of the Aliens Division of the provost marshal gen-
John L. DeWitt (1880-1962), commander of the U.S. eral’s office. Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt, the
Army’s Western Defense Command commander of the Army’s Western Defense Command,
Earl Warren (1891-1974), attorney general of was an indecisive and easily pressured man with a his-
California, 1939-1943, governor, 1943-1953, and tory of anti-Japanese prejudice. At first, DeWitt opposed
later chief justice of the United States, 1953-1969 total removal of the Japanese Americans. By early Feb-
John Jay McCloy (1895-1989), assistant secretary of ruary, 1942, however, he had added his voice to the calls
war for such action. “In the war in which we are now en-
Henry L. Stimson (1867-1950), secretary of war gaged,” DeWitt rationalized, “racial affinities are not
Francis Biddle (1886-1968), U.S. attorney general severed by migration. The Japanese race is an enemy
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the race.” He warned in apocalyptic terms about the dangers
United States, 1933-1945 raised by the “continued presence of a large, unassim-
Dillon S. Myer (1891-1982), director of the War ilated, tightly knit racial group, bound to an enemy nation
Relocation Administration by strong ties of race, culture, custom and religion along
a frontier vulnerable to attack.”
Summary of Event Those views were shared by DeWitt’s civilian superi-
At the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on De- ors. The decisive figure was Assistant Secretary of War
cember 7, 1941, there were approximately 110,000 Japa- John Jay McCloy, who in turn brought Secretary of War
nese Americans living on the Pacific coast of the United Henry L. Stimson to support total removal. Attorney
States. Roughly one-third of those were the Issei— General Francis Biddle and most Justice Department of-
foreign-born Japanese who had migrated before the ex- ficials saw no necessity for mass evacuation, but Biddle
clusion of Japanese immigrants in 1924 and were barred yielded to the War Department on the issue. Most impor-
from United States citizenship. The rest were the Nisei— tant, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, from motives of
the U.S.-born children of the Issei who were U.S. citizens political expediency as much as from any anxiety over
and for the most part strongly American-oriented. The possible sabotage, gave his full backing to the military
government had in place plans for the arrest of enemy program. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt issued Exec-
aliens whose loyalty was suspect in the event of war. utive Order 9066, authorizing the military to designate
In the immediate aftermath of Pearl Harbor, approxi- “military areas” from which “any or all persons may be
mately fifteen hundred suspect Japanese aliens were excluded.” Congress followed by adopting legislation in
rounded up. Those not regarded as security risks were, March making it a criminal offense for anyone excluded
along with German and Italian aliens, restricted from from a military area to remain there.
traveling without permission, barred from areas near No one appeared to have given much thought to what
strategic installations, and forbidden to possess arms, would be done with the evacuees. At first, the military
shortwave radios, or maps. The attack on Pearl Harbor, simply called upon the Japanese Americans living in the
however, gave new impetus to the long-standing anti- western parts of California, Oregon, and Washington,
147
United States Interns Japanese Americans The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
and in the strip of Arizona along the Mexican border, to communal. Religious worship (except for the practice of
leave voluntarily for the interior of the country. Resis- Shinto, the Japanese national religion) was allowed.
tance by interior communities to the newcomers led the Schools were later opened for the young people. Al-
Army to issue, on March 27, 1942, a freeze order requir- though the evacuees grew some of their own food and
ing Japanese Americans to remain where they were. The even undertook small-scale manufacturing projects,
next step was the issuance of orders requiring Japanese most found no productive outlets in the camps for their
Americans to report to makeshift assembly centers pend- energies and talents. The WRA promoted the formation
ing transfer to more permanent facilities. of camp governments to administer the day-to-day life of
By June, 1942, more than 100,000 Japanese Ameri- the camps, but those governments lacked meaningful
cans had been evacuated. The evacuees were transferred power and rapidly lost the respect of camp populations.
from the assembly centers to ten permanent relocation Conditions were at their worst, and the resulting ten-
camps in the interior, each holding between ten and sions at their height, at the Tule Lake, California, reloca-
eleven thousand persons, administered by the newly es- tion center, which became a dumping ground for those
tablished War Relocation Authority (WRA). The camps from other camps regarded as troublemakers. The upshot
were surrounded by barbed wire and patrolled by armed was terror-enforced domination of the camp by a secret
military guards. The typical camp consisted of wooden group of pro-Japan militants.
barracks covered with tar paper, and each barrack was A Nisei recalled poignantly the scene of the evacuees
subdivided into one-room apartments—each furnished being taken off to a camp: “The sight of hundreds of peo-
with army cots, blankets, and a light bulb—to which a ple assembled with assorted baggage, lined up to board
family or unrelated group of individuals was assigned. the buses at the embarkation point, with rifle-bearing sol-
Toilets and bathing, laundry, and dining facilities were diers standing around as guards, is still imprinted in
memory. And I can still remember the
acute sense of embitterment. . . .” Life
Roosevelt’s Order of Internment in the camps, said another, held evils
that “lie in something more subtle than
On February 19, 1942, U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the in- physical privations. It lies more in that
ternment of all Japanese Americans living on the Pacific Coast. The majority something essential [is] missing from
of the internees were U.S. citizens. our lives. . . . The most devastating ef-
fect upon a human soul is not hatred
Whereas the successful prosecution of the war requires every possible
protection against espionage and against sabotage to national-defense mate- but being considered not human.”
rial, national-defense premises, and national-defense utilities . . . ; At first, Dillon S. Myer, the direc-
Now, therefore, by virtue of the authority vested in me as President of the tor of the WRA from June, 1942, on,
United States, and Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, I hereby au- regarded the relocation centers as sim-
thorize and direct the Secretary of War, and the Military Commanders whom ply “temporary wayside stations.” In
he may from time to time designate, whenever he or any designated Com- 1943, the WRA instituted a program of
mander deems such action necessary or desirable, to prescribe military areas releasing evacuees against whom there
in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military Com- was no evidence of disloyalty, who
mander may determine, from which any or all persons may be excluded, and had jobs waiting away from the Pa-
with respect to which, the right of any person to enter, remain in, or leave
cific coast, and who could show local
shall be subject to whatever restrictions the Secretary of War or the appropri-
community acceptance. By the end of
ate Military Commander may impose in his discretion. The Secretary of War
is hereby authorized to provide for residents of any such area who are ex- 1944, approximately thirty-five thou-
cluded therefrom, such transportation, food, shelter, and other accommoda- sand evacuees had left the camps un-
tions as may be necessary, in the judgment of the Secretary of War or the said der this release program. The Roose-
Military Commander, and until other arrangements are made, to accomplish velt administration had, by the spring
the purpose of this order. The designation of military areas in any region or of 1944, recognized that there was no
locality shall supersede designations of prohibited and restricted areas by the longer any military justification for
Attorney General under the Proclamations of December 7 and 8, 1941, and the continued exclusion of the Japa-
shall supersede the responsibility and authority of the Attorney General un- nese Americans from the Pacific coast.
der the said Proclamations in respect of such prohibited and restricted areas. To avoid any possible political back-
lash, however, the Roosevelt adminis-
148
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United States Interns Japanese Americans
tration waited until after the 1944 Japanese American Internment,

presidential election to announce the Western United States
termination of the exclusion order
and allow nearly all of those still in
Puyallup
the relocation centers to leave at will. Washington
Many of the evacuees, fearful of a
Portland
hostile reception on the outside, con-
tinued to cling to the camps. In June, Oregon
1945, the WRA decided to terminate Idaho
Tule
the camps by the end of the year and Lake Minidoka Heart
later imposed weekly quotas for de- California Marysville Mountain
parture, to be filled by compulsion if Sacramento Wyoming
1942
Stockton
necessary. Turlock Topaz
Tanforan
Merced
Utah
Significance Salinas Manzanar Colorado
Pinedale Moab
The evacuation and internment was Fresno Owens Valley Granada
a traumatic blow to the Japanese Tulare Leupp
American population. Since evacu- Santa Anita Parker Dam
Pomona Mayer
ees were allowed to bring with them Poston Arkansas
Arizona
only clothes, bedding, and utensils, Gila Rohwer
River Jerome
most sold their possessions for what-
ever they could get. Only slightly
more than half of the evacuees re- = WCCA Assembly Center
turned to the Pacific coast, and most = WRA Relocation Center
found their homes, businesses, and = WRA Isolation Center
jobs lost. Japanese Americans suf- = Pacific coast exclusion area
fered income and property losses
estimated at $350 million. Of even
longer-lasting impact were the psy-
chological wounds. Internment dealt
a heavy blow to the traditional Japanese family structure unanimously upheld the curfew. Refusing to second-
by undermining the authority of the father. Many Nisei, guess the military, the Court found reasonable the con-
eager to show their patriotism, volunteered for service clusion by the military authorities that “residents having
in the U.S. military. The Japanese American 100th Infan- ethnic affiliations with an invading enemy may be a
try Battalion and 422d Regimental Combat Team were greater source of danger than those of a different an-
among the Army’s most-decorated units. On the other cestry.”
hand, more than five thousand Nisei were so embittered On December 18, 1944, a 6-3 majority in Korematsu
by their experiences that they renounced their U.S. citi- v. United States upheld the exclusion of the Japanese
zenship. Thousands more would carry throughout their from the Pacific coast as a similarly reasonable military
lives painful, even shameful, memories from the years precaution. However, the Court—in the companion case
spent behind the barbed wire. of Ex parte Endo, handed down the same day—barred
Defenders of civil liberties were appalled at how continued detention of citizens whose loyalty had been
weak a reed the U.S. Supreme Court proved to be in the established. The ruling’s substantive importance was nil,
war crisis. The first challenge to the treatment suffered because it was handed down one day after the announce-
by the Japanese Americans to reach the Court involved ment of the termination of the order barring Japanese
Gordon Hirabayashi, a student at the University of Americans from the Pacific coast.
Washington who had been imprisoned for refusing to The Supreme Court has never formally overruled its
obey a curfew imposed by General DeWitt and then fail- decisions in Hirabayashi v. United States and Korematsu
ing to report to an assembly center for evacuation. v. United States. Later rulings, however, transmuted
Dodging the removal issue, the Court on June 21, 1943, Korematsu into a precedent for applying so-called strict
149
United States Interns Japanese Americans The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
scrutiny to classifications based upon race or national or- cific coast, the decision for evacuation, the constitu-
igin: It was determined that such classifications could be tional issues before the Supreme Court, and camp life.
upheld only if required by a compelling governmental in- _______. The Decision to Relocate the Japanese Ameri-
terest. Pressure from the Japanese American community cans. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1975. The first
led Congress in 1981 to establish the Commission on fifty-five pages detail step-by-step the decision-
Wartime Relocation and Internment to review the intern- making process culminating in the decision for mass
ment program. evacuation of the Japanese Americans. The author
The commission’s report concluded that the intern- concludes that political pressures were at least as im-
ment was not justified by military necessity, but had re- portant as considerations of military security. Ap-
sulted from racial prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of pended are selections from the documentary record,
political leadership. At the same time, petitions were drawn largely from the National Archives.
filed in federal courts to vacate the criminal convictions Fremon, David K. Japanese-American Internment in
of resisters to the evacuation. The climax was the unani- American History. Springfield, N.J.: Enslow, 1996.
mous decision by a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit Geared toward junior high and high school students,
Court of Appeals in 1987—which the government de- this book includes personal accounts of Japanese
clined to appeal to the Supreme Court—vacating Gordon Americans. Chronology, bibliography, and index.
Hirabayashi’s curfew violation conviction on the ground Inada, Lawson Fusao, ed. Only What We Could Carry:
that the order had been “based upon racism rather than The Japanese American Internment Experience.
military necessity.” In 1988, Congress voted a formal Berkeley, Calif.: Heyday Books, 2000. This anthol-
apology along with $1.25 billion in compensation to sur- ogy collects from a variety of sources, including po-
viving internment victims. etry, letters, photographs, and government documents,
— John Braeman to illuminate the Japanese American experience. Il-
lustrated.
Further Reading Kitano, Harry H. L. Japanese Americans: The Evolution
Collins, Donald E. Native American Aliens: Disloyalty of a Subculture. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice
and the Renunciation of Citizenship by Japanese Hall, 1976. The author, a Japanese American who
Americans During World War II. Westport, Conn.: was interned as an adolescent, blames what he terms
Greenwood Press, 1985. An in-depth examination of the “enryo syndrome” (enryo being the Japanese
conditions in the relocation camp at Tule Lake, Cali- word meaning restraint, shyness, or submissiveness)
fornia. Attempts to explain the forces responsible for for the passivity shown by most of the evacuees.
the renunciation of United States citizenship by more Robinson, Greg. By Order of the President: FDR and
than five thousand Nisei. the Internment of Japanese Americans. Cambridge,
Conn, Stetson, Rose C. Engelman, and Byron Fairchild. Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001. Scholarly ex-
The United States Army in World War II: Guarding amination of Roosevelt’s troubling role in the intern-
the United States and Its Outposts. Washington, D.C.: ment of Japanese Americans.
Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of Thomas, Dorothy S., and Richard S. Nishimoto. The
the Army, 1964. In their chapter “Japanese Evacua- Spoilage: Japanese-American Evacuation and Reset-
tion from the West Coast,” Conn and his coauthors tlement During World War II. Berkeley: University of
were the first to exploit the rich body of records in the California Press, 1946. This work, along with its com-
National Archives documenting the decision-making panion volume by Thomas, The Salvage: Japanese-
process culminating in Japanese American removal. American Evacuation and Resettlement (1952) was a
They found that the evidence failed to support the ar- product of the University of California’s Japanese
gument that military necessity required mass evacua- America and Resettlement Study set up in early 1942.
tion; they were the first to reveal the key roles played Project leaders have been criticized for agreeing, in
by Gullion and Bendetsen. All later accounts have return for government cooperation, not to say any-
built upon this pioneering work. thing about the camps during the war. The first book is
Daniels, Roger. Concentration Camps U.S.A.: Japanese a study of the Nisei who renounced their United States
Americans and World War II. New York: Holt, Rine- citizenship; the second volume consists of life histo-
hart and Winston, 1972. Ahandy survey that succinctly ries of evacuees who were resettled in the Midwest
covers the history of anti-Japanese feeling on the Pa- and East.
150
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Voice of America Begins Broadcasting
Weglyn, Michi Nishiura. Years of Infamy: The Untold See also: Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor; Dec.
Story of America’s Concentration Camps. Seat- 7, 1941: Canada Declares War on Japan; Jan. 20,
tle: University of Washington Press, 1996. This re- 1942: Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solution”;
vised and expanded edition provides a compre- Apr. 19-May 16, 1943: Warsaw Ghetto Armed Upris-
hensive account of America’s internment camps. ing Against Nazis; Dec. 17, 1943: Magnuson Act Re-
Bibliography. peals the Chinese Exclusion Act.
February 24, 1942

Voice of America Begins Broadcasting
1942
The Voice of America began broadcasting in German- government launched VOA as an information campaign
occupied territories as a tool for the U.S. government to support American war interests and to counter anti-
to engage enemy propaganda broadcasts with American propaganda.
counterpropaganda of their own. In later years, the The first VOA broadcast occurred February 24, 1942.
Voice of America became a mainstay in the However, even in mid-1941 the United States had already
propaganda war against communist governments, and been preparing to launch an international radio broadcast
it remains the official international broadcasting system as part of the U.S. Foreign Information Service
system the United States. (FIS). President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Rob-
ert E. Sherwood to direct the FIS. The Japanese attack on
Locale: New York, New York Pearl Harbor in December, 1941, forced the U.S. to rush
Categories: Communications and media; publishing the development of its international radio program, and
and journalism; diplomacy and international Sherwood hired John Houseman to direct the newly
relations formed international broadcast system. Houseman, a
well-known Hollywood producer, director, and writer,
Key Figures
directed the VOA from February, 1942 to July, 1943.
John Houseman (1902-1988), Romanian-born
Houseman may have been a particularly effective di-
American theatrical producer and director of the
rector given his background in Hollywood, which gave
VOA, 1942-1943
him a flair for marketing or “spinning” the news to an au-
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the
dience, highly valuable assets in a propaganda war. Al-
United States, 1933-1945
though the VOAbegan under the oversight of the FIS, the
Robert E. Sherwood (1896-1955), American writer,
hierarchical structure of U.S. government agencies
editor, and director of the U.S. Foreign Information
changed during the war, and in June, 1942, the VOA was
Service
put under the jurisdiction of the Office of War Informa-
Elmer Davis (1890-1958), American radio journalist
tion (OWI) and its director, Elmer Davis.
and director of the U.S. Office of War Information
The first broadcast to Europe lasted fifteen minutes
Henry Loomis (b. 1919?), director of the VOA, 1958-
and, according to VOA archives, used
1965
Edward R. Murrow (1908-1965), American broadcast
journalist and head of the U.S. Information Agency, . . . BBC medium and long-wave transmitters. Speaking
1961-1964 from New York City in VOA’s inaugural broadcast, an-
nouncer William Harlan Hale sign[ed] on in German
Summary of Event saying, “Here speaks a voice from America. Everyday at
World War II sparked the development of the Voice of this time we will bring you the news of the war. The
news may be good. The news may be bad. We shall tell
America (VOA), an international broadcasting system
you the truth.”
under the auspices of the U.S. government that began op-
eration seventy-nine days after the attack on Pearl Har-
bor. The United States was one of the last major powers The first VOA broadcasts were transmitted to territories
to establish such an international radio network, after occupied by the Axis Powers, such as German-occupied
Britain, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union. The Europe and North Africa, as well as Asia. The VOA
151
Voice of America Begins Broadcasting The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Voice of America, the First Decade newscasts told listeners what the American government
wanted them to know about American policies, people,
1941: U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt establishes world events, and war efforts.
the U.S. Foreign Information Service (FIS) to begin The first VOA programs were news programs, but
international radio broadcasts. The FIS is headquar- veteran VOA employee Alan Heil notes that these pro-
tered in New York City and begins producing mate-
grams “although dedicated to offering facts . . . reflected
rial for broadcast to Europe by the privately owned
Houseman’s own creative production skills.” For exam-
American shortwave stations.
ple, one program that Houseman produced was called
Dec. 7, 1941: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and
ACE: America Calling Europe, which was a half-hour
Germany’s declaration of war against the United
States accelerate the growth of U.S. international
show with one broadcaster reporting the news and other
broadcast efforts. John Houseman takes charge of the narrators inserting quotes and additional commentary, a
FIS radio operations in New York City. FIS made its multivoiced approach to international radio that was
first direct broadcasts to Asia from a studio in San unique at the time. Every quarter hour, the newscast ro-
Francisco. tated to a different broadcaster who would give the news
Feb. 24, 1942: FIS makes its first broadcast to Europe in a different language.
via BBC medium- and long-wave transmitters. During the World War II era, the VOA grew quickly.
Speaking from New York, Voice of America (VOA) In March, 1942, it broadcast for only six and one-quarter
announcer William Harlan Hale inaugurates the first hours daily, but VOA airtime quickly increased to
broadcast. twenty-four hours a day by April, 1942. Initially, VOA
March, 1942: VOA broadcasts six and one-quarter hour programs were heard in four languages (English, Ger-
blocks of programming, and by April, the VOA is on man, French, and Italian), and the interval signal was a
the air twenty-four hours per day and adding more brass band playing “Yankee Doodle.” VOA services ex-
languages to its broadcast schedule. panded to twenty-three languages and twenty-seven
June, 1942: VOA grows rapidly and has a new organi- transmitters by June, 1942. To demonstrate the popular-
zational home—the Office of War Information ity of the VOA during the war years, one French listener
(OWI). Twenty-three transmitters and twenty-seven wrote the following letter to VOA: “You in America can-
language services are on the air when the Allied sum-
not imagine how even a few minutes of news from Amer-
mit takes place in Casablanca.
ica, heard by a Frenchman, is spread around. An hour af-
1945: As World War II draws to a close, many VOA lan- ter it is heard, hundreds, thousands know the truth.”
guage services are reduced or eliminated. A State De-
When World War II ended, the VOA lost much of its
partment-appointed committee of private citizens ad-
vises the U.S. government to not be “indifferent to the
government funding. In an effort to regain funding, sup-
ways in which our society is portrayed to other coun- porters of the agency, such as Columbia University pro-
tries.” fessor Arthur McMahon, urged Congress to consider
1948: The Smith-Mundt Act is enacted by Congress to how other countries perceived America, suggesting that
establish America’s international informational and the VOA could be used as a tool for shaping these percep-
cultural exchange programs, a function that VOA had tions. Congress continued funding the VOA, and in 1947
been carrying out for the past six years on its own. the organization began transmitting broadcasts to the So-
Jan. 27, 1948: The U.S. Information and Educational viet Union, denouncing the Soviet Union and Commu-
Exchange Act of 1948, also known as the Smith- nist expansion. In 1948, the Smith-Mundt Act, signed by
Mundt Act, is passed by Congress and signed into President Harry S. Truman, prevented the VOA from
law by President Harry S. Truman, placing interna- broadcasting domestically to American citizens. Man-
tional overseas information activities, including agement of the VOA changed government offices again,
VOA, under the Office of International Information and the network became part of the Office of Interna-
at the state department. tional Information at the State Department.
1950: With the outbreak of the Korean War, VOA adds By the 1950’s, according to Nicholas Cull, the VOA
new language services and develops plans to con- had become a primary propaganda vehicle for the U.S.
struct transmitter complexes on both the East and government’s Cold War campaign. Even so, in 1953
West Coasts of the United States.
Senator Joseph McCarthy claimed the VOA was influ-
Source: Voice of America. http://www.voanews.com. enced by communism. These charges proved false, but
the scandal nearly destroyed the network and led to
152
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Voice of America Begins Broadcasting
weeks of Senate hearings, as well as a slash in the VOA Ungar have questioned the continuing influence of the
budget from $21 million to $16 million. In August, 1953, U.S. government on the VOA. Does the VOA have the
the U.S. Information Agency (USIA) was created, and same freedoms as other American news outlets, provid-
the VOA became the USIA’s largest agency. The Mc- ing international audiences with objective news, or does
Carthy hearings were a low period for the VOA, and by the VOA’s connection to the U.S. government prevent
1958, under the leadership of Henry Loomis, the VOA unbiased accounts of American politics and global
developed a charter to enforce the its mission as an objec- events? These questions remain relevant.
tive news source on world events. — Renée Love
The VOAstruggled to rebound for more than a decade
Further Reading
after the McCarthy hearings, succeeding largely through
Cull, Nicholas J. “‘The Man Who Invented Truth’: The
Edward R. Murrow’s talents as a journalist and leader.
Tenure of Edward R. Murrow as Director of the
Murrow is perhaps the best-known journalist associated
1942
United States Information Agency During the Ken-
with the VOA, appointed by President John F. Kennedy
nedy Years.” Cold War History 4, no. 1 (October,
in 1961 to direct the United States Information Agency
2003): 23-48. Focuses on the three years Murrow
(USIA), which was the governing body of VOA during
spent as head of the USIA.
the Cold War years. He had also directly challenged Sen-
Edwards, Bob. Edward R. Murrow and the Birth of
ator McCarthy’s persecution of supposed Communists
Broadcast Journalism. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley &
within the government, adding more than a touch of
Sons, 2004. Discusses the conflict between Murrow’s
irony to his appointment as USIA director.
public and private views of Voice of America.
The contradiction between telling just the truth and
Heil, Alan Jr. The Voice of America: A History. New
marketing American policy to the world became espe-
York: Columbia University Press, 2003. Provides a
cially evident during Murrow’s tenure at the USIA. Mur-
comprehensive account of the history of the agency,
row attempted to tone down the rhetoric of the VOA and
including Heil’s reflections that span a forty-year ten-
to make the agency more like the British Broadcasting
ure at the VOA.
Corporation (BBC). At the VOA’s twentieth anniversary
Hilliard, Robert L., and Michael C. Keith. The Broadcast
celebration, President Kennedy promoted a sharing of
Century and Beyond: A Biography of American
discourse, which seemed to support Murrow’s goals:
Broadcasting. 4th ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2005.
“We welcome the views of others; we seek a free flow
Summarizes broadcasting from 1794 to 2003 and
of information across national boundaries and oceans,
notes how the World Wars helped spark “the creation
across iron curtains and stonewalls.” During his tenure at
of new communication technologies for use by the
the USIA, Murrow struggled over the role of the VOA
Armed Forces.”
and the conflict between journalistic independence and
Morley, Patrick. “This Is the American Forces Net-
journalism as tool to promote American policy. During
work”: The Anglo-American Battle of the Air Waves
the 1960’s and 1970’s, the VOA continued to expand.
in World War II. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2001.
More than 800 million listeners tuned in for VOA’s cov-
Gives a short summary of the role of VOA during
erage of Neil Armstrong’s first step on the moon.
World War II, contrasting VOA to the American
Forces Network (AFN).
Significance
Ungar, Sanford J. “Pitch Imperfect.” Foreign Affairs 84,
Developing in response to the attacks on Pearl Harbor,
no. 3 (May/June 2005): 7-13. Argues that VOA has
VOA served as a tool for the United States to counter
lost journalistic independence in recent years.
anti-American propaganda and to bolster support for
American war efforts. Since VOA’s inception, the net- See also: 1941-1945: U.S. Censorship and War Propa-
work has been controversial, at times perceived as an ob- ganda During World War II; Jan. 15, 1953-Dec. 2,
jective and credible news source while at other times 1954: McCarthy Hearings; Sept. 13, 1960: Radio’s
viewed as a propaganda tool for the U.S. government. In Payola Scandal; Feb. 14 and 18, 1962: Jacqueline Ken-
an effort to distance the VOA from government influ- nedy Leads a Televised Tour of the White House; July
ences, the parent organization of the VOA became the In- 10, 1962: First Commercial Communications Satel-
ternational Broadcasting Bureau (IBB), an intermediary lite Is Launched; Sept. 24, 1968: 60 Minutes Becomes
agency whose mission is to promote public diplomacy. the First Televised Newsmagazine; Oct. 5, 1970: Pub-
Even so, former directors of the VOA such as Sanford lic Broadcasting Service Airs Its First Program.
153
Battle of the Java Sea The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
February 27-March 1, 1942

Battle of the Java Sea
The Battle of the Java Sea was a naval disaster for the tenaer and Witte de With; American heavy cruiser Hous-
Allied Powers in World War II. Most of the vessels of ton and World War I vintage destroyers John D. Ford,
the combined U.S., British, Dutch, and Australian fleet John D. Edwards, Alden, and Paul Jones; British heavy
were destroyed, ending major resistance to the cruiser Exeter and destroyers Electra, Jupiter, and En-
Japanese occupation of the islands of the Malay counter; and Australian light cruiser Perth. Exeter was
barrier. famous for its role in defeating the German Graf Spee in
1939, and Houston was one of the most beloved Ameri-
Locale: Java Sea, north of Java, Netherlands Indies can ships, serving four times as President Franklin D.
(now in Indonesia) Roosevelt’s personal vessel.
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil The ABDA fleet was plagued by problems. The Allies
unrest had had only one hour-long conference before the battle,
Key Figures so both strategy and tactics were unclear. Only Exeter had
Karel Doorman (1889-1942), Dutch rear admiral radar. Orders had to be translated from Dutch to English
Takeo Takagi (1892-1944), Japanese rear admiral for the non-Netherlands ships. Also, the Japanese had de-
Conrad E. L. Helfrich (1886-1962), Dutch vice veloped a “long lance” torpedo, which had a much greater
admiral range than its Allied counterparts, was powered by oxy-
gen, and did not leave a telltale wake as it moved toward
Summary of Event its target. American torpedoes were so ineffective that
When the Japanese attacked Hawaii, the Philippines, they often failed to detonate when they struck a ship.
Hong Kong, and the Malay States on December 8, 1941 Doorman cruised the northwest coast of Java but
(December 7 on the eastern side of the International Date could not find the Japanese, so he returned to Surabaya.
Line), their ultimate goal was to dominate all of eastern At 3:57 p.m., just as the fleet was about to enter the har-
Asia in what they called the Greater East Asia Copros- bor, a scout plane spotted a Japanese invasion fleet bear-
perity Sphere. They would drive out foreigners so that ing down from the northeast. Doorman turned back to
peace could reign—a Japanese version of peace through sea. He sent a message stating that he was headed for the
military rule. The Japanese home islands were rocky, enemy and ordering all ships to follow him.
overpopulated, and lacking in natural resources such The Japanese force, consisting of the heavy cruisers
as tin, rubber, and oil. The ultimate goal of this huge Haguro and Nachi, light cruisers Jintsu and Naka, and
onslaught was the Netherlands Indies, where such re- sixteen destroyers (two of which remained to protect the
sources were available, and the greatest prize was the troop transports and did not participate in the battle), was
island of Java. commanded by Rear Admiral Takeo Takagi, whose flag-
The Allied, or ADBA (American, Dutch, British, and ship was Nachi. When he found that Doorman’s fleet was
Australian), forces had been defeated at Pearl Harbor, had heading to intercept him, he turned south to engage it.
mostly withdrawn from the Philippines, where American At 4:16, with the two fleets in sight of each other,
forces were fighting a defensive action, and had lost Hong Jintsu and Nachi began the battle with gunfire, then
Kong, Singapore, Borneo, and Malaysia. Warships had ABDA ships began to fire. The ships of the Dutch navy
withdrawn to Java; on February 27, 1942, Japanese inva- usually operated independently, so fleet tactics were not
sion transports escorted by warships were headed for well known to their commanders. Most of Doorman’s
both the western and eastern ends of that island. An destroyers, which should have been leading the column
ADBA fleet sortied from Surabaya on the northern coast of ships, were first behind and then on the wrong side of
to engage the enemy ships and thwart the invasion. the cruisers. Doorman turned his ships to the west to pre-
Because Dutch territory was being defended, Dutch vent the Japanese fleet from “crossing his t” (that is,
vice admiral Conrad E. L. Helfrich commanded all moving in front of a column of ships so that broadside
Allied warships in the area, and Karel Doorman, a Dutch batteries can be fired by the attackers while the defenders
rear admiral, commanded the ADBA force in the battle. can fire only forward batteries one ship at a time). Door-
His fleet consisted of the Dutch light cruisers De Ruyter man’s attempt to outrun the Japanese was hindered by
(Doorman’s flagship) and Java and destroyers Kor- damage to Kortenaer’s boiler, which limited its speed
154
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of the Java Sea
(and therefore the speed of the rest of the fleet) to twenty- Battle of the Java Sea, 1942
four knots.
The ensuing action was so confused that many years The following narrative comes from a 1943 publica-
later and after postwar interviews with Japanese officers, tion of the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence called The
it is still difficult to determine what happened and when. Java Sea Campaign, describing one of the early battles
The turning point was certainly the crippling of Exeter at between U.S. and Dutch ships against the Japanese off
5:08 by a shell from Nachi. Doorman had to divert some the coast of Java in the Netherlands East Indies:
of his destroyers to shield Exeter, and Kortenaer was hit During the next half hour numerous torpedoes were
by a torpedo from the Haguro; it jackknifed and sank im- seen. Some were undoubtedly launched by the enemy
mediately. Exeter turned out of line, and, because of poor cruisers or destroyers, but it seems clear that we had
communications, the captains of the cruisers behind come upon an enemy submarine group, too. At 1650
her thought she was acting according to orders and also Jupiter turned sharply to starboard across the bow of
1942
turned, leaving De Ruyter steaming alone toward the Edwards, signaling “torpedo,” and a few minutes later
enemy. a torpedo passed astern of Edwards, between her and
After twenty minutes, Doorman formed his force Ford. (At this time our destroyers were still in col-
umn on a west-northwest course, while our cruisers
again, heading in a southeasterly direction that put his
were coming toward them on a southwesterly course.)
force between Exeter and the Japanese. Destroyer
About 1658 torpedoes and a periscope were reported
Asagumo hit the Electra, which sank at 6:16. Doorman on the Edwards’ port quarter. Two minutes later a
ordered an attack by the American destroyers, but all “huge geyser of water resembling a torpedo explo-
their torpedoes missed or failed to explode. Takagi, see- sion” shot up in the same vicinity. With it went debris
ing the Allied ships head south, turned north to resume and “two large pieces of metal observed falling end
shielding the transports, but Doorman was not ready to over end.” There were no surface ships near the spot,
quit fighting. He sent Exeter, escorted by Witte de With, so that it appeared that the enemy had hit one of his
to Surabaya, while he turned back west to circle around own submarines.
the Japanese warships and hit the transports. After holding a southwesterly course for only a few
His fleet, now without the four American destroyers, minutes our cruisers again (at 1706) reformed their
column on a course of about 290° and renewed the ac-
which were low on fuel and out of torpedoes, headed
tion. Almost at once one of our cruisers scored a hit on
west along the Java coast in the darkness. At 9:25, Jupiter
the stern of the foremost Japanese cruiser. It was per-
struck a friendly mine and sank four hours later. The fleet haps about this time that the Houston received an 8-
found Kortenaer’s survivors, and Doorman ordered En- inch hit in the engine room and slowed for a moment.
counter to pick them up. The cruisers continued north, However, the shell did not explode and she was soon
but the Japanese heavy cruisers detected them and able to resume speed.
launched torpedoes. One struck De Ruyter at 11:32 and At about 1710 3 additional enemy cruisers and sev-
exploded her ammunition, killing Doorman and sinking eral destroyers were seen over the horizon on our star-
the ship. Another torpedo hit Java, which sank ninety board bow. At about the same time the two enemy
minutes later. Doorman’s last order was for Houston and destroyer flotillas of the force with which we were al-
Perth to retire to the nearby port of Batavia. ready engaged made an attack. While our cruisers were
maneuvering to avoid their torpedoes the Exeter was
On February 28, part of Takagi’s force attacked
hit in a boiler room by an 8-inch shell. It killed 14 men
Exeter, Encounter, and U.S. destroyer Pope, which were
and cut out 6 of her 8 boilers, reducing her speed first to
trying to escape, and sank them. That night, Houston and about 20, then to about 15 knots. At about the same
Perth tried to sneak through the Sunda Strait west of time—it is not clear whether it was just before or after
Java, but instead encountered the huge Japanese western the Exeter was hit—our cruisers turned by individual
invasion force, which they attacked. Both ships were movements to the south. As our ships turned south the
sunk in the early hours of March 1. Only the four Ameri- [Dutch ship] De Ruyter lagged behind to close the en-
can destroyers made it past the eastern end of Java to emy, whose cruisers had turned behind a smoke screen
Australia. and were moving toward us behind their attacking de-
The Houston and Perth survivors were horrified to see stroyers. Our cruisers opened a concentrated fire and
the Japanese machine-gunning men in the water. Those the destroyers were driven back, but not before the De
Ruyter had sunk one of them.
who made it to shore discovered that the native Javanese
resented outsiders and turned them over to the Japanese,
155
Battle of the Java Sea The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
who regarded surrender as disgraceful and therefore Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Rising Sun in the Pacific,
treated prisoners of war harshly. Most of the survivors 1931-1942. Vol. 3 in History of United States Naval
were sent to Malaya to work on the Thai-Burma Rail- Operations in World War II. Boston: Little, Brown,
way. Many died in captivity. 1988. The standard history of the U.S. Navy in World
War II. Places the battle in both local and historical
Significance
contexts.
The Battle of the Java Sea was the first full-scale naval
Prados, John. Combined Fleet Decoded. New York:
battle since the Battle of Jutland in World War I and one
Random House, 1995. Gives a view of the battle that
of the largest and longest in World War II. The length of
corrects some earlier inaccuracies.
the primary battle—more than seven hours—surprised
Roscoe, Theodore. United States Destroyer Operations
naval theorists, who had thought that because of im-
in World War II. Annapolis, Md.: United States Naval
provements in weaponry, such conflicts would last only
Institute, 1953. Has the most detailed maps of the
a few minutes. The battle was also one of the last fought
battle.
primarily by surface vessels; carrier aircraft were the
Toland, John. But Not in Shame. New York: Random
striking force in most Pacific conflicts. The battle was
House, 1961. History of the first six months of the Pa-
the last stand for the Allies in the Malay barrier; the
cific War with a lengthy account of the battle.
Dutch surrendered to the invading Japanese a few days
Winslow, Walter G. The Fleet the Gods Forgot. Annapo-
later. Allied forces stopped the Japanese advance at the
lis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1982. Houston crew-
Battles of Coral Sea and Midway and went on the offen-
man Winslow describes the larger actions in the Asi-
sive at Guadalcanal in August, 1942.
atic theater. Interviews with other survivors.
Admiral Doorman was criticized at the time for mak-
_______. The Ghost That Died at Sunda Strait. Annapo-
ing bad decisions, but later historians have been kinder,
lis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1984. An account of
judging that he did the best he could under difficult cir-
the last days of Houston by one of her crew.
cumstances and regarding his insistence on taking the at-
tack to the Japanese as brave and gallant. In the Nether-
See also: Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor; Dec.
lands, he is a national hero.
7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast Asia;
— Jim Baird
Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan Invades the Philip-
Further Reading pines; May 7-8, 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea; June 3-
Brown, David. Warship Losses of World War II. Annap- 5, 1942: Battle of Midway; Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. 9,
olis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1995. Gives details 1943: Battle of Guadalcanal; Oct. 25, 1943: Thai-
about each ship lost. Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor.
156
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Congress of Racial Equality Forms
Spring, 1942
Congress of Racial Equality Forms
The Congress of Racial Equality, more than any other tional Association for the Advancement of Colored Peo-
civil rights group, was responsible for the widespread ple (NAACP), began attacking racial discrimination in
use of Mahatma Gandhi’s nonviolent direct-action the courts. One of the most powerful and longest-lived
protest techniques in the Civil Rights movement in the civil rights groups in U.S. history, the NAACP was
United States from the 1940’s through the 1960’s. The founded in 1909 by black radicals, white progressives,
group’s ideology of nonviolence inspired Martin and socialists, under the leadership of W. E. B. Du Bois.
Luther King, Jr. It had as its purpose the fight for black constitutional
rights, particularly that of integration. As a rule, the
Also known as: CORE; Committee of Racial NAACP employed legalistic methods of fighting for
1942
Equality civil rights, that is, active propagandizing, legal activity,
Locale: Chicago, Illinois and lobbying for legislation against racial discrimination
Categories: Organizations and institutions; civil and segregation.
rights and liberties; social issues and reform During World War I, there was a massive migration of
Key Figures African Americans to the North, where there were more
James L. Farmer, Jr. (1920-1999), cofounder of jobs. Living conditions, however, were extremely poor.
CORE, and later its director With the end of the war came widespread unemployment
Bayard Rustin (1912-1987), early Quaker member of and race riots. A new militancy arose among many
CORE and organizer of the 1963 March on blacks during this period. The NAACP thrived on this
Washington militancy as it fought against lynchings, disenfranchise-
A. Philip Randolph (1889-1979), organizer of the first ment, and segregation, particularly in housing and
civil rights March on Washington planned for 1941 schools. By the 1920’s, the NAACP’s legalistic ap-
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), Indian political leader proach was seen as too conservative by those who advo-
who developed and used nonviolent direct-action cated physical resistance to white mob violence and
protest against British rule in India those who advocated racial separatism.
During the 1930’s, white American attitudes toward
Summary of Event African Americans began to change greatly, as humani-
African Americans began protesting racial discrimina- tarian interest developed in improving conditions among
tion in the United States before the Civil War, with the the underprivileged. An increasingly large black vote in
main objectives of eliminating racial discrimination and northern cities also drew the attention of Anglo politi-
segregation and living in U.S. society on an equal footing cians to black welfare. This was a period when interest
with other citizens. Controversy within the African focused on economic problems among the black com-
American community about what tactics to use and strat- munity. The conservative NAACP continued its fights
egies to follow accompanied the protests. for integration, especially in the schools, and the vote for
At the end of the nineteenth century, the position of blacks. The NAACP emphasized legal argument as a tac-
African Americans in U.S. society was declining. Racial tic. A few other black protesting groups, however, used
prejudice flared. Disenfranchisement, lynchings, “Jim boycotting and picketing during this decade.
Crow” or segregation laws, and exclusion on the basis of During and after World War II, a new, liberal respect
race from the skilled trades were prevalent. The early for non-Anglos began to grow in the United States. Dur-
twentieth century saw mounting oppression and discrim- ing the early 1940’s, the NAACP continued its legal bat-
ination and an increasing frequency of race riots in both tle against discrimination and segregation. Two new
the North and the South. In general, this spurred accom- movements, with a new approach, emerged alongside
modation, rather than protest, among African Ameri- the NAACP—the March on Washington Movement
cans. (MOWM) and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).
Two other strategies for dealing with racial tensions The March on Washington Movement was born in
developed in the early twentieth century. Booker T. 1941, when African American railroad workers, led by
Washington and his followers advocated “separatism” as A. Philip Randolph (then president of the Brotherhood of
a means of overcoming racism. Another group, the Na- Sleeping Car Porters) threatened to march on Washing-
157
Congress of Racial Equality Forms The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ton, D.C., unless President Franklin D. Roosevelt inte- violence as a method of opposing racial discrimination,
grated U.S. defense industries and the military. Ran- even if the protester is physically attacked, because
dolph proposed that blacks from across the nation gather CORE members believed social conflicts could not be
in Washington and march en masse to the Lincoln Monu- resolved by means of violence. Among acceptable forms
ment. He also urged similar small-scale local marches. of protest, they identified negotiation, mediation, dem-
Calling for the march in July, 1941, Randolph cautioned onstration, and picketing.
against violence, which he argued would be more harm- CORE’s second important statement, its “Action Dis-
ful than helpful. Roosevelt issued an executive order cipline,” explained the group’s belief that nonviolent di-
in June, 1941, establishing a federal Fair Employment rect action should be combined with goodwill toward
Practices Committee. Randolph called off the march. those who discriminate. Although it underwent some re-
The March on Washington Movement continued to vision, the “Action Discipline” remained the group’s of-
exist for a short while. In an address to the movement in ficial statement of principle and philosophy until the
September, 1942, Randolph advocated that nonviolent 1960’s. CORE’s protest technique was a combination of
direct action, similar to that used by Mahatma Gandhi Gandhi’s approach and the “sit-in,” the latter of which
in India, be used by all-black groups to combat racial had developed from “sit-down” strikes similar to Gan-
discrimination and segregation. He outlined a plan for dhi’s that had been used in the United States in the
forming small blocs of blacks ready to mobilize by the 1930’s.
millions to march on Washington or to conduct simulta- During its first year, the Chicago Committee worked
neous smaller marches across the nation. The movement to eliminate racial discrimination at a Chicago roller rink
was important, first, because it was an all-black organi- and at an apartment building, as well as at the University
zation that advocated mass action by those living in of Chicago hospital, medical school, and barbershop.
urban ghettos to solve economic problems and, second, According to Farmer, the first sit-in was directed against
because it laid the groundwork for the nonviolent direct- the Jack Spratt restaurant in Chicago in May, 1942. It
action movement of the 1960’s. was successful in ending segregation of seating.
CORE, however, was the group that made nonviolent Local CORE committees formed in large cities
direct action a widespread and effective civil rights pro- around the country, as Farmer and another early CORE
test technique. CORE grew out of the Chicago Commit- member, Bayard Rustin, lectured on race relations for
tee of Racial Equality, which met in Chicago in the FOR in late 1942 and early 1943. An independent federa-
spring of 1942. The Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), tion of local committees was formed at a planning con-
an almost entirely white Quaker pacifist group, had es- ference organized by Bernice Fisher and the Chicago
tablished a “cell” of about a dozen people at the Univer- Committee. It was held in Chicago in June, 1943, under
sity of Chicago in October, 1941. Many of the cell’s Farmer’s leadership. Nine local committees sent repre-
members wanted to apply Gandhi’s nonviolent direct ac- sentatives, and they decided to affiliate under the name of
tion techniques to the United States’ racial problems. the Committees of Racial Equality. In 1944, the national
FOR authorized James L. Farmer, Jr., a FOR staff mem- federation adopted the name Congress of Racial Equality
ber, to form in 1942 what later was named the Chicago and appointed Farmer as its national chairman and Fisher
Committee of Racial Equality. The group’s first six as the national secretary-treasurer.
members were Farmer and George Houser (another FOR
staff member), Bernice Fisher, Homer Jack, Joe Guinn, Significance
and James R. Robinson. The group contained blacks and CORE influenced the progress of the Civil Rights move-
whites as well as Protestants and Catholics, but all mem- ment in the United States in a variety of ways. It was the
bers were pacifists. black protest group that used nonviolent direct-action
CORE wrote two statements in 1942 outlining its ba- protest techniques, such as sit-ins, more than any other.
sic commitment to interracial, nonviolent direct action Beginning with its first sit-in in a Chicago restaurant,
and setting down the principles according to which its CORE organized pivotal events in the history of civil
direct action demonstrations later would proceed. Its rights protest. In April, 1947, CORE and FOR staged a
statement of purpose proclaimed goals of eliminating “Journey of Reconciliation” across the upper South to
segregation and racial discrimination in public accom- test the integration of interstate bus transport. This was
modation, housing, and other areas, through one method the first example of what was later called a “Freedom
only—interracial nonviolent direct action. It denounced Ride,” a nonviolent direct-action protest technique. In
158
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Congress of Racial Equality Forms
the mid-1950’s, the attack on segregated public accom- beginning in 1955, was greatly influenced by CORE’s
modations and transportation intensified. In May and ideology. In the late 1950’s, the use of nonviolent, direct-
June, 1961, the Freedom Rides brought CORE to na- action protest increased markedly. This was partly a
tional attention and made it the principal national expo- result of King’s personal appeal and his founding of
nent of nonviolent direct action protest and the principal the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957,
national black civil rights protest group. which advocated Gandhian nonviolence.
CORE also was involved in organizing the March on Nonviolent direct action reached its peak in the stu-
Washington on August 27, 1963. This march originally dent sit-ins of 1960. These began with the February,
intended to call attention to increasing black unemploy- 1960, sit-in by four North Carolina Agricultural & Tech-
ment, but it also took on the goal of pressuring the admin- nical State College students at a lunch counter in Greens-
istration to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. It was at boro, North Carolina. This event is regarded as the begin-
this huge, peaceful rally of 250,000 people on the steps of ning of the civil rights revolution, and it was the most
1942
the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., that the Rev- significant single event that encouraged and gave form to
erend Martin Luther King, Jr., gave his famous “I Have a mass protest in the Civil Rights movement. These col-
Dream” speech. lege students formed the Student Nonviolent Coordi-
CORE spread the message of nonviolent direct action nating Committee in 1960 and took their philosophy
protest to other leaders and groups. King, one of the ma- from King, but they called on CORE for assistance in
jor figures in the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott training protesters and organizing sit-ins. As college sit-
in groups multiplied in the South after 1960, direct-
action techniques won success and became the favored
tactics among civil rights protest groups.
Justifiably remembered as one of the key groups giv-
ing rise to the Civil Rights movement, given its pioneer-
ing use of nonviolent direct-action techniques in the
1940’s, CORE’s influence and activity diminished dur-
ing the late 1970’s. It has since revived and is based in
New York City.
—Martha Ellen Webb and Charles W. Johnson
Further Reading
Bell, Inge Powell. CORE and the Strategy of Nonvio-
lence. New York: Random House, 1968. This work
traces and analyzes the development of CORE’s use
of nonviolent direct action from its early days until the
height of the Civil Rights movement in the 1960’s.
Both conceptual and historical, it is useful for show-
ing how direct action distinguished CORE from the
older mainstream civil rights organizations. Contains
notes, bibliography, and index.
Blumberg, Rhoda Lois. Civil Rights: The 1960’s Free-
dom Struggle. Boston: Twayne, 1984. A very useful
history of civil rights protest from the mid-1950’s into
the late 1960’s. Gives a brief chronology of major
events in the Civil Rights movement. Discusses
CORE’s activities and the activities of other civil
rights organizations. Chapter 2 gives a concise history
of racial discrimination and protest from the early
Members of the Congress of Racial Equality display a sign at a twentieth century to the mid-1950’s.
1963 civil rights protest. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy Farmer, James. Freedom, When? New York: Random
is seen addressing the crowd. (Library of Congress) House, 1965. A very personal and didactic narrative
159
Congress of Racial Equality Forms The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
by one of the founders of CORE, in which he remi- Rustin, Bayard. Down the Line: The Collected Writings
nisces about its philosophy, background, formation, of Bayard Rustin. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1971.
and activities. Includes a brief biography of Farmer. Achronological collection of essays that includes per-
Johnson, Ollie A., III, and Karin L. Stanford, eds. Black sonal accounts and reports of such landmarks as the
Political Organizations in the Post-Civil Rights Era. Montgomery bus boycott and the Freedom Rides.
New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, Contains essays Rustin wrote for CORE and FOR
2002. Acollection that explores the role of black orga- publications and other selections from the 1940’s to
nizations since the Civil Rights movement of the late the 1970’s.
1960’s. Includes a chapter on CORE, “From Protest Schmeidler, Emilie. “Shaping Ideas and Actions: CORE,
to Black Conservatism: The Demise of the Congress SCLC, and SNCC in the Struggle for Equality.” Un-
of Racial Equality,” by Charles E. Jones. Bibliogra- published Ph.D. dissertation. University of Michigan,
phy, index. 1980. Examines CORE’s place among the leading civil
Meier, August, and Elliott Rudwick. CORE: A Study in rights advocacy organizations whose principal method
the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968. New York: was nonviolent direct action. The section on CORE in-
Oxford University Press, 1973. This massive tome, cludes a valuable analysis of the CORE model of direct
exhaustively researched and documented, details the action that combined Gandhian methods and distinc-
history and assesses the accomplishments of CORE tive efforts to shape positive interracial attitudes. Ref-
from its founding in 1942 through its internal ideolog- erence notes, bibliography, table of contents.
ical schisms, acceptance of Black Power, and loss of
vitality in the late 1960’s. See also: Apr. 3, 1944: Supreme Court Rules African
Meier, August, Elliott Rudwick, and Francis L. Brod- American Disenfranchisement Unconstitutional;
erick. Black Protest Thought in the Twentieth Cen- Apr. 9-23, 1947: Congress of Racial Equality Holds
tury. 2d ed. Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1971. Its Journey of Reconciliation; July 26, 1948: Truman
This highly recommended collection of primary writ- Orders Desegregation of U.S. Armed Forces; May 17,
ings comparing and contrasting the approach to pro- 1954: Supreme Court Ends Public School Segrega-
test by various twentieth century black organizations tion; Dec. 5, 1955-Dec. 21, 1956: Montgomery Bus
provides illuminating excerpts of writings by leaders Boycott; Jan. 10, 1957: SCLC Forms to Link Civil
in CORE and other groups. Has a superb introduction Rights Groups; Feb. 1-July 25, 1960: Greensboro Sit-
describing the character and historical evolution of Ins; Apr. 3-May 8, 1963: Civil Rights Protesters At-
black protest and placing CORE within its historical tract International Attention; Aug. 28, 1963: King De-
and philosophical context. livers His “I Have a Dream” Speech.
160
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Doolittle Mission Bombs Tokyo
April 18, 1942

Doolittle Mission Bombs Tokyo
Sixteen American B-25 bombers flew from the carrier different types of aircraft. Consultation with the Navy
USS Hornet in a surprise attack on Tokyo and other produced the idea to use the new carrier USS Hornet to
Japanese cities. Although no militarily significant bring bombers close enough to the Japanese mainland to
damage resulted, the Japanese were made to feel permit an attack. It would be necessary to use aircraft ca-
vulnerable, and American morale received a boost pable of carrying significant bomb loads and with suffi-
after months of enemy successes. cient range to travel five hundred miles to Japan and to
escape afterward. It was not possible to land large planes
Also known as: Special Aviation Project Number on the carrier after the raid, so the raiders would need to
One land in China.
1942
Locale: Tokyo, Kobe, Nagoya, and Yokohama, Japan The North American B-25B Mitchell bomber was
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil chosen. This twin-engine plane was fifty-three feet long
unrest with a wingspan of sixty-seven feet, and it carried a crew
Key Figures of five. During takeoff, the wingtip would approach
Jimmy Doolittle (1896-1993), American airman within seven feet of the Hornet’s superstructure. Only
H. H. Arnold (1886-1950), commander of the U.S. five hundred feet of taxi room was available, and takeoff
Army Air Forces, 1941-1946 was possible only if the carrier steamed full-speed into a
William F. Halsey (1882-1959), commander of Carrier strong wind. The planes were to carry only two thousand
Group Two pounds of bombs and be stripped of all excess weight.
Ernest King (1878-1956), U.S. chief of naval This was necessary if they were to hold enough fuel for
operations, 1942-1945 twenty-four hundred miles of flight. The takeoff weight
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the would be thirty-one thousand pounds. The number of
United States, 1933-1945 bombers undertaking the mission was limited to six-
Marc A. Mitscher (1887-1947), captain of the USS teen—the most that would fit on the deck of the carrier.
Hornet B-25’s were too large for the elevators on the carrier and
so could not ride below decks.
Summary of Event After the volunteer crews had been selected, the men
Soon after the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, trained in the special takeoff technique they would need
Japanese forces invaded Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Sin- to employ at Eglin Air Force Base in Florida. On April 2,
gapore, and the Philippines.In the latter campaign, they 1942, a task force commanded by Captain Marc A.
captured a number of Americans and perpetrated atroci- Mitscher of the Hornet sailed from San Francisco. Ac-
ties against their prisoners. In the United States, it began companying the Hornet with its load of B-25’s were
to seem that the Japanese were unstoppable. Morale was seven other ships, and on April 13 they joined another
low, and people feared that an attack on the West Coast task force of eight ships commanded by Vice Admiral
might be imminent. William F. Halsey on his flagship, the carrier USS Enter-
Sensing the mood of the people, President Franklin D. prise. The plan called for the raid to be launched when
Roosevelt urged his military advisers to plan a strike the Hornet was about 500 miles from Japan, but on April
against the Japanese homeland. An air raid on Tokyo, 18, 1942, still 650 miles from Japan, enemy picket boats
even on a small scale, would help the morale of the coun- were encountered, thus depriving the Americans of the
try and show the Japanese they were not invulnerable. element of surprise. At 8:20 a.m., Doolittle took off, fol-
H. H. Arnold, the commanding general of the U.S. lowed by fifteen other planes, one after another, flying at
Army Air Forces, in consultation with Chief of Naval an altitude of only 200 feet to avoid detection and at only
Operations Admiral Ernest King, concluded that it might 160 miles per hour, to save fuel.
be possible to use carrier-based bombers to raid Japan. Doolittle reached Tokyo about noon and bombed a
Arnold selected Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle to factory. He eluded Japanese antiaircraft fire and fighter
lead the raid, which was named Special Aviation Project planes, heading east toward China. Thirteen of the B-25’s
Number One for secrecy. Doolittle had a reputation as a bombed Tokyo, while the other three struck Kobe, Na-
daredevil flyer; in addition, he was familiar with many goya, and Yokohama. Plans called for the planes to land
161
Doolittle Mission Bombs Tokyo The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
and refuel in Lishui (Chuchow), China, where a radio age done in the raid varied widely. Japanese propaganda
signal had supposedly been arranged to guide the bomb- spoke of thousands of deaths of innocent civilians and
ers. In fact, there was no such beacon. Doolittle, unable targeting of schools and residences. However, at the end
to find the landing field and out of fuel after 2,250 miles, of the war, documents were found in Tokyo showing ca-
abandoned his plane and parachuted to earth with his sualties of 50 killed and 252 injured, with 90 buildings
crew at about 9:30 p.m. Aided by friendly Chinese, the damaged or destroyed. Air power would eventually
men made their way eventually to Chongqing, then the prove decisive in defeating the Japanese. Although the
capital of China. The Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek Doolittle raid was largely symbolic, later raids, using
and his wife greeted the men and awarded them military larger B-29 bombers launched from island bases, re-
decorations. sulted in the near-total destruction of Tokyo and other
Not all the crews had an easy escape. One plane cities.
landed in the Soviet Union near Vladivostok, and its —John R. Phillips
crew was held captive for sixteen months. Two planes
crashed with injuries to the crew, including three fatali- Further Reading
ties. Four men died after being captured by the Japanese: Bradley, James. Flyboys. New York: Little, Brown,
three by execution, one by starvation. Four men survived 2003. Story of Japanese torture of captured airmen in
Japanese torture and were liberated at the end of the war. the Pacific and the massacres of Chinese people in re-
Of the raiders who made their way back to fight again, venge for the Doolittle raid, which is described in one
eleven did not survive to the end of the war. chapter.
Doolittle, James H., and Carroll V. Glines. I Could Never
Significance Be So Lucky Again. New York: Bantam, 1991. Doo-
In Japan, reactions to the raid included outrage and fear. little’s autobiography, detailing his interactions with
It became necessary to recall forces from the Pacific the- top military figures of World War II; memories of the
ater to defend the homeland. Fearing that Midway Island raid and of his men add to the book’s interest, as do the
might become a staging area for further attacks, the Japa- many photographs.
nese launched an offensive that resulted in major losses Glines, Carroll V. The Doolittle Raid. New York: Orion,
of ships, aircraft, and pilots for them. This disaster, often 1988. Story of the raid in detail. Lists all the raiders
seen as a turning point in the war in
the Pacific, affected its outcome. In
China, Japanese forces unleashed a
massacre in revenge against those
who they believed had helped the
raiders. As many as 250,000 civil-
ians may have perished.
Newspapers in the United States
announced the raid immediately and
made a hero of Doolittle, who was
promoted to brigadier general and
received the Medal of Honor. The
details of the raid were left vague for
a year, with President Roosevelt fa-
mously saying that the planes had
taken off from “Shangri-La” (an
imaginary place in James Hilton’s
1933 novel Lost Horizon). The raid
was an admirable example of coop-
eration between the Army and the
Navy and set the tone for further
joint operations. A B-25B Mitchell takes off from the USS Hornet on its way to bomb Japan as part of
Assessments of the actual dam- the Doolittle mission. (National Archives)
162
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of the Coral Sea
and quotes from their diaries and logs. Exciting tailed narrative of the Doolittle raid, strengthened by
reading. interviews with some of the fliers who survived the
Lawson, Ted, with Bob Considine. Thirty Seconds over raid and the attempts of the Japanese to capture them.
Tokyo. New York: Random House, 1943. The author, All eighty of the raiders are listed by name and shown
who piloted one of the B-25’s, describes the series of in photographs. Extensive bibliography.
adventures that led him back to the United States by
June, 1942. His book became a best seller and was the See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
basis of a motion picture of the same name in 1944. cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
Morison, Samuel Eliot. History of United States Naval Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast
Operations in World War II. Vol. 3. New York: Little, Asia; Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan Invades the
Brown, 1948. Contains a succinct account of the Philippines; June 3-5, 1942: Battle of Midway; Nov.
Doolittle mission, emphasizing the contribution of 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pacific Offensive;
1942
U.S. Naval forces under Admiral Halsey. June 15, 1944: Superfortress Bombing of Japan; Apr.
Nelson, Craig. The First Heroes: The Extraordinary 1-July 2, 1945: Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japa-
Story of the Doolittle Raid, America’s First World nese Resistance; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs
War II Victory. New York: Penguin Books, 2003. De- Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
May 7-8, 1942

Battle of the Coral Sea
The Battle of the Coral Sea was an intricate naval tralia as a base of operations in the Pacific. Lacking the
engagement stretching across hundreds of miles of necessary manpower and materiel to invade Australia di-
open ocean. The United States and Japan made naval rectly, the Japanese decided instead to construct bases
history when all of the battle’s attacks were carried out that would neutralize Australia’s ports and air fields. The
by carrier-based aircraft. The warships never sighted plan would require them to conquer only specific, strate-
or directly fired upon each other. gically important sites. One of the most important of
these sites would be Port Moresby, at the southern end of
Locale: Coral Sea, between Australia, New Guinea, New Guinea. The Japanese built up a strong force con-
and the Solomon Islands sisting of three carriers and numerous other ships to
Categories: World War II; military history make their advance.
Key Figures Advances in American intelligence-gathering at Sta-
Frank Jack Fletcher (1885-1973), American admiral tion Hypo, Pearl Harbor, allowed cryptologists under
Joseph J. Rochefort (1898-1976), American naval Lieutenant Commander Joseph J. Rochefort to alert the
cryptologist Allies to the Japanese plan to capture Port Moresby and
John Crace (1887-1968), British rear admiral Tulagi. With this advance warning, Admiral Chester W.
Aritomo Goto (d. 1942), Japanese admiral Nimitz mobilized the available U.S. warships to defeat
Chuichi Hara (1889-1964), Japanese rear admiral the Japanese Port Moresby operation. He assembled the
Takeo Takagi (1892-1944), Japanese vice admiral carriers Yorktown and Lexington, their complement of
Chester W. Nimitz (1885-1966), U.S. commander in 141 aircraft, one light and seven heavy cruisers, fifteen
chief of the Pacific Fleet, 1941-1945 destroyers, and several submarines and dispatched them
Shigeyoshi Inoue (1889-1975), Japanese vice admiral to the Coral Sea under the command of Admiral Frank
Jack Fletcher. This carrier group would face a strong Jap-
Summary of Event anese force under the command of Admiral Shigeyoshi
In May of 1942, less than five months after their attack on Inoue.
Pearl Harbor and the entry of the United States into On May 3, 1942, the Japanese made an unopposed
World War II, the Japanese turned their attention to landing on Tulagi and began constructing an airfield.
strengthening their southern perimeter. They sought to Alerted to the landing, Fletcher raced his force toward
eliminate the possibility of the United States using Aus- Tulagi. Early the next morning, the Yorktown launched
163
Battle of the Coral Sea The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
three consecutive air raids on the island. Surprised by the Lexington and the Yorktown and attacked with twenty-
American attack, the Japanese failed to mount a defense; seven planes. They failed to locate the American ships
however, most of the Japanese ships had already de- because of inadequate visibility and the looming dark-
parted the island. ness. American patrols downed nine of the enemy
For the next two days, the American and Japanese car- planes. Following the engagement, several of the Japa-
rier groups searched for each other. At one point, the car- nese pilots mistook the Yorktown for their own ship and
rier forces were only seven miles apart but failed to sight attempted to land on its deck. The carrier’s guns quickly
each other because of rain squalls and poor visibility. shot down one of the planes, forcing the rest to change
Based on intelligence gathered from Station Hypo and course. They found their carriers after dark, but eleven of
sighting reports, Fletcher decided that the Japanese inva- the Japanese planes crashed into the sea attempting to
sion force would advance on Port Moresby through the land.
Jomard Passage. Fletcher sent Rear Admiral John Crace The morning of May 8 began with the two opposing
of the British Royal Navy and a group of cruisers and de- forces 175 miles apart and nearly evenly matched. Planes
stroyers from the U.S. and Australian navies to block the from the Yorktown struck the first blow. The Zuikaku dis-
passage’s south exit. This group was designated Task appeared into a rain squall, leaving the Shokaku as the
Force 17. main target. Soon, planes from the Lexington joined the
On the morning of May 7, 1942, a Japanese pilot attack and the Shokaku was hit. Fires quickly spread
sighted what he believed was a carrier and a cruiser. In through the carrier forcing, it to retreat.
actuality, the pilot had found the fleet oiler Neosho and As the Americans attacked the enemy carriers, a force
the destroyer Sims. Rear Admiral Chuichi Hara ordered of some seventy Japanese planes moved against the
seventy-eight planes to attack. Only minutes later, Hara Yorktown and the Lexington. The Yorktown evaded the
received a sighting report for Task Force 17. Finding the Japanese torpedoes, but one Japanese bomb passed
Neosho and the Sims, the Japanese pilots searched des- through its flight deck and exploded deep within the ship.
perately for the American carriers. Running low on fuel, Nearly seventy men were killed or wounded, but the
they finally struck the two ships. ship’s planes continued to operate. The Lexington was
That same morning, a U.S. Navy scout plane reported not as lucky. It was hit by numerous torpedoes, causing
sighting two Japanese carriers and four heavy cruisers. fires to erupt. It soon began to list to port.
Fletcher immediately ordered an attack by some ninety Shortly after noon, the Lexington’s crew was able to
planes from the Lexington and the Yorktown. These control the fires and resume air operations. However,
planes had almost reached their target when it was dis- fuel lines damaged from the earlier attack ignited, and
covered that the scout plane had sighted only two cruis- flames engulfed the ship. Despite the best efforts of the
ers and two destroyers. Fletcher allowed the attack to crew to save the Lexington, the order to abandon ship was
continue, hoping the invasion fleet could be found in the given at 5:07 p.m. Most of the crew was saved before she
vicinity. was sent to the bottom by torpedoes from one of her es-
The lead SBD Dauntless dive-bomber from the Lex- corts. Intermittent action continued into the next day,
ington strayed off course and stumbled upon Admiral however, the Battle of the Coral Sea was over.
Aritomo Goto’s force, including the carrier Shoho. Most
of the Shoho’s planes were escorting the Port Moresby Significance
invasion force, leaving the carrier group unprotected. The Battle of the Coral Sea was a turning point in naval
The Shoho was hit by thirteen bombs and seven torpe- history. It marked the first battle in which the ships of
does and rapidly disappeared into the sea with some eight the opposing forces neither fired a single shot at nor
hundred crewmembers. sighted each other. The battle was a tactical victory for
As the American planes made their attack, Crace and the Japanese but a strategic victory for the United States
Task Force 17, blocking the invasion route, warded off and the Allies. After five months of continuous defeat,
numerous attacks by Japanese forces. Vice Admiral United States succeeded in its effort to prevent the Japa-
Takeo Takagi soon learned of the Shoho’s loss and of nese from capturing Port Moresby. The battle signaled
Task Force 17’s presence near the Jomard Passage. He the end of Japanese expansion in the Pacific. Port
ordered the Port Moresby invasion force to withdraw un- Moresby was vital to Allied strategy in the Pacific, and it
til the enemy could be cleared from the area. could not have been defended by the ground forces sta-
As evening approached, the Japanese spotted the tioned there.
164
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Faulkner Publishes Go Down, Moses
The American attack on the Japanese naval force was flict through victory. Biographical essay, maps, ex-
crippling. The carrier Shoho was sunk, and the damage to tensive index.
the Shokaku would force it to remain in port for months Maddox, Robert J. The United States and World War II.
undergoing repairs. Damage to the Zuikau cost the Japa- Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992. One-volume
nese dearly in experienced pilots and planes. The United history of the causes, conduct, and consequences of
States gained a great deal of knowledge during the battle World War II, including the impact of the war on
and acquired valuable insight into the ways best to coor- American society. Bibliography.
dinate its dive-bombers and torpedo planes for attack. Miller, Nathan. War at Sea. New York: Oxford Univer-
The loss of the Lexington was devastating. The damage sity Press, 1995. Detailed naval history of World
to the Yorktown, however, was miraculously repaired af- War II including, all theaters of operation. Extensive
ter only three days at Pearl Harbor, allowing it to partici- bibliography and index.
pate in the Battle of Midway one month later. The Japa- Spector, Ronald H. Eagle Against the Sun. New York:
1942
nese losses at the Battle of Coral Sea would also have a The Free Press, 1985. One of the best single-volume
tremendous impact during the Battle of Midway, con- studies of World War II in the Pacific. Bibliography,
tributing to Japan’s defeat in that battle and in the overall notes.
Pacific campaign. Sweetman, Jack, ed. Great American Naval Battles. An-
—Jason T. Harris napolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1998. Collection
of essays on the United States’ greatest naval battles.
Further Reading
Bibliography, maps.
Dull, Paul S. A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese
Navy, 1941-1945. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
Press, 1978. Narrative history of the Japanese navy cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
from the attack on Pearl Harbor through the end of Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast
the war. Asia; Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan Invades the
Kennedy, David M. The American People in World War Philippines; June 3-5, 1942: Battle of Midway; Nov.
II. Part 2 in Freedom from Fear. New York: Oxford 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pacific Offensive;
University Press, 1999. Narrative history of the Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiro-
United States in World War II from its role in the con- shima and Nagasaki.
May 11, 1942

Faulkner Publishes GO DOWN, MOSES
In Go Down, Moses, American literary giant William Summary of Event
Faulkner reexamined Mississippi culture from the William Faulkner’s true subject was always Missis-
nineteenth century into the first half of the twentieth. sippi—specifically, the fictional Yoknapatawpha County,
His unsparing yet compassionate treatment of his his “own little postage stamp of native soil” located
African American characters as they struggled under somewhere near his home in Oxford. By 1942, he had
the heavy weight of the past eventually guided him to a published sixteen books, including The Sound and the
more moderate position on civil rights. Fury (1929), Light in August (1932), and Absalom, Absa-
lom! (1936). Go Down, Moses, published on May 11,
1942, marked a notable shift in his attitude toward his Af-
Categories: Literature; social issues and reform
rican American characters, as he traced the history of the
Key Figures multiracial McCaslin-Edmonds-Beauchamp family for
William Faulkner (1897-1962), American novelist and more than a century.
1949 Nobel laureate in literature Initially, each chapter was written as an individual
Caroline Barr (1855-1940), a family servant to whom story (most were published separately); the stories were
Go Down, Moses was dedicated then reworked into a multilayered novel. Faulkner fo-
Malcolm Cowley (1898-1989), literary critic and editor cused on historical African American family life, as
of The Portable Faulkner (1946) well as on the uneasy coexistence of the legitimate white
165
Faulkner Publishes Go Down, Moses The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
family and the unacknowledged Burying Mannie

“shadow” family descended from
slaves. He dedicated the book to Caro- Rider, in William Faulkner’s Go Down, Moses (1942), is a sawmill worker
line Barr, an elderly family servant helping to bury his dead wife Mannie. The manner in which he partakes in the
who had been born into slavery, who ritual reveals a profound, but stoic, sadness. He never overcomes his grief.
had cared for him as a child, and who
He stood in the worn, faded clean overalls which Mannie herself had
served as the diminutive model for the washed only a week ago, and heard the first clod stride the pine box. Soon
character of Molly Beauchamp. he had one of the shovels himself, which in his hands (he was better than
Faulkner’s shift in perspective six feet and weighed better than two hundred pounds) resembled the toy
may be observed best in Molly’s hus- shovel a child plays with at the shore, its half cubic foot of flung dirt no
band, Lucas Beauchamp, who first more than the light gout of sand the child’s shovel would have flung. An-
appears in the chapter “The Fire and other member of his sawmill gang touched his arm and said, “Lemme
the Hearth” as a sly trickster who out- have hit, Rider.” He didn’t even falter. He released one hand in midstroke
wits two white men by claiming to and flung it backward, striking the other across, the chest, jolting him back
have found gold. In the course of the a step, and restored the hand to the moving shovel, flinging the dirt with
that effortless fury so that the mound seemed to be rising of its own voli-
novel, Faulkner transforms him into a
tion, not built up from above but thrusting visibly upward out of the earth
more serious, even dignified charac-
itself, until at last the grave, save for its rawness, resembled any other marked
ter. Lucas is part of a tortured blood- off without order about the barren plot by shards of pottery and broken bot-
line; he shares a common white an- tles and old brick and other objects insignificant to sight but actually of a
cestor, the patriarch and slaveholder profound meaning and fatal to the touch, which no white man could have
Carothers McCaslin, with his white read. Then he straightened up and with one hand flung the shovel quiver-
cousins Ike McCaslin and Roth Ed- ing upright in the mound like a javelin and turned and began to walk away,
monds. In the 1940’s, Lucas was in- walking on even when an old woman came out of the meagre clump of his
deed an artistically bold character as kin and friends and a few old people that had known him and his dead
the stable cousin balanced between wife both since they were born, and grasped his forearm. She was his aunt.
two erratic extremes—sensitive Ike She had raised him. He could not remember his parents at all.
and irritable Roth. Proud Lucas does
not call any Edmonds “sir.” He does
not go either to their front door or the
back, but raps on the veranda to announce his presence. through the eyes of a white deputy, to whom Rider’s pain
Roth admits admiringly that Lucas is “more like old is completely incomprehensible. One critic suggests
Carothers than all the rest of us put together.” that, as the man recounts Rider’s story to his indifferent
One of the most dramatic African American charac- wife, he is really talking to himself, trying to make sense
ters is Rider, in “Pantaloon in Black.” Rider is a study in of what has happened. Faulkner skirts the stereotypes of
the overwhelming anguish of a husband whose beloved black man and white deputy to show the psychological
young wife has suddenly died. He sees her ghost in the chasm that divides them.
kitchen doorway and, as she fades, is tenderly preparing Faulkner’s well-known story “The Bear” exists in
a plate of supper for each of them. He tries to eat, tries to several forms, including a short version published in The
drink moonshine, and refuses his aunt’s pleas to stay with Saturday Evening Post (1942) and the longer, five-part
her. As the leader of a black sawmill crew, he attempts to chapter of Go Down, Moses that became his showpiece.
work but has to walk away. When he later returns to a Part Four, a shattering glimpse into southern history, has
crap game, he challenges the white night watchman, who also been published separately, revealing more of Faulk-
is using loaded dice to cheat them all, and kills him. Rider ner’s keen insight into moral corruption. The yellowing
cannot bear to live, and he fully understands that he will commissary ledgers read by Ike McCaslin reveal that
not. A modern reader should be aware of how unusual it lecherous old Carothers fathered a daughter, Tomy, with
was during this period for a white southern author to at- his slave Eunice and that he later fathered a son with
tribute such emotions to a black man. Rider’s intolerable Tomy—Lucas Beauchamp’s father. Carothers was in
human grief is very much out of touch with the public fact the direct instrument of both women’s deaths. This
perception of the time. information so appalls Ike that he renounces his claim to
Ironically, the second half of this chapter is told the tainted land he would inherit as old Carothers’ grand-
166
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Faulkner Publishes Go Down, Moses
son, making Lucas the true, yet forever unrecognized, dent attempting to enroll at the University of Alabama,
heir of the plantation. because he genuinely feared she would be killed. Speak-
For Faulkner, this troubled family bears the curse of ing out made Faulkner unpopular with both liberals and
slavery. Miscegenation and incest are its by-products, conservatives and even within his own family. He was
but these problems are compounded by the whites’ re- vilified as a fascist, racist, and communist and was sub-
fusal to accept their black descendants, just as old jected to angry telephone calls, hate mail, and even death
Carothers found it easier to will his black son a thousand threats.
dollars than to acknowledge him. William Faulkner’s work reflected not only his own
Critical reaction to Go Down, Moses was uneven. changing position on civil rights but eventually that of
Published six months after the United States had entered the whole nation. He advocated nonviolence, patience,
World War II, the book appeared during a period of great courtesy, and acceptance of responsibility. In his books
unrest and concern in the nation, as the military built up and in his personal life, Faulkner could see both sides of
1942
its strength on the European and Pacific fronts. Reviews the civil rights debate and responded with ambivalence
were mixed, praising Faulkner’s genius and complaining and compassion, yet unquestionably his greatest gift to
of incoherence from his use of stream of consciousness. America was his literary brilliance, which left an indeli-
By 1944, all of his books except the notorious Sanctuary ble imprint on the twentieth century.
(1931) were out of print. Although the publishers said he — Joanne McCarthy
was finished, however, fellow writers still spoke of him
admiringly. Friend and critic Malcolm Cowley was im- Further Reading
pelled to revive public interest in his work by collecting Faulkner, William. Essays, Speeches, and Public Let-
and editing The Portable Faulkner (1946), a best-selling ters. Edited by James B. Meriwether. New York: Ran-
anthology that again put the author in the public eye. A dom House, 1966. All of Faulkner’s mature articles,
renaissance of Faulkner studies began soon after its pub- speeches, and letters intended for publication, many
lication. dealing with civil rights.
Peavy, Charles D. Go Slow Now: Faulkner and the Race
Significance Question. Eugene: University of Oregon Books,
In August, 1948, the Mississippi Dixiecrats marched out 1971. An in-depth analysis of Faulkner’s public state-
of the Democratic convention in opposition to the civil ments on race.
rights plank in the party platform. That fall, Faulkner Polk, Noel. “Man in the Middle: Faulkner and the South-
published Intruder in the Dust, perhaps his most impor- ern White Moderate.” In Faulkner and Race, edited
tant fictional treatment of race in the South. Some read- by Doreen Fowler and Ann J. Abadie. Jackson: Uni-
ers believed that his character Gavin Stevens, who also versity Press of Mississippi, 1987. Comments on
appeared briefly in Go Down, Moses, represented Faulk- Faulkner’s refusal to sentimentalize his African
ner’s own view. Lawyer Stevens argued that the South American characters and his locally unpopular posi-
should solve its race problems without interference from tion on segregation.
the rest of the country, a position in line with that of other Singal, Daniel J. William Faulkner: The Making of a
southern moderates. Modernist. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Following the Supreme Court’s decision outlawing Press, 1997. Features a chapter on Go Down, Moses
school segregation in Brown v. Board of Education and a defense of Faulkner’s portrayal of African
(1954), Faulkner began to speak out publicly. A loyal son American culture.
of the South, he nevertheless supported integrated Wagner-Martin, Linda, ed. New Essays on “Go Down,
schools, a view resented by many. After the murder of Moses.” New York: Cambridge University Press,
the black teenager Emmett Till in 1955, Faulkner wrote 1996. Wagner-Martin’s excellent introduction illu-
in a letter to The New York Herald Tribune, “If we in minates five diverse essays on this novel.
America . . . must murder children . . . we don’t deserve Williamson, Joel. William Faulkner and Southern His-
to survive.” He urged African Americans to “go slow tory. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. An
now,” and in 1956 and 1957 he published more essays award-winning historian offers an overview of the
and letters in national magazines, including Life, Har- South’s past and examines the correlation between
per’s, and Ebony, urging caution and patience. He be- Faulkner’s turbulent family history and his subject
came involved in the case of Autherine Lucy, a black stu- matter.
167
Battle of Midway The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
See also: Feb., 1948: Paton Explores South Africa’s 1955: O’Connor Publishes A Good Man Is Hard to
Racial Divide in Cry, the Beloved Country; 1952: Find; July 11, 1960: Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird
Ellison’s Invisible Man Is Published; May 17, 1954: Calls for Social Justice; 1963: Baldwin Voices Black
Supreme Court Ends Public School Segregation; Rage in The Fire Next Time.
June 3-5, 1942

Battle of Midway
Midway proved to signal a major shift in momentum in Fleet, Fleet Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, sought to initi-
World War II’s Pacific theater. The United States’ ate the operation before the overwhelming U.S. indus-
naval victory over Japanese forces in the battle ended trial capacity began to play a decisive role in the conflict.
Japan’s dominance of the theater and enabled the Yamamoto put together the largest fleet the Japanese
United States to deploy its island-hopping strategy to ever had assembled; it included eleven battleships,
take control of the Pacific. headed by the Yamato, Japan’s newest and the world’s
largest battleship; four heavy and four light carriers;
Locale: Pacific Ocean, near Midway twenty-one cruisers; sixty-five destroyers; more than
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil fifty support and smaller craft; and nineteen submarines.
unrest In a serious strategic error, Yamamoto dispersed these
Key Figures vessels in many groups that were so widely scattered that
Frank Jack Fletcher (1885-1973), U.S. rear admiral they could not be mutually supporting.
and commander of a carrier task force The Japanese Northern Force—comprising two light
Chester W. Nimitz (1885-1966), U.S. commander in carriers, eight cruisers, thirteen destroyers, and six sub-
chief of the Pacific Fleet, 1941-1945 marines—sped toward the Aleutian Islands of Alaska in
Chuichi Nagumo (1887-1944), commander of the order to divert the U.S. forces and capture Kiska and
Japanese First Carrier Striking Force Attu, which might be used as the springboards for future
Raymond A. Spruance (1886-1969), commander of operations. The islands were successfully occupied, but
U.S. Naval Task Force 16 and later commander in the operation was secondary in nature, and the ships
chief of the Pacific Fleet, 1945-1946 could have been used more effectively for the main thrust
Isoroku Yamamoto (1884-1943), commander in chief toward Midway.
of the Japanese Combined Fleet Japanese forces were badly divided within the main
strike force as well. From the southwest came the Mid-
Summary of Event way Occupation Group, supported by the Second Fleet
From December, 1941, until the spring of 1942, Japanese with two battleships, eight cruisers, a light carrier, and a
forces conquered British, Dutch, and U.S. possessions in dozen destroyers. Approaching Midway from the north-
East Asia and the Pacific Ocean. Fast aircraft carriers en- west was Yamamoto with the main body of the Carrier
abled them to project their power far into the Pacific, and Striking Force. His main force was organized around
the December 7 strike by their carrier-based aircraft on three battleships and a light carrier. Split off to the north
the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, had crippled in order to move either to the Aleutians or to Midway, but
the United States Pacific Fleet. Six months later, Japa- in actuality too far from either, was a guard force of four
nese planners prepared for another strike toward Hawaii. battleships and a screen of cruisers and destroyers. In the
They intended to neutralize the remaining vessels in the van was the First Carrier Striking Force under the com-
U.S. fleet and occupy Midway, two islands located a mand of Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, with four heavy
thousand miles east of Hawaii that could serve as the carriers, Akagi, Kaga, Soryu, and Hiryu, and their screen
springboard for future operations in the Hawaiian chain and support vessels.
proper. With Midway and Hawaii in their hands, the Jap- Nagumo’s carriers were to attack Midway on June 4
anese believed they could force the United States to re- and destroy the United States’ airfields and planes prepa-
treat to California. ratory to the landings; when the Americans sortied from
The commander in chief of the Japanese Combined Pearl Harbor, the main body would move in and destroy
168
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of Midway
them. Previous successes had made Japanese planners Confirmation that the intelligence guesses were cor-
arrogant. They made no plans for what to do if the U.S. rect came early on June 3, when a scout plant sighted
response unfolded in a different manner from the one the invasion force six hundred miles to the southwest.
they anticipated. Army and Marine pilots attacking from Midway scored
U.S. naval intelligence teams had advance warning of no significant hits. Unaware that U.S. ships were any-
Japanese plans from official Japanese navy messages where nearby, Nagumo launched an attack with half
that had been intercepted. The intelligence unit at Pearl of his planes (108) before dawn on June 4; the other half
Harbor, under the command of Commander Joseph J. he held back, in case the U.S. fleet threatened his ships.
Rochefort, decided, on the basis of incomplete informa- Reconnaissance by Nagumo’s own planes was inade-
tion and brilliant analysis, that Midway was the primary quate.
target. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, commander in chief The Midway defenders put all of their planes in the air
of the Pacific Fleet (CinCPac), called in all of his avail- and took heavy punishment but were not knocked out.
1942
able carriers and could come up with only three: the En- Defending planes were totally outclassed, but they and
terprise and the Hornet, commanded by Rear Admiral the antiaircraft guns still inflicted losses on the Japanese
Raymond A. Spruance, and the wounded Yorktown, Zeros. By 7:00 a.m., the first raid was over and the Japa-
commanded by Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher. The nese flight leader radioed Nagumo that another attack
carriers were screened by a total of eight cruisers and was required.
fourteen destroyers. Nimitz ordered the extensive rein- Before the second attack could be launched, the Japa-
forcement of Midway to a total of 120 planes, antiaircraft nese carriers were scattered repeatedly by Marine and
guns, and 3,632 defenders. The three carriers lay in wait Army pilots from Midway, none of whom scored hits
for the Japanese, northeast of Midway, as ready as fore- and nearly all of whom died trying. In the midst of
warning could make them. these attacks, a Japanese scout plane reported a U.S.
U.S. Navy fighters fly above a burning Japanese ship during the Battle of Midway. (National Archives)
169
Battle of Midway The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
carrier within range. Rather than immediately launch- by Lieutenant Commander Maxwell Leslie. The Zeros
ing the second wave of planes that were being rearmed were flying too low to intercept the U.S. planes before
for another attack on Midway, Nagumo decided to re- the damage was done. In only five minutes, U.S. pilots
cover his first wave and rearm the second for fleet action. made fatal hits on the three Japanese carriers. With poor
By 9:18, all was ready, although the haste meant that fire management policies on their ships, the Japanese
bombs and torpedoes were piled around the carrier were unable to prevent the sinking of the carriers. Later
decks. the same day, the Hiryu was also fatally hit and sunk by
At that point, forty-two slow-moving, low-level U.S. U.S. pilots. While Yamamoto wanted to engage the U.S.
torpedo planes arrived unescorted by fighters and began surface fleet in a nighttime battle, a U.S. course change
to attack the carriers. These attacks were nearly suicidal, prevented him from doing so.
because each plane had to fly in a straight line toward the
carrier to line up its torpedo prior to launching it. The Significance
planes’ slow speed and predictable, linear trajectory The Battle of Midway resulted in the balance of power
made them sitting ducks for the Japanese forces, and in the Pacific theater shifting in favor of the United
thirty-eight of the forty-two planes were lost. None States. The Japanese lost their four largest aircraft carri-
scored hits, but the defending Zeros were drawn down to ers, as well as 275 planes and about 3,000 military per-
low levels to attack them. sonnel. The United States, by contrast, lost only one car-
At the end of these attacks, thirty-three high-altitude rier (the Yorktown), one destroyer, 150 planes, and 307
SBD Dauntless dive-bombers, led by Lieutenant Com- personnel. Many of Japan’s best pilots were lost in the
mander C. Wade McCluskey, by chance managed to lo- battle, a fact that proved crucial for the remainder of
cate the Kaga, Akagi, and Soryu. McCluskey’s planes the war, as U.S. forces advanced from island to island
soon were joined by another group of dive-bombers, led across the Pacific toward the Japanese homeland. Be-
Ships Sunk at Midway, June 4, 1942
U.S. carriers
Hiryu sinks
Hiryu hit, on fire
Yorktown sinks (June 6)

Soryu sinks Yorktown hit,
Japanese carriers abandoned
Akagi sinks
Kaga sinks
P a c i f i c
path of U.S. fighters

O c e a n U.S. fighters
path of Japanese warplanes Midway Islands
170
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United States Develops the First Nuclear Weapon
yond the tangible losses, the psychological effects of Lord, Walter. Incredible Victory. New York: Harper &
such a significant loss for the Japanese and a correspond- Row, 1967. A standard popular work based on inter-
ingly great victory for the Americans had an impact on views with four hundred participants in the battle.
the morale of both nations’ troops that was undeniable, if Morison, Samuel Eliot. Coral Sea, Midway and Subma-
difficult to measure. rine Actions, May 1942-August 1942. Vol. 4 in His-
—William E. Watson tory of United States Naval Operations in World
War II. Boston: Little, Brown, 1950. The standard
Further Reading
scholarly work on Midway.
Belote, James H., and William M. Belote. Titans of the
Parshall, Jonathan B., and Anthony P. Tully. Shattered
Seas: The Development and Operations of Japanese
Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway.
and American Carrier Task Forces During World
Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2005. Compre-
War II. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. Contrasts
hensive, detailed, and massive look at all aspects of
1942
U.S. and Japanese carrier doctrines.
the battle. Bibliographic references and index.
Fuchida, Mitsuo, and Masatake Okumiya. Midway: The
Smith, William Ward. Midway: Turning Point of the Pa-
Battle That Doomed Japan: The Japanese Navy’s
cific. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1966. A good
Story. Reprint. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press,
account written by an American participant.
2001. Offers the perspective of two Japanese partici-
pants, as well as a foreword by U.S. commander See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
Spruance. cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
Kernan, Alvin. The Unknown Battle of Midway: The De- Feb. 27-Mar. 1, 1942: Battle of the Java Sea; Apr. 18,
struction of the American Torpedo Squadrons. New 1942: Doolittle Mission Bombs Tokyo; May 7-8,
Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2005. Detailed 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea; Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. 9,
examination of the role of the Navy’s torpedo planes 1943: Battle of Guadalcanal; July 6, 1943: Battle of
in the Battle of Midway. Bibliographic references and Kula Gulf; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pa-
index. cific Offensive.
June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945

United States Develops the First Nuclear Weapon
The United States designed and built the world’s first Alexander Sachs (1893-1973), Russian-born economist
nuclear weapon in a highly secretive U.S. government and occasional presidential adviser
research program called the Manhattan Project. Leo Szilard (1898-1964), Hungarian-born refugee
physicist
Also known as: Manhattan Project; Manhattan Engi-
neer District; nuclear bomb; atomic bomb; A-bomb;
Summary of Event
the bomb
The building by the United States of an atomic bomb
Locale: Los Alamos, New Mexico; Oak Ridge,
came after a series of decisions made during a period of
Tennessee; Hanford, Washington
more than two years. Although President Franklin D.
Categories: Inventions; physics; science and
Roosevelt held the ultimate responsibility, his attitudes
technology; World War II; military history
were shaped by scientific advisers whose reasoned con-
Key Figures clusions and best guesses persuaded him that it was pos-
Vannevar Bush (1890-1974), director of the Office sible to construct a nuclear fission device “of superla-
of Scientific Research and Development, 1941- tively destructive powers,” as a 1941 report termed it.
1946 Research had been going on in the 1920’s and 1930’s,
James Bryant Conant (1893-1978), president of primarily by European physicists, including James Chad-
Harvard University and director of the National wick in Great Britain; Enrico Fermi and Emilio Gino
Defense Research Council Segrè in Italy; Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, who in 1938
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the fled Austria for Denmark (where Niels Bohr was work-
United States, 1933-1945 ing); Hungarians such as Leo Szilard; the Frenchman
171
United States Develops the First Nuclear Weapon The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Frédéric Joliot-Curie; and Otto Hahn and Fritz Strass- United States or England. Many of them gathered with
mann at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. Their re- U.S. physicists in January, 1939, at the fifth Washington
search indicated the possibility of bombarding the nucleus Conference on Theoretical Physics to hear Bohr recount
of the uranium atom, splitting it into lighter fragments, the exciting atomic discoveries. Within the year, nearly
and releasing tremendous amounts of energy. A signifi- one hundred papers had been published in scholarly jour-
cant number of these scientists fled fascism for the nals expanding on and confirming this new work.
In March, 1939, Fermi, Szilard, and a number of other
émigré physicists who feared that the Nazis were devel-
Nuclear Energy’s Power oping an atomic bomb began a lengthy effort to arouse in
both their U.S. colleagues and the U.S. government some
Albert Einstein, in an August 2, 1939, letter considered sense of their own urgent concern. After a direct approach
by many to have initiated serious discussion by the by Fermi to the U.S. Navy, made on March 17, failed to
United States about creating a nuclear bomb, informed generate any active interest, and after the Germans for-
President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the potential military bade further export of uranium ore from the Joachimstal
uses of nuclear energy.
mines in recently conquered Czechoslovakia, Szilard be-
Some recent work by E. [Enrico] Fermi and L. [Leo] came convinced that Albert Einstein was the only scien-
Szilard, which has been communicated to me in a manu- tist in the United States with enough fame and prestige to
script, leads me to expect that the element uranium may garner a sympathetic hearing from the U.S. government.
be turned into a new and important source of energy in Visiting Einstein on Long Island in mid-July, 1940,
the immediate future. Certain aspects of this situation Szilard exacted from his old friend a promise to write, or
which has arisen seem to call for watchfulness and, if at least sign, any letter or letters that might be needed to
necessary, quick action on the part of the Administra- attract the attention of the U.S. government. Einstein’s
tion. I believe therefore that it is my duty to bring to your promise in hand, Szilard and fellow émigré physicist Eu-
attention the following facts and recommendations:
gene Wigner wrote a letter addressed to President Roose-
In the course of the last four months it has been made
velt. Dated August 2, 1939, and signed “A. Einstein,” this
probable . . . that it may become possible to set up a
nuclear chain reaction in a large mass of uranium, by letter, detailing the dangers and possibilities of atomic en-
which vast amounts of power and large quantities of new ergy, was presented to Roosevelt on October 11 by Alex-
radium-like elements would be generated. Now it ap- ander Sachs, an occasional presidential adviser who had
pears almost certain that this could be achieved in the eagerly agreed to serve as the intermediary for Szilard.
immediate future. Sachs and the Einstein letter convinced the president
This new phenomena would also lead to the construc- that the situation should be explored. Accordingly, he es-
tion of bombs, and it is conceivable—though much less tablished the Advisory Committee on Uranium. Headed
certain—that extremely powerful bombs of a new type by Lyman Briggs, director of the National Bureau of
may thus be constructed. A single bomb of this type, car- Standards, and including representatives from the U.S.
ried by boat and exploded in a port, might very well de-
Army, the Navy, and the scientific community, this at-
stroy the whole port together with some of the surround-
tempt to draw federal support into scientific research for
ing territory. . . .
the national defense produced few early results. The
In July, 1944, physicist Niels Bohr wrote to Roosevelt committee met infrequently, and its financial support in-
about the awesome power of the nuclear weaponry be- volved only a $6,000 research grant.
ing developed through the Manhattan Project: Research on the explosive potential of uranium, which
was being conducted at some twenty university laborato-
It certainly surpasses the imagination of anyone to ries scattered across the country, pointed in two main di-
survey the consequences of the project in years to come, rections. One involved the separation of the fissionable
where, in the long run, the enormous energy sources
isotope U-235 from the much more common U-238 by a
which will be available may be expected to revolution-
variety of methods, including gaseous or thermal diffu-
ize industry and transport. The fact of immediate pre-
ponderance is, however, that a weapon of an unparal- sion, electromagnetic separation, and the centrifuge. The
leled power is being created which will completely other sought to transmute uranium into a new fissionable
change all future conditions of warfare. element, plutonium (U-239), through a controlled chain
reaction in an atomic pile. It was not until 1942 that either
a chain reaction or the separation of more than a few mi-
172
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United States Develops the First Nuclear Weapon
Manhattan Project Sites in the United States
Washington, D.C.
Manhattan Project headquarters
Hanford
Hanford Engineer Works
Chicago
Metallurgical Laboratory
Berkeley
Radiation Laboratory
s
1942
t e
Los Alamos a
Los Alamos Laboratory t
S
d
Alamogordo e
Trinity test site t
i Oak Ridge
n Manhattan District headquarters
U
crograms of U-235 would be accomplished. significant organizational step, it did not signify a decisive
As the Germans drove into France in May and June, commitment to the building of an atomic bomb. Key fig-
1940, others in the scientific community, including ures in the U.S. government—Roosevelt, Vice President
Hungarian-born émigré physicist Edward Teller, grew Henry Wallace, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, and
increasingly concerned. Responding to that concern, on Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall—members of
June 15, President Roosevelt established the National the OSRD, and members of the U.S. scientific community
Defense Research Council (NDRC) under the leadership remained skeptical about both the cost and feasibility of
of Vannevar Bush, president of the Carnegie Institute. developing an atomic weapon. This skepticism, however,
Creative and highly capable, Bush and his able deputy, began to give way during the second half of 1941. At that
Harvard president James Bryant Conant, played key time, the British government, based on the recent ideas of
roles in the decision to make the bomb. Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls, refugee physicists work-
While support for the Advisory Committee on Ura- ing at Cambridge, reported to the OSRD its belief that an
nium and other scientific defense research grew during atomic bomb could be developed within two years. An-
the next year, Bush believed that the work lacked the nec- other push to the U.S. atomic effort was provided by Mark
essary urgency. On June 28, 1941, acting on Bush’s ad- Oliphant, the Australian-born head of the physics depart-
vice, Roosevelt created the stronger Office of Scientific ment at the University of Birmingham. During a visit to
Research and Development (OSRD), with Bush as the the United States in August, Oliphant pressed upon Bush
head. Conant moved up to head the NDRC, and the Ura- the British conviction that a bomb really could be made.
nium Committee, strengthened and enlarged, became the With the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the Ger-
S-1 Section of OSRD. man and Italian declarations of war on the United States
Although the establishment of the OSRD represented a in December, Roosevelt had to choose between commit-
173
United States Develops the First Nuclear Weapon The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ting to the construction of a weapon that might win the war the global politics of nuclear proliferation following
in the long run or cutting back on an unproven program to World War II. Includes the chapter “Longing for In-
concentrate valuable resources to the more immediate ternational Control, Banking on American Superior-
goal of not losing the war in the short run. On March 9, ity: Harry S. Truman’s Approach to Nuclear Weap-
1942, Bush informed the president that a major industrial ons.” Bibliographical references, index.
effort might produce an atomic weapon in 1944, but that Hales, Peter B. Atomic Spaces: Living on the Manhattan
a decision had to be made soon. After receiving addi- Project. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997. A
tional encouraging news, Roosevelt decided on June 17 unique cultural history of the communities and other
that the United States would build an atomic bomb. spaces created, and destroyed, to make way for the
Having committed itself to the construction of an Manhattan Project’s progress. Looks at how the proj-
atomic weapon, the U.S. government had to determine ect affected local populations. A recommended study
how to produce sufficient quantities of fissionable mate- at the intersection of technology and culture. Biblio-
rials. After learning from S-1 Section researchers that graphical references, index.
four methods—gaseous diffusion, the centrifuge, elec- Hewlett, Richard G. A History of the United States Atomic
tromagnetic separation, and controlled chain reactions in Energy Commission. Vol. 1 in The New World, 1939-
uranium piles—were at comparable stages of develop- 1946, by Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson,
ment, it was decided to make an all-out effort on all four Jr. University Park: Pennsylvania State University
fronts, rather than explore a single method that might Press, 1962. The early chapters detail the major steps
prove a dead end. that led to development of the Manhattan Project.
The U.S. atomic bomb program—code-named the Howes, Ruth H., and Caroline L. Herzenberg. Their Day
Manhattan Project and headed by General Leslie Rich- in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project. Phila-
ard Groves (appointed September 17, 1942)—involved delphia: Temple University Press, 1999. A history of
highly secret research at Los Alamos, New Mexico, the oft-forgotten role of women in the Manhattan
where basic bomb development took place; Oak Ridge, Project, who were critical to the program as nuclear
Tennessee, where U-235 was separated from U-238 by scientists, physicists, chemists, mathematicians, biol-
gaseous diffusion and electromagnetic techniques; and ogists and medical scientists, and technicians. Bibli-
Hanford, Washington, where plutonium was produced in ography, index.
graphite piles. Jones, Vincent C. Manhattan, the Army, and the Atomic
Bomb. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History,
Significance
U.S. Army, 1986. Discusses the U.S. Army’s role in
At a cost of nearly $2 billion, the Manhattan Project ulti-
the development of the nuclear bomb.
mately paid dividends: The first bomb was successfully
Kelly, Cynthia C., ed. Oppenheimer and the Manhattan
detonated on July 16 at Alamogordo, New Mexico, and
Project: Insights into J. Robert Oppenheimer, “Father
there followed production of the weapons that, not with-
of the Atomic Bomb.” Hackensack, N.J.: World Sci-
out controversy, ended World War II in August, 1945,
entific, 2006. A concise but comprehensive history of
and that enabled the United States to lead the world into
Oppenheimer’s scientific legacy. Bibliography, index.
the troubled atomic age.
_______. Remembering the Manhattan Project: Per-
The atomic age held the promise of exploring this new
spectives on the Making of the Atomic Bomb and Its
source of energy for peaceful purposes, but it also pro-
Legacy. Hackensack, N.J.: World Scientific, 2004. A
duced the threat of global nuclear annihilation during the
report on the proceedings of the 2002 Atomic Heri-
Cold War with its attendant nuclear arms race. Given this
tage Foundation’s Symposium on the Manhattan Proj-
double-edged quality of nuclear technology, some par-
ect, held in Washington, D.C. Includes bibliographi-
ticipants in the development of the nuclear bomb later
cal references and index.
founded or participated in organizations devoted to di-
Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New
minishing the threat of nuclear war.
York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. Provides a wealth
— Charles W. Johnson and Bruce J. DeHart
of scientific information and integrates it with the
Further Reading decision-making process that went into producing the
Gaddis, John Lewis, et al., eds. Cold War Statesmen bomb.
Confront the Bomb: Nuclear Diplomacy Since 1945. Sherwin, Martin J. A World Destroyed: The Atomic
New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Discusses Bomb and the Grand Alliance. New York: Alfred A.
174
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United States Begins the Bracero Program
Knopf, 1975. Part 1 details major developments in onated; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs Destroy
physics and the critical political decisions. Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Aug. 1, 1946: Atomic En-
Stoff, Michael B., Jonathan F. Fanton, and R. Hal Wil- ergy Commission Is Established; 1951-1952: Teller
liams, eds. The Manhattan Project: A Documentary and Ulam Develop the First Hydrogen Bomb; Mar. 1,
Introduction to the Atomic Age. Philadelphia: Temple 1954: Nuclear Bombing of Bikini Atoll; July 9, 1955-
University Press, 1991. Contains key documents, in- early 1960’s: Scientists Campaign Against Nuclear
cluding Einstein’s letter of August 2, 1939. Testing; Nov. 15, 1957: Cousins Founds SANE; Mar.
See also: Feb. 23, 1941: Seaborg and McMillan Make 5, 1970: Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty Goes into
Plutonium; July 16, 1945: First Nuclear Bomb Is Det- Effect.
1942
August 4, 1942
United States Begins the Bracero Program
Initiated as a war measure to ensure adequate tural labor market, President Franklin D. Roosevelt re-
agricultural labor supplies during World War II, the sponded to pressure and opened negotiations with
bracero program continued until 1964, when it was Mexico for temporary contract laborers.
terminated on the basis of alleged negative influences Mexico’s initial response was negative. Mexican offi-
on the employment of domestic workers. cials sharply reminded the United States of the long and
exploitive history of U.S. relations with Mexican work-
Also known as: Mexican Farm Labor Supply Pro- ers. During the Great Depression, the United States had
gram; Mexican Labor Agreement forcibly returned hundreds of thousands of laborers to
Locale: Washington, D.C. Mexico in an effort to protect the jobs of American citi-
Categories: Agriculture; business and labor; World zens. Unless the United States was willing to accede to a
War II; immigration, emigration, and relocation host of procedural safeguards for these temporary work-
Key Figures ers, Mexico was unwilling to allow its citizens to cross
Claude R. Wickard (1893-1967), U.S. secretary of the border. These safeguards included having individual
agriculture, 1940-1945 contracts written in Spanish, each with guarantees to pay
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the living expenses and to provide adequate shelter and
United States, 1933-1945 transportation costs while a worker was in transit.
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United Workers were further to be protected from all dis-
States, 1945-1953 criminatory acts and were not to be subject to the U.S.
Willard Wirtz (b. 1912), U.S. secretary of labor, 1962- military draft. Wages were to be set at an annually deter-
1969 mined “prevailing wage” based on the locality in which
the laborer was to be employed. Most important, these
Summary of Event contracts were between the Mexican and U.S. govern-
The bracero program for importation of Mexican labor ments, not the worker and employer. The idea was that
into the United States was begun in 1942, in response to the U.S. government, as the primary contractor, would
the rising complaints of southwestern farmers and rail- “sublease” the workers’ contracts to farmers. This meant
road shippers of a severe agricultural labor shortage. Ag- that the U.S. government held the ultimate responsibility
riculturalists argued that the military draft, along with for ensuring that the contracts’ provisions were upheld. It
high-paying defense-industry jobs, had drawn large also gave the Mexican government the power to limit the
numbers of agricultural workers away from farms at the number of workers allowed into the United States if dis-
very time that uninterrupted agricultural production was criminatory practices occurred or if contracts were vio-
needed for military success. Without foreign contract la- lated.
bor, they concluded, food shortages were inevitable. Al- Under pressure to act, President Roosevelt agreed to
though many economists, most notably Conrad Taeuber, these concessions and, on August 4, 1942, signed an ex-
head agricultural economist of the Bureau of Agricul- ecutive agreement initiating the bracero program. Roo-
tural Economics, disagreed with this view of the agricul- sevelt drew his authority to initiate the program from the
175
United States Begins the Bracero Program The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Bracero Program Agreement Immigration Act of 1917. Although it specifically

prohibited contract agricultural workers, that act
The Bracero program was developed as a labor agreement be- allowed the commissioner general of immigration
tween the governments of Mexico and the United States. Gen- and the secretary of labor to admit otherwise inad-
eral provisions of the “Agreement for the Temporary Migration missible persons. Roosevelt then assigned the Farm
of Mexican Agricultural Workers to the United States” include Security Administration (FSA) of the Department
the following: of Agriculture responsibility for administering the
General Provisions program. The program thus fell under the purview
1. It is understood that Mexicans contracting to work in the of the secretary of agriculture, Claude R. Wickard.
United States shall not be engaged in any military service. From the start, the bracero program was contro-
2. Mexicans entering the United States as result of this under- versial. Farmers disliked the restrictions imposed
standing shall not suffer discriminatory acts of any kind in on them by the program, particularly the wage pro-
accordance with the Executive Order No. 8802 issued at visions, which they saw as a first step toward uni-
the White House June 25, 1941. versal wage regulations for agriculture. They also
3. Mexicans entering the United States under this understand- distrusted the FSA, which they believed was gen-
ing shall enjoy the guarantees of transportation, living ex-
erally in opposition to farmers. At the same time,
penses and repatriation established in Article 29 of the
labor disliked the program as run by the FSA be-
Mexican Federal Labor Law as follows:
Article 29—All contracts entered into by Mexican workers for cause of its lax rules as to the setting of the “pre-
lending their services outside their country shall be made in vailing wage.” Ideally, the “prevailing wage” in a
writing, legalized by the municipal authorities of the local- region was to be set by the market. Where labor
ity where entered into and vised by the Consul of the coun- was scarce, wages were expected to rise. Only
try where their services are being used. Furthermore, such where labor shortages existed after wages rose
contract shall contain, as a requisite of validity of same, the were braceros to be allowed. In practice, however,
following stipulations, without which the contract is in- the FSA allowed farmers to set the “prevailing
valid. wage” at the beginning of the growing season, and
I. Transportation and subsistence expenses for the worker, if this wage was inadequate to attract enough do-
and his family, if such is the case, and all other expenses
mestic workers, the farmers were allowed to bring
which originate from point of origin to border points and
in braceros.
compliance of immigration requirements, or for any other
similar concept, shall be paid exclusively by the employer In April, 1943, dissatisfaction with the FSA re-
or the contractual parties. sulted in passage of Public Law 45, 78th Congress,
II. The worker shall be paid in full the salary agreed upon, in which Congress gave its approval to the bracero
from which no deduction shall be made in any amount for program. In doing so, however, Congress signifi-
any of the concepts mentioned in the above sub-paragraph. cantly reshaped the operation of the program. Pub-
III. The employer or contractor shall issue a bond or consti- lic Law 45 removed the FSA as administrator of
tute a deposit in cash in the Bank of Workers, or in the ab- the bracero program, giving this authority to the
sence of same, in the Bank of Mexico, to the entire satisfac- Cooperative Extension Service (CES). This pre-
tion of the respective labor authorities, for a sum equal to sumably was done to satisfy the complaints of
repatriation costs of the worker and his family, and those
large growers about the FSA. The CES was also a
originated by transportation to point of origin.
part of the Department of Agriculture, but unlike
IV. Once the employer established proof of having covered
such expenses or the refusal of the worker to return to his the FSA it was historically allied with large grow-
country, and that he does not owe the worker any sum covers and shippers. In addition, the wage and work-
ering salary or indemnization to which he might have a ing-condition provisions of the original executive
right, the labor authorities shall authorize the return of the order were not included in Public Law 45. Al-
deposit or the cancellation of the bond issued. though the government would still hold contracts
with individual braceros, it would not have the
4. Mexicans entering the United States under this understand- power to demand the application of a “prevailing
ing shall not be employed to displace other workers, or for wage.” Instead, the power to set wages was, in ef-
the purpose of reducing rates of pay previously estab- fect, returned to farmers. In practice, farmers had
lished.
always had the power to set wages; this law merely
formalized the process.
176
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United States Begins the Bracero Program
Following the end of World War II, the original justi- by U.S. farmers, and empowered by the growing demand
fication for the bracero program ended. On December for immigrant labor resulting from the Korean War, the
31, 1947, so too did the executive agreement between the Mexican government demanded that the U.S. govern-
United States and Mexico. Public Law 45, however, re- ment reacquire control over bracero contracts. Congress
mained on the statute books, authorizing the use of brace- responded on July 12 with An Act to Amend the Agricul-
ros if the U.S. government wished it. Harry S. Truman’s tural Act of 1949 (Public Law 78, 82nd Congress), which
administration did. On February 21, 1948, a new labor im- returned the bracero program to operating on a govern-
portation agreement was concluded with Mexico. In fol- ment-to-government basis and thus placed the responsi-
lowing years, similar annual agreements would be signed. bility for guaranteeing that the provisions of bracero con-
The post-1948 agreements also drew their authority from tracts were met directly with the U.S. government. With
the 1917 Immigration Act. There were, however, a few this change in place, the postwar bracero program was
significant differences between the new agreements and complete. It continued unchanged until 1964.
1942
those from wartime. The U.S. government would no lon- The reformism of the New Frontier and the Great So-
ger be the employer of record for braceros. Instead, indi- ciety finally killed the bracero program. Both the John F.
vidual growers or growers’ associations contracted di- Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson administrations thought
rectly with Mexico for bracero workers. This meant that that braceros cost American workers jobs and permitted
the government was no longer legally responsible for the farmers to keep agricultural wages low. Without braceros,
fulfillment of bracero contracts. the reasoning went, farmers would have to raise wages if
This provision of the post-1948 agreements was to they wanted to hire enough workers to pick their crops. In
bring a further change in the bracero program in 1951. 1961, President Kennedy ordered Secretary of Labor Ar-
Angered over repeated violations of contract provisions thur Goldberg to look into ways to protect domestic work-
Mexican farmworkers participating in the bracero program register at a Hidalgo, Texas, labor center in 1959. (AP/Wide World Photos)
177
United States Begins the Bracero Program The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ers. Goldberg’s successor, Willard Wirtz, recommended period, agricultural wages remained low in comparison
that the program, which came up for renewal in 1964, not to those in other sectors of the economy.
be renewed. On December 31, 1964, the bracero labor As late as 1964, the Mexican government continued
importation program was allowed to expire. its support of the bracero concept. It believed that the
program provided significant protections to Mexican
Significance workers in the United States that would be absent with-
There is little doubt that the bracero program had effects out a formal agreement. It also worked to improve rela-
on the agricultural sector of the United States both during tions between the United States and Mexico and helped
and after World War II. By the end of 1947, when the first improve working conditions on U.S. farms for both Mex-
bracero program ended, some 220,000 workers had been ican and domestic workers. The program also helped
recruited under the program. In the years following, the keep the already troublesome problem of illegal immi-
annual number of braceros working on U.S. farms gration from getting worse.
ranged between 50,000 and 350,000. This many contract —Charles Zelden
laborers could not help having an impact both on the ag-
ricultural output of the nation and on working conditions Further Reading
in the agricultural sector. It is difficult to say, however, Craig, Richard. The Bracero Program: Interest Groups
how significant their impact was. and Foreign Policy. Austin: University of Texas
During World War II, for example, braceros made up Press, 1971. Examines the various interests pushing
only a part of the total number of Mexican laborers work- for the bracero program and the reasons why it
ing on U.S. farms. In reaction to Texas’s historic discrim- changed over time.
ination against Hispanic people, Mexico refused to con- Driscoll, Barbara A. The Tracks North: The Railroad
tract any braceros to Texas for the first five years of the Bracero Program of World War II. Austin, Tex.:
program. This meant that Texas farmers had to use either CMAS Books, 1999. Details the contribution of Mex-
domestic laborers or illegal immigrant workers. Many ican immigrant laborers to the construction of rail-
Texas farmers chose illegal workers, even after Mexico roads during World War II. Bibliographic references
allowed braceros to contract in Texas. and index.
Following the war, the use of illegal workers by many Galarza, Ernesto. Merchants of Labor: The Mexican
U.S. farmers, in preference to both braceros and domes- Bracero Story. Charlotte, N.C.: McNally and Loftin,
tic laborers, continued. During the mid-1950’s, the im- 1964. An account of the operation of the bracero pro-
migration enforcement mechanism became overloaded. gram in California from 1942 to 1960. Offers an early
Tens or even hundreds of thousands of illegal immi- evaluation of the program’s operations and effective-
grants were deported every year. They made up only a ness. One of few book-length examinations of the
fraction of the “wetbacks” (a term then used in legal doc- bracero program. A good place to start a study of the
uments) actually working on U.S. farms. Only with Op- bracero program.
eration Wetback, a multidepartment, multiyear effort by Gamboa, Erasmo. Mexican Labor and World War II: Bra-
the U.S. and Mexican governments to halt the flow of il- ceros in the Pacific Northwest, 1942-1947. Reprint.
legal immigrants northward, did the number of such la- Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000. Fo-
borers working on U.S. farms decrease, and then only cused study on the effects of the bracero program in the
temporarily. Pacific Northwest. Bibliographic references and index.
Given the large number of illegal workers on U.S. Garcia, Juan Ramon. Operation Wetback: The Mass De-
farms during the period in which the bracero program portation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954.
operated, it is difficult to argue that the bracero program Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1980. Examines
had any significant effect in raising agricultural wages. the issue of undocumented Mexican workers in the
In fact, the opposite seems more plausible. Wartime 1950’s. Useful as a background to the later parts of the
problems with the “prevailing wage” system worsened bracero program.
following the war, when contracting powers were placed Gonzalez, Gilbert G. Guest Workers or Colonized La-
directly in the hands of farmers. The return of the U.S. bor? Mexican Labor Migration to the United States.
government as official contractor of braceros after 1951 Boulder, Colo.: Paradigm, 2006. Comprehensive dis-
did not bring much effective change in the wage- cussion of Mexican labor in the United States. In-
reducing effects of the bracero program. Throughout the cludes a section on the bracero program.
178
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of Guadalcanal
Kirstein, Peter. Anglo over Bracero: A History of the See also: Apr. 8, 1943-June 23, 1947: Inflation and La-
Mexican Worker in the United States from Roosevelt bor Unrest; Feb. 20, 1946: Employment Act; June 27,
to Nixon. San Francisco: R and E Research Associ- 1952: McCarran-Walter Act; June 10, 1954: U.S.
ates, 1977. An essential survey of U.S. policy toward Government Program Begins Deporting Mexican
Mexican laborers, both legal and illegal. Provides Workers; 1960’s: Cubans Flee to Florida and Receive
useful background and details about the bracero pro- Assistance; Sept. 30, 1962, and Sept. 16, 1965:
gram. Chávez and Huerta Form Farmworkers’ Union and
Kiser, George C., and Marth Woody Kiser, eds. Mexican Lead Grape Pickers’ Strike; 1965: U.S. and Mexican
Workers in the United States: Historical and Political Companies Form Maquiladoras; Sept. 8, 1965-July
Perspectives. Albuquerque: University of New Mex- 29, 1970: Delano Grape Strike; Oct. 3, 1965: Hart-
ico Press, 1979. Includes several essays on the bra- Celler Act Reforms U.S. Immigration Law; Jan. 2,
cero program both during and after the war, its social 1968: Congress Enacts the Bilingual Education Act;
1942
and economic effects, and its aftermath. Includes cov- Dec. 4, 1970: Chávez Is Jailed for Organizing a Na-
erage of both Mexican and American points of view. tional Lettuce Boycott.
August 7, 1942-February 9, 1943

Battle of Guadalcanal
One of the first military campaigns to use air, land, Chester W. Nimitz (1885-1966), U.S. commander in
sea, subsurface, and amphibious forces together, this chief of the Pacific Fleet, 1941-1945
conflict signaled that the tide had indeed turned in Richmond Kelly Turner (1885-1961), U.S. commander
World War II’s Pacific theater following the Battle of of the amphibious force at Guadalcanal
Midway. U.S. forces, no longer merely responding to Alexander Archer Vandegrift (1887-1973), commander
Japanese attacks, were now firmly on the offensive. of the U.S. Marine landing force
Locale: Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands, Melanesia

Summary of Event
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil
During the first half of 1942, the Japanese achieved spec-
unrest
tacular expansion and the Allies were in desperate straits
Key Figures in all theaters of World War II. The global strategic prior-
Frank Jack Fletcher (1885-1973), U.S. vice admiral in ity was Germany first, so Pacific resources were scarce.
command of the invasion of Guadalcanal The Guadalcanal and larger Solomon Islands campaigns
Robert Lee Ghormley (1883-1958), U.S. vice admiral were fought under these challenging circumstances, and
and commander of South Pacific Forces, June- the Allied situation was reversed.
October, 1942 The Battle of Midway set the stage for the Battle of
William F. Halsey (1882-1959), U.S. admiral, Guadalcanal, one of the most important struggles during
commander of South Pacific Forces, October, the war in the Pacific. The engagement at Midway had
1942-June, 1944, and later commander of the taken place in early June, 1942. It was a spectacular air
Third Fleet engagement, in which the Japanese lost four aircraft car-
Kiyotake Kawaguchi (fl. mid-twentieth century), riers, 275 planes, and one hundred first-line pilots. Land-
commander of the Japanese armed forces on based U.S. Army Air Forces planes also participated, al-
Guadalcanal though they achieved little. This stunning defeat forced
Ernest King (1878-1956), chief of naval operations, Japan onto the defensive and gave the Allied Powers a
1942-1945 badly needed reprieve. As a result of the Battle of Mid-
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), supreme commander way, U.S. planners soon decided to launch a limited of-
of Allied forces in the Southwest Pacific, 1942- fensive in the area of the Pacific Ocean where the Central
1945 Pacific and Southwest Pacific commands overlapped.
Gunichi Mikawa (1888-1981), commander of Japanese The logical initial objective was the Solomon Islands.
naval forces during the Battle of Savo Island This chain of islands was located within easy bombing
179
Battle of Guadalcanal The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
range of the great Japanese air base at Rabaul, on New of supplies dictated that the Solomons operation be post-
Britain in the neighboring Bismarck Archipelago, and poned until August 7.
the important Allied base of Port Moresby in southern The Allied forces included U.S. air, marine, army, na-
New Guinea. Furthermore, the Japanese had begun con- val, and submarine units; various other forces from Aus-
struction of a bomber field on Guadalcanal—one of the tralia and New Zealand; native coastwatcher units coor-
southernmost islands in the Solomons. Whoever con- dinated by the Royal Australian Navy; and intelligence
trolled Guadalcanal and finished the airfield would hold agencies modeled on British methods. The U.S. forces
an important advantage in the Pacific war. were largely ignorant of the islands that they were to in-
Acting on the initiative of Chief of Naval Operations vade and had little time to work out plans for the land-
Ernest King, the Joint Chiefs of Staff ordered Admiral ings. The combined force, consisting of eighty-two ships
Chester W. Nimitz and General Douglas MacArthur, carrying the First Marine Division, elements of the Sec-
theater commanders, to gather all available forces and ond Marine Division, and other contingents, met near the
equipment for an amphibious operation in the Solomon Fiji Islands in late July.
Islands against the adjoining islands of Guadalcanal and Early on August 7, a U.S. carrier task force took posi-
Tulagi. The invasion, planned in conjunction with a re- tion south of Guadalcanal. Under its protection, the first
newed attack in New Guinea and an attempt to seize support ships and landing force, commanded by Rear
Rabaul, was to begin on August 1, but delays and a lack Admiral Richmond Kelly Turner, slipped along the west
Battle of Guadalcanal, 1942-1943

Outer Soviet
Mongolia Union le
ri ds
Ku lan
Is P a c i f i c
Peking
Korea
Tokyo
Hiroshima O c e a n
China Japan
Nagasaki
Shanghai
Okinawa Midway I.
Iwo Jima
Hong Kong Pearl
Formosa Harbor
Mariana
I Bataan Is. Hawaiian Is.
Wake I.
nd
Luzon Philippine Guam

ochina
Is.
Marshall
Leyte Caroline I. Is.
Eniwetok
Malaya Tarawa
Singapore Gilbert I.
Borneo
New Solomon
Guinea Is. Guadalcanal
Java
Port
Moresby
I n d i a n
Coral
O c e a n
Sea
Australia
180
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of Guadalcanal
1942
U.S. troops display a captured Japanese flag in 1943, following the Battle of Guadalcanal. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
coast of Guadalcanal. After a heavy shore bombardment, the Japanese to send a strong surface force, in the hope of
Major General Alexander Archer Vandegrift’s Marines destroying U.S. warships and transports and thereby iso-
waded ashore. The landings were practically unopposed lating the Marines.
on Guadalcanal, although strong resistance was encoun- In what became known as the Battle of Savo Island, a
tered on Tulagi. On August 8, the Marines seized their Japanese striking force of five heavy cruisers, two light
primary objective, the unfinished airfield soon to be cruisers, and a destroyer slipped past Allied patrol ves-
named Henderson Field. Japanese forces on Guadalcanal sels and entered Iron Bottom Sound at 1:00 a.m. on Au-
numbered fewer than twenty-five hundred, and within a gust 9. Carefully trained for night action, the Japanese
few days there were approximately sixteen thousand sank four Allied cruisers and won a tremendous victory,
Marines on the island. Other factors, however, inter- although their commander, Vice Admiral Gunichi Mi-
vened to prevent a swift Allied victory. kawa, erred in not attacking the unprotected support
The Japanese were able to respond quickly to the at- ships and the beachhead itself. The defeat caused Rear
tack by dispatching reinforcements to Guadalcanal and Admiral Turner to withdraw his amphibious force, leav-
initiating steps designed to gain naval superiority in the ing behind sixteen thousand U.S. Marines who were in-
area. They were assisted by U.S. timidity regarding the sufficiently supplied for the task of maintaining their po-
safety of the carrier task force. Vice Admiral Frank Jack sitions on Guadalcanal. However, their enemy had even
Fletcher, commander of the invasion, withdrew his carri- more serious logistical problems.
ers on August 8. Thereafter, the beachhead received al- From mid-August, 1942, until early February, 1943,
most no air protection, and heavy Japanese bombing at- when Allied forces finally cleared the entire island, Japa-
tacks began. The withdrawal of the carriers emboldened nese and Allied forces were locked in bitter conflict.
181
Battle of Guadalcanal The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Both sides made desperate efforts to reinforce their num- land only about four thousand soldiers, who were badly
bers in this struggle of attrition and to deny supplies and equipped and poorly supplied.
reinforcements to the other. After initial success, the In December, U.S. Army units replaced the exhausted
Marines encountered stubborn resistance and made little Marines, and these fresh forces soon launched a powerful
progress for several months. The Japanese launched sev- attack, assisted by air strikes from Henderson Field and
eral offensives, but inaccurate information about the from aircraft carriers. The Japanese held on grimly until
strength of the Allied forces caused them to fail. The January 4, 1943, when Tokyo ordered the evacuation of
most notable engagements were the Battle of the Tenaru Guadalcanal within thirty days. Operating brilliantly un-
River, in which one thousand Japanese were virtually der constant pressure from the Allies, the Imperial Army
wiped out, and the Battle of Bloody Ridge on September command evacuated more than eleven thousand troops
13 and 14, at which a Japanese force of six thousand troops by destroyers February 9. The bitter six-month struggle
under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi was cut to for Guadalcanal ended on this note of indecisiveness.
pieces. By the time the Japanese high command realized Allied casualties were sixteen hundred dead and forty-two
that large reinforcements were required, Allied naval and hundred wounded. Fourteen thousand Japanese were
air defenses were much improved. After mid-September, killed or missing, nine thousand dead from disease, and
the Marine foothold was secure, and reinforcements and approximately one thousand captured.
supplies were coming in on a continual basis.
Significance
Final victory could not be won, however, until one
Guadalcanal was one of the first major offensive victo-
side achieved naval dominance in the area. The struggle
ries for the Allies in the Pacific theater, after the suc-
between Allied and Japanese naval forces continued
cessful defensive victory of Midway. Later disclosures
through the autumn, with the Imperial Navy controlling
concerning intelligence, communications, and recon-
the waters around Guadalcanal at night and the Allies—
naissance have shed additional light on the events of the
because of Henderson Field’s aircraft, mostly with Ma-
Guadalcanal campaign. The coastwatchers rightly have
rine pilots—commanding the area during the day. A
received major credit. One reason the Japanese cruisers
number of important but indecisive carrier and ship-to-
that annihilated the Allied naval forces at Savo Island
ship engagements occurred, such as the Battle of the
were a surprise was a communication breakdown be-
Eastern Solomons and the Battle of Cape Esperance. The
tween regional commands. An Australian reconnais-
latter was the result of a desperate Japanese effort to rein-
sance aircraft sighted and reported the Japanese, but the
force Guadalcanal. Although it was considered an Allied
message was lost between command centers.
victory, the Japanese moved ahead, bombing Henderson
The Allies benefited frequently from intercepts and
Field and dispatching a battleship force to bombard
analysis of signals intelligence. The Japanese achieved
Allied positions. On October 15, forty-five hundred Jap-
complete surprise when they withdrew more than ten
anese soldiers were landed, raising their total on the is-
thousand troops at the end. Indeed, the Allies were ex-
land to twenty thousand, and the Imperial Army prepared
pecting a Japanese offensive. Guadalcanal received
for a victorious offensive.
much interest on the home front, and a new vocabulary
The Marines suffered from low morale, malaria and
arose: Guadalcanal, Henderson Field, the Tokyo Express
other diseases, and exhaustion. With more than half the
(Japanese reinforcements), Iron Bottom Sound (a bay
planes on Henderson Field rendered non-operational, a
north of Guadalcanal, where naval and air forces were
defeatist feeling spread throughout the chain of com-
destroyed and sunk), the Long Lance torpedo (a superior
mand. On October 16, Vice Admiral William F. Halsey
Japanese weapon), and Starvation Island (the Japanese
replaced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley as com-
name for Guadalcanal).
mander of the Southwest Pacific forces. Halsey was con-
— Theodore A. Wilson and Eugene L. Rasor
vinced that control of Guadalcanal was essential, and the
Joint Chiefs had reached the same conclusion. Further Reading
The main Japanese attacks came on October 24 and Frank, Richard B. Guadalcanal: The Definitive Ac-
25, but these frontal assaults against fortified U.S. posi- count of the Landmark Battle. New York: Penguin
tions resulted in costly defeats. In November, both sides Books, 1992. A scholarly study using sources from all
attempted to bring in reinforcements. The Allies were perspectives. Stresses unique, multidimensional as-
successful, but the Japanese, having lost a crucial naval pects—air, land, sea, subsurface, and amphibious—
engagement in the middle of the month, were able to and credits the contribution of the coastwatchers.
182
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Stein Is Killed by the Nazis
Argues that Admiral King initiated the campaign Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Struggle for Guadalcanal,
and the result was a decisive turning point of the Pa- August 1942-February 1943. Boston: Little, Brown,
cific war. 1949. The fifth of the fifteen volumes of the official
Griffith, Samuel B. The Battle for Guadalcanal. Phila- U.S. naval history of World War II by the Pulitzer
delphia: Lippincott, 1963. Emphasizes the operations Prize-winning official historian. Discusses and as-
of the U.S. Marines and neglects other forces. Sees sesses more than a dozen naval battles and several
World War II as having two bases—continental and amphibious landings of the campaign.
oceanic—and presents Guadalcanal as the decisive Rasor, Eugene L. The Solomon Islands Campaign, Gua-
battle of the oceanic phase. Preface by Admiral Ches- dalcanal to Rabaul: Historiography and Annotated
ter Nimitz. Bibliography. Bibliographies of Battles and Leaders.
Isely, Jeter Allen, and Philip A. Crowl. The U.S. Marines Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996. A compre-
and Amphibious War: Its Theory and Its Practice in the hensive historiographical and bibliographical survey
1942
Pacific. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, of the literature on the campaign; 544 annotated entries
1951. An ambitious work explaining many of the ques- and extensive critical analysis and integration of those
tions arising from operations in the Solomon Islands. A sources in the historiographical narrative section.
valuable interpretive account of the war in the Pacific. Tregaskis, Richard. Guadalcanal Diary. New York:
Koburger, Charles W. Pacific Turning Point: The Sol- Random House, 1943. A moment-by-moment narra-
omons Campaign, 1942-1943. Westport, Conn.: tive of the campaign by an on-the-spot journalist-
Praeger, 1995. Treats the entire campaign for the Sol- correspondent. Apopular account that was distributed
omon Islands, a joint effort of Nimitz’s Central Pa- to all troops in the field and much read at home.
cific command and MacArthur’s Southwest Pacific See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
command. cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
Miller, John. Guadalcanal: The First Offensive. Wash- Feb. 27-Mar. 1, 1942: Battle of the Java Sea; May 7-8,
ington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1949. One 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea; June 3-5, 1942: Battle
of eighty volumes in the highly acclaimed official of Midway; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pa-
Army history series. Clear, detailed, and balanced cific Offensive; June 12-20, 1944: Battle of the Phil-
survey of the campaign. Emphasizes U.S. Army oper- ippine Sea; Oct. 23-26, 1944: Battle for Leyte Gulf;
ations, but covers activities of other forces. Feb. 23, 1945: American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima.
August 9, 1942
Stein Is Killed by the Nazis
Born into a German Jewish family, Edith Stein Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), philosopher, founder of
converted to Roman Catholicism and became a phenomenology, and Stein’s mentor
Carmelite nun. After her arrest by German authorities
in the Netherlands, she, along with her sister, was Summary of Event
deported with other “Catholic Jews” and killed at Nazi policy was designed to annihilate all people who
Auschwitz in Poland. Her subsequent canonization in (by Nazi racial definition) were Jewish, but the policy
1998 raised the issue of whether she was martyred as a was kept secret and implemented only in stages. Many
Catholic or as a Jew. Europeans of Jewish heritage thus believed that they
might be spared if they cooperated with the authorities.
Locale: Poland
Some individuals who had been born into Jewish fami-
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; religion,
lies but who had converted to Christianity were led to be-
theology, and ethics; women’s issues
lieve that they would be spared. Edith Stein’s life story
Key Figures shows that those hopes were illusory.
Edith Stein (Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross; 1891- Stein was born into a middle-class German Jewish
1942), Carmelite nun family in Breslau (now Wrocuaw, Poland) on October 12,
Auguste Courant Stein (c. 1852-1936), Stein’s mother 1891. Her family was well assimilated into German cul-
183
Stein Is Killed by the Nazis The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ture, even as it was true to its observant Jewish heritage. alized that the decision would be a bitter pill for her
Stein’s father died when she was only two years old, and mother, and she broke the news to her as gently as possi-
she was devoted to her pious and hardworking mother ble. During that same year she wrote a brief autobiogra-
Auguste Courant Stein. In her mid-teenage years Stein phy, Aus dem Leben einer jüdischen Familie (1985; Life
said she gave up all religious belief and became an athe- in a Jewish Family, 1986), which showed great respect
ist. She showed her intellectual brilliance in secondary for her Jewish family and upbringing. From her point of
school and entered Breslau University when she was view, being a daughter of the Jewish people was not in-
nineteen years old, one of only a few women to enter uni- consistent with her position as a dedicated Christian nun.
versity training in Germany at that time. In 1913 she en- Unlike some converts from Judaism, she retained warm
tered Gottingen University; she eventually moved to and positive feelings toward the faith of her parents, even
Freiburg University in 1916, where she completed her as she dedicated herself to a disciplined Christian life.
doctoral dissertation (On the Problem of Empathy) and During the early years of Nazi rule, many German
earned her doctorate in philosophy in 1917 under the di- Jews hoped they could remain in their homeland until
rection of German philosopher Edmund Husserl, the times improved. Jews who had converted to Christianity
founder of phenomenology. While his student, she came were particularly hopeful, even after the Nuremberg
into close contact with others of Jewish background who Laws of 1935 defined “the Jew” in biological terms.
had converted to Christianity, both Protestant and Ro- These hopes were crushed by the violence of the
man Catholic. After earning her doctorate, she became a Kristallnacht pogrom of 1938. On the night of December
major proponent of Husserl’s work. 31, Stein escaped the Nazis by crossing the border into
Even with her academic achievements, she found that the Netherlands to join the Carmel cloister at Echt.
as a Jewish woman she had no chance of gaining a profes- In Echt, Stein was assigned to continue her philosoph-
sorship at a German university. While staying with friends ical and theological work, turning to a study of Saint John
in 1921 she read the autobiography of Saint Teresa of of the Cross (1542-1591). When Hitler attacked Poland
Avila (1515-1582), founder of the Carmelite order of in 1939, the Netherlands declared its neutrality, but the
nuns. Stein became deeply moved and prepared for her Nazis nevertheless overran the country in 1940. By 1942,
baptism as a Roman Catholic. Her conversion would be the deportation of Dutch Jews began in earnest, though
greatly painful to her mother, so she proceeded cautiously the Nazis claimed that converts to Christianity would not
and deliberately, spending considerable time with her be harmed. To protest Nazi racism and anti-Semitism,
family even while studying Catholicism. She was bap- the Roman Catholic Church in the Netherlands publicly
tized January 1, 1922, and took a teaching position at a issued a pastoral letter. In retaliation, the German occu-
Catholic school for women in Speyer, where she resided pation authorities dropped the exemption for converts
among Dominican sisters. She remained there until 1931. and began arresting people of “Jewish blood,” including
Stein’s publications in philosophy, her teaching, and Stein, all over the country. She had been hoping for a
her presentations on the role of women in education transfer to a Carmelite convent in Switzerland, but nego-
were all widely praised, particularly within the Catholic tiations were difficult. The Gestapo arrested her and her
community in Germany. In 1932, she took a position at sister Rosa Stein (who was also at the cloister) on August
an educational institute in Muenster, and her German 2, and they were transported to Westerbork, the German
translation of Thomas Aquinas’s Quaestiones disputatae concentration camp in the Netherlands. A few days later,
de Veritate (1256-1259; English translation, 1932) ap- the Dutch Jews at the camp were loaded onto cattle cars
peared in the same year. In early 1933, Adolf Hitler took bound for Auschwitz.
power in Germany, ending Stein’s chances for an aca- Although no death certificate for Stein exists, all evi-
demic career; Hitler’s rise would also lead to her death in dence indicates that she was killed on August 9, along
1942. She was considered of the “Jewish race” under with everyone else on that transport, on arrival at
Nazi definitions, and her Catholic faith was disregarded. Auschwitz. Fragmentary evidence also suggests that she
In the face of the Nazis, Stein joined the Carmelite or- went to her death with quiet dignity, seeking to comfort
der of nuns, a strictly cloistered community with convents the suffering people around her. Her written final testa-
throughout the Roman Catholic world. At the age of ment indicates that she saw her death as submission to
forty-two she entered the convent as a novice, taking the the will of God, for the honor and glory of his name, for
name Sister Teresa Benedicta in honor of Saint Teresa, the needs of his holy church, for the Jewish people, for
who had been a strong influence on Stein’s life. Stein re- the deliverance of Germany, and for her own relatives.
184
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Stein Is Killed by the Nazis
Those who saw her during her final days spoke later of a 2006. An anthology of scholarly papers that examine
saintly aura that seemed to surround her, in the middle of Edith Stein as a German, a Jew, a Catholic, a philoso-
chaos and despair. pher, and a feminist.
Cargas, Harry James, ed. The Unnecessary Problem of
Significance
Edith Stein. Lanham, Md.: University Press of Amer-
Edith Stein was recognized after World War II as an ex-
ica, 1994. Careful but sharply differing interpreta-
traordinary woman and a brilliant intellectual at a time
tions of Edith Stein and her case for sainthood, from
when few women were permitted an academic life. She
Roman Catholic, Jewish, and personal perspectives.
was a dedicated convert to Christianity who nevertheless
Herbstrith, Waltraud. Edith Stein: A Biography. Trans-
continued to honor her Jewish origins. She was a humble
lated by Bernard Bonowitz. San Francisco: Harper &
nun who sought the discipline of a strictly cloistered life
Row, 1985. A brief but scholarly biography by a
while reaching out to people through her teaching and
member of the Carmelite order. Based on a careful
1942
writing. She was a saintly martyr who was murdered by
reading of Stein’s many philosophical and personal
Nazi tyranny.
writings.
The case for Stein’s sainthood was advanced during
MacIntyre, Alasdair. Edith Stein: A Philosophical Pro-
the 1960’s. She was officially beatified by Pope John
logue, 1913-1922. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Lit-
Paul II in 1987, and he elevated her to sainthood in 1998.
tlefield, 2006. Considers Stein’s lifetime work in the
This profound recognition was considered by some to be
context of her philosophical training in the early years
a positive gesture by John Paul II toward the Jews, but
of her studies and education.
not all agreed with this assessment. Questions remain:
Mosley, Joanne. Edith Stein: Modern Saint and Martyr.
Was Stein honored as a Jewish martyr or as a Christian
Mahwah, N.J.: HiddenSpring, 2006. A biographical
martyr? Did her philosophical and theological writings
account of Stein’s work in Catholicism and religious
perpetuate the concept of supercessionism, arguing that
philosophy. Also treats Stein’s legacy as a martyr.
Christianity superseded Judaism after the resurrection of
Spector, Scott. “Edith Stein’s Passing Gestures: Intimate
Jesus Christ? Did this supreme recognition of a woman
Histories, Empathetic Portraits.” New German Cri-
who abandoned Judaism in favor of Catholicism imply
tique no. 75 (1998): 28-56. A well-documented study
that only those Jews who give up their faith are truly wor-
of Stein, inspired in part by her canonization.
thy? Among Christians and among Jews opinions vary
on whether Stein’s sainthood furthered Jewish-Christian
See also: Sept. 30-Oct. 1, 1943: Citizens Rescue Dan-
understanding.
ish Jews from Germans; Feb. 11, 1945: Soviet Exiles
Stein’s death at the hands of the Nazis could easily
and Prisoners of War Are Forced into Repatriation;
have been forgotten within the vast bloodshed of World
Apr. 9, 1945: Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the Nazis;
War II and the Holocaust. Her canonization, however,
Oct. 24, 1945: Norwegians Execute Nazi Collabora-
has kept her legacy alive.
tor Quisling; 1946: Jaspers Examines Germany’s
—Gordon R. Mork
Collective Responsibility for War Crimes; 1956:
Further Reading Wiesel’s Night Recalls the Holocaust; 1959: Grass
Berkman, Joyce Avrech, ed. Contemplating Edith Stein. Publishes The Tin Drum; 1963: Arendt Speculates on
South Bend, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, the Banality of Evil.
185
Battle of Stalingrad The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
August 19, 1942-February 2, 1943

Battle of Stalingrad
The Battle of Stalingrad marked one of the most forces were halted before Moscow in December, 1941,
significant turning points in World War II: Soviet and Joseph Stalin ordered a successful counteroffensive
forces defeated the German Sixth Army after a hard- that forced a partial German withdrawal in that sector.
fought campaign lasting five months. The Germans’ Hitler ordered the German troops to stand fast, however,
surrender represented a permanent momentum shift in and they dug in for the winter. By the spring of 1942,
their invasion of the Soviet Union. when major military operations resumed, the Germans
were still deep within the Soviet Union and Hitler could
Locale: Stalingrad, Soviet Union (now Volgograd, plan a renewed assault aimed at forcing Russia to sur-
Russia) render.
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil Hitler increasingly took personal command of the
unrest German troops on the eastern front, issuing orders to his
Key Figures commanders and interfering with military operations.
Vasily Chuikov (1900-1982), Russian commander of His plans for 1942 had two primary objectives: the cap-
the Sixty-second Army, responsible for the ture of Leningrad in the north, and a drive upon the
immediate defense of Stalingrad Donets industrial basin in the Ukraine and the Caucasus
Hermann Göring (1893-1946), German commander of oil fields in southern Russia. By midsummer, the Ger-
the Luftwaffe mans still had been unable to capture Leningrad. To the
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- south, the Germans drove the Russians back and were
1945 advancing toward the vital oil fields. Hitler now turned
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; his attention upon the city of Stalingrad, to protect his left
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central flank from Soviet counterattack.
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Stalingrad, an industrial city, was situated on the
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 Volga River. If the city could be captured, vital river traf-
Erich von Manstein (Erich von Lewinski; 1887-1973), fic, especially oil being shipped to Moscow, could be
commander of the German army group on the Don stopped. Furthermore, an attack would draw in the Rus-
front sian army to battle the German forces with the expecta-
Friedrich Paulus (1890-1957), commander of the tion of further German victories. Hitler believed that
German Sixth Army at Stalingrad Russian reserves were small and the defeat of these So-
Konstantin Rokossovsky (1896-1968), Russian viet troops would topple Stalin’s regime. To achieve his
commander at the Don front goal, he ordered General Friedrich Paulus and the Ger-
Andrey Yeremenko (1892-1970), Russian commander man Sixth Army to capture Stalingrad and seize the left
at the southeast front, including Stalingrad bank of the Volga in order to halt river traffic.
Georgy Zhukov (1896-1974), Soviet deputy Troops of the Sixth Army reached the Stalingrad area
commander in chief by late August, attacking the city on August 19. As fore-
seen, the Russians rallied to the defense of the city. Dur-
Summary of Event ing the extended fighting, lasting several months, the city
When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June of was reduced to rubble. This made the German task even
1941, Adolf Hitler was determined to conquer that nation more difficult, for pockets of resistance within the city
and force a surrender within six months. German armies continued to plague the Germans even after the main por-
using blitzkrieg (“lightning war”) tactics were victorious tion of the town was taken. Fighting continued into No-
in the south, with the capture of Kiev, and their soldiers vember.
reached the outskirts of Leningrad in the north. Hitler’s Meanwhile General Georgy Zhukov, in charge of
goal of a rapid and total victory was not realized, how- overall Soviet forces, planned a counteroffensive to re-
ever, because of delays in beginning the invasion, bad lieve Stalingrad and break the German advance toward
weather, logistical problems, Soviet resistance, and the the Caucasus region. Because Paulus’s Sixth Army was
German strategic plan calling for a broad frontal attack overextended and German troops were forced to cover a
instead of a decisive single thrust to Moscow. German long flank, Zhukov formed two armies, commanded by
186
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of Stalingrad
General Andrey Yeremenko and General Konstantin within thirty miles of Stalingrad but could get no farther,
Rokossovsky. Their assignment was to encircle the Ger- especially after Zhukov launched an offensive against
mans. On November 19, 1942, these two armies began his supply lines.
an enveloping maneuver to trap Paulus in Stalingrad. By By early January, 1943, Paulus had lost any chance of
November 24, Paulus and 250,000 men were encircled in breaking out of the encirclement. His troops were tired,
the Stalingrad “pocket.” cold, and hungry, and they lacked adequate ammunition.
The Germans had a reasonable chance to break out Relentless Soviet attacks, plus growing casualties and
from the Stalingrad area until approximately mid- freezing weather, wore down the Germans in the
December. Despite pleas from his generals, Hitler or- “pocket.” Hitler still ordered Paulus not to surrender but
dered Paulus to stand fast and hold the ground already to fight to the last man if necessary. He even promoted
captured. The German führer also ordered Field Marshal Paulus to the rank of field marshal, on the theory that no
Erich von Manstein, commander of Germany Army German officer of such high rank had surrendered.
1942
Group Don, to advance toward Stalingrad to lift the siege Paulus’s men could not resist further, and on February 2,
and supply Paulus. Hermann Göring, commander of the 1943, the Sixth Army capitulated to the Russians. Ap-
Luftwaffe, the German air force, assured Hitler that he proximately one hundred thousand Germans became
could supply Paulus by air. prisoners when the battle ended.
When it became apparent that the Luftwaffe would Casualties on both sides in the Stalingrad campaign
not be able to carry out its task, partly because of logisti- likely will never be known with precision. Estimates
cal problems and severe weather conditions, Manstein suggest that as many as two hundred thousand Germans
asked Hitler to order Paulus to break out of the city and had died by the final capitulation. Germany and its allies
join his relief force; otherwise, Manstein said he would (Hungary, Italy, and Romania) may have suffered as
not be able to relieve Paulus. Hitler refused Manstein’s many as one million total casualties in the overall cam-
request, for the possession of Stalingrad had become a paign. Soviet military casualties are estimated at a mini-
point of prestige. Manstein’s forces fought their way to mum of 750,000 killed, wounded, and missing. Civilian
Goebbels Argues for Total War

On February 18, 1943, Joseph Goebbels spoke before a spe- The war of mechanized robots against Germany and Eu-
cially selected audience to rally the German nation after rope has reached its high point. In resisting the grave and di-
losses on the Russian front. His anti-Semitism is clear: rect threat with its weapons, the German people and its Axis
allies are fulfilling in the truest sense of the word a Euro-
The paralysis of the Western European democracies be- pean mission. Our courageous and just battle against this
fore their deadliest threat is frightening. International Jewry worldwide plague will not be hindered by the worldwide
is doing all it can to encourage such paralysis. During our outcry of International Jewry. It can and must end only with
struggle for power in Germany, Jewish newspapers tried to victory. . . .
conceal the danger, until National Socialism awakened the Total war is the demand of the hour. . . . The time has come
people. It is just the same today in other nations. Jewry once to remove the kid gloves and use our fists. We can no longer
again reveals itself as the incarnation of evil, as the plastic make only partial and careless use of the war potential at
demon of decay and the bearer of an international culture- home and in the significant parts of Europe that we control.
destroying chaos. This explains, by the way, our consistent We must use our full resources, as quickly and thoroughly as
Jewish policies. We see Jewry as a direct threat to every na- it is organizationally and practically possible. Unnecessary
tion. We do not care what other peoples do about the danger. concern is wholly out of place. . . . Those who today do not
What we do to defend ourselves is our own business, how- understand that will thank us tomorrow on bended knees that
ever, and we will not tolerate objections from others. Jewry we courageously and firmly took on the task.
is a contagious infection. Enemy nations may raise hypocrit-
Source: Joseph Goebbels, “Nun, Volk steh auf, and Sturm brich
ical protests against our measures against Jewry and cry
los! Rede im Berliner Sportpalast.” In Der steile Augsteig
crocodile tears, but that will not stop us from doing that (Munich: Zentraverlag der NSDAP, 1944). Translated by
which is necessary. Germany, in any event, has no intention Randall Bytwerk for the German Propaganda Archive.
of bowing before this threat, but rather intends to take the http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa.
most radical measures. . . .
187
Battle of Stalingrad The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
losses are in addition. These numbers scarcely

begin to convey the full horror of the battle for
the participants.
Significance
The massive German defeat at Stalingrad
marked the turn of the tide on the eastern front,
for Germany never again won a major battle
in that region. Powerful and numerically su-
perior Soviet forces now undertook a series
of offensive campaigns to liberate their na-
tion from Nazi control. They continued to
push the Germans back for the next two years,
until the Russians captured Berlin in April,
1945, and World War II came to an end in
early May.
— José M. Sánchez and Taylor Stults
Further Reading
Carell, Paul. Hitler Moves East, 1941-1943.
Translated by Ewald Osers. Boston: Little,
Brown, 1965. Comprehensive coverage of
military campaigns on the eastern front.
Chuikov, Vasily I. The Battle for Stalingrad.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1964. Memoirs by the Russian commander
of the Sixty-second Army at Stalingrad.
Craig, William. Enemy at the Gates: The Bat-
tle for Stalingrad. New York: E. P. Dutton, Two women make their way through the rubble during the siege of Stalin-
1973. Includes events leading to the Stalin- grad. (Library of Congress)
grad campaign, plus many details of the
battle itself.
Goerlitz, Walter. Paulus and Stalingrad. New York: Cit- York: Hippocrene Books, 1992. Clearly written ac-
adel Press, 1964. Uneven but useful biography of the count based on German and Russian sources.
German commander of the Sixth Army. Ziemke, Earl F., and M. E. Bauer. Moscow to Stalingrad:
Khrushchev, Nikita. Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev. Decision in the East. New York: Military Heritage
Edited by Sergei Khrushchev. Translated by George Press, 1988. Covers the 1941 German invasion to the
Shriver and Stephen Shenfield. Vol. 1. University end of the Stalingrad campaign in early 1943.
Park: Pennsylvania State University, 2004. This vol-
ume of the Soviet premier’s memoirs deals with his See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
life through the end of World War II. Includes a chap- European Theater; Apr. 6-30, 1941: Germany
ter detailing his experience of the Battle of Stalingrad Mounts the Balkan Offensive; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8,
and its importance to the overall Soviet campaign. 1942: Germany Invades Russia; Dec. 11, 1941: Ger-
Bibliographic references and index. many and Italy Declare War on the United States; Jan.
Richardson, William, and Seymour Freiden, eds. The 20, 1942: Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solu-
Fatal Decisions. Translated by Constantine Fitz- tion”; June 6, 1944: Invasion of Normandy Begins the
Gibbon. London: Michael Joseph, 1956. Includes a Liberation of Europe; Sept. 12, 1944: Allied Forces
useful analysis of the Stalingrad campaign, by the for- Begin the Battle for Germany; Dec. 16, 1944-Jan.,
mer chief of the German army general staff. 1945: Battle of the Bulge; May 8, 1945: V-E Day
Tarrant, V. E. Stalingrad: Anatomy of an Agony. New Marks the End of World War II in Europe.
188
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Legal Slavery Ends in Ethiopia
August 27, 1942

Legal Slavery Ends in Ethiopia
Bowing to international pressure, first from the League who worked the land—on large fruit and coffee planta-
of Nations and then from the Allied Powers during tions, in the gold mines in the Adowa region, and, espe-
World War II, the Ethiopian government decided to cially in northern Ethiopia, in subsistence households
abolish slavery. The proclamation outlawing slavery producing cereals and pulses (various legumes) and rais-
had little immediate effect, because it relied on local ing livestock.
jurisdictions for enforcement, but over time slavery in Ethiopian imperial officials wanted to create a cen-
Ethiopia began to disappear. tralized and modern state that could present itself to the
world as a civilized country. Emperor Menelik II in par-
Locale: Ethiopia ticular had despised the slave trade, because it caused the
1942
Category: Social issues and reform rest of the world to see Ethiopia as a backward country.
Key Figures Menelik undertook to limit or abolish the slave trade
Haile Selassie I (Ras Tafari; 1892-1975), emperor of through imperial decrees before 1907, but without mea-
Ethiopia, r. 1930-1936 and 1941-1974 surable results. His opposition to the slave trade figured
Francis Edwin de Halpert (1883-1971), British adviser in civil strife experienced by the nation between 1907
to the Ethiopian Ministry of the Interior, 1930-1933, and the emperor’s demise in 1913. The government’s po-
and to the Slavery Department, 1932-1933 sition under Menelik was curious, however, because it
Menelik II (1844-1913), emperor of Ethiopia, r. 1889- refused to acknowledge or oppose slavery itself; it only
1913 opposed the trade in slaves. Such a contradictory stance
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Italian dictator, 1925- was probably doomed to failure.
1943 Ras Tafari, the future Emperor Haile Selassie, be-
came head of the Ethiopian government in 1916, as re-
Summary of Event gent of Empress Zauditu, Menelik’s daughter. He did lit-
The abolition of slavery by the imperial government of tle to limit the growth either of the slave trade or of the
Ethiopia was a protracted and ambiguous process in- institution of slavery. Slavery was a manifestation of lo-
volving both domestic and international factors. The cal landlord prerogatives, and, therefore, any real effort
principal catalysts were the League of Nations, the Ital- by the central government to challenge slavery would
ian invasion and occupation of the country from 1935 to quickly have encouraged the disintegration of the state.
1941, Emperor Haile Selassie I, and an oscillating Ethio- Tafari was one of three regents who tried to gain Ethi-
pian political economy. opia admission to the League of Nations. The United
Ethiopia is a multiethnic, multilinguistic, multireli- Kingdom, Italy, and other members of the league op-
gious nation. The diversity of its population has always posed Ethiopia’s entry, because the slave trade and slav-
influenced the practice of slavery in the region, as differ- ery were still practiced in Ethiopia. The country’s slave
ent races, language groups, and religions have been sub- raids were especially offensive to the British, since slave
jugated in hierarchies that favored other races, language raiders crossed into British colonies. The United King-
groups, and religions. Slavery became a material repre- dom’s long-standing opposition to the slave trade was a
sentation of that subjugation, as well as a practice that major reason for its interest in questioning the status of
maintained the social hierarchies. Ethiopia, although British territorial ambitions should
Historically, Ethiopia’s emperors had only partial not be discounted. The British government believed in
control over the country; the princes and nobles, or ras, the “white man’s burden” of “civilizing” what it per-
were landowners who were able to exploit much of the ceived to be backward cultures. After many pledges to
land under a system called gabar, which was a form of abolish the slave trade and slavery, Ethiopia was admit-
serfdom. Gabar was a system both of rents and of tribute ted to the League of Nations in 1923, with France as its
to landlords and local nobles. Slavery was an important main supporter.
component of Ethiopia’s social and economic life. It har- The imperial government of Ethiopia passed a law in
monized with a configuration of ancient traditions bene- 1923 to satisfy the League of Nations’ insistence that it
fiting both the local aristocracy and small farmers. Those abolish slavery. The law merely prohibited slave raiding
who owned land inevitably owned the human beings across international borders. Another imperial procla-
189
Legal Slavery Ends in Ethiopia The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
mation on March 31, 1924, declared that slaves born into After the Allies invaded Ethiopia, liberating it from
slavery after the date of the proclamation should be freed Italy, Haile Selassie had little choice but to reinforce his
upon the death of their master; however, supposedly earlier attempts to abolish the slave trade and finally to
freed former slaves were required to remain with the end slavery itself. The British were not prepared to re-
family that had owned them for seven years. This law and store Haile Selassie to his throne unconditionally. The
others were powerless effectively to liberate slaves. emperor had to prove to them that he was going to rid
The several proclamations were aimed at an interna- Ethiopia of slavery. Haile Selassie had consistently dem-
tional audience and international perceptions, rather than onstrated his disdain for slavery but was timid in con-
being designed to institute real reform. Ethiopia was try- fronting the political risks involved with an outright as-
ing to maintain its independence within a sea of Euro- sault on the practice.
pean colonialism. It is therefore incorrect to claim that On November 11, 1941, Haile Selassie abolished the
Ethiopia abolished slavery in 1924. It did not: It only gabar form of tenancy. This was an important step to-
made public gestures in that direction. The reality of at- ward the abolition of slavery. The gabar system of ten-
taining abolition would be arduous and protracted. ancy was a kind of extortion, including a tithe to the
Haile Selassie became emperor in 1930 after the death emperor, forced requisitions of grain or firewood, porter-
of Zauditu. He began to transfer more political authority age, and other forms of labor obligations.
from local, hereditary potentates to the imperial govern- On August 27, 1942, Emperor Haile Selassie issued
ment in Addis Ababa. Emperor Haile Selassie accepted the proclamation to abolish slavery in Ethiopia. It re-
as his adviser on slavery a Briton, Francis Edwin de peated the two main antislavery measures of the 1930’s.
Halpert. De Halpert directed the antislavery bureau and The proclamation accepted the 1926 convention’s defi-
guided antislavery legislation. In 1931, an imperial edict nition of slavery as any form of servile labor against the
required the registration of slaves and the manumission will of the individual, and it called for the immediate abo-
of slaves upon their masters’ deaths. Haile Selassie vowed lition of the legal status of slavery. The weakness of the
that slavery would end in fifteen or twenty years. De proclamation was that it placed the responsibility for en-
Halpert did not believe that the emperor was truly com- forcement of the law on local courts, courts that were
mitted to abolishing the slave trade or slavery; he re- controlled by slaveowners, the nobility, and small-
signed as adviser to the emperor on antislavery matters holders. Transporting slaves and participating in the
in 1933. slave trade were made capital offenses. Alternative
Meanwhile, the Italians began to represent them- forms of punishment included forty lashes, a $10,000
selves as civilizers and Ethiopians as slavers and barbari- fine, or a maximum of twenty years in a local jail.
ans. This representation was used to justify Italian ag-
gression against the Ethiopian empire in 1935. Italy took Significance
control of Ethiopia in 1936 and announced the liberation The 1942 proclamation was a landmark in Ethiopian his-
of 400,000 slaves in areas under its military control. De- tory. Its goals, however, took a long time to achieve in
spite the Italians’ claim, slavery continued to exist in ar- practice. Haile Selassie did not seriously alter the politi-
eas under their control. The Italian government paid cal economy of Ethiopia as it pertained to slavery or any
Ethiopian workers but did not pursue a consistent pro- other major component of the body politic. He did start a
gram to liberate slaves. process that moved the country closer to protecting its
Italian occupation, however, did have a salutary effect citizens’ human rights. It is not too far-fetched to com-
on the political economy of Ethiopia. The gabar system pare Haile Selassie’s accomplishments with those of
of tenancy was at least damaged by allowing many tenant U.S. president Abraham Lincoln, whose Emancipation
farmers to escape an oppressive serfdom that differed little Proclamation was also ineffective in the short term. In
from outright slavery. In short, although the Italians acted time, the institutions of slavery and sharecropping were
solely out of their desire to create an Italian empire and not extinguished in both the United States and Ethiopia.
for any altruistic motive, their occupation of Ethiopia un- Reports of slave raiding in the 1950’s were plentiful.
dermined serfdom and weakened the institution of slav- The annual report of the Anti-Slavery Society for 1954-
ery, aiding the slaves in their quest for freedom. Moreover, 1955 told of escaped slaves from Ethiopia fleeing to the
while the Italians built roads and generally improved the Sudan, with their masters in hot pursuit. Ethiopians and
infrastructure of their controlled areas, Ethiopia was Europeans were still engaged in a flourishing slave trade
never under complete Italian military control. in the 1960’s between Ethiopia and Saudi Arabia. There
190
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Legal Slavery Ends in Ethiopia
was continued ambiguity in the socioeconomic situation the various factors which helped shape the forms of
in Ethiopia as it pertained to slavery. A raised conscious- the slave trade. African slaves were found in many un-
ness about human rights and individual liberties in Africa likely places. The nineteenth century notion, carried
gave some hope that countries might soon understand the into the twentieth century, that slavery was benign is
significance of respecting the dignity and individual lib- powerfully debunked by the cruelty of the trade.
erties of human beings. In the Ethiopian case, the 1942 Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia. Rev. ed. Berke-
proclamation was an incipient step taken toward abolish- ley: University of California Press, 2002. Provides a
ing slavery and morally challenging the legitimacy of it. brief history of the complex nation. Illustrated with
—Claude Hargrove maps and photos, and includes a glossary and bibliog-
raphy.
Further Reading
_______. The Life and Times of Menelik II: 1844-1913.
Bekele, Gaitachew. The Emperor’s Clothes: A Personal
Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1975. Describes
1942
Viewpoint on Politics and Administration in the Impe-
the expansion of Ethiopia to the south and east. These
rial Ethiopian Government, 1941-1974. East Lan-
conquests drastically enlarged the supply of slaves
sing: Michigan State University Press, 1993. The au-
and aided Ethiopia in maintaining itself as an inde-
thor, a former member of the Ethiopian government,
pendent state in the midst of European colonization.
describes his personal experiences.
O’Callaghan, Sean. The Slave Trade Today. New York:
Derrick, Jonathan. Africa’s Slaves Today. New York:
Crown, 1961. An eyewitness account of slavery in
Schocken Books, 1975. Examines the custom of hu-
Ethiopia and other African countries during the
man slavery in its various forms. This is both a fasci-
1950’s. The author witnessed a slave auction in Saudi
nating and an exhaustive study. Slavery in twentieth
Arabia. This personal account is valuable for its pas-
century Africa is described as indistinct from other
sionate description of the brutal business of the slave
forms of labor.
trade.
Haile Selassie. My Life and Ethiopia’s Progress, 1892-
Roberts, A. D., ed. The Cambridge History of Africa,
1937: The Autobiography of Haile Selassie I. Edited
1905-1940. New York: Cambridge University Press,
and translated by E. Ullendorff. New York: Oxford
1986. Gives a solid account of the domestic and for-
University Press, 1976. A worthwhile book, even
eign relations of Ethiopia. While the survey is rather
though self-serving. Haile Selassie’s views clash with
sketchy, it reveals arcane bits and pieces of modern
reality, but they also shaped reality.
Ethiopian history. A good and quick background for
Keller, Edmond J. Revolutionary Ethiopia: From Em-
any general reader interested in Ethiopia.
pire to People’s Republic. Bloomington: Indiana Uni-
versity Press, 1988. Supplemented with maps, tables, See also: Dec. 2, 1949: United Nations Convention
and footnotes, this book provides a well-researched Suppressing Human Trafficking Is Adopted; Oct. 23,
description and analysis of the history of Ethiopian 1953-Sept. 4, 1956: United Nations Amends Its Inter-
government. national Slavery Treaty; June 25, 1957: United Na-
Manning, Patrick. Slavery and African Life: Occidental, tions Adopts the Abolition of Forced Labor Conven-
Oriental, and African Slave Trades. New York: Cam- tion; Dec. 16, 1966: United Nations Covenant on
bridge University Press, 1990. A contextual view of Civil and Political Rights Is Adopted.
191
Lindeman’s “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” Is Published The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
October, 1942
Lindeman’s “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology”
Is Published
Raymond L. Lindeman’s landmark paper “The speculative. The journal’s editor, Thomas Park, turned
Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” described large the article down based on their opinions. Lindeman re-
environmental systems in terms of energy vised the article, and it was eventually accepted for pub-
transformation. His work, which led to the lication, but not without the strong support of G. Evelyn
development of the field of ecology, proposed a Hutchinson, who was instrumental in the formation of
dynamic ecology of “ecosystems,” that is, organic/ Lindeman’s ideas. Hutchinson pointed out the impor-
inorganic processes and their environment functioning tance of Lindeman’s theories in the development of the
as a complex unit, or system. science of ecology. The paper was published in the fall of
1942, after Lindeman had died of a liver disorder of un-
known origin on June 29, 1942. He knew that his work
Categories: Biology; environmental issues; science
would be published but never knew the significant im-
and technology
pact it was to have on the future of ecology.
Key Figures Lindeman’s theories were based on his five-year
Raymond L. Lindeman (1915-1942), Sterling Fellow in study of Cedar Bog Lake, a shallow, weedy body of
Biology at Yale University water. This study was conducted for his doctoral disser-
G. Evelyn Hutchinson (1903-1991), professor at Yale tation, awarded by the University of Minnesota. Linde-
University, consulting editor for the journal man and his spouse, Eleanor Lindeman, who was also a
Ecology, and adviser to Lindeman biologist, extensively sampled the population of aquatic
Thomas Park (1908-1992), professor at the University plants, phytoplankton, grazing and predatory zooplank-
of Chicago and former editor of Ecology ton, benthic animals, crustaceans, and fish. Lindeman
Chancey Juday (1871-1944), professor at the was partially blind in one eye as a result of a childhood
University of Wisconsin and a reviewer for Ecology accident and depended on Eleanor for much of the micro-
Paul S. Welch (b. 1882), professor at the University of scope work, while he concentrated on the chemical anal-
Michigan and a reviewer for Ecology ysis. This detailed study of the lake enabled him to gain a
Summary of Event great understanding of the movement of nutrients from
Raymond L. Lindeman’s scientific paper “The Trophic- one trophic level to another and the various feeding rela-
Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” was published posthu- tionships that existed in this ecosystem. Lindeman pub-
mously in the scientific journal Ecology in October, lished most of his data from Cedar Bog Lake in other pa-
1942. The paper described ecosystems in terms of energy pers. “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” was
transformation, presenting ecological concepts devel- based on the last chapter of his dissertation. It was put
oped from Lindeman’s research on food interactions of into final form while Lindeman was a Sterling Fellow in
organisms in Cedar Bog Lake (or Cedar Creek Bog) in biology at Yale University working closely with Hutch-
Minnesota. Lindeman integrated food cycle dynamics inson.
and community succession. He attempted to construct Lindeman summarized the earlier ideas of commu-
the first energy budget for an entire ecosystem. The ideas nity in ecology. He outlined three stages. The first stage
presented in this paper provided a framework for future included early surveys of lakes and organisms that in-
research on energy flow and nutrient budgets in ecosys- habit them. This view defined lakes as static entities and
tems and were the foundation for the development of sys- was concerned with the distribution of species. The sec-
tems ecology (the study of entire living systems). ond stage in the evolution of community concepts was
Lindeman’s paper was initially rejected on recom- the dynamic viewpoint that emphasized community suc-
mendations of Paul S. Welch and Chancey Juday, two cession. Succession refers to changes that ecosystems go
well-respected limnological ecologists and reviewers for through over time. In the case of lakes, they eventually
Ecology. They believed that there were not enough data fill in with silt and become terrestrial habitats. The size of
to support the generalizations that Lindeman was pro- the lake and other factors determine the time this change
posing in the paper. In their view, the article was too will take. The third stage was the trophic-dynamic view.
192
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Lindeman’s “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” Is Published
Trophic Dynamics ondary carnivores on the fourth level. This means that no
matter how much energy is processed by the producers
Biologist Raymond L. Lindeman’s groundbreaking on the first level of an ecosystem, the number of trophic
1942 paper in the journal Ecology (issue 23) on ecosys- levels that the ecosystem can sustain is limited by the
tems and energy transformation defined “trophic dy- second law of thermodynamics. The usual number of
namics”: trophic levels is four or five.
Although certain aspects of food relations have been
known for centuries, many processes within ecosystems Significance
are still very incompletely understood. The basic pro- The impact of Lindeman’s paper was not evident until
cess in trophic dynamics is the transfer of energy from the late 1940’s, but his essay is now widely recognized as
one part of the ecosystem to another. All function, and one of the major turning points in the history of the fields
indeed all life, within an ecosystem depends upon the of ecology and limnology (freshwater ecology). The pa-
1942
utilization of an external source of energy, solar radia- per provided a sound conceptual model that produced a
tion. A portion of this incident energy is transformed by major shift in the way ecologists approached the study of
the process of photosynthesis into the structure of living ecosystems. They began to look at entire ecosystems as
organisms. the important unit of study. Many ecologists turned away
from the previously popular “reductionist” viewpoint of
studying only one or a few species and took the holistic
view. The importance of the change in mind-set was
This view emphasized the role that energy relationships well illustrated when Eugene P. Odum used the energy-
within the community have on the process of succession. ecosystem approach as the central theme in his now clas-
Lindeman created the trophic-dynamic viewpoint to sic textbook Fundamentals of Ecology (1953). This was
integrate knowledge of food cycle dynamics with princi- the most commonly used text of the next two decades,
ples of community succession. He began his paper with a and subsequent editions were widely used in many uni-
discussion of community concepts that stressed the func- versity ecology courses. Most important modern ecol-
tional integration of organic and inorganic cycles of nu- ogy texts employ the same holistic approach as the cen-
tritive substances. Lindeman’s use of the term “ecosys- tral idea in the study of the science of ecology.
tem” was significant, since it gave new life to the concept Lindeman’s paper was the basis for the future mathe-
originally developed by Arthur George Tansley in 1935. matical modeling of ecosystems and the foundation for
In Lindeman’s view, the ecosystem was a basic compo- the field of systems ecology. His major contributions
nent of study for ecologists. were the emphasis on the significant function that the
Lindeman expressed the efficiency of production of a trophic interactions of an ecosystem have in determining
trophic (feeding) level by relating its respiration to the community patterns in ecological succession, the es-
growth. He also determined the productivity of a level in tablishment of a new and solid theoretical foundation for
a food chain as a ratio of the productivity of the previous the science of ecology, and the identification of the basic
level. This is now commonly referred to as Lindeman’s process of energy flow as the factor of primary impor-
ratio, or Lindeman’s efficiency. Lindeman determined tance in ecosystem dynamics. The ideas in his paper be-
that only about 10 percent of the energy in one trophic came the starting point for much of the future research
level is transferred to the next. Most of the energy is into the flow of energy in animal and plant communities.
wasted or used for maintenance of the organism. This as- Many ecological studies rely on the basic theories that
sessment was based on the second law of thermodynam- Lindeman proposed.
ics, which states that no transfer of energy is 100 percent Ecologists now study energetics in even greater detail
efficient. Some energy is always lost. than Lindeman could. Modern methods enable them to
The second law of thermodynamics is often called the do this because of the availability of much more sophisti-
law of entropy. Using Lindeman’s 10 percent figure, an cated technology. Modern ecologists are able to use ra-
imaginary ecosystem with one thousand kilocalories of dioactive tracers to track the flow of materials and energy
energy at the primary-producer level would have only through ecosystems. They can introduce isotopes such as
one hundred kilocalories available to the herbivores of radioactive carbon, phosphorus, and other materials into
the second level. There would be ten kilocalories for car- the primary-producer level of a system and follow the
nivores at the third level, and only one kilocalorie for sec- path that these materials take as they move through the
193
Lindeman’s “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” Is Published The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
higher trophic levels and the decomposition process. stable. The effects of these truncated food chains on the
They can utilize computers to analyze the vast amount of biosphere is unknown. This is an issue that modern ecol-
data that can be obtained in this way. They can employ ogy has only begun to address.
elaborate mathematical techniques and computers to —David W. Allard
produce mathematical models that more accurately de-
pict ecosystem dynamics. These techniques enable them Further Reading
to get better estimates of productivity and energy flow Cook, Robert Edward. “Raymond Lindeman and the
than Lindeman was able to obtain. Studies of this type Trophic-Dynamic Concept in Ecology.” Science, Oc-
have been done in all kinds of habitats, both terrestrial tober 7, 1977, 22-26. A treatment of the history and
and aquatic. These studies generally continue to validate importance of Lindeman’s paper.
Lindeman’s basic theories. Although he had only a short Lindeman, Raymond L. “The Developmental History of
career as an ecologist, he stands as a giant in the field. Cedar Creek Bog, Minnesota.” American Midland
The holistic approach to research is very important as Naturalist 25 (1941): 101-112. A paper based on
humankind continues to alter and disrupt ecosystems Lindeman’s doctoral dissertation describing Cedar
across the planet. It is valuable to be able to predict what Creek Bog.
kinds of changes human activities might produce on the _______. “Seasonal Food-Cycle Dynamics in a Senes-
ecosystem. Ecologists attempt to model the system in or- cent Lake.” American Midland Naturalist 26 (1941):
der to explore the interactions occurring throughout the 636-673. A paper based on Lindeman’s doctoral dis-
ecosystem. This can lead to predictions about the kind of sertation describing food cycle dynamics in Cedar
outcome a particular interference might produce. A deci- Creek Bog.
sion can then be made about the wisdom of a proposed al- _______. “The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect of Ecology.”
teration. The predictions from ecological models are Ecology 23 (1942): 399-418. Lindeman’s classic
rather imprecise, because natural ecosystems are ex- paper.
tremely complicated. There are many relationships be- McIntosh, Robert P. The Background of Ecology: Con-
tween species that are very difficult for the ecologist to cept and Theory. New York: Cambridge University
identify. Any model will represent a simplification of the Press, 1985. A good reference on the historical devel-
actual dynamics of the system, but ecologists hope that opment and importance of events in ecology.
improved techniques will lead to better models and thus Odum, Eugene P. Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadel-
to better predictions. phia: Saunders, 1953. 5th ed. Belmont, Calif.: Thom-
The natural extension of Lindeman’s work is the con- son Brooks/Cole, 2005. A classic text in ecology that
sideration of the energy relationships of the entire bio- utilizes the ecosystem approach.
sphere. This is even more complex than the study of a Woodwell, George M. “The Energy Cycle of the Bio-
single ecosystem, since the ecosystems themselves inter- sphere.” Scientific American 223 (1970): 64-74. An
act within the biosphere. Some ecologists and environ- important paper applying the concepts of energetics
mentalists are concerned that as humans continue to di- to the biosphere.
vert solar energy from natural systems, these systems
and perhaps the biosphere itself could be in danger. Solar See also: 1948: Osborn Publishes Our Plundered
energy is diverted by converting natural ecosystems to Planet; 1948-1953: Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for
agriculture and by paving over land for buildings and the Transformation of Nature; 1950’s-mid-1960’s:
parking lots. These actions eliminate the producer organ- Acid Rain Changes Lake and Riverine Ecology; Oct.
isms and reduce the amount of energy available to the 22, 1951: Nature Conservancy Is Founded; Dec. 10,
higher trophic levels. 1961: Calvin Wins the Nobel Prize for His Work on
A reduction in the amount of energy available to a Photosynthesis; 1962: Bookchin Warns of Health
system could reduce the number of trophic levels and Hazards of Artificial Environments; May, 1967:
thereby simplify the system. This could be a very danger- Greenhouse Effect Is First Predicted; 1968: Canada
ous change, as more diverse ecosystems seem to be more Establishes the Experimental Lakes Area.
194
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Oxford Committee for Famine Relief Is Founded
October 5, 1942
Oxford Committee for Famine Relief Is Founded
Oxfam was founded to help relieve suffering in Within several weeks, regular shipments of supplies be-
Nazi-occupied Greece during World War II. gan to reach the devastated nation.
The Greek population faced starvation and Writer Vera Brittain, who had been involved in hu-
famine after the Germans refused to provide manitarian issues as well, believed that a relief campaign
them with food and medical supplies. Oxfam’s by pacifists would not be taken seriously by the British
mission calls for understanding poverty not as parliament. She encouraged the development of an orga-
a condition of one’s life but as a surmountable nization, which would convey a sense of seriousness and
injustice. focus. Members of the Friends’ Service Council (the per-
manent relief organization of the Quakers) met on April
1942
Also known as: Oxfam 22 to discuss forming a national famine relief committee;
Locale: England; Greece the planned organization was announced on May 29.
Categories: Humanitarianism and philanthropy; Longtime Quaker activist Edith M. Pye was named the
organizations and institutions; social issues and fledgling committee’s honorary secretary, and she
reform; World War II worked to ensure the group’s success by securing sup-
Key Figures porters.
Gilbert Murray (1866-1957), professor at Oxford On October 5, the Oxford Committee for Famine
University Relief had its first meeting. Founding members included
Vera Brittain (1893-1970), pacifist and writer Bell and Gilbert Murray, professor of Greek at Oxford
George Bell (1883-1958), bishop of Chichester University, among many others. The committee’s initial
Edith M. Pye (1876-1965), Quaker activist objectives were to obtain information on food condi-
Cecil Jackson-Cole (1901-1979), businessman and tions in Greece and to promote food relief in other oc-
philanthropist cupied countries. In December, London businessman
Cecil Jackson-Cole was appointed the new honorary sec-
Summary of Event retary of Oxfam. Jackson-Cole remained a driving force
The Oxford Committee for Famine Relief, or Oxfam, behind the committee for many years, and in 1947 he
was founded October 5, 1942, as a response to the devas- would help to open the world’s first permanent charity-
tating human toll of the Nazis’ occupation of Greece dur- run gift shop (operated by Oxfam). Situated in Oxfam’s
ing World War II. In the winter of 1941-1942, the Allies main offices on Broad Street, the store was a drop-off
set up naval blockades to keep supplies from the German location for donations. Profits from the sale of donated
army in Greece. The British government had insisted that goods went directly to the organization to support its
it was the duty of Germany to feed the countries it occu- relief efforts.
pied. The Germans did not believe it was their duty to do After the war, relief committees, ironically, began to
so, however, and kept limited supplies for themselves; shut their doors, because the Marshall Plan had begun to
the Greeks were left with almost nothing, resulting in offer money to countries affected by the fighting and
famine and starvation. bombing. Oxfam, however, realized a need for humani-
News of the starvation reached England and those tarian assistance existed in countries still suffering the ef-
concerned with humanitarian issues. Joining in concern fects of the war. Oxfam organized clothing drives and
were the Society of Friends (or Quakers), a religious and made food shipments, and in 1949 the committee ex-
pacifist group, and students and faculty members of Ox- panded its relief efforts to include those areas suffering
ford University who were opposed to the war. People from non-war-related disasters. For example, Oxfam
were outraged that the British government seemed to be helped countries, especially developing countries, seek-
doing nothing to help the starving people of Greece. ing aid for the repair of their earthquake-damaged infra-
On January 27, 1942, George Bell, the bishop of structures and also for damages caused by civil distur-
Chichester, spoke to the House of Lords in support of an bances. The organization’s motto soon became “Oxfam:
appeal for Greece. Later that day the House of Commons Working for a Fairer World.”
announced that a shipment of wheat would be sent from During the 1950’s, through increased fund-raising
Egypt, through the Allied blockade, and on to Greece. and publicity, Oxfam transformed itself from a small lo-
195
Oxford Committee for Famine Relief Is Founded The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Oxfam Mission Statement Significance

The success of humanitarian organiza-
Oxfam International, a group of independent nongovernmental organizations such as the Oxford Committee for
tions fighting worldwide poverty and other injustices, identifies its mission Famine Relief prompted the formation
in part as follows: of more than two hundred similar com-
mittees in the United Kingdom and other
Oxfams believe that:
1. Poverty and powerlessness are avoidable and can be eliminated by hu-
countries during and after World War II.
man action and political will. Most of these committees disbanded at
2. Basic human needs and rights can be met. These include the rights to a the end of the war, however, because the
sustainable livelihood, and the rights and capacities to participate in need for their services decreased. Oxfam
societies and make positive changes to people’s lives. still survives.
3. Inequalities can be significantly reduced both between rich and poor By the end of the 1960’s, organiza-
nations and within nations. tions such as Oxfam were criticized for
4. Peace and substantial arms reduction are essential conditions for de- creating a “dependent culture” of na-
velopment. tions that relied on other nations for aid.
Oxfam responded to this criticism by fo-
Oxfams understand that: cusing on helping developing countries
5. Poverty is a state of powerlessness in which people are unable to exer-
learn to feed and support themselves.
cise their basic human rights or control virtually any aspect of their
lives. Poverty manifests itself in the inadequacy of material goods and
The committee was equally dedicated
lack of access to basic services and opportunities leading to a condi- to development, emergency aid, and
tion of insecurity. human-rights advocacy, and, critically,
6. All poverty is almost always rooted in human action or inaction. It can it made every effort to portray people in
be made worse by natural calamities, and human violence, oppression developing nations as human beings, not
and environmental destruction. It is maintained by entrenched in- as passive victims. Oxfam field directors
equalities and institutional and economic mechanisms. employed refugees and locals peoples
whenever possible during the organiza-
tion’s responses to natural and human-
made disasters. In rural areas, Oxfam
cal charity to one with international status. It also began conducted classes focused on topics such as nutrition,
to sell handmade crafts, offering small-scale producers family planning, cattle farming, and cooking.
fair prices, training, and advice for their handicrafts. The As the 1960’s drew to a close, Oxfam instituted educa-
program became known as the Oxford Fair Trade Com- tional programs that addressed problems specific to devel-
pany. oping countries and directed its efforts to rid the world of
Oxfam made significant changes by sending teams of poverty. One solution was to provide educational supplies
young people overseas, rather than just sending money and visual aids to schools with the hope that children
or supplies, to help promote food programs. The first would bring critical information home to their parents.
Oxfam field director was sent to southern Africa in 1961 Providing aid to those in need is no easy task. Often at
to begin what was to be the largest developmental pro- great risk, humanitarian groups such as Oxfam have re-
gram in which the committee had ever been involved. sponded to large-scale emergencies and other crises, but
This was also the first time the group worked with a local aid workers have often been frustrated by a lack of funds
agency. Field directors managed teams that supported to buy food and medical supplies. Oxfam’s work in the
self-help agendas in which communities improved their international arena continues, despite, or because of,
own water supplies, farming, and health programs. The these obstacles.
committee also started a program in Peru to bring educa- —Maryanne Barsotti
tion to rural communities by way of shortwave radio.
The 1960’s also saw the establishment of sister organiza- Further Reading
tions around the world, beginning with Canada in 1963, Gill, Peter. Drops in the Ocean: The Work of Oxfam,
and offices in Belgium and the United States soon fol- 1960-1970. London: Macdonald, 1970. Afirst-person
lowed. Many other countries formed fund-raising orga- account and field study of the relief and disaster work
nizations to help support Oxfam’s efforts. provided by Oxfam during the years 1960 to 1970.
196
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and Screen
Morris, Jan. Oxford. New York: Oxford University stop civil wars and ethnic cleansing. Shows the grow-
Press, 2001. Describes the origins of the Oxford Com- ing gap between what aid workers want to do in the
mittee for Famine Relief, whose founding members field and what they are actually able to accomplish.
include former Oxford professor Gilbert Murray. Smyser, W. R. Humanitarian Conscience: Caring for
Also describes in detail the city of Oxford, including Others. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. A
its colleges and students. comprehensive study of global humanitarianism. In-
Plummer, John. How Charities Are Accountable? Lon- cludes recommendations on how to respond to current
don: Demos, 1996. A study of the approaches to gov- humanitarian challenges.
ernance and accountability developed by twelve ma- See also: May 20-June 1, 1941: Germany Invades
jor charities in the United Kingdom. Crete; 1943-1944: Famine Decimates Bengal; May
Rieff, David. A Bed for the Night: Humanitarianism in 18-June 3, 1943: United Nations Holds Its First
1942
Crisis. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002. Dis- Conference on Food and Agriculture; Apr. 3, 1948:
cusses how humanitarian organizations are in jeop- Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe; July 10, 1954:
ardy of losing sight of their original purpose of neu- Eisenhower Begins the Food for Peace Program;
trality by encouraging international communities to 1959-1961: Famine Decimates China.
October 15, 1942-1961

Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and Screen
Director Elia Kazan collaborated with some of the best Group Theatre—the most influential American drama
talent in American theater and film to produce an experiment of the 1930’s—Kazan received stage train-
impressive body of work that emphasized the realist ing in the gritty, naturalistic Stanislavsky method. In em-
presentation of scenes and emotions. ploying this unpredictably emotional type of method act-
ing, actors immersed themselves in the feelings and
Locale: New York, New York; Hollywood, responses of characters, thereby achieving verisimili-
California tude through their re-creation of actual psychological
Categories: Motion pictures and video; theater states; such performances were often marked by weep-
Key Figures ing, shrieks, and other unconventional stage behaviors.
Elia Kazan (1909-2003), Turkish-born stage and film The first of three sons of George and Athena Sis-
director manoglou Kazanjoglou, Kazan was born in Constantino-
Thornton Wilder (1897-1975), American playwright ple, Turkey, and emigrated with his family to the United
Tennessee Williams (1911-1983), American playwright States in 1913. The family settled in a Greek community
Arthur Miller (1915-2005), American playwright in New York City and later moved to New Rochelle,
William Inge (1913-1973), American playwright New York. As a teenager, Kazan was influenced by a
Robert Anderson (b. 1917), American playwright teacher, Anna B. Shank, who encouraged him to forgo
Joseph McCarthy (1908-1957), U.S. senator from his family’s commercial interests and to follow his intel-
Wisconsin, 1947-1957 lectual bent. An honors student, he graduated from New
Jo Mielziner (1901-1976), American theatrical Rochelle High School and attended Williams College,
designer where, in his senior year, he resolved to study drama; he
Marlon Brando (1924-2004), American actor graduated from Williams in 1930.
After two years’ work at the Yale University Drama
Summary of Event School, Kazan quit what he considered to be worthless,
Famous for his inventive, uncompromisingly emotive repetitive study, and he allied himself with the Group
stage technique, Elia Kazan became a twentieth century Theatre the following year. There, utilizing the Stanis-
catalyst for the departure from classicism that brought lavsky method, he played roles in Clifford Odets’s Para-
American drama into its golden age. Under the guidance dise Lost (1935), Waiting for Lefty (1935), Till the Day I
of Lee Strasberg, Harold Clurman, and Cheryl Crawford Die (1935), Golden Boy (1936), and Night Music (1940),
during his association with New York’s distinguished and he also appeared in two Anatole Litvak films, City
197
Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and Screen The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
for Conquest (1940) and Blues in the Night (1941). A works of the age, enhanced his stature as the dominant
respectable actor, he received favorable notices for his voice in American theater direction with an award-
efforts. winning production of Arthur Miller’s Death of a Sales-
After several years’ theatrical apprenticeship, Kazan man (1949), which critics proclaimed the prototypical
advanced from method acting to a similar style of direct- American tragedy. Kazan coaxed powerful perfor-
ing. His early efforts went unnoticed, but his 1942 pro- mances from stars Lee J. Cobb, Cameron Mitchell, Ar-
duction of Thornton Wilder’s The Skin of Our Teeth thur Kennedy, and Mildred Dunnock, and the play be-
brought him serious critical acclaim and opportunities to came the dramatic touchstone of its era.
work with the major American playwrights of the era, in- Kazan followed this productive period with work at
cluding Arthur Miller, William Inge, Robert Anderson, the Actors Studio, a teaching institution he had founded
and Tennessee Williams. Wilder’s play, a bold mix of in 1947 with Lee Strasberg and Cheryl Crawford. There,
fantasy and comedy starring Tallulah Bankhead, Mont- he was brought into contact with such innovative talents
gomery Clift, Florence March, and Florence Reed, as Marlon Brando, who played the role of Stanley Ko-
opened to rave reviews in the author’s hometown of New walski, the lascivious, semiliterate seducer in A Streetcar
Haven, Connecticut, on October 15, and it moved to Named Desire.
Broadway a month later on November 18. For this pro- Although intrigued by the brutal, evocative inner
duction, Kazan netted the 1942 New York Drama Critics sparrings of A Streetcar Named Desire, Kazan admitted
Circle Award for direction. that he preferred the humanistic themes of Death of a
Kazan followed this success by directing acclaimed Salesman, particularly as they applied to his own father’s
productions of One Touch of Venus (1943), Jacobowsky commercial career. The popular response to Willy
and the Colonel (1944), and Miller’s All My Sons (1947), Loman, the play’s central character and victim—who
a gripping post-World War II family drama that won for has since evolved into an American archetype—became
Kazan a Tony Award and another New
York Drama Critics Circle Award. It was
after Williams saw a performance of All
My Sons that he and Kazan first connected.
The playwright, like Kazan, was a loner
and an outsider, and he and Kazan formed
an unusually cooperative relationship.
Their first project together was A Streetcar
Named Desire (1947), a dramatic tour de
force set in New Orleans.
The production, with set designs by Jo To view image, please refer to print edition
Mielziner, was notable for its stinging, ani-
malistic depictions of Southern decadence,
and Kazan earned accolades for his sensi-
tive treatment of the play, one of the most
highly regarded and frequently produced
dramas of the twentieth century. On open-
ing night of A Streetcar Named Desire,
the director stood upstage with tears in
his eyes, moved by the cooperative effort
of writer, cast, and crew. The satisfaction
gained from the experience created a life-
long friendship between Kazan and Wil-
liams, even though the author received the
bulk of the praise for their collaborative
achievement.
A year later, Kazan, equal to the chal- Elia Kazan directs a scene on the set of Panic in the Streets. (Hulton Archive/
lenge of staging the most serious dramatic Getty Images)
198
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and Screen
Kazan’s pinnacle; the production’s resounding success 1937; in 1945, he made his first feature, A Tree Grows in
earned the director a reputation as America’s most bril- Brooklyn. That film’s popular and critical success led to
liant stage director. The success of Kazan with Death of a other Hollywood assignments, including Sea of Grass
Salesman stemmed largely from the director’s deep re- (1947), Boomerang (1947), and Gentleman’s Agreement
spect for the play’s verities and his genuine admiration (1947), for which Kazan won an Oscar as best director.
for the character of Willy, a buffoonish loser who never He continued with a series of well-regarded, socially
failed to touch the audience’s sensibilities. conscious films that included Pinky (1949), Panic in the
The anticommunist crusades of the Joseph McCarthy Streets (1950), Viva Zapata! (1952), and Man on a Tight-
era, which for more than ten years deprived notable stage rope (1953).
and film talents of opportunities for artistic expression, In 1951, Kazan directed the film version of A Street-
brought particular public notoriety to Kazan, who in car Named Desire, in which Brando reprised his role
1952 agreed to testify before the House Committee on from the Broadway production. Brando’s explosive per-
1942
Un-American Activities (HUAC). With unusual candor, formance in the film made him a major star, and he and
Kazan admitted to an involvement with the Communist Kazan collaborated again on Viva Zapata! and On the
Party during a two-year period in which he had grown in- Waterfront (1954), for the latter of which both won Os-
creasingly disenchanted with leftist doctrine. cars. Many critics viewed On the Waterfront, the story of
By supplying names, dates, and crucial details, nota- a courageous mobster turned informant, as Kazan’s apo-
bly about the role of Arthur Miller in leftist activities, logia for his testimony at the HUAC hearings.
Kazan cut himself off from old friends and colleagues, In 1955, Kazan enjoyed another major success with
especially from adamant libertarians such as Dalton East of Eden, which brought another intense, brooding
Trumbo, an eminent and forthright screenwriter who actor, James Dean, to stardom. Kazan continued to coax
chose to go to prison rather than to accept what he stellar performances from his casts in Baby Doll (1956),
thought was a blatant infringement of his First Amend- A Face in the Crowd (1957), Wild River (1960), and his
ment rights by the House committee. This turbulent era last major cinematic accomplishment, Splendor in the
cost Kazan significant loss of face and caused him to Grass (1961).
worry that his four children—Nick, Judy, Katherine, and From 1962 onward, Kazan remained active, but his
Chris—would suffer for his testimony. level of accomplishment declined as his emphasis began
Kazan’s career, far from being ended by political to shift. In 1963, he released America, America, based on
scandal, brought him into further collaboration with Ten- a best-selling novel of the same name that he had pub-
nessee Williams in Camino Real (1953), followed by lished two years before. He published another best seller,
Robert Anderson’s Tea and Sympathy (1953), Wil- The Arrangement, in 1967, but a 1969 film version was a
liams’s Pulitzer Prize-winning Cat on a Hot Tin Roof flop. He put out still another popular novel, The Assas-
(1955), William Inge’s Dark at the Top of the Stairs sins, in 1972, but did not translate the story to film. In the
(1957), and Archibald MacLeish’s J. B. (1958), a lyric 1970’s, Kazan largely withdrew from Hollywood, pro-
success that Kazan professed not to understand. The ducing instead low-budget “home movies” such as the
amalgamation of such creative talent continued to pro- critically panned The Visitors (1972). In 1976, he re-
duce riveting dramas, climaxing in Kazan’s last major turned to big-budget filmmaking with what was to be his
stage effort, Williams’s Sweet Bird of Youth (1959), in last film, an adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s 1941
which Kazan compensated for weak plot development novel The Last Tycoon.
by commissioning Jo Mielziner’s multimedia innova-
tions. Significance
In 1962, Kazan left Broadway to become one of the Kazan’s influence on theatrical realism influenced Amer-
directors of the repertory company at the Lincoln Center ican stagecraft well into the 1960’s, when period drama,
for the Performing Arts. Kazan had high hopes for his as- Hollywood films, and live television stage plays began
sociation with the company, but his first Lincoln Center to emulate the Actors Studio’s insistence on psychologi-
production, Arthur Miller’s After the Fall (1962), met cal truth. During his heyday, Kazan insisted on an in-
with mixed reviews. In 1964, after several badly received tense stripping of surface niceties; his approach helped
productions, Kazan resigned his Lincoln Center post and move audiences into a new era of cathartic concentration
turned his attention almost exclusively to film direction. that spotlighted motivation above spectacle, costuming,
Kazan had begun directing documentary films in and other surface treatment. Actors, many inspired by
199
Kazan Brings Naturalism to the Stage and Screen The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Brando’s inarticulate, boorish stage antics in A Streetcar _______. Kazan—The Master Director Discusses His
Named Desire, exceeded the bounds of classic theatrical- Films: Interviews with Elia Kazan. Edited by Jeff
ity by striving for an exaggerated naturalism, often Young. New York: New Market, 1999. Compilation
marked by slovenly dress, nonstandard vocal expression, of various interviews with Kazan discussing his life
and working-class realism. and work.
In both his film and stage work, Kazan rejected the Murphy, Brenda. Tennessee Williams and Elia Kazan: A
star system and the use of production gimmicks to create Collaboration in the Theatre. New York: Cambridge
a realism that emphasized the strength of his material. University Press, 1992. A thorough study of the col-
His influence is evident in the work of a wide range of di- laboration between the playwright and the director on
rectors; his disciples have included such disparate stage their productions of A Streetcar Named Desire, Ca-
and screen talents as Woody Allen, John Cassavetes, Ar- mino Real, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, and Sweet Bird of
thur Penn, Sidney Lumet, and Martin Scorsese. In addi- Youth. Illustrated, with extensive notes and bibliog-
tion to helping launch the careers of Brando and Dean, raphy.
Kazan also was instrumental in establishing such stars as Pauly, Thomas H. An American Odyssey: Elia Kazan
Warren Beatty, Julie Harris, Natalie Wood, Eva Marie and American Culture. Philadelphia: Temple Univer-
Saint, Lee Remick, and Carroll Baker. In a career that sity Press, 1983. A thorough survey of Kazan’s ca-
spanned nearly half a century, Kazan left a major mark reer. Illustrated with black-and-white photographs of
on American drama. Kazan’s stage productions and stills from his films.
—Mary Ellen Snodgrass Prideaux, Tom. World Theatre in Pictures: From An-
cient Times to Modern Broadway. New York: Green-
Further Reading
berg, 1953. A remarkable photographic montage of
Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre. Boston: Allyn
the most significant moments in theater history, fea-
& Bacon, 1968. A valuable overview of theater his-
turing original casts and stressing action shots of such
tory. Gives valuable information about set designers,
Kazan-directed productions as The Glass Menagerie,
producers, and music directors who influenced the
A Streetcar Named Desire, The Skin of Our Teeth, and
growth of world theater.
Death of a Salesman.
Kazan, Elia. Elia Kazan: A Life. New York: Da Capo
Press, 1997. Athorough autobiography complete with See also: Oct. 20, 1947: HUAC Investigates Holly-
one hundred photographs and a detailed index. wood; Sept. 20, 1951: A Streetcar Named Desire
Readers interested in the McCarthy era will find com- Brings Method Acting to the Screen; Jan. 15, 1953-
plete information about Kazan’s involvement in the Dec. 2, 1954: McCarthy Hearings; Jan. 22, 1953: The
Communist Party and his decision to testify before Crucible Allegorizes the Red Scare Era; Mar. 30,
HUAC. 1955: On the Waterfront Wins Best Picture.
200
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Agnes de Mille Choreographs Rodeo
October 16, 1942

Agnes de Mille Choreographs RODEO
Agnes de Mille incorporated American folklore, not find much support in the United States. She worked
colloquial gesture, and humor in her choreography for abroad between 1929 and 1939, and it was in London that
Rodeo. The great success of the production legitimized she developed a suite of American dances, one of which
the use of such elements in ballet. was called Rodeo. The suite, with an all-female cast and
without a coherent plot to unify the dances, was per-
Locale: New York, New York formed in London in 1938. In 1942, de Mille, who had re-
Categories: Dance; theater; music turned to New York, was commissioned by the Ballet
Key Figures Russe de Monte Carlo to create an American ballet.
Agnes de Mille (1905-1993), American choreographer To compose the music for the production, she re-
1942
and dancer quested Aaron Copland, already known for his brilliant
Aaron Copland (1900-1990), American composer use of American folk themes in concert music and for
Oliver Smith (1918-1994), American stage designer several ballet scores, most notably Billy the Kid (1938).
Oliver Smith, an unknown twenty-four-year-old de-
Summary of Event signer, was selected to create the sets for the ballet.
In 1942, when Agnes de Mille choreographed Rodeo, Kermit Love designed the costumes.
American ballet was just beginning to separate itself De Mille decided to re-create, with a mixed cast, the
from Russian influence and find an identity of its own. “Americana” dances she had choreographed in London.
Until the 1930’s, there had been few well-trained dancers The story the ballet told was an uncomplicated tale of a
in the United States—and fewer choreographers. The cowgirl who tried to get a man by being “one of the
public had acquired some awareness and appreciation of guys,” only to discover that she could be much more suc-
ballet with the tours of Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova cessful by dressing and behaving like a girl. De Mille was
in the 1920’s and the teaching of Diaghilev dancers Mik- obliged to choreograph while the Ballet Russe was on
hail Mordkin, Michel Fokine, and Adolph Bolm and the tour in the United States.
tours of the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo in the 1930’s. Although the company was a mixture of Russian, En-
Despite the interest they had inspired, however, the Rus- glish, and American dancers, the training and tone of its
sians inadvertently created a problem: The American members were distinctly those of Russian classical
public came to believe that if ballet was not Russian, it dance. De Mille had to cajole the male dancers into aban-
could not be real ballet. doning their usual lightness. She needed them to become
For de Mille and other major figures in the develop- grounded, walk bowlegged, and execute movements that
ment of American ballet, though, the days of fairy-tale were a blend of modern dance and ballet specifically de-
princesses, Russian exotica, and European character signed to suggest riding horses and roping cattle. De
dance were numbered. They were interested in a new Mille also had to convince the female dancers that show-
ballet that could incorporate into the classical style the ing off their virtuoso technique had no place in a piece
emerging forms of modern and jazz dance, which would depicting life in the Old West. The women’s movements
revivify gestural content and which would use subject were to be either simple or downright rowdy, suggesting
matter reflective of American life and energy. the austerity and vitality of ranch life.
De Mille, daughter of Broadway writer William de De Mille saw the transcendence of traditional ballet
Mille and niece of film magnate Cecil B. DeMille, spent movement as necessary to creating more truthful charac-
much of her early youth in Southern California. She be- terizations through dance. Traditional ballet technique
came familiar with the Southwest and responded deeply has a single, easily identifiable look, involving a straight
to its vast spaces, cloudswept skies, and pungent herbal spine, a very prescribed use of the arms, an aerial quality,
aromas and to its people, who matched so distinctively and the pointe shoe. As de Mille explained in the first
their semidesert surroundings. It was in the dynamic volume of her autobiography, Dance to the Piper (1952),
movements of the cowboys, the hardiness of the women, this classical style was interchangeable from one work to
and the ebullience of their ethnic dances that de Mille the next: Classical ballets may differ in the arrangement
found the inspiration for Rodeo. of steps and the interpretation by individual dancers, but
While she was teaching herself her craft, de Mille did not in style. For Rodeo, de Mille sought to create a dis-
201
Agnes de Mille Choreographs Rodeo The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
tinctive style that was fitted to the content of her work. end, based on the story of Lizzie Borden. In that work, she
Classical ballet simply had not previously considered brought to its highest fruition her search for movements,
this to be a goal. gestures, and rhythms that evoked particularly American
While choreographing Rodeo, de Mille searched for times, places, and ways of life. As for Rodeo, she said of
hours to find the one gesture that was right for a given its opening: “If it is possible for all movement, growth
moment. She had to rehearse the dancers extensively, and accumulated power to become apparent at one single
moreover, to overcome the automatic responses acquired point, then my hour struck at 9:40, October 16, 1942.”
through years of classical training. “If dance gesture
means anything,” said de Mille, “it means the life behind Significance
the movement.” The impact of Agnes de Mille’s Rodeo must be looked at
De Mille created movements designed to express against the background of classical ballet tradition. That
Western life. She did so not only by adapting traditional tradition created a single mold—the classical style—into
and modern dance techniques but also by peppering her which all content was to be poured. This mold elevated
choreography with colloquial gestures. Her cowboys and enhanced values such as grace and a particular no-
squatted, squinted, brushed off their trousers, and flicked tion of beauty, but it did so at the potential expense of
their heads as if to say, “C’mon, let’s go.” De Mille be- content for which such beauty and grace were not true to
lieved that the rhythms of the American West were at the the characters being portrayed. De Mille broke the classi-
heart of its expression, and she made them the heart of cal mold—not single-handedly, but in the midst of a fer-
her ballet as well. She incorporated a running square ment of new ideas taking shape throughout the dance
dance performed only to the sounds of clapping and world. Modern dance choreographers were already
stomping. She created movements conveying the synco- working with a more articulated spine, exploring move-
pated tread of horses and the repetitive swings of roping. ment that was more natural to the human body than was
By the use of simple tap steps, she evoked a land in which traditional ballet movement. They sought, like de Mille,
vast silence was punctuated more by percussive sounds to incorporate naturalism and realism within dance.
than by speech. At first, the ballet world—which had never had a
The opening performance took place on October 16, commitment to realistic movement in choreography—
1942. De Mille herself danced the part of the cowgirl. was slow to emulate the advances of modern dance,
When it was over, there were twenty-two curtain calls. which it saw as graceless and earthbound. By her judi-
The ballet’s success was a great relief to the Ballet Russe, cious use of modern dance elements in Rodeo, de Mille
which was in serious financial difficulty and was relying pushed ballet to develop a broader choreographic vocab-
upon de Mille to provide a hit. Rodeo also brought de ulary. She used a variety of spinal contractions and re-
Mille national and international recognition as a leading placed balletic arm movements with ones more appropri-
American choreographer. ate to her characters. The “ballerina” in Rodeo was a
The decor for Rodeo, Oliver Smith’s first major work, tomboy, her ballet skirt and pointe shoes exchanged for
revealed that he had a special gift for creating American trousers and boots.
ambiance, rural and urban. Smith became one of the fore- Rodeo was the first “Americana” ballet successfully
most stage designers in the country. Among his ballet performed by Ballet Russe, and its success was decisive
credits are Jerome Robbins’s Fancy Free (1944) and de for the company. Rodeo enjoyed large audiences, which
Mille’s Fall River Legend. In 1945, he became, with Lucia led to a broadening of the public’s receptivity to new
Chase, codirector of the Ballet Theatre. On Broadway, he forms and styles. The greater receptivity to new styles
designed again for de Mille as well as for hit shows such as created a greater freedom for choreographers and a
My Fair Lady (1956), West Side Story (1957), and Hello, greater willingness by classical companies to mount pro-
Dolly! (1964), and for the films Oklahoma! (1955), Guys ductions that did not look at all classical. The Ballet
and Dolls (1955), and The Sound of Music (1965). Russe in particular opened its doors to more original
Agnes de Mille came to be recognized as one of Ameri- American works. In the years following Rodeo, the Rus-
can ballet’s most prominent choreographers. Most of her sian company took into repertoire works by Ruth Page,
subsequent ballets were produced for the Ballet Theatre Todd Bolender, Valerie Bettis, and Ruthanna Boris.
(later the American Ballet Theatre), the first American One of the happiest results of Rodeo’s success was
ballet company to achieve national stature. In 1948, de Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II’s invitation
Mille created for them her masterpiece, Fall River Leg- to de Mille to choreograph their new musical, Okla-
202
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Agnes de Mille Choreographs Rodeo
homa! (1943). By the 1940’s, dance in musicals had pro- _______. Dance to the Piper. Boston: Little, Brown,
gressed from the parading beauties and endless kick lines 1952. De Mille’s first autobiographical book, begin-
of earlier days, but it was de Mille’s choreography for ning with her earliest days in New York. Contains
Oklahoma! that permanently refocused the function of chapters on Cecil B. DeMille and the film industry in
dance in the Broadway musical. Oklahoma! opened six Hollywood, de Mille’s work abroad, and the making
months after Rodeo, and the joint success of the two of Rodeo and Oklahoma! Wonderful descriptions of
works assured de Mille plenty of employment in both the life and major figures of theater and dance from
balletic and Broadway venues. In addition to her ballets, the early 1900’s through 1944. Index.
she was subsequently to choreograph such musicals as _______. And Promenade Home. Boston: Little, Brown,
Carousel (1945), Brigadoon (1947), Gentlemen Prefer 1956. The second volume of de Mille’s autobiogra-
Blondes (1949), and Paint Your Wagon (1951). Thus, de phy. Covers her courtship and marriage to Walter
Mille’s Rodeo not only introduced distinctively Ameri- Prude, overshadowed by World War II, and her
1942
can rhythms into ballet but also led her to become the 1940’s musicals. Interesting discussions on the nature
first important choreographer of one of the few distinc- of choreographic work and on women and dance.
tively American art forms, musical theater. Center section of selected photographs. Index.
—Catherine Sim Easton, Carol. No Intermissions: The Life of Agnes de
Mille. Boston: Little, Brown, 1996. Biography of the
Further Reading
choreographer relating her life to her work and dis-
Barnes, Clive. Inside American Ballet Theatre. New
cussing her place in the choreographic history. Bib-
York: Hawthorn Books, 1977. Pictorial survey of the
American Ballet Theatre in the 1970’s. Introduction
Long, Robert Emmet. Broadway, the Golden Years:
and commentary by New York Times dance critic
Jerome Robbins and the Great Choreographer-
Clive Barnes. Has an interesting interview with
Directors, 1940 to the Present. New York: Contin-
Agnes de Mille and short essays on Antony Tudor and
uum, 2001. Primarily a study of Robbins, this volume
Jerome Robbins.
begins with a chapter on de Mille emphasizing her
Copland, Aaron, and Vivian Perlis. Copland: 1900
status as the creator of the tradition that Robbins con-
Through 1942. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984.
tinued. Bibliographic references and index.
Copland’s autobiography, interspersed with short es-
Mordden, Ethan. Broadway Babies. New York: Oxford
says by Vivian Perlis placing Copland in the perspec-
University Press, 1983. An entertaining and very in-
tive of the larger musical scene. Reflections on
formative historical analysis of the twentieth century
Copland by prominent musicians and composers as
Broadway musical. Chapters on producers, books,
well as by dance figures Lincoln Kirstein, Edwin
scores, choreographers, and superdirectors, among
Denby, Eugene Loring, and Agnes de Mille. Index.
others. One of the few books on the musical with a
De Mille, Agnes. America Dances. New York: Mac-
section devoted solely to dance. Selective discog-
millan, 1980. A history of dance in the United States
raphy, index.
through 1980. Includes sections on ballet, modern
dance, Broadway, and films. De Mille writes with wit, See also: Mar. 31, 1943: Oklahoma! Opens on Broad-
humor, and great perception. Many excellent photo- way; Apr. 18, 1944: Robbins’s Fancy Free Premieres;
graphs and drawings. Chronology, bibliography, Oct. 30, 1944: Graham Debuts Appalachian Spring
index. with Copland Score.
203
Peggy Guggenheim’s Gallery Promotes New American Art The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
October 20, 1942

Peggy Guggenheim’s Gallery Promotes New American Art
Peggy Guggenheim opened the Art of This Century and accept advice, and an ability to recognize both talent
gallery in New York to display European and American and value. Although comfortable, Peggy was not rich. Her
modern art. The gallery became important in the art collection, which would come to be valued in the tens
nascent New York art scene, and Guggenheim’s of millions of dollars, was created on a shoestring budget.
discovery and patronage of Jackson Pollock, among Although she mingled with outstanding artists and
other artists, helped launch a new school of American writers, Guggenheim’s life in Paris lacked form and pur-
art known as abstract expressionism. pose. While she was seeking to recover from an unhappy
marriage, a friend in London suggested to her that she
Also known as: Art of This Century open an art gallery there. Fortunately for Guggenheim,
Locale: New York, New York Marcel Duchamp, the noted Dadaist artist, provided the
Category: Arts needed advice and helped assemble the first exhibition
Key Figures for her new gallery, called Guggenheim Jeune, which
Peggy Guggenheim (1898-1979), American art opened January 24, 1938.
collector and patron Guggenheim Jeune was one of a handful of galleries
Frederick J. Kiesler (1896-1965), American architect, featuring modern art in London and became the prototype
sculptor, and stage designer for Guggenheim’s New York gallery. Among the artists
Max Ernst (1891-1976), German Surrealist artist and exhibited were Wassily Kandinsky (sometimes called
Guggenheim’s husband the founder of abstract art), the Surrealist Yves Tanguy,
Jackson Pollock (1912-1956), American abstract and the artist and film director Jean Cocteau. Her most
expressionist artist important exhibit was a show of sculpture that included
Herbert Read (1893-1968), English art critic works by Constantin Brancusi, Jean Arp, Alexander Cal-
Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968), French Dadaist artist der, Antoine Pevsner, and Henry Moore. So strong were
the contemporary prejudice against and the ignorance of
Summary of Event modern art that British customs officials at first refused
The 1942 opening of Peggy Guggenheim’s Art of This to consider many of the works as art but rather classified
Century gallery, which showcased part of her remark- them as dressed stone and metal, subject to tariffs.
able collection of modern art as well as examples of Sur- At this time, Guggenheim also gained the services of
realism seen for the first time in the United States, caused Herbert Read, a professor of art history, the editor of
a major stir in New York’s embryonic art world. Her Burlington art magazine, and one of England’s most
Spring Salon for Young Artists of 1943 featured the forceful champions of modern art. Read advised her to
works of avant-garde artists such as William Baziotes, buy a selection of the works she exhibited in order to
Robert Motherwell, and especially Jackson Pollock, build a permanent collection of her own. He provided her
whose works were free of European precedents. Gug- with a list of important modern artists whose works were
genheim was soon established as one of the major pro- essential to a comprehensive art collection. He also com-
moters of modern art and as a major force in the promo- pleted the work Duchamp had started of making Gug-
tion of abstract expressionism, the first important genheim aware of the movements in modern art and its
modern art movement in the United States. possible future directions.
Doing things that were new, different, and controver- By 1939, Guggenheim’s collection was of museum
sial had been second nature to Peggy Guggenheim ever quality. She cast about for an appropriate place to exhibit
since she escaped from the confines of her upper-middle- it, but the outbreak of World War II in September changed
class background a quarter of a century earlier to join the her plans. With her collection, she left for Paris. In the hec-
American expatriate colony in post-World War I Paris. tic days preceding the fall of France, Guggenheim was
She had inherited the spirit of adventure from her father, engaged in one of the most exciting and profitable pe-
Benjamin Guggenheim, a wealthy entrepreneur who had riods in her artistic career, assembling the nucleus of her
died in the April, 1912, sinking of the Titanic. From her collection. With Herbert Read’s list and cash in hand, she
grandfather, Meyer, patriarch of the Guggenheim clan, went from studio to gallery collecting first-rate works by
Peggy inherited business acumen, a willingness to seek artists such as Paul Klee, Georges Braque, Juan Gris, Piet
204
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Peggy Guggenheim’s Gallery Promotes New American Art
Mondrian, Joan Miró, Giorgio de Chirico, and René lieved had ceased to be an artistic force in Western civili-
Magritte. Guggenheim boasted that the day Adolf Hitler zation. Thus, immediately upon her arrival in New York,
marched into Norway, she bought a major work from art- Guggenheim searched for space for a gallery in which to
ist Fernan Léger for one thousand dollars. It would later be display her collection. She found it above a grocery store
worth millions. Guggenheim found the experience of colon Fifty-seventh Street, just west of Fifth Avenue.
lecting Parisian art on the eve of invasion exhilarating; she Trusting to the instinct that had served her in the past,
was oblivious to the danger involved. As a Jew, had she Guggenheim hired Frederick J. Kiesler, an innovative
fallen into the hands of the Nazis, she might well have designer from the Columbia School of Architecture, to
died. Her position in Vichy, France, to which she fled mount her collection. Kiesler did his work brilliantly. He
shortly before the fall of Paris, was not much more secure. divided the space into four separate galleries; he pulled
Guggenheim had approached the Louvre to provide out all the stops to make his staging the real innovation of
secure storage for her collection, but the museum’s offi- the gallery’s opening. The artwork was displayed with-
1942
cials informed her they did not think her collection worth out frames, and the dingy loft space became a veritable
saving. Getting the collection out of Paris with all roads theme park of gadgets, protrusions, serpentine walls,
and rail lines clogged with refugees required herculean roaring sounds, and light shows. By consensus, it was
efforts. She finally reached Grenoble,
in southeastern France, as a way sta-
tion on her return voyage to the United
States via Spain and Portugal.
Leaving France at that time was
subject to frustrating delays, and Gug-
genheim was forced to remain in Gre-
noble while she negotiated passage.
During her involuntary stay in Gre-
noble, she became acquainted with
Max Ernst, who was to become a ma-
jor influence in both her personal and
her artistic life. A German who de-
tested his country of origin because of
what it was doing to Europe, Ernst not
only was an accomplished artist but
also possessed a brilliant intellect. He
was identified with Surrealism, but he To view image, please refer to print edition
believed that it was to be the last major
European art movement. With a bar-
baric twilight descending over Europe,
Ernst thought, the further development
of modern art must take place else-
where. Therefore, he decided to travel
to New York, the United States’ most
cosmopolitan city.
After numerous and frustrating de-
lays, Guggenheim and Ernst arrived in
New York on July 14, 1941, with the
famous art collection packed into an
old automobile and shipped as “house-
hold goods.” They were ready to spon-
sor a new direction for modern art—a
direction divorced from that of Europe, Peggy Guggenheim poses with several modernist paintings in New York’s Museum
which many in addition to Ernst be- of Modern Art in October, 1942. (AP/Wide World Photos)
205
Peggy Guggenheim’s Gallery Promotes New American Art The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Kiesler’s mounting, more than Guggenheim’s collec- In retrospect, Pollock was the first painter of his gen-
tion, that made the impact when Art of This Century eration of American abstract artists to bring the United
opened on October 20, 1942. Fine as it was, Guggen- States into the mainstream of the international tradition.
heim’s collection of the works of twentieth century Euro- During the artist’s lifetime, however, it was only with the
pean artists duplicated on a smaller scale exhibits that the greatest difficulty that Guggenheim could sell his work.
Museum of Modern Art had been mounting since 1929 She received his paintings in return for her financial sup-
and that her uncle Solomon Guggenheim’s new museum port and often gave them away. It was because of her
had started in 1939. generosity that many smaller art museums and educa-
At the opening, Peggy Guggenheim remarked that her tional institutions acquired works by Pollock now valued
undertaking would serve its purpose only if it succeeded in the millions of dollars.
in serving the future instead of recording the past. Eager Guggenheim also gave one-man shows to Mother-
to advance the careers of unknown American artists, she well, Baziotes, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Mark
dedicated one of her gallery’s display spaces, the Day- Rothko, and David Hare. In other group shows, she in-
light Gallery, to new artists. In addition, she consulted cluded the work of Franz Kline, Willem de Kooning,
with authorities such as Alfred Barr and Piet Mondrian to Adolph Gottlieb, Hedda Sterne, Joseph Cornell, Alexan-
plan a larger exhibition dedicated entirely to such unes- der Calder, Louise Nevelson, Robert de Niro (the actor’s
tablished artists. The resulting show, the Spring Salon for father), Richard Pousette-Dart, and Ad Reinhart. The
Young Artists, opened at Art of This Century in May, designation of these artists as “abstract expressionists”
1943. It was through this exhibit and those related to it proved increasingly uncomfortable, however. Some, art-
that Guggenheim’s gallery had its greatest impact, pro- ists such as Willem de Kooning, were not strictly ab-
foundly changing the course of American art. stract; others, such as Robert Motherwell, were not strictly
The stars of the 1943 show were William Baziotes, expressionist. What they did have in common was the
Robert Motherwell, and particularly Jackson Pollock. vigorous, even athletic manner of creating their art—the
Pollock, as American as the hills of Wyoming where he idea that the artist grasps authentic being through the act
was born, had been recommended by Mondrian, who of creating rather than through the finished product.
found Pollock’s work terrifically exciting. Guggenheim A new name, the Action Painters, was increasingly
was equally enthusiastic, and she became one of Pol- used for these artists, and as their art became more widely
lock’s great champions. For Pollock, the most important known and appreciated, the group became known as the
element in the creation of a work of art was the physical New York School—the first American modern art move-
act of creation, which in his work revolved around the ment divorced from European influence. The movement
application of paint. With the canvas on the floor, Pol- helped make New York the world’s art capital. Guggen-
lock energetically, even violently, dripped, swirled, spat- heim’s gallery and her tireless, enthusiastic support were
tered, and daubed paints of various colors in what ini- the catalysts in the creation of this school. She could in-
tially seemed an uncoordinated, irrational manner but deed say with conviction that it was in her gallery that ab-
that created highly sophisticated works of art. Because it stract expressionism was born.
was not representational—in that no physical object was —Nis Petersen
represented on the canvas—but it was still meant to ex-
press the feelings or temperament of the artist, Pollock’s Further Reading
style of art became known as abstract expressionism. Ashton, Dore. The New York School: A Cultural Reckon-
ing. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
Significance Sets the development of the New York School in a
Guggenheim claimed that her greatest achievement— broader context, attempting to relate it to parallel
even greater than the assembling of her collection—was movements in other arts such as literature and poetry.
her discovery of Pollock’s work. She followed the group Illustrations add to the book’s usefulness.
show with a one-man show devoted to the artist, and she Davidson, Susan, and Philip Rylands, eds. Peggy Gug-
delighted in the resultant barrage of criticism—even genheim and Frederick Kiesler: The Story of Art of
howls of outrage—as she promoted him with almost mes- This Century. New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim
sianic fervor. Further to encourage his work, she gave Foundation, 2004. Catalog accompanying a 2004 ex-
Pollock an income so he could paint undisturbed in his hibition of works from Guggenheim’s collection. In-
Long Island studio. cludes original documents, designs, and photographs
206
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Second Battle of El Alamein
of the gallery from Kiesler’s archives, as well as schol- beautifully produced and illustrated work covering
arly essays on Guggenheim, Kiesler, and Pollock. the collection as it is displayed in Venice under the
Dearborn, Mary V. Mistress of Modernism: The Life of auspices of the Solomon Guggenheim Museum. Per-
Peggy Guggenheim. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, tinent editorial material gives additional information
2004. Biography of Guggenheim tying her life inex- on the works and their relevance to modern art.
tricably to her relationship to and advancement of Saarinen, Aline B. The Proud Possessors. New York:
modern art. Sixteen pages of photographic plates, bib- Random House, 1958. A series of essays on famous
liographic references, and index. American collectors. One essay’s title, “Appas-
Guggenheim, Peggy. Confessions of an Art Addict. New sionata of the Avant-Garde,” is indicative both of
York: Macmillan, 1960. A frank appraisal of Gug- Guggenheim’s impassioned approach to life and her
genheim’s personal and artistic life, especially her un- love of Italy, where her collection is now housed. A
happy childhood. Guggenheim is always ready to recommended introduction to the life and career of
1942
admit her limitations and to give full credit to those Peggy Guggenheim.
who helped her in her career. Weld, Jacqueline Bograd. Peggy: The Wayward Gug-
_______. Out of This Century. New York: Dial Press, genheim. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1986. Probably the
1960. Guggenheim’s original assessment of her per- best single work on Peggy Guggenheim and her col-
sonal and artistic life reads like a roman à clef with lection. The illustrations are numerous and well cho-
personages only thinly disguised. The author is partic- sen. An appendix lists in chronological order the art-
ularly candid about members of her family and those ists in the various exhibits at both Guggenheim Jeune
who influenced them, who are often presented in an and Art of This Century. Copious footnotes and a
valuable index.
unflattering light. She is, however, as unkind to herself.
The work gives a candid insight into her personality See also: Dec., 1952: Rosenberg Defines “Action
and the reasons for both her fame and unhappiness. Painting”; Oct. 21, 1959: Wright-Designed Guggen-
Rudenstine, Angelica Zander, ed. Peggy Guggenheim heim Museum Opens; 1960’s: SoHo Emerges as a
Collection. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1985. A Center for Contemporary Art.
October 23-November 3, 1942

Second Battle of El Alamein
The Second Battle of El Alamein pitted British forces Rodolfo Graziani (Marchese di Neghelli; 1882-1955),
in the Middle East against the German Afrika Corps Italian commander in Libya, 1940-1941
and resulted in a British victory. Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933-1945
Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), commander of
Locale: El Alamein, Egypt the British Eighth Army, 1942
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil Erich Raeder (1876-1960), admiral and commander in
unrest chief of the German navy
Key Figures Erwin Rommel (1891-1944), commander of the
Harold Alexander (1891-1969), commander in chief of German Afrika Korps, 1941-1943
British forces in the Middle East, 1942-1943, and Archibald Wavell (1883-1950), commander in chief of
later first Earl Alexander of Tunis, 1952-1969 British forces in the Middle East, 1939-1941
Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck (1884-1981),
commander in chief of British forces in the Middle Summary of Event
East, 1941-1942 Declaration of war on the Allies by Italy in June, 1940,
Alan Francis Brooke (1883-1963), chief of the British gave the British the opportunity of striking at Italy’s pos-
General Staff, 1941-1946, and later first Viscount sessions in North Africa. Fighting alone against Ger-
Alanbrooke, 1946-1963 many and Italy, the British were in no position to mount
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of an offensive on the European continent, and it was essen-
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 tial for them to hold the so-called Imperial Lifeline of Gi-
207
Second Battle of El Alamein The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Italian troops run from British bombs during the Second Battle of El Alamein. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
braltar, Malta, and Suez. Victory in North Africa would Greece, and the British forces remaining in Africa were
not only help maintain British control in the Mediterra- therefore weak when Rommel began an offensive in
nean but would also weaken the enemy. Accordingly, April, 1941. The British were pushed back eastward to-
Winston Churchill, the British prime minister, and Gen- ward Cairo. As a countermeasure, Churchill and Brooke
eral Alan Francis Brooke, chief of the Imperial General appointed General Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck as
Staff, ordered General Archibald Wavell, commander of commander of British forces in the Middle East. It was
Middle East forces, to begin operations against the Ital- not a good choice, and when Auchinleck, never a force-
ian army in North Africa. ful soldier, found himself in a poor defensive position, he
Throughout 1940 and 1941, Wavell’s small but highly gave more ground to Rommel, who captured the key
trained forces inflicted defeat after defeat on the Italian town of Tobruk in June, 1942. The British fell back to a
troops under the command of Marshal Rodolfo Graziani defensive position at El Alamein, sixty-five miles from
and drove them out of Libya and Ethiopia. Hundreds of Alexandria and the Nile Delta. Anchored on the sea and
thousands of Italians surrendered to the British. The running to the Qattara Depression in the south, the thirty-
campaign was an outstanding success as far as it went. mile front could not be flanked.
Adolf Hitler, chancellor and führer of Germany, be- In desperation, Churchill and Brooke replaced Au-
gan to be perturbed over his ally’s losses. Grand Admiral chinleck with General Harold Alexander. To command
Erich Raeder, though officially commander of the Ger- the main British force, they appointed General Bernard
man navy, was probably the best strategist among Hit- Law Montgomery as commander of the British Eighth
ler’s military advisers, and he advised Hitler to send Army. Montgomery immediately realized the military
large forces to North Africa to sever the Imperial Life- situation and planned an offensive that would turn back
line, capture Suez, and gain the oil riches of the Middle the Axis forces.
East. Toward the end of 1940, however, Hitler had com- When Rommel tried to resume the offensive in Sep-
mitted himself to the invasion of Russia, and he would tember, Montgomery forced him to a standstill at the
agree to sending only a small force to North Africa, ap- Battle of Alam el Halfa. Meanwhile British troops and
pointing General Erwin Rommel as commander. supplies, particularly tanks, were arriving in great num-
Rommel, who became known as the Desert Fox, ar- bers, while the Germans were overextended and suffer-
rived in Africa at a propitious moment. Wavell had been ing a severe scarcity of fuel. Because the British had
forced to send many of his troops to the defense of cracked the code of the German Enigma cryptographic
208
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Second Battle of El Alamein
machine, decrypted German radio traffic (referred to by Portrays the twelve-day battle as a pendulum swing-
British intelligence as “Ultra”) reached British coming back and forth between the two sides to such an
manders as quickly as it reached Rommel. Knowing extreme degree that it is actually understandable as
when shipments of fuel were scheduled, the British were three separate battles. Attempts to understand the
able to destroy the vast majority of such transports before British victory as the result of many different factors,
the ships could reach their destination. By mid-October, some predictable and some uncontrollable, rather
the British had numerical superiority in men, tanks, air- than as simply a triumph of British tactics.
power, and artillery. Carver, General Michael. El Alamein. New York: Mac-
On October 23, 1942, Montgomery struck. At this millan, 1962. A thorough, reasoned, and objective ac-
crucial moment, Rommel was on sick leave in Germany. count of the battle, placing the opposing leaders in
He hurried back to take command of the Axis forces, but perspective. Carver is sympathetic to Rommel’s
the British were able to force a break in his lines and, in a problems, particularly his lack of material support,
1942
tank battle that lasted a week, Rommel’s forces were de- but he blames Rommel for originally overextending
feated. Rommel had ordered a systematic general with- his chosen position at El Alamein.
drawal to positions nearer his source of supplies. Hitler Freiden, Seymour, and William Richardson, eds. The
personally insisted that the position at El Alamein be Fatal Decisions. New York: Berkeley, 1956. Freiden
held at all costs. When Rommel finally ordered the re- and Richardson present reports on six major battles of
treat on November 3, the situation was desperate; many World War II, each written by one of the German
of the German armor and nonmotorized infantry units commanders present at the battle. Lieutenant-General
were lost. Montgomery had achieved the first major Fritz Bayerlein, who was chief of staff of the Afrika
defeat of a German army in World War II. Korps and then held the same position on Rommel’s
staff, presents his account of the battle of El Alamein.
Significance
Jacobsen, H. A., and J. Rohwer, eds. Decisive Battles of
The Battle of El Alamein has been hailed by the British
World War II: The German View. Translated by Ed-
as a major turning point in the war. German military his-
ward Fitzgerald. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
torians generally agree with this assessment. To the Brit-
1965. A history of World War II written by German
ish, it was their last great single victory over the Axis.
military historians who present the German view of
The final day of the battle coincided with the Anglo-
the war. Because some of the contributors had for-
American invasion of northwest Africa. These two events,
merly been highly placed military men, they are able
coupled with the German defeat at Stalingrad two months
to give readers the benefit of their hindsight as well as
later, put the Germans on the defensive for the remainder
their research.
of the war. El Alamein also highlighted the importance
Lucas, James. War in the Desert. New York: Beaufort
of winning the battle of supply in modern warfare.
Books, 1982. One of the best accounts of El Alamein,
— Art Barbeau
putting the final battle in its proper perspective.
Further Reading Lucas’s own service in the desert provides insights
Bryant, Arthur. The Turn of the Tide: A History of the War lacking in many other accounts. Lucas is among the
Years Based on the Diaries of Field Marshal Lord few writers to give Ultra intelligence its proper place
Alanbrooke. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1957. in the victory, and the crucial role of airpower is
Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War. Vol. 4: better illustrated by Lucas than in many other ac-
The Hinge of Fate. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950. counts.
Montgomery of Alamein, Field Marshal. Memoirs. Philips, C. E. Lucas. Alamein. Boston: Little, Brown,
Cleveland, Ohio: World, 1958. 1962. A popular writer, Philips concentrates on narra-
Rommel, Field Marshal Erwin. The Rommel Papers. tive, making Montgomery a hero, while Rommel is
Edited by Captain B. H. Liddle Hart. Translated by less than a villain.
Paul Findlay. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World,
1953. The above are pertinent memoirs of the leading See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
figures in the Battle of El Alamein. European Theater; May 2-June 13, 1941: Anglo-Iraqi
Barr, Niall. Pendulum of War: The Three Battles of El War; Aug. 19, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943: Battle of Stalin-
Alamein. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 2005. grad; Nov. 8, 1942: Invasion of North Africa.
209
Invasion of North Africa The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
November 8, 1942
Invasion of North Africa
An Allied campaign designed to force the Germans out and certainly by early 1943. The British leaders, espe-
of North Africa provided a training ground for U.S. cially Prime Minister Winston Churchill, favored a pe-
forces in World War II and prepared the way for the ripheral strategy designed to wear down Germany and
invasions of Sicily and mainland Italy. Italy through air attacks and by striking at weak points
on the frontiers of their empires. Churchill argued that
Also known as: Operation Torch only when the enemy was exhausted should the Allies
Locale: French North Africa (now Morocco, Algeria, cross the English Channel and confront the German army
and Tunisia) directly.
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Marshall also
unrest believed that by concentrating on a cross-Channel opera-
Key Figures tion, they could achieve several objectives. First, the op-
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of eration would satisfy Soviet premier Joseph Stalin, who
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 was urging the Allies to open a second front in Europe,
François Darlan (1881-1942), commander in chief of which would take pressure off the beleaguered Russians.
the French forces at Vichy Second, such an attack would take the Germans by sur-
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), commander in prise and stimulate French resistance. In the long run, it
chief of U.S. forces in Europe, supreme commander was unrealistic to attack the powerful Germans on their
of Allied forces in Northwest Africa, and later home ground without preparation. The dangers of defeat
president of the United States, 1953-1961 were great, but it was imperative that the United States
Henri Giraud (1879-1949), French general in North show its colors somewhere.
Africa Roosevelt insisted that U.S. troops be in action
George C. Marshall (1880-1959), chief of staff of the against the Germans somewhere before the end of 1942.
U.S. Army, 1939-1945, and later secretary of state, Invasion of France was not possible in 1942 because of a
1947-1949 lack of landing craft and trained troops to staff them, so
Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), commander the Allies had to find an easier target. Churchill won the
of the British Eighth Army, 1942 argument when the Allies decided that French North Af-
George S. Patton (1885-1945), commander of the rica was ideal for invasion. There were no German troops
U.S. Army Western Task Force, which invaded in that area, and it was probable that the Vichy French
Morocco forces (set up as part of the French puppet state after
Philippe Pétain (1856-1951), head of the French France had surrendered to the Germans in June, 1940)
puppet government at Vichy would put up only token resistance against British and
Erwin Rommel (1891-1944), German general defeated U.S. invaders.
by the Allies in North Africa At the other end of the North African landmass,
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the the British Eighth Army was fighting General Erwin
United States, 1933-1945 Rommel’s Afrika Korps. An Allied landing in French
North Africa would relieve the pressure on the British
Summary of Event in Egypt and, it was hoped, make it possible to force
On December 11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared the Germans out of North Africa altogether. Allied pos-
war on the United States. Thereafter, the United States session of North Africa would free the Mediterranean
devoted its chief efforts to defeating its European ene- Sea for British shipping, so that oil from the Near East
mies. Officers of the U.S. Army, however, disagreed and supplies from India could come to the British Isles
with their British counterparts about how this aim should by the most direct route. Marshall argued that a landing
be accomplished. General George C. Marshall, chief of in North Africa would delay an invasion of northern
staff of the U.S. Army, wanted to build up air and France by two years because of the drain on supplies, but
ground forces in the British Isles and then launch a Roosevelt overruled him.
cross-Channel invasion into France, aimed ultimately The planning for the invasion, called Operation
at Berlin. He hoped to be ready to invade late in 1942 Torch, proved to be difficult. The United States preferred
210
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Invasion of North Africa
Allied Invasion of North Africa, 1942

Eastern Task
S p a i n Force
M e d i t e r r a
Center Task n e
a n
Force
S
e
Algiers a
Tunis
Gibraltar
Western Task Tangier
Oran
T u n
Force
i
Casablanca A l g e r i a
o
s
c i
a
1942
c
o
r
M o
L i b y a
simultaneous landings in Morocco Roosevelt Announces a Second Front in Africa

and Algeria, while the British wanted
the operation to focus on the Alge- White House News Release
rian coastline alone. Both sides had Washington, D.C., November 7, 1942
good reasons. The United States
wanted a foothold in Morocco, near In order to forestall an invasion of Africa by Germany and Italy, which if
Casablanca, if things went poorly in successful, would constitute a direct threat to America across the compara-
Algeria. Casablanca also would give tively narrow sea from Western Africa, a powerful American force equipped
with adequate weapons of modern warfare and under American Command is
the Allies a port that would not be
today landing on the Mediterranean and Atlantic Coasts of the French Colonies
subject to Axis air attacks. The Brit- in Africa.
ish argued that if the landings did not The landing of this American Army is being assisted by the British Navy
include eastern Algeria, the Ger- and air forces and it will, in the immediate future, be reinforced by a consider-
mans and Italians could quickly oc- able number of divisions of the British Army.
cupy all of Tunisia, using it as a base This combined allied force, under American Command, in conjunction
for air attacks and for a solid defen- with the British campaign in Egypt is designed to prevent an occupation by the
sive position that would take many Axis armies of any part of Northern or Western Africa, and to deny to the ag-
Allied lives to reduce. gressor nations a starting point from which to launch an attack against the At-
By the end of August, the plans lantic Coast of the Americas.
were in place, and General Dwight D. In addition, it provides an effective second front assistance to our heroic al-
lies in Russia.
Eisenhower was firmly entrenched
The French Government and the French people have been informed of the
as the overall commander of the op- purpose of this expedition, and have been assured that the allies seek no terri-
eration. In October, 1942, Major tory and have no intention of interfering with friendly French Authorities in
General Mark W. Clark and diplo- Africa.
mat Robert Daniel Murphy were The Government of France and the people of France and the French Posses-
sent on a secret mission into North sions have been requested to cooperate with and assist the American expedi-
Africa to gauge the sentiments of the tion in its effort to repel the German and Italian international criminals, and by
French forces there. Clark and Mur- so doing to liberate France and the French Empire from the Axis yoke.
phy ran head-on into French politics This expedition will develop into a major effort by the Allied Nations and
in North Africa. One problem was there is every expectation that it will be successful in repelling the planned Ger-
deciding which French general would man and Italian invasion of Africa and prove the first historic step to the libera-
tion and restoration of France.
lead the defection from Vichy and
from collaboration with the Axis. It
211
Invasion of North Africa The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
was clear that maverick General Charles de Gaulle be a diplomat as well as a warrior. Second, it gave Eisen-
would be unacceptable to French military leadership in hower’s staff valuable training in planning and executing
North Africa. Admiral François Darlan, commander in a complex mission that involved air, land, and sea com-
chief of Vichy forces, was suspect because of his previ- ponents. Third, Operation Torch and subsequent fighting
ous support for Vichy. It was agreed that General Henri in North Africa allowed U.S. Army troops to train in real-
Giraud would announce the landings and order Vichy istic conditions. Fourth, Operation Torch was carried out
troops not to resist the Allies. In another undercover op- successfully less than one year after the attack on Pearl
eration, Giraud was brought to Gibraltar to confer with Harbor, thereby showing the United States’ resilience,
Eisenhower on the eve of the invasion. In the long run, resolve, and combat potential.
Giraud’s selection did not settle French political prob- On July 10, 1943, Anglo-American forces invaded
lems in North Africa. Sicily, and the Allies soon captured the island. The fall
In the early morning of November 8, 1942, Eisen- of Sicily and the Allied bombing of Rome led to the
hower’s troops landed at Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers. downfall of the Italian head of government, Benito Mus-
General Giraud’s orders not to resist were too often ig- solini, on July 25, 1943, and ultimately to an Italian
nored by French officers unaware of Giraud’s new role surrender. Before the negotiations could be planned,
in French North Africa, and the aged Marshal Henri however, the Germans had occupied the country. In
Philippe Pétain, head of the Vichy government, ordered September, U.S. troops invaded Italy. The progress of
his forces to resist. Eisenhower, contacting Admiral the Allied forces up the peninsula was slow; not un-
Darlan, made the following arrangements: Darlan was to til June 4, 1944, did the U.S. Fifth Army liberate Rome.
assume control of French North Africa and then would The campaign that began with the invasion of North
order his troops to cease fire preparatory to a later attack Africa had accomplished much, principally the freeing
on the Germans. The U.S. press criticized Eisenhower of the Mediterranean Sea and the elimination of Italy
for coming to terms with a pro-Fascist, but Churchill and from the war.
Roosevelt supported him, especially when Eisenhower — Stephen E. Ambrose and James J. Cooke
explained that the deal was necessary to avoid fighting
the French and to begin the real job of fighting the Ger- Further Reading
mans. Holland, James. Together We Stand—Turning the Tide
In November and early December, Eisenhower made in the West: North Africa, 1942-1943. London:
a dash for Tunis, hoping to seize that port before the Ger- HarperCollins, 2005. Argues that the North African
mans could pour troops into Tunisia. Rain, superior Ger- campaign was crucial to the forging of the alliance be-
man tank tactics, and German air superiority stalled his tween the United States and Great Britain—and there-
offensive before it reached its objective. The British fore to the outcome of the overall European war. Bib-
Eighth Army, under General Bernard Lee Montgomery, liographic references and index.
was driving Rommel back. By February, 1943, Rommel Howe, George F. The Mediterranean Theater of Opera-
had crossed Libya and reached southern Tunisia. He then tions, Northeast Africa: Seizing the Initiative in the
turned against Eisenhower’s troops and inflicted a sharp West. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History,
blow on them at Kasserine Pass. The Allies, however, 1991. Official operational history that contains great
were building up their force, while the Germans received detail about Operation Torch.
no significant reinforcements. By May 13, the last resis- Jackson, W. G. F. The Battle for North Africa. New York:
tance had ended, and Eisenhower had captured nearly Mason/Charter Press, 1975. A survey of military op-
three hundred thousand prisoners in Tunisia. erations in North Africa.
Langer, William L. Our Vichy Gamble. New York: Al-
Significance fred A. Knopf, 1947. A classic and useful work on this
As Marshall had feared, the large troop commitment to topic.
North Africa made a cross-Channel invasion in 1943 im- Murphy, Robert D. Diplomat Among Warriors. Garden
possible. Because the troops and landing craft were al- City, N.J.: Doubleday, 1964. These memoirs of a par-
ready in the Mediterranean, they had to be used there. ticipant are invaluable to understanding the political
Despite Marshall’s concerns, Operation Torch did have a and military nuances of Operation Torch.
number of beneficial results. First, it established Eisen- Pogue, Forrest C. George C. Marshall: Ordeal and
hower as a military planner and as an officer who could Hope, 1939-1942. New York: Viking Press, 1966.
212
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Casablanca Marks the Artistic Apex of 1940’s War-Themed Films
Contains a short but good analysis of Marshall and See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
Operation Torch. European Theater; Oct. 23-Nov. 3, 1942: Second Bat-
Reuth, Ralf Georg. Rommel: The End of a Legend. tle of El Alamein; July 9-Aug. 17, 1943: Allied Forces
Translated by Debra S. Marmor and Herbert A. Invade Sicily; Sept. 3-18, 1943: Western Allies In-
Danner. London: Haus Books, 2005. Examines the vade Italy; June 6, 1944: Invasion of Normandy Be-
downfall of the so-called Desert Fox, the legendary gins the Liberation of Europe.
German commander in North Africa.
November 26, 1942

CASABLANCA Marks
the Artistic Apex of 1940’s
1942
War-Themed Films
Combining romance, an exotic locale, idealism, and Nazis, and refugees. Burnett thought at the time that the
extremely clever dialogue in a critique of American nightclub would be a marvelous setting for a play.
isolationism in the face of Nazism, Casablanca quickly Back in New York, Burnett and a collaborator wrote a
became one of the best known and most successful of play during the summer of 1940 that used the European
war-related films. refugee problem as its subject. The play was entitled Ev-
erybody Comes to Rick’s and was set in a fictitious night-
Locale: United States club called Rick’s Café Americain in Casablanca,
Categories: Motion pictures and video; World French Morocco, a geographical location that was, in ac-
War II tuality, a key stop along many refugees’ escape trails.
Key Figures The unproduced play was submitted to various Holly-
Michael Curtiz (1888-1962), Hungarian-born director wood studios for review and possible production.
Humphrey Bogart (1899-1957), American actor In late December, 1941, the Warner Bros. studio pur-
Claude Rains (1889-1967), British actor chased the play for twenty thousand dollars, commis-
Ingrid Bergman (1915-1982), Swedish actor sioned a screenplay to be adapted from the original
Dooley Wilson (1894-1953), American Actor script, and indicated that the play would be made into a
Paul Henreid (1908-1992), Austrian actor low-budget picture. The studio, however, soon changed
Conrad Veidt (1893-1943), German actor its mind. Julius J. and Philip G. Epstein were given
Peter Lorre (1904-1964), Hungarian-born actor the assignment to turn the play into a film script, while
Sydney Greenstreet (1879-1954), English actor Hal B. Wallis, the producer of Warner Bros.’ major
Julius J. Epstein (1909-2000), American screenwriter films, cast about for a director. Wallis decided to go with
Philip G. Epstein (1909-1952), American screenwriter the studio’s top director, Michael Curtiz, and Casa-
and twin brother of Julius blanca, as the project had been retitled, underwent modi-
Howard Koch (1902-1995), American screenwriter fication.
At first, it was announced that Ronald Reagan would
Summary of Event play the part of Rick Blaine, and Ann Sheridan was slated
In 1938, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler seized Austria in a to play the female lead, an American of sketchy back-
bloodless coup and began demanding that Germany be ground named Lois Meredith. Reagan and Sheridan,
given the Sudetenland, a province of Czechoslovakia. In however, went on to other film projects, and as the
the summer of 1938, a New York City high school screenplay evolved, the major parts were filled by other
teacher and playwright named Murray Burnett and his performers. Humphrey Bogart was cast as Rick, and the
wife traveled to an apprehension-filled Europe to visit character named Lois Meredith was replaced by the
relatives. In Vienna, they observed firsthand the new foreign-born Ilsa Lund, to be played by Ingrid Bergman.
Nazi regime and the plight of refugees trying to flee Eu- The film opens with Casablanca swarming with refu-
rope. Later, the Burnetts visited a small town in the south gees in December of 1941, as the Nazis tighten their grip
of France that was home to a nightclub that featured a on Europe. Ugarte (Peter Lorre), a petty crook, has mur-
black pianist who played for a mixed crowd of French, dered two German couriers and stolen two powerful let-
213
Casablanca Marks the Artistic Apex of 1940’s War-Themed Films The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ters of transit, which can be used by any of the many refu- claimed when released. It won three Academy Awards in
gees who are desperate for exit visas. The letters “cannot 1943: the awards for Best Picture, Best Screenplay, and
be rescinded, not even questioned,” making them by far Best Director—giving director Michael Curtiz his only
the most valuable items in the city. Ugarte asks Rick (Bo- such honor. Though Curtiz directed many major films of
gart), the owner of Rick’s Café Americain, to keep them the 1930’s and 1940’s, Casablanca became his best-
until he can sell them. Rick hides the letters in the club’s known work.
piano, which is played by his longtime friend Sam (Doo- Curtiz is generally not considered to have been a great
ley Wilson). Captain Renault (Claude Rains), the French visionary or artist, but he was skilled at the visual side of
prefect of police, attempts to arrest Ugarte, who is killed directing, the use of chiaroscuro lighting, close-ups, and
in the act of fleeing, under the approving eye of Nazi Ge- sweeping camera movements. Curtiz, Julius Epstein re-
stapo official Major Strasser (Conrad
Veidt). Rick, unmoved by Ugarte’s
death, is shaken by the entrance of
Victor Laszlo (Paul Henreid) and his
beautiful wife, Ilsa Lund (Bergman).
A flashback reveals that Rick and
Ilsa were lovers in Paris and had
made plans to leave as the Nazis ap-
proached. At the last minute, though,
Ilsa stayed in Paris, sending Rick a
mysterious note stating that she could
never see him again.
In Casablanca, a black marketeer
named Ferrari (Sydney Greenstreet)
tells Laszlo that Rick probably has
the stolen letters of transit. Rick, how-
ever, refuses to give them to Laszlo, To view image, please refer to print edition
and Ilsa goes to Rick to beg for help.
She admits she has loved Rick all
along but that even back in Paris she
had already been married to Laszlo,
a European leader of the under-
ground, who she had thought was
dead. She had found out he was still
alive the very day she and Rick were
to leave Paris, and she could not
abandon him.
Rick now agrees to help. He tells
Renault to arrest Laszlo when he
gives Laszlo the letters. When Re-
nault tries to do so, however, Rick
orders Renault to take them all to the
airport. Rick puts Ilsa on the plane
with Laszlo and the letters and shoots
Strasser when he tries to prevent the
escape. Instead of arresting Rick, Re-
nault decides to leave Casablanca and
join a Free French force with him.
Casablanca was both commer- This poster for Casablanca features Ingrid Bergman (foreground right), Humphrey
cially successful and critically ac- Bogart (left), and Sydney Greenstreet. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
214
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Casablanca Marks the Artistic Apex of 1940’s War-Themed Films
called, “knew just when the cigarette smoke should curl World War II changed over the course of the film from
backward; when to move; when not to move.” All these one of concern but outward neutrality to one of commit-
techniques were used to build up to the film’s most dra- ted fighting on the side of the Allies, Rick represented a
matic moments and to create great emotional power. rather thinly veiled allegory for the United States as a
Before Casablanca, Humphrey Bogart spent several whole. It has been said that Rick, at the beginning of the
years under contract to Warner Bros., playing mostly film, represents what isolationism looks like—proud,
tough, ruthless characters. In 1941, he starred in The aloof, and attractive on the surface. Perhaps Rick is even
Maltese Falcon and High Sierra, which solidified certain a symbol of the American fear of entangling alliances. In
aspects of the Bogart character-type that had been tenta- the end, though, Rick becomes a visual reminder of the
tively projected in other films. All that was needed to noblest of virtues, personal sacrifice in the face of a cri-
complete the Bogart mystique was a strong romantic ele- sis. Rick’s kind of virtue is what is needed to move any
ment, which Casablanca provided. The film established great cause forward. Rick truly wants Ilsa; giving her up
1942
him as a romantic leading man and made him enor- is a sacrifice only unselfish idealism could prompt.
mously popular. Not long after Casablanca, Bogart’s Next to Rick, Renault is the film’s most important
new Warner Bros. contract made him the highest-paid character. He has the best lines and determines the plot’s
actor in the world. resolution. In the end, he also represents the most impor-
Ingrid Bergman also became an extraordinarily popu- tant aspect of the war—how it can be won. Renault is a
lar star as a result of her performance in Casablanca. She symbol of the great partnerships that would form be-
went on to star in numerous films, including For Whom tween the United States and its foreign allies to defeat the
the Bell Tolls (1943), Gaslight (1944), for which she Nazis, just as Rick and Renault team up to defeat Major
received an Oscar, Spellbound (1945), and Notorious Strasser. Rick speaks symbolic lines that refer to the
(1946). As for producer Hal Wallis, he had been associ- United States as a sleeping giant that, once stirred, will
ated with Bogart on The Maltese Falcon, along with Peter surely crush the impudent and immoral enemy.
Lorre and Sydney Greenstreet. Thanks to Casablanca, A third factor contributing to the film’s impact was
Wallis was presented with his second Irving G. Thalberg Casablanca’s subtle portrayal of the United States as a
Award for the most consistent high-quality production. land of promise and greatness, as the ultimate refuge for
the war weary, the persecuted, and the homeless. When
Significance Rick lets an unwitting Bulgarian win enough at the rou-
That Casablanca made such a tremendous impact on the lette wheel to pay for their exit visas, the man’s wife ex-
United States at the time was the result of several factors. claims that Rick is an American and, thus, “America
The first was a coincidence of timing; the film’s release must be a wonderful place.” Casablanca defined how
date had been announced for June, 1943, but in early Americans thought of themselves or, at least, how they
November, 1942, the Allies landed in North Africa—at wanted to be. Casablanca was so influential that Warner
Casablanca. Warner Bros. immediately planned to pre- Bros. tried to remake it in various guises before the end of
miere the film in New York on Thanksgiving Day (No- World War II; none of the imitations, though, were as
vember 26), only eighteen days after the landings. More- popular as Casablanca.
over, the film’s general release date, January 23, 1943, Casablanca continued to influence American popular
came during the Allied summit conferences, also held at culture long after the war, precisely because it was not a
Casablanca. It seemed as though President Franklin D. pure war movie at all. Most scholars maintain that the
Roosevelt himself was sanctioning the film. film is either a conventional romance, a morality play
The second factor accounting for Casablanca’s im- adapted to the screen, or a melodrama. The ending of Ca-
mediate impact was the film’s exploration and presenta- sablanca is like that of many other romantic films;
tion of an unselfish commitment to ideals. Bogart’s por- Woody Allen’s 1972 takeoff Play It Again, Sam shows
trayal of Rick is Casablanca’s moral center and the point how easily the war element can be worked around. The
around which the plot as well as the other characters re- title of Allen’s film, taken from a famous (and mis-
volve. Torn between neutrality and patriotism, cynicism quoted) line of Casablanca’s dialogue, is further testi-
and idealism, independence and romantic involvement, mony to the film’s continuing influence.
he is the appealing hero who seemed to reflect the mood Casablanca possesses enduring artistic and entertain-
of wartime America. ment value. Audiences keep coming back to it, both to be
Moreover, as an American whose attitude toward enraptured by the film and to analyze it. The proliferation
215
Casablanca Marks the Artistic Apex of 1940’s War-Themed Films The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
of interpretations is a mark of the film’s influence on nal line, “I think this is the beginning of a beautiful
American culture. Casablanca, moreover, was largely friendship.”
responsible for the flourishing Bogart cult of the late Hill, John, and Pamela Church Gibson, eds. The Oxford
1960’s and early 1970’s. Guide to Film Studies. New York: Oxford University
The superb dialogue of Casablanca is among the best Press, 1998. Anthology detailing various approaches
remembered in film history, and the film’s classic theme to and issues in film studies. The section on American
song, “As Time Goes By,” is synonymous with the film Hollywood cinema includes two chapters providing
itself. Casablanca, perhaps more than any other Holly- different readings of Casablanca by Rick Altman and
wood film, outlines a worldview that is characteristically Richard Maltby.
American. Rosenzweig, Sidney. “‘A Hill of Beans’: Casablanca.”
—Andrew C. Skinner In Casablanca and Other Major Films of Michael
Curtiz. Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press,
Further Reading
1982. Originally a doctoral dissertation, this book is a
Behlmer, Rudy. “George Raft in Casablanca?” In Be-
volume in the Studies in Cinema series. Scholarly in
hind the Scenes: The Making of . . . Hollywood, Calif.:
tone, this work provides an excellent synthesis of
Samuel French, 1990. Written by an acknowledged
most of the important analyses and interpretations of
expert on the history of American films, especially
Casablanca. One large chapter is devoted exclusively
those made by Warner Bros., this book reveals the
to the film. Contains an extensive, useful bibliog-
creative processes that went into the making of fifteen
raphy.
significant films during the period of the Hollywood
Schickel, Richard. “Some Nights in Casablanca.” In Fa-
studio system. The chapter on Casablanca is perhaps
vorite Movies: Critics’ Choice, edited by Philip
the clearest and most concise history of the making of
Nobile. New York: Macmillan, 1973. Contains per-
the film from start to finish. Puts Casablanca in the
sonal reflections of a noted film critic. The chapter is
context of other films made at the time.
noteworthy for its analysis of the famous dialogue,
Francisco, Charles. You Must Remember This: The Film-
characterizations, and symbols in the film. The author
ing of “Casablanca.” Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren-
assumes that the reader comes to his chapter with
tice Hall, 1980. A film historian tells the detailed
some familiarity with films and filmmaking, and his
behind-the-scenes story of the chaotic fifty-day
style is not geared to the novice.
shooting schedule of Casablanca. This work’s
strength is its discussion of the attitudes, personali- See also: May 1, 1941: Welles’s Citizen Kane Breaks
ties, and contributions of the film’s producer, direc- with Traditional Filmmaking; Oct. 3, 1941: The Mal-
tor, writers, and film editor. Also presents examples tese Falcon Establishes a New Style for Crime Films;
of the film’s impact on American society. Sept. 3, 1949: The Third Man Premieres; June 24,
Haver, Ronald. “Finally, The Truth About Casablanca.” 1954: The Caine Mutiny Premieres; Mar. 30, 1955:
American Film 1 (June, 1976): 10-16. Offers details On the Waterfront Wins Best Picture; 1961: Catch-
about the film’s ending, as well as of the relationships 22 Illustrates Antiwar Sentiment; Jan. 25, 1970:
among the production staff. Essentially, the Epsteins M*A*S*H Satirizes Warfare; Feb. 4, 1970: Patton’s
came up with the solution to the problem of how the Historical Realism Leads to Best Picture and Actor
final scene should end and with the film’s famous fi- Awards.
216
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Fire in Boston’s Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Proves Deadly
November 28, 1942

Fire in Boston’s Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Proves Deadly
The most devastating nightclub fire in history resulted ney Welansky, who had political ties to Boston mayor
in more rigorous enforcement of fire-safety standards, Maurice Joseph Tobin.
establishment of new fire regulations and building By 1942, Welansky had expanded the club into a lab-
codes, implementation of novel medical treatments, yrinth that included the Melody Lounge, the Caricature
and innovative psychological practices. Bar and dining room, and a new cocktail lounge popu-
larly known as the Broadway Street Lounge. Within
Locale: Boston, Massachusetts these areas, he continued the practice, begun by Solo-
Categories: Disasters; entertainment mon, of keeping most exits locked to prevent people
Key Figures from sneaking out without paying. The Cocoanut Grove,
1942
Barney Welansky (1896-1947), corporate owner of the which by then provided food, liquor, music, singing, and
Cocoanut Grove dancing, was a popular oasis during the early months of
Jimmy Welansky (1899?-1963?), acting manager on the World War II.
night of the fire At 10:15 p.m., fire broke out downstairs in the Melody
Mickey Alpert (1904-1965), bandleader and founder of Lounge. A sixteen-year-old busboy, Stanley Tomaszew-
the Cocoanut Grove ski, lit a match, replaced a lightbulb that a guest had re-
Stanley Tomaszewski (1926-1994), a sixteen-year-old moved from an artificial palm tree, and then extinguished
busboy the flame. It was not immediately apparent that during this
Buck Jones (1889-1942), a singing cowboy movie star process the paper tree caught fire. At first the guests were
Jack Bennett (fl. mid-twentieth century), financial not alarmed; in fact, some people found the first attempts
backer for the Cocoanut Grove to extinguish the flame to be rather amusing. Within sec-
Charles Solomon (1889-1933), a gangster, bootlegger, onds, however, the tiny fire spread across the blue satin
and racketeer ceiling and tore through the lounge, creating panic and
Maurice Joseph Tobin (1901-1953), mayor of Boston, chaos as it filled the facility with fire, smoke, and fumes.
1937-1944, and later governor of Massachusetts, As the guests on the main floor frolicked and antici-
1945-1947, and U.S. secretary of labor, 1948-1953 pated hearing Alpert’s band start its second show with
“The Star-Spangled Banner,” flames licked across the
Summary of Event Melody Lounge ceiling, rained down on shocked guests,
On the Saturday evening after Thanksgiving, November burst up the stairwell, and exploded up into the foyer. As
28, 1942, the Cocoanut Grove nightclub, located at 17 the fire advanced, several quick-thinking guests made
Piedmont Street near the theater district in Boston, was in their way through the dark, narrow corridor and out the
full swing. Hundreds of people were out for a good time, main gate before the single revolving door stuck, caused
celebrating weddings and anniversaries, enjoying mili- a human traffic jam, and trapped the following custom-
tary leave (World War II was at its height), and replaying ers. Other people in the Melody Lounge dashed to the
the football upset of Holy Cross over Boston College. Shawmut Street exit, only to find themselves trapped be-
Among the guests were local residents, politicians, tour- hind a locked door.
ists, and Western movie actor Buck Jones. The nightclub The fire snaked its way through the floors and
was “the place to be.” thrashed its way through draperies, leatherette panels,
The Cocoanut Grove opened during the Prohibition decorations, and other combustibles. It trapped the
era as a legal entertainment establishment. Local enter- dining-room guests in horrific flames and smoke. The
tainer Mickey Alpert and two partners renovated an old power went out. The conflagration continued to the back
one-and-a-half-story garage into a seemingly tropical of the nightclub and reached the new cocktail lounge,
paradise. However, just before opening night, in Octo- which had opened just eight days earlier. This new area
ber, 1927, Jack Bennett was arrested, and the club lost its had fire-department certification but lacked occupancy
financial sponsor. The nightclub limped along until approval from the city building inspector. Those in this
1931, when bootlegger Charles Solomon became its lounge found their egress impeded by a door that opened
owner. In 1933, Solomon was murdered, and ownership inward; many of them were doomed.
of the Cocoanut Grove Lounge passed to his lawyer, Bar- Just as the lounge fire ignited, the fire alarm sounded
217
Fire in Boston’s Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Proves Deadly The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
in the nearby theater district for a car fire. As the firemen days; he remained there until December 11. His brother
extinguished the automobile flames, they heard the Jimmy Welansky was acting as temporary manager when
screams of Cocoanut Grove fire victims. The rescuers’ the disaster occurred. Both Welanskys and eight other
proximity and quick response from additional units men were indicted by a grand jury for neglect. Jimmy
saved many lives, but the blocked exists and thick smoke Welansky and seven of the men were acquitted. Since he
prevented immediate building access. was responsible for the club, and no significant changes
Firemen, policemen, servicemen, civilians, and medi- had occurred during his absence, Barney Welansky was
cal personnel were pressed into duty. City, nearby town, convicted of involuntary manslaughter and sentenced to
state, and federal service branches were recruited. The twelve to fifteen years in Norfolk Prison. In 1946, after
Red Cross and the Salvation Army were mobilized, too. serving less than four years, Welansky was diagnosed
A week prior to the fire, on November 22, many of these with cancer and given a pardon by the former mayor of
officials had participated in a Boston disaster emergency Boston, Governor Maurice Tobin. The only other con-
exercise that prepared them for responding to the Co- viction in the case was a two-year sentence against the
coanut Grove fire. building contractor for abuse of building laws.
Initially, the majority of the victims were sent to Bos-
Significance
ton City Hospital; later victims were diverted to Massa-
With the exception of a sidewalk plaque that memorial-
chusetts General Hospital and other area hospitals. The
izes the event, there are no physical remains of the
stress on Boston City Hospital was inordinate; for well
Cocoanut Grove Lounge, but the effects of the worst
more than an hour, victims arrived there nearly every
nightclub fire in American history were significant. The
eleven seconds. Since this was wartime, hospitals were
incident stimulated change and enforcement of local,
well-stocked, but provisions dwindled quickly, so Civil
state, and national fire regulations and building codes
Defense authorities agreed to loan defense supplies to
for nightclubs and similar establishments. Among the
the beleaguered medical centers. While triage was the
changes were requirements for improved exit and emer-
only possible course of action, recently developed burn-
gency lighting, occupancy permits with posted seating
therapy techniques were employed wherever possible.
capacities, and doors with panic bars adjacent to revolv-
These techniques included morphine and intravenous
ing gates. Many jurisdictions banned flammable decora-
fluids for shock, new topical approaches to handling
tions. As a result of the fire, use of sprinkler systems be-
burns, respiratory observation and management, and
came more prevalent.
trial use of penicillin for infection.
New medical research provided opportunities to care
In less than fifteen minutes, the Cocoanut Grove fire
for injuries with more advanced treatments. Among the
killed or injured hundreds of people. Some of the occu-
enhancements were improved burn treatments, use of
pants were burned; others were trampled; many more
fluids and antibiotics for burn victims, and better respira-
were asphyxiated from toxic fumes. The final toll was
tory care. Occupational, physical, and psychological
492 dead and 170 injured. One of the casualties was Buck
therapies were found to be important in recovery as well.
Jones. Disorder erupted after the fire, and by 1:35 a.m.,
Use and study of these new techniques facilitated the
martial law was declared. Coverage of the disaster
later establishment of the Shriners Burn Institute at Mas-
usurped war news for several days. Reports included sto-
sachusetts General Hospital.
ries of people who escaped and accounts of suffering.
The guilty verdict in Barney Welansky’s trial, Com-
The terrible loss in the Cocoanut Grove fire may be at-
monwealth v. Welansky, was another significant land-
tributed to many factors, including overcrowding (more
mark. It has become a precedent in other legal cases in-
than 1,000 customers were crammed into a space ap-
volving involuntary manslaughter through reckless
proved for only 460), unlawful occupancy of the new
conduct, and it helped to establish that ignoring one’s af-
lounge, blocked and hidden exits, boarded-up plate-glass
firmative duty can be grounds for conviction of man-
windows, flammable decorations, wiring by an unli-
slaughter. The case is still cited regularly in criminal
censed electrician, lack of signage, no emergency light-
cases dealing with similar issues.
ing or sprinkler system, and failure to evacuate imme-
— Cynthia J. W. Svoboda
diately. The official cause of the fire was listed as
“unknown origin.” Further Reading
On the night of the Cocoanut Grove fire, corporate Benzaquin, Paul. Fire in Boston’s Cocoanut Grove: Ho-
owner Barney Welansky had been hospitalized for twelve locaust! Boston: Branden Press, 1967. Overview of
218
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction
the night of the Cocoanut Grove Fire, with personal Keyes, Edward. Cocoanut Grove. New York: Athen-
accounts and ramifications. Black-and-white photos. eum, 1984. Provides in-depth description of the night-
Cornell, James. “Fires.” The Great International Disas- club fire, rescue assistance, trial proceedings, and nar-
ter Book. New York: Scribner, 1976. Summarizes and ratives of some of the survivors.
reviews the events leading to and following the fire Schorow, Stephanie. The Cocoanut Grove Fire. Beverly,
and highlights the findings. Mass.: Commonwealth Editions, 2005. Concise but
Esposito, John. Fire in the Grove: The Cocoanut Grove thorough summary of the history of the building and
and Its Aftermath. Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, the club.
2005. Details the events of the fateful night, provides See also: Jan. 31-Feb. 1, 1953: North Sea Flood Kills
historical perspective, and explores the outcome. Nearly Two Thousand People in Holland; June 11,
Black-and-white photos. 1955: Le Mans Auto-Racing Accident Kills More
1942
Grant, Casey Cavanah. “Last Dance at the Cocoanut than Eighty; Apr., 1956: Minamata Bay Mercury Poi-
Grove: Five Who Were There Remember the Night.” soning Begins to Claim Victims; Oct. 21, 1966:
NFPA Journal (May/June 1991): 74-86. Covers the Mining Debris Buries Welsh Village; Feb. 10-Apr.
fire, the employees, the customers, emergency re- 16, 1970: Alpine Avalanches Prompt Snow-Manage-
sponse, and medical advances. ment Programs.
December 2, 1942
Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear
Fission Chain Reaction
Physicist Enrico Fermi and his team demonstrated that Summary of Event
nuclear energy could be released in a sustained chain In December, 1938, Enrico Fermi, a professor of physics
reaction, leading to the development of both the atomic in Rome, took advantage of his 1938 Nobel Prize in Phys-
bomb and nuclear power plants. ics to leave his native Italy and escape Adolf Hitler’s in-
creasing domination of Benito Mussolini’s Italy. With his
family, Fermi arrived in New York City and settled down
Locale: Chicago, Illinois to continue his research at Columbia University.
Categories: Physics; science and technology; Fermi and his associates in Rome had been studying
engineering the new nuclei produced when various chemical ele-
Key Figures ments were bombarded by neutrons. In 1934, experi-
Enrico Fermi (1901-1954), Italian nuclear physicist ments on uranium produced a new radioactive isotope.
and 1938 Nobel laureate in physics Fermi and his collaborators demonstrated chemically
Walter Henry Zinn (1906-2000), Canadian physicist in that the new isotope did not belong to any of the elements
immediately below uranium on the periodic table. The
charge of procuring and machining materials for the
team concluded that they had produced the first element
construction of the atomic pile
ever found that was heavier than uranium. The idea of a
Herbert L. Anderson (1914-1988), American physicist
transuranic element caught the imagination of the scien-
who headed the night construction crew on the
tific community and the popular press. When German
atomic pile chemist Ida Noddack published an article suggesting that
Arthur Holly Compton (1892-1962), American Nobel Fermi had not ruled out the possibility that their new ra-
laureate in physics and director of the Chicago dioactivity came from a lighter chemical element pro-
Metallurgical Atomic Project duced when a uranium nucleus split into two parts, she
Leo Szilard (1898-1964), Hungarian physicist who was ignored.
initially conceived the idea of a chain reaction, Fermi’s team and other groups, including Irène Joliot-
patented it, and encouraged the U.S. government to Curie and Paul Savitch in Paris, and Otto Hahn, Lise
pursue chain-reaction research Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann in Berlin, continued to
Niels Bohr (1885-1962), Danish physicist study the effects of irradiating uranium with neutrons.
219
Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Fermi’s group demonstrated that neutrons that had been

slowed down by passing them through a material con-
taining hydrogen, such as paraffin, were more effective
in producing radioactivity than were more energetic neu-
trons. The experimenters gradually compiled a list of
several different radioactive species that were produced
when uranium was bombarded.
In December, 1938, Hahn wrote to Meitner and in-
formed her that he and Strassmann had incontrovertible
evidence that bombardment of uranium with neutrons
produced lighter elements and not transuranic elements.
Meitner, who was Jewish, had been forced to leave
Berlin for Sweden. She and her nephew, Otto Robert
Frisch, a young physicist working with Niels Bohr in Co-
penhagen, concluded that when a uranium nucleus ab-
sorbed a neutron, it split or fissioned into two lighter nu-
clei and some extra neutrons, releasing a hundred million
times as much energy as was released in a typical chemi-
cal reaction between two atoms.
Frisch reported the discovery of nuclear fission to Enrico Fermi. (Gift of Laura Fermi, Courtesy AIP Emilio
Bohr. Bohr was leaving Denmark for the United States Segré Visual Archives)
and announced the discovery to the Fifth Washington
Conference on Theoretical Physics on January 26, 1939.
Within days, Fermi and other American physicists had nium would have to be free of chemical impurities that
confirmed the discovery of nuclear fission. Fermi and would absorb neutrons and cut off the chain reaction. In
Leo Szilard, a Hungarian physicist also driven into exile July, 1941, Fermi and his group were funded to begin ex-
by Hitler’s advance in Europe, realized immediately that periments in constructing a graphite-uranium “pile” de-
if the neutrons from one fission could be used to trigger a signed to sustain a chain reaction. In December, Arthur
second fission, the resulting chain reaction could be used Holly Compton, the American Nobel laureate in physics,
to produce energy. If the multiplication could be made was placed in charge of the project and moved the experi-
geometric, the chain reaction would be a powerful explo- ments to Chicago in early 1942.
sive. Szilard feared that Hitler’s Germany would con- By July, 1942, the Chicago group had completed suf-
struct a superweapon based on these principles. He per- ficient preliminary work to design a pile that would sus-
suaded his American colleagues, including Fermi, to tain a chain reaction and to begin its construction. Thirty
delay publication of their experimental results on fission. preliminary atomic piles of graphite and uranium had
Meanwhile, the physics community measured the en- been built before the pile that sustained the first chain re-
ergy released in uranium fission, the new nuclei produced, action was started. Construction of the pile began in No-
and the number of neutrons released during each fission. vember in a squash court since this was the only area
In August of 1939, Szilard and fellow Hungarian émigré available that was large enough to hold the 771,000
Eugene P. Wigner persuaded Albert Einstein to send a pounds of graphite, 80,590 pounds of uranium oxide, and
letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt urging a research the 12,400 pounds of uranium metal that were to com-
program into the possibility of a superweapon. The gov- pose the pile. The uranium metal packed uranium nuclei
ernment hesitated while the physicists determined that closer together, increasing the likelihood that a neutron
only the rare isotope of uranium—U-235—underwent would be captured by a uranium nucleus and cause a fis-
fission, while the isotope U-238, which constituted 99.3 sion. Since Fermi could not obtain enough metal, the
percent of naturally occurring uranium, did not. available supply was to be built into the center of the pile.
Fermi and his colleagues calculated that it should be The pile was constructed inside an enormous balloon,
possible to sustain a chain reaction in a matrix of pure because Fermi feared he might have to evacuate the pile
uranium oxide with graphite between blocks of uranium to reduce neutron absorption by air. Construction crews
to slow down the neutrons. Both the graphite and the ura- headed by Walter Henry Zinn and Herbert L. Anderson
220
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction
worked around the clock machining and stacking the and construction of an atomic bomb, since details of crit-
graphite and uranium blocks. All the scientists slid on the ical mass and neutron absorption by materials could be
graphite dust, which permanently blackened the skin of easily measured using atomic piles.
their faces and hands. Control rods that absorbed neu- Second, atomic piles produced a second fissionable
trons were built into the pile to be withdrawn in order to isotope, plutonium 239, and the design of large-scale
start the chain reaction. Each day the control rods were piles for the production of plutonium was soon under
withdrawn and measurements were taken to see how way. Plutonium was to prove more efficient as a fuel for
close the system was to sustaining a chain reaction. bombs than highly enriched uranium 235.
On the evening of December 1, 1942, Anderson and Finally, the first atomic pile demonstrated that it was
Zinn realized that the layer of uranium and graphite that possible to produce a sustained energy source from nu-
the night crew had placed on the pile should be sufficient clear fission, the basic result that leads to the construc-
to sustain a chain reaction. The crew went home for a few tion of nuclear electric generating plants. Compton re-
1942
hours of sleep and reassembled at 8:30
the following morning. Fermi ordered
the main control rods withdrawn, and The First Atomic Pile
the final control rod was moved foot
by foot out of the pile as the assem- The following eyewitness account of the first atomic pile recalls the historic
bled physicists, including Compton, day of the first self-sustaining nuclear reaction:
who had fought bureaucratic battles
On December 2, 1942, man first initiated a self-sustaining nuclear chain re-
for them, gathered to watch the neu-
action, and controlled it. . . .
tron counters. If a chain reaction had Construction of the main pile at Chicago started in November. . . . At Chi-
been initiated, the counters were ex- cago during the early afternoon of December 1, tests indicated that critical size
pected to spin as the neutron counting was rapidly being approached. At 4:00 p.m. [Walter] Zinn’s group was re-
rate increased without sign of level- lieved by the men working under [Herbert L.] Anderson. Shortly afterwards
ing off. At 11:35 a.m., the automatic the last layer of graphite and uranium bricks was placed on the pile. Zinn, who
safety control rods slammed back into remained, and Anderson made several measurements of the activity within the
the pile because they were set to oper- pile would become self-sustaining. . . . That night the word was passed to the
ate on too low a neutron flux. Accord- men who had worked on the pile that the trial run was due the next morning.
ing to his invariable custom, Fermi About 8:30 on the morning of Wednesday, December 2, the group began to
assemble in the squash court. At the north end of the squash court was a bal-
announced a lunch break.
cony about ten feet above the floor of the court. [Enrico] Fermi, Zinn, Ander-
At 2:00 p.m., the group gathered
son, and [Arthur Holly] Compton were grouped around instruments at the east
around the pile, and the withdrawal end of the balcony. The remainder of the observers crowded the little balcony.
of the rods continued. At 3:25 p.m. R. G. Noble, one of the young scientists who worked on the pile, put it this
(Anderson claims it was 3:36 p.m.), way: “The control cabinet was surrounded by the ‘big wheels’; the ‘little
the control rod was removed the final wheels’ had to stand back. . . .”
foot. The counting rate climbed ex- At 11:35, the automatic safety rod was withdrawn and set. The control rod
ponentially. Acontrolled fission chain was adjusted and “Zip” was withdrawn. Up went the counters, clicking, click-
reaction had been achieved and was ing, faster and faster. . . . At 2:50 the control rod came out another foot. . . .
sustained until Fermi ordered the con- “Move it six inches,” said Fermi at 3:20. Again the change—but again the lev-
trol rods back into the pile at 3:53 p.m. eling off. Five minutes later, Fermi called: “Pull it out another foot.” . . .
Fermi computed the rate of rise of the neutron counts over a minute period.
As the group celebrated, they real-
He silently, grim-faced, ran through some calculations on his slide rule. . . .
ized that the success of their experi-
[Finally,] Fermi closed his slide rule—
ment had inaugurated a new age. “The reaction is self-sustaining,” he announced quietly, happily. “The
curve is exponential.” . . . “O.K., ‘Zip’ in,” called Fermi to Zinn, who con-
Significance trolled that rod. The time was 3:53 p.m. Abruptly, the counters slowed down,
The successful operation of the the pen slid down across the paper. It was all over.
atomic pile provided physicists with Source: The First Atomic Pile: An Eyewitness Account Revealed by Some of the
a tool for studying the behavior of nu- Participants and Narratively Recorded, by Corbin Allardice and Edward R.
clear fission chain reactions. These Trapnell (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1949).
studies were essential for the design
221
Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ported the successful initiation of a chain reaction to a Fermi, Laura. Atoms in the Family: My Life with Enrico
colleague in Washington with the famous words, “the Fermi. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954. A
Italian navigator has just landed in the new world.” very readable account by Fermi’s wife of the events
In 1942, Fermi’s success produced surprisingly little surrounding the development of the first sustained
excitement. The scientists were elated that their experi- chain reaction from a nontechnical point of view.
ments had worked as planned and used the result to dem- Graetzer, Hans G., and David L. Anderson. “From Nu-
onstrate that they were able to produce the technologies clear Fission to Chain Reaction, 1939-1942.” In The
they promised. However, preliminary results for the Discovery of Nuclear Fission: A Documentary His-
thirty piles built before the first chain reaction was tory. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971. This
achieved had been so encouraging that the establishment history uses original documents to describe the dis-
of the Manhattan Project to construct an atomic bomb coveries in nuclear fission surrounded by careful ex-
were already well under way. It was important that Comp- planations for general readers and a clear historical
ton had brought the representative of the Du Pont Corpo- narrative.
ration, Crawford Greenewalt, to witness the start-up of Libby, Leona Marshall. The Uranium People. New York:
the pile. The success of the pile may have been instru- Crane, Russak, 1979. The autobiography of the only
mental in persuading Greenewalt and Du Pont to under- female physicist working on the atomic pile experi-
take the large-scale production of plutonium for nuclear ment, this volume provides a very readable eyewit-
weapons at reactors in Hanford, Washington. ness account of the work on the first nuclear reactor.
Certainly, the success of the pile removed the remain- Nuclearfiles.org. An excellent resource for students
ing uncertainties in anyone’s mind that nuclear fission studying the history of the atomic age. The site, a proj-
existed and could produce a chain reaction. Fermi’s suc- ect of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, includes
cess gave the military confidence in the predictions of ci- links to primary sources, time lines, study guides,
vilian scientists that they could produce a working nu- suggested readings, and much more.
clear fission weapon, even when the experimental work Rhodes, Richard. “The New World.” In The Making of
on the Manhattan Project went badly. the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster,
After 1942, the major work on the atomic bomb 1986. This excellent history of nuclear fission pro-
shifted to the materials production centers at Oak Ridge, vides a detailed description of the Chicago pile exper-
Tennessee, and Hanford, Washington, and to the weap- iment in the context of other work on nuclear physics
ons design center at Los Alamos, New Mexico. Fermi’s taking place at the time.
success in sustaining a chain reaction in the atomic pile in Segrè, Emilio. Enrico Fermi: Physicist. Chicago: Uni-
Chicago was the final step in the preliminary physics ex- versity of Chicago Press, 1970. A biography of Fermi
periments before the actual design of an atomic weapon written by a physicist who worked with him in Rome
began. It served as a technological benchmark in the and the United States that provides insight into the
march toward peaceful energy and the beginning of the way Fermi developed his physical ideas and con-
final stages of construction of an atomic weapon. ducted experiments.
The public remained ignorant of Fermi’s work until United States Office of the Assistant Secretary for Nu-
the end of World War II. When classification was lifted, clear Energy. The First Reactor. Springfield, Va.: Na-
the experiments leading to the bomb became scientific tional Technical Information Service, 1982. Reissued
legend. Fermi’s atomic pile in the center of Chicago has for the fortieth anniversary of the first chain reaction,
become a major element of that story. this slim volume contains a reprint of Fermi’s account
—Ruth H. Howes of the experiment and a concise summary of the work
that led up to it.
Further Reading
Bernardini, Carlo, and Luisa Bonolis, eds. Enrico Fermi: See also: Nov. 4, 1943: World’s First Nuclear Reactor
His Work and Legacy. New York: Springer, 2004. A Is Activated; May 8, 1945: V-E Day Marks the End of
laudatory history of Fermi, his work, and his place in World War II in Europe; July 16, 1945: First Nuclear
the development of nuclear physics. Includes the Bomb Is Detonated; 1951: Hofstadter Discovers That
chapters “The Birth of Nuclear Energy: Fermi’s Pile” Protons and Neutrons Have Structure; 1953-1959:
and “From the Chicago Pile 1 to the Next-Generation Liquid Bubble Chamber Is Developed; 1964: Gell-
Reactors.” Mann and Zweig Advance Quark Theory.
222
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Saroyan Offers a Compelling Story of Hope in The Human Comedy
1943
Saroyan Offers a Compelling Story of Hope in
THE HUMAN COMEDY
William Saroyan’s novel The Human Comedy offered Francisco, where (under pressure from gambling debts
the heartwarming tale of a fatherless fourteen-year-old and threat of legal action by MGM) he produced a story
boy, Homer Macauley, who feels compelled to be take (without camera instructions) amounting to about four-
care of his family while his older brother serves at war. and-a-half hours of movie time. MGM agreed to pay him
A tale of family life during the uncertainties of the war $60,000, with an additional $1,000 a week to serve as a
years, the novel has an infectious message of hope that “consultant” and, in the meantime, write and direct a
prompted Hollywood to produce what would become short-subject film.
an Academy Award-winning film of the same name. After viewing Saroyan’s short film, The Good Job
(1942), Mayer decided to produce a feature based on the
author’s lengthy screenplay. He hired Clarence Brown
Categories: Literature; motion pictures and video
(who had directed Greta Garbo in her first sound film and
Key Figure Clark Gable in his movie debut), signed writer Howard
William Saroyan (1908-1981), American novelist and Estabrook (who had scripted Oscar-winner Cimarron),
short-story writer and engaged a solid cast, including Rooney, Fay Bainter,
Frank Morgan (of The Wizard of Oz), Donna Reed, Van
Summary of Event
Johnson, and Robert Mitchum. After Estabrook com-
1943
Through stories such as “The Daring Young Man on the
pletely rewrote Saroyan’s story, Saroyan took his original
Flying Trapeze” (1934) and plays like My Heart’s In The
Highlands (pr., pb. 1939) and the Pulitzer Prize-winning draft and reworked it into a novel, The Human Comedy
The Time of Your Life (pr., pb. 1939), William Saroyan (1943), which was published by Harcourt, Brace the same
caught the attention of Arthur Freed, the head of produc- year the movie was released. The novel was a best seller
tion for the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) studios. In and a Book-of-the-Month choice, just like his joyful 1940
late 1941, Freed lured Saroyan into working at MGM in portrait of American immigrant life, My Name Is Aram.
return for an office and $300 per week for expenses in the The Human Comedy’s hero Homer is a fourteen-year-
hope that Saroyan could produce and direct a story for old boy, the surrogate “man of the house,” whose father
MGM. Saroyan gave himself a crash course in film tech- is dead and whose older brother Marcus is with the Army
nique by watching as many movies as he could. In the overseas. Homer has a four-year-old brother named
process, he learned that film producer Louis B. Mayer’s Ulysses (another Homeric reference) who seems to like
distinction as a filmmaker was his vision of small-town everyone he encounters—from the black man on the
America—as in the Andy Hardy movies with Mickey passing freight train to an older peer (Lionel Cabot) who
Rooney. Saroyan (the son of Armenian immigrants) is rejected by other boys. Homer’s older sister Bess at-
shared this vision, for he had risen to national promi- tends a state college but does not play a big role in the
nence in mid-Depression America as a chronicler of hu- story. She is relegated mainly to domestic scenes with
man abilities in the face of oppression. their mother, a hardworking, patient woman who works
Saroyan, who dreamed of a story with Rooney as its in packinghouses in the summer and who is the voice of
young hero, turned out a three-page outline about adoles- maternal wisdom and decency. Homer works part-time
cent Homer Macauley, who learned keen lessons about as a messenger for the local telegraph company, where he
life and death on the home front during wartime. Know- receives moral and emotional guidance from his boss
ing that Mayer liked a good cry, Saroyan filled his story Spangler and from Willie Grogan, the weary night-shift
with sentimental scenes depicting Homer’s loss of inno- operator who turns to a bottle of booze for comfort.
cence in Ithaca, California, an imaginary small town, The book captures the Macauley family’s struggles
likely based on Saroyan’s hometown Fresno, in the San and dreams, which often parallel those of America’s
Joaquin Valley. Saroyan intended an epic about the hu- children of immigrants. The many episodes combine the
man family, using a modest American family as its rep- severe with the lighthearted, the sad with the joyous, and
resentatives. However, he found himself unable to de- cumulatively chart Homer’s education in the facts of life
velop the outline at the studio, so he traveled to San and death. Homer learns from his mother that the world
223
Saroyan Offers a Compelling Story of Hope in The Human Comedy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
has always been full of loneliness and fear. He learns chantment, and his trust in the world is threatened when
from his history teacher, Miss Hicks, the meaning of civ- his older brother faces death in the war abroad. However,
ilization and of respect for others. Ara, the bitter grocery- the moral impetus of the book ends Homer’s autonomy
store owner, exemplifies American discontent, while as an adolescent.
little Ulysses teaches his bigger brother universal accep- The novel, very much like Saroyan’s plays and short
tance. Though there is an almost formulaic quality to stories, which display a special emphasis on humor and
these chapters, the book has undeniable charm and hu- the importance of family life, counters the predominant
mor, especially as it records Homer’s exploits, little critical taste of Saroyan’s time. It never apologizes for its
Ulysses’s entrapment in a bear-cage, and Homer’s at- sentimentality; indeed, it luxuriates in it—perhaps out of
tempt to be the class clown. an implicit confidence in its own epical and allegorical
The novel is overly sentimental, but Saroyan does shy ambition. The novel’s title invokes nineteenth century
from moments of genuine pain, as when Homer tries to French novelist Honore de Balzac, and some of the char-
comfort Mrs. Sandoval—who has just learned her son acters and incidents echo Homer of classical antiquity.
was killed in action—or when Homer is grief stricken However, the story is also very “American.” Ithaca is
and bitterly angry when he reads the telegram confirming Saroyan’s microcosm of the human family, and it is ren-
his brother’s death overseas as well. The novel concludes dered as palpably as William Faulkner’s Yoknapataw-
with a scene where Marcus’s soldier-buddy, Tobey, is pha County or John Steinbeck’s Salinas Valley and Dust
welcomed into the Macauley family as if he were a re- Bowl.
placement for Marcus. This is consistent with Saroyan’s Written at the end of the Great Depression, the novel
belief in brotherliness and universal oneness. allows its readers an escape from memories of immense
The film depicts much sentimentality as well, super- trials and tribulations. It lets readers dream, with Homer,
imposing, for example, the face of Homer’s dead father of a better world, one where every person can seek to be
over clouds, while using the dead man’s voice for narra- like little Ulysses—open to any new experience, ever
tion. The film reveled in the use of music, from the black welcoming of new friends—and one where it was not un-
vagrant’s singing of “My Old Kentucky Home” on the reasonable to believe in the innate goodness of humans
passing train to a scene where Mrs. Macauley and Bess and their impulses.
are shown playing piano and harp in their home; from — Keith Garebian
Grogan’s singing “Rock of Ages” after typing up a War
Department telegram announcing a military death to a Further Reading
sentimental ballad in the barracks with Marcus playing Balakian, Nona. The World of William Saroyan. Lew-
the accordion. Among other embellishments, a romance isburg, Ohio: Bucknell University Press, 1998. Ba-
is expanded into several scenes—becoming a social sub- lakian, formerly a staff writer for The New York Times
plot—and the final scene, in which Tobey limps up to the Book Review, knew Saroyan personally in his last
Macauley home and sees the ladies singing, is something years. She resurrects his reputation and restores him
out of a Norman Rockwell painting or a Hallmark card. among the finest of twentieth century American writ-
Saroyan detested the film version and wanted to sue ers. Traces his evolution from ethnic writer to master
MGM, even though it won him an Oscar for Best Origi- of the short story, to playwright, and finally to exis-
nal Story and won four other nominations for Best Pic- tentialist.
ture, Best Actor (Rooney), Best Director, and Best Cine- Floan, Howard R. William Saroyan. Boston: G. K. Hall,
matography (Harry Stradling). 1966. Argues that Saroyan is outside the mainstream
of American culture because of his focus on the “good
Significance guy” or “happy guy” and that he is also against the tide
The Human Comedy broke with the nineteenth century of “high” seriousness and pessimism.
American narrative tradition of Ambrose Bierce, Frank Keyishian, Harry, ed. Critical Essays on William Sa-
Norris, and Jack London. Like the stories of Mark royan. New York: G. K. Hall, 1995. Anthology that
Twain, Sherwood Anderson, and John Steinbeck, it in- includes reviews, essays, and thematic analyses.
stead showed a struggle with skepticism and disillusion- Lee, Lawrence, and Barry Gifford. Saroyan: A Biogra-
ment, mainly through the figure of Homer, a young phy. 1984. New ed. Berkeley: University of Califor-
dreamer with a rich imagination and warm sympathies. nia Press, 1998. Reveals Saroyan’s “dark side,” using
Homer, being as teenager, is prone to doubt and disen- firsthand testimony from Saroyan’s wife, son, and
224
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Von Weizsäcker Forms His Quantitative Theory of Planetary Formation
daughter, as well as authors, actors, and writers who Heyday Books, 2005. Includes several excerpted
knew him. works by Saroyan, including The Human Comedy and
Leggett, John. A Daring Young Man: A Biography of “The Daring Young Man on the Flying Trapeze.” Part
William Saroyan. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003. of the California Legacy series.
Leggett relies heavily on Saroyan’s journals to pro-
duce a sustained glimpse of the author that is neither See also: May 11, 1942: Faulkner Publishes Go Down,
admiring nor forgiving. Moses; July, 1947: Great Books Foundation Is Estab-
Saroyan, William. Essential Saroyan. Edited with an in- lished; July 11, 1960: Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird
troduction by William E. Justice. Berkeley, Calif.: Calls for Social Justice.
1943
Von Weizsäcker Forms His Quantitative Theory of
Planetary Formation
Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker put forward a gravitational attraction. From this disk, the remaining
quantitative theory of planetary formation, based on matter was supposed to condense to form the sun and
contemporary theories of high-temperature turbulence planets. Laplace modified Kant’s theory by assuming
and stellar formation, in which planets evolved from that as the disk-shaped cloud’s rotation increased, cen-
1943
the same raw materials—and in roughly the same trifugal force at its edge also increased until it exceeded
fashion—as did the stars they orbited. gravitational forces toward the center, thereafter separat-
ing into concentric rings, each subsequently condensing
Also known as: “On the Formation of Planetary
to form a planet.
Systems”
Nebular hypotheses for the next sixty years essen-
Locale: Strassburg, Germany
tially remained fallow, resulting from the absence of
Categories: Astronomy; science and technology
both observational evidence and a more quantitative ba-
Key Figure sis in physics. Only after the 1870’s were significant ob-
Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker (b. 1912), German servations of the solar system and stellar nebulas ob-
nuclear scientist and astrophysicist tained that could begin to confirm or constrain further
development of planetary theories. As a result, a number
Summary of Event
of particular problems with extant nebular hypotheses
In contrast to many theories proposing the sudden “cata-
strophic” creation of Earth, the earliest scientific (“evo- were examined by several English scientists. A major ob-
lutionary”) hypotheses of planetary formation were jection was that nebular hypotheses did not explain the
those of René Descartes (1644), Immanuel Kant (1755), skewed distribution of angular momentum observed be-
and Pierre-Simon Laplace (1796). All these nebular (gas tween the sun (2 percent) and the planets having the most
cloud) theories postulated that the universe, then not momentum. If the nebula increased rotational speed as it
known beyond the Sun and five planets, was filled by gas contracted, the sun should be rotating much faster than it
and dustlike particles of matter. does, and thereby have the bulk of the solar systems’ an-
Descartes pictured a large primary gas vortex of cir- gular momentum.
cular shape, surrounded by still smaller eddies, from James Clerk Maxwell further argued that Laplace’s
which, respectively, the Sun, major planets, and their sat- rings would not coalesce directly into planets but would
ellites were to have formed by an unspecified process of first have to be collected into rings of smaller planetoids,
turbulent collision and condensation. Likewise, Kant, in or planetesimals. In a series of papers around 1900,
his Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Him- American geologist and astronomer T. C. Chamberlain
mels (1755; Universal Natural History and Theories of and F. R. Moulton argued strenuously against the nebular
the Heavens, 1900), proposed a large rotating gas and hypothesis and, reviving Comte de Buffon’s (1745) idea
dust cloud, which increased rotational speed and flat- of a catastrophic star-sun encounter, presented their
tened to a disk as it progressively contracted because of tidal-collisional planetesimal model. The solar system
225
Von Weizsäcker Forms His Quantitative Theory of Planetary Formation The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
was said to have developed from material ejected by cloud’s center, the liberated energy carrying off most of
huge solar tides raised in a glancing collision of another the sun’s angular momentum.
star or comet. English physicist and geophysicist Sir Von Weizsäcker next discussed whether and how it
James Jeans and Sir Harold Jeffreys later proposed a sim- was possible for particles in the rotating disk to form sys-
ilar theory, in which a close encounter withdrew solar tematic and stable patterns. This was feasible in his view
gas filaments, coalescing into beadlike strings of proto- if one assumed that the predominant interparticle inter-
planets. actions were almost exclusively gravitational. The next
Within two decades, several problems arose with col- stage, his theory’s core, derived a set of five concentric
lision accounts of planetary origins. For one, the statisti- lenticular-shaped rings around the sun, each ring, in turn,
cal frequency of interstellar encounters was far too low to encompassing five internal vortices of similar shape. The
make this a probable mechanism. Also, no collision hy- corresponding diagram of this system was eventually re-
pothesis could ensure the current angular momentum printed in many textbooks and publications.
distribution. In 1939, American astrophysicist Lyman This nebula figure was ingeniously derived from par-
Spitzer showed that gases torn from the sun or passing ticle dynamics, wherein particle trajectories moving in
star/comet would disperse before being able to cool suf- elliptical orbits of small eccentricity viewed from a rotat-
ficiently for condensation. ing solar reference would appear increasingly lenticular
During the 1930’s and early 1940’s, a new group of with increasing eccentricity. More important, the plasma
neonebular hypotheses was proposed as a consequence physics of developing mutually stable vortices de-
of the developments in atomic, nuclear, and plasma manded a vortex upper size limit. A major consequence
physics and of quantitive physical-chemical observa- of this quintic arrangement was that ratios of the radii of
tions of the sun and nearby stars. Kristian Birkeland successive preplanetary rings is approximately defined
(1912) and Hannes Alvén (1942) suggested that the sun by the well-known Titius-Bode law of 1772, an empiri-
acquired a nebular gas cloud, the electrically charged at- cal formula. The result was seen as a major internal con-
oms of which condensed into gas rings, grains, globules, sistency check and plausibility argument.
and planets, controlled not only by the sun’s gravity but An eddy is a transient thermodynamic condition gen-
also by its electromagnetic fields. Stanley Jaki’s Planets erally sustained only long enough for its gas to travel a
and Planetarians (1977) revived nebular theories. distance roughly equaling its own diameter. Turbulence,
In mid-1943, at the University of Strassburg in Ger- or turbulent fluid flow, has a high complex velocity and
many, nuclear astrophysicist Carl Friedrich von Weiz- pressure distribution typically characterized by random
säcker was completing his own more detailed and com- spatial and temporal fluctuations. The location of plane-
prehensive nebular theory. Associated with aspects of tary formation within this turbulent system was there-
the German nuclear fission project, his paper “On the fore proposed to be the low-friction “roller bearing”
Formation of Planetary Systems” was prepared as a pri- areas formed by three touching adjacent vortices. From
mary technical contribution to the memorial volume of theoretical considerations, turbulence at these loca-
the Zeitschrift für Astrophysik for the seventy-fifth birth- tions seemed sufficiently high to facilitate formation
day of German atomic physicist Arnold Sommerfeid. of planetesimals from disk gas and dust, by way of
Sommerfeld had long insisted on real connections be- intermediate-sized globules sufficiently large that their
tween quantified angular momenta of electrons in atomic rate of accretional buildup by gravity exceeded their vol-
structure and the planetary-solar system. atilization rate through collision. As von Weizsäcker ex-
After initially synopsizing the history of prior nebular plicitly noted, these thermohydrodynamic assumptions
hypotheses, the first technical question addressed were the most uncertain aspects of his theory. Spe-
whether and how the sun’s original mass was distributed cifically, strong analogies exist between hierarchical
within the boundaries of the present solar system. This spatial relations in the preplanetary disk and gas particle
raised again the old question of an apparent hundredfold patterns; these analogies were not yet a definite physical-
decrease in solar mass needed to account for its presently causal connection.
low angular momentum. Von Weizsäcker reintroduced
the circumsolar gas envelope (nebula) as the earliest Significance
common origin of both the sun and planets. He assumed Although most immediate discussions of von Weiz-
that by the laws of momentum and energy conservation, säcker’s theory were delayed by World War II, almost all
a portion of the original gas nebula would fall into the initial published reactions to his theory were positive. In
226
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Von Weizsäcker Forms His Quantitative Theory of Planetary Formation
the spring of 1945, nuclear physicist George Gamow and otic swarms of “floccules,” continually dispersing and
cosmologist J. A. Hynek published a short review (“A reforming according to statistical laws governing plasma
New Theory by C. F. von Weizsäcker on the Origin of interaction. Despite increases in empirical and theoreti-
the Planetary System”) in the Astrophysical Journal. In cal astrophysics, von Weizsäcker’s theory of planetary
their estimate, the theory “allowed an interpretation of formation remains, among some scientists, a partial
the Bode-Titus law of planetary distances” and explained source and exemplary model for future planetesimal the-
“all the principal features of the solar system,” notably ories.
the common revolution plane, small orbital eccentrici- —Gerardo G. Tango
ties, common rotational direction, and lower material
Further Reading
densities of the larger planets. The single criticism was
Beatty, J. Kelly, Carolyn Collins Petersen, and Andrew
difficulty in visualizing the details of a single planet
Chaikin, eds. The New Solar System. 4th ed. New
forming from five planetesimals, an issue von Weiz-
York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Reviews
säcker subsequently addressed. Several astronomers
most planetary theories.
have argued that one reason for von Weizsäcker’s the-
Bohren, Craig F. Clouds in a Glass of Beer: Simple Ex-
ory’s popularity was its extraterrestrialist implication for
periments in Atmospheric Physics. New York: Wiley
universal planetary formation.
Press, 1987. Gives a general audience introduction to
The theory received further attention when in 1946
hydrodynamics.
noted astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar pub-
Christianson, Gale E. The Wild Abyss: The Story of the
lished a favorable account in the Reviews of Modern
Men Who Made Modern Astronomy. New York: Free
Physics. Nevertheless, German astronomer Friedrich
Press, 1978. A valuable source. A twentieth century
1943
Nölke and Dutch astrophysicist D. ter Haar in 1948 inde-
astronomical biography for a wide audience.
pendently published detailed criticisms of von Weiz-
Glass, Billy. Introduction to Planetary Geology. New
säcker’s theory, based on rigorous and extensive hydro-
York: Cambridge University Press, 1982. One of the
dynamic considerations of energy transport by nebular
best introductions and reviews of early planetary
eddies. Nölke showed that serious difficulties remained
theory.
in the angular momentum problem.
Peter, Gerhard, and Barbara M. Middlehurst, eds. The
According to ter Haar, if the Sun’s presently slow rate
Solar System. 4 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago
of rotation was caused by absorption of material from the
Press, 1953. Details Kuiper’s extensions of von Weiz-
nebular disk, there still existed a discrepancy of a factor
säcker’s theory.
of one thousand between actual and predicted solar mass.
Urey, Harold C. The Planets: Their Origin and Develop-
Dutch American astronomer Gerard Peter Kuiper from
ment. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press,
1949 to 1951 likewise rejected von Weizsäcker’s regular
1952. A classic examination of geochemical data for
vortices, but redeveloped the nebular theory, proposing
planetary formation.
formation of random turbulent eddies in the nebular disk
as a natural consequence of binary star formation. Kuiper See also: Jan. 29, 1944: Kuiper Discovers That Titan
argued that vortex stability required high-mass density in Has an Atmosphere; 1950: Oort Offers a Theory of
the cloud, such that the resulting gravitational attraction Comets; Early 1955: Franklin and Burke Discover
equals or exceeds the Sun’s gravity. Radio Emissions from Jupiter; July 26, 1958: Van Al-
Later theories incorporated the ideas of turbulence, len Discovers the Earth’s Radiation Belts; Nov. 4,
magnetic fields, and planetesimals, maintaining that su- 1965: Doell and Dalrymple Discover the Magnetic
personically turbulent nebular clouds break up into cha- Reversals of Earth’s Poles.
227
Famine Decimates Bengal The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1943-1944
Famine Decimates Bengal
Famine hit the region of Bengal, India, and took the Orissa. The land was flooded for some 40 miles between
lives of an estimated three million people. Bengalis died the coast and prime rice-growing areas inland, leading to
from starvation, malnutrition, and other illnesses caused the failure of the entire fall rice crop and to farmers hav-
by food shortages, crop failure, and other factors. ing to eat their surplus rice and seed to survive. As of
May, 1943, no rice seed had been planted. The situation
Locale: Bengal, India (now state of West Bengal and for peasants in Bengal became critical. Food prices sky-
independent Bangladesh) rocketed, making the purchase of food beyond the means
Categories: Disasters; health and medicine; of many people.
agriculture; environmental issues A third factor involved in the famine was the epidemic
Key Figures of helminthosporium oryzae, or brown spot disease, that
John Herbert (1895-1943), governor of Bengal, 1939- broke out during the ideal conditions that followed the
1943 cyclone and flooding. In two areas of Bengal, Bankura
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (1892-1963), member and Chinsurah (now Hooghly-Chinsura), only 10 percent
for civil supplies, Bengal government, and premier of the crop survived. As a result of the disease, the rice
of Bengal yield in 1942 was exceptionally low. The disease, and the
Archibald Wavell (1883-1950), British field marshal, resultant shortage of rice, has been blamed for causing
viscount, and viceroy of India, 1943-1947, and later the famine, although this claim has been disputed, espe-
first Earl Wavell, 1947-1950 cially by Indian nationalist historians who wish to put the
blame completely on British administration.
Summary of Event The final ingredient in the famine was the human fac-
A combination of circumstances led to one of the worst tor, which took several forms. The first was the hoarding
famines in modern world history. First, the British, hav- of supplies by black marketers and others to drive the
ing long occupied and ruled the region, fed their troops in price of rice to exorbitant levels and then to sell the
the Middle East (fighting in battles of World War II) by higher-priced food for enormous profits. By December,
exporting food from India; rice was a major food source 1942, the price of rice had doubled from its 1939 level.
not only for the troops but also for the region’s popula- The shop windows of bakeries in Calcutta (now Kolkata)
tions. To meet demands, the government of India bought were filled with high-priced cakes and pastries, which
the crops as they were harvested, leading to limited sup- the starving could not afford. The Bengali government
plies of rice for the general population. under Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, who was widely
Significantly, Japan joined the war when it bombed criticized in the Hindu and the Western press for the fam-
Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941. The Japa- ine, went on a “food drive” to search for stocked rice and
nese then invaded Southeast Asia and captured Singa- force its sale. Suhrawardy, however, had been slow to in-
pore and then Malaysia and Burma, which were all part troduce rationing in Calcutta and to ship rice to the rural
of the British Empire. Burma (now Myanmar) was espe- areas. On his food drive, he found a considerable amount
cially critical for the British, who had developed the Irra- of rice, but the stock had little impact on the destitute.
waddy delta and Arakan (now Rakhine) after 1885 as Another “human” factor in the famine was that Bengalis
great rice-producing areas. More than 20 percent of the were not used to eating wheat, which could have been
rice consumed in Bengal had been imported from imported, at great price, from other provinces of India.
Burma. With the Japanese capture of Burma came the Bengalis would slowly adopt the custom of eating bread,
end of all imports of rice from that area, causing rice but bread consumption had little positive impact on the
shortages in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). Ceylon imported hungry in 1943 and 1944.
large amounts of rice from Burma; it also was the head- Suhrawardy, who was a Muslim, appointed a Muslim
quarters of the British army’s southeast Asia command. businessman to be the agent responsible for importing
Rice was exported from India to Ceylon, causing a fur- rice into Bengal. This aroused the animosity of the Hin-
ther tightening of supplies in India. dus. When Suhrawardy traveled to Delhi to persuade the
Second, on October 16, 1942, northeast India was hit government of India to demand that the other rice-
by a cyclone that devastated Bengal and neighboring producing provinces of India export rice to Bengal, the
228
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Famine Decimates Bengal
Hindu premiers of those provinces resisted on communal but affecting millions of others through malnutrition and
grounds. To clear accusations of bias against him, lower resistance to disease. The number of people whose
Suhrawardy hoped to appoint Hindu agents but was lives were shortened because of the famine is impossible
roundly criticized by his Muslim colleagues. He worked to know.
indefatigably to ameliorate the crisis but received only Politically, the Bengal famine damaged British pres-
criticism for his efforts, both from the Hindu press and tige in India incalculably and was one of the factors that
from the British. The governor of the province, John Her- led to deepening opposition to British rule in India. Four
bert, proved to be an ineffective administrator. He be- years after the onset of the famine, British rule in India
came ill and was replaced by an acting governor on Sep- ended.
tember 6, 1943. —Roger D. Long
The human factor was also manifested politically.
Calcutta, the largest city of India, had a high priority to Further Reading
receive supplies of all kinds to prevent the city’s influen- Greenough, Paul. Prosperity and Misery in Modern Ben-
tial intellectual classes from becoming disaffected. The gal: The Famine of 1943-44. New York: Oxford Uni-
government channeled all commodities, including food, versity Press, 1982. Greenough, a renowned historian
to the city at the expense of the hinterlands. Of the eighty- of India, offers a balanced study of the famine by
six subdivisions of Bengal, fifteen (located in the south looking at the many factors involved, from the effects
and east) were severely affected by the famine. The peo- of the war to the political and the human elements. A
ple of these divisions, mostly older men and women and comprehensive and reliable guide.
children, began to migrate to Calcutta in July to search Mansergh, Nicholas, ed. Constitutional Relations Be-
1943
for food. By October, more than 150,000 people were tween Britain and India: The Transfer of Power,
destitute and begging for food in Calcutta. The British 1942-7. Vol. 4 in The Bengal Famine and the New
system of administration made the situation worse be- Viceroyalty, 15 June 1943-31 to August 1944. Lon-
cause it did not allow the free flow of food among the don: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1973. Chapter
provinces of India, leading to even more of a food short- 4 of this official British compilation of documents,
age. The government would not allow food from the correspondence, and memoranda covers the Bengal
other provinces of India to be sent to Bengal. famine. Shows clearly its urgency and discusses
The famine continued to ravage Bengal into the early Viceroy Wavell’s efforts to end the famine. Examines
months of 1944 and ended only with the recovery of the the dismissive response of the British government.
rice crop in 1944. The viceroy of India, Archibald Wavell, Uppal, J. N. Bengal Famine of 1943: A Man-Made Trag-
traveled to Bengal and began a vigorous effort to mitigate edy. Delhi, India: Atma Ram & Sons, 1984. Uppal
the effects of the famine. He did so within a week of as- blames the famine on an “administration break-
suming the viceroyalty. He called a meeting of provincial down.” His study is an Indian nationalist one. Thir-
governors and asked for their cooperation and support, teen chapters explore the Bengal famine.
persuaded the Bengali government to move the destitute
See also: Oct. 5, 1942: Oxford Committee for Famine
out of Calcutta and into camps so that the army could
Relief Is Founded; May 18-June 3, 1943: United Na-
feed them, supplied rural areas with food grains, ordered
tions Holds Its First Conference on Food and Agricul-
rationing in Calcutta, and badgered an indifferent British
ture; Feb., 1957: Asian Flu Pandemic Kills Millions
government in London to supply India with food.
Worldwide; 1959-1961: Famine Decimates China;
Significance 1968-1973: Drought Extends the Reach of the Sahara
The famine caused untold hardship and misery to the Desert; Nov. 12, 1970: Bhola Cyclone Devastates
poor people of Bengal, killing as many as three million East Pakistan.
229
Soviets Take Control of Eastern Europe The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1943-1948
Soviets Take Control of Eastern Europe
Between 1943 and 1948, the Soviet Union established prewar Czechoslovakia, the Carpatho-Ukraine, into the
a satellite zone in Eastern Europe within which it Soviet Union.
dramatically altered political boundaries and Beyond these areas, all of which were immediately
established Soviet-dominated, totalitarian political contiguous with the pre-1939 Soviet Union, Moscow
systems. sought to establish buffer states in postwar Czechoslova-
kia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Albania. Moscow in-
Locale: Eastern Europe tended that these buffer states would be governed by
Categories: Colonialism and occupation; Cold War friendly regimes but would also be influenced to some
Key Figures degree by the Western powers. Ideally, the Soviets hoped
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; that these states could be transformed into satellites that
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central would operate similarly to Poland, Romania, and Bul-
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet garia.
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 With respect to the defeated Germany, the Soviets
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the sought to divide East Prussia between the Soviet Union
United States, 1933-1945 and postwar Poland, further compensate Poland for the
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of loss of its prewar eastern territories with prewar German
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 Silesia and Pomerania (up to the Oder and Neisse
Rivers), and establish a Soviet occupation zone in a
Summary of Event portion of the remaining German territory. Finally, of
The Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe was the product peripheral importance in the hierarchy of Moscow’s Eu-
of a protracted series of events extending from 1943 to ropean objectives, the Soviets were alert to any opportu-
1948. Soviet actions were grounded in Moscow’s defini- nities that might develop in Europe that could enhance
tion of its regional interests, as interpreted by the nation’s their position on the continent.
leaders during and immediately after World War II. The The Soviets formulated a multifaceted policy in their
Soviets hoped to ensure that Eastern Europe would never effort to attain these objectives. Their actions were, in
again be used as a base for hostile action against them. To turn, reinforced by the Red Army as it gradually ad-
this end, they sought to control the region, incorporating vanced into eastern and central Europe. By the conclu-
it as a defensive buffer against any future invasion. Such sion of the European war, the Soviets were in physical
control would also allow the Soviet Union to exploit the possession of those territories which they sought to dom-
economic resources of Eastern Europe, thus promoting inate in the postwar era.
the nation’s postwar economic recovery. Active control The first component of Soviet policy was Moscow’s
over Eastern Europe would also provide the Soviets with persistent effort to obtain British and American approval
a base for possible future expansion into other parts of of, or at least acquiescence to, its self-proclaimed domi-
Europe. nant role in determining the postwar character of Eastern
As their first objective, the Soviets insisted upon de Europe. Toward that end, one of the first steps was taken
facto and, if possible, de jure international acceptance of at the Tehran Conference in November, 1943. There,
their annexation of Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, portions U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt, British prime min-
of Finland, the eastern portion of pre-1939 Poland, ister Winston Churchill, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin
Bessarabia, and Northern Bukovina. These annexations agreed to define Poland’s eastern boundary along the
had occurred during the Nazi-Soviet Pact period (August lines insisted upon by the Soviet Union and to redefine
23, 1939-June 22, 1941). Second, they hoped to establish Poland’s other boundaries at Germany’s expense, estab-
a postwar Poland within reconfigured boundaries, gov- lishing Poland’s new western boundary along the Oder
erned by a regime acceptable to—and optimally subser- and Neisse Rivers.
vient to—the Soviet Union. Third, the Soviet leaders Following the Tehran Conference, the Western pow-
sought to establish acceptable and again, if possible, sub- ers came progressively to accept the Soviet position that
servient regimes in Romania and Bulgaria. Fourth, Mos- Poland’s postwar government should not be objection-
cow wanted to incorporate the easternmost portion of able to the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, as the Red Army
230
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Soviets Take Control of Eastern Europe
1943
This sign, posted in Romania in July, 1944, tells the local populace that the Germans, not the Russians, are their enemies. (National
Archives)
advanced into Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union rein- goslavia and Hungary, the Soviet Union and the West
forced its claim to postwar regional dominance via the would share equally in influence. While Churchill appar-
armistice terms concluded with Romania in August, ently interpreted this arrangement as a mechanism for
1944, Bulgaria in September, 1944, and Hungary in Jan- determining the orientation only of the foreign and de-
uary, 1945. These terms gave the Soviets military pre- fense policies of the relevant states, Stalin viewed the de-
dominance in politico-military affairs in the affected limitation to mean that the Soviet Union would deter-
states. mine all aspects of domestic and foreign affairs within its
In an effort to delimit the proportion of Soviet versus future satellites.
Western influence in southeastern Europe, Churchill vis- The Yalta Conference further formalized the estab-
ited Moscow on October 9, 1944, and concluded the so- lishment of Soviet control over Eastern Europe. On one
called percentages agreement with Stalin. Under the hand, the three Great Powers agreed to assist the liber-
terms of the agreement, the Soviet Union was to have 90 ated Europeans in establishing democratic, broadly
percent predominance in Romania versus the West’s 10 based provisional governments and in holding free elec-
percent. In Greece, the percentages were to be reversed. tions as early as possible. In practice, on the other hand, it
In Bulgaria, the Soviets were to have 75 percent predom- was the Soviet Union that determined when the proposed
inance, with the West having 25 percent. Finally, in Yu- elections would be held and which elements of society
231
Seeds of the Cold War tablishing the western Neisse as its

boundary, Poland would be given terri-
On February 9, 1946, Joseph Stalin delivered a speech in Moscow arguing tory that had long been ethnically Ger-
that the world wars were the result of capitalism and that communism, espe- man and, as a result, some six to seven
cially as it played out in Eastern Europe, was a superior system and would million Germans would be displaced.
eventually prevail. The speech, which alarmed Western leaders, was part of From Moscow’s perspective, however,
the newly emerging Cold War propaganda: the western Neisse was preferable be-
Marxists have more than once stated that the capitalist system of world cause of geostrategic considerations: It
economy contains the elements of a general crisis and military conflicts, that, would provide the opportunity for the
in view of that, the development of world capitalism in our times does not Soviets to resettle Poles—who they
proceed smoothly and evenly, but through crises and catastrophic wars. The saw as more closely akin to themselves
point is that the uneven development of capitalist countries usually leads, in than were the Germans—in new lands,
the course of time, to a sharp disturbance of the equilibrium within the world and the Polish acquisition of these ter-
system of capitalism, and that group of capitalist countries which regards it- ritories would further cement ties be-
self as being less securely provided with raw materials and markets usually tween postwar Poland and the Soviet
attempts to change the situation and to redistribute “spheres of influence” in
Union. Such ties represented a poten-
its own favor—by employing armed force. As a result of this, the capitalist
tial defense against any future resur-
world is split into two hostile camps, and war breaks out between them. . . .
The issue now is not whether the Soviet social system is viable or not, be- gent German regime seeking to re-
cause after the object lessons of the war, no skeptic now dares to express cover its lost territories.
doubt concerning the viability of the Soviet social system. Now the issue is The boundary question was left
that the Soviet social system has proved to be more viable and stable than the vague at Yalta, but the Soviets, British,
non-Soviet social system, that the Soviet social system is a better form of or- and Americans agreed to the western
ganization of society than any non-Soviet social system. Neisse line at the Potsdam Conference
in July, 1945, pending a final solution
One of the leaders alarmed by Stalin’s speech was British prime minister at a general peace conference. The
Winston Churchill, who warned in a speech of his own that Stalin’s plan was three powers also agreed at Potsdam
expansion for Russia. Angered, Stalin struck back, and the Cold War was un-
that Danzig (Polish Gda5sk) and the
der way:
southern portion of East Prussia would
In substance, Mr. Churchill now stands in the position of a firebrand of be placed under Polish administration,
war. And Mr. Churchill is not alone here. He has friends not only in England with the Soviet Union acquiring the
but also in the United States of America. northern portion of East Prussia. In
In this respect, one is reminded remarkably of Hitler and his friends. . . . short, through a series of agreements
Mr. Churchill begins to set war loose, also by a racial theory, maintaining among the wartime allies, the Soviet
that only nations speaking the English language are fully valuable nations, Union obtained the acquiescence, if
called upon to decide the destinies of the entire world. not enthusiastic endorsement, of the
Sources: Joseph Stalin, Speeches Delivered at Meetings of Voters of the Stalin British and Americans to the establish-
Electoral District (Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing, 1950). “Stalin’s ment of a Soviet sphere of influence in
Reply to Churchill.” The New York Times, March 14, 1946, p. 4.
Eastern Europe.
The second element of the Soviet
effort to establish control over Eastern
Europe, implemented simultaneously
were eligible to participate. Indeed, with respect to Po- with the first, was the wartime isolation and elimination
land, the Soviets obtained Western agreement that the of those elements in Eastern Europe that presented a pos-
core of Poland’s postwar government would be com- sible challenge to postwar Soviet domination. For exam-
posed of individuals selected by Moscow. Moreover, ple, with respect to Poland, as early as the spring of 1940,
throughout Eastern Europe, the proposed elections the Soviets killed some fifteen thousand captured Polish
would be held in the shadow of the Red Army. army officers and buried them in mass graves in the
As to the location of Poland’s western boundary, the Katyn Forest, near Smolensk. This atrocity deprived Po-
British and Americans favored the eastern Neisse River, land of many who might have contributed to the nation’s
whereas the Soviets preferred the western Neisse. By es- postwar restoration as an independent state.
232
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Soviets Take Control of Eastern Europe
Similarly, during the war, the Soviet Union isolated nists dominated the postwar government from the libera-
the Polish government-in-exile, located in London. In tion onward but did not complete its takeover until early
their place, the Soviets sponsored their own Committee 1947. Finally, in Czechoslovakia and Hungary, the pro-
of National Liberation. As Soviet forces moved onto Pol- cess was completed in 1948.
ish soil, Soviet officials transferred local administration
to this body, rather than to representatives of the London Significance
Poles. Such representatives were increasingly encour- The Communist takeovers throughout Eastern Europe
aged to break with the government-in-exile and join the led to the establishment of socioeconomic and political
Soviet-sponsored provisional government. Finally, the systems patterned after the Stalinist totalitarianism of the
Soviets further reduced the prospect of postwar indige- Soviet Union. The characteristics of that system were a
nous Polish resistance to the Soviet satellization of Po- monopoly over all political power by the Communist
land by refusing to assist the Polish underground upris- Party, which, in all cases, represented only a very small
ing that took place in Warsaw between August 1 and minority of the population; an all-pervasive, coercive se-
early October, 1944. Soviet forces remained inert, as the cret police that, along with the military, monopolized all
Germans crushed the resistance and destroyed the city of combat weapons; large-scale use of the mass media as an
Warsaw. instrument for popular socialization along lines desired
Following the war, the Soviets completed their take- by the ruling party; and abolition of a market economy
over of Eastern Europe by placing their candidates in po- based upon free enterprise and private ownership in fa-
sitions of dominance within all the postwar Eastern Eu- vor of a centrally planned economy, state ownership of
ropean governments. Although the specific pattern of industry, and collectivized agriculture. The boundaries
1943
takeover varied with each country, depending upon the between the public and private spheres were effectively
individual political climate, in general the Soviets fol- erased, with all aspects of life becoming matters of state
lowed a similar approach in the seizure of power: First, concern.
the indigenous communist elements joined forces with The human impact of such a transformation was enor-
the noncommunist parties to form a “patriotic” or “na- mous, even for people already reeling from nearly a de-
tional” front. Next, the left-wing elements would often cade of war. For example, in the countryside, millions of
merge with the Communist Party to form a new, broader, farmers, many of whom had only recently benefited from
leftist party. the breakup of large estates and the land redistribution
The right-wing and centrist parties in each country and resettlement policies initially sponsored by the Com-
would then become increasingly isolated, often with munists during the takeover process, were now forced
some of their leaders being brought to trial and others be- into state-controlled collective farms. Those who re-
ing forced abroad. As the governmental structures, par- sisted were sent to forced-labor camps or killed. In indus-
ticularly security operations, became increasingly domi- try, trade unions, often only recently introduced, were
nated by Communists, elections were held with a single transformed into instruments through which the regime
list of candidates. Following these elections, new Com- could enforce worker discipline. Workers were severely
munist governments were formed and individuals not ac- punished for tardiness, slackness, or disruptiveness.
ceptable to Moscow were purged. The remaining monar- With respect to professionals, such as engineers, doc-
chies of Eastern Europe were abolished, and the postwar tors, and teachers, the regime used a mixture of incen-
governments either ratified Moscow’s pre-1941 territo- tives and threats to secure their cooperation. The educa-
rial acquisitions or formally ceded new territory to the tional process was of particular interest to the new
Soviet Union, as was the case with Czechoslovakia’s regimes. As in virtually all societies—capitalist and
cession of the Carpatho-Ukraine. communist alike—political messages were regularly but
The timing of these takeovers and the sequence of often subtly blended with other elements of the curricu-
events varied among the Eastern European countries. In lum. Such messages were reinforced after school hours
Yugoslavia and Albania, Communists dominated from by the activities of officially sponsored youth organiza-
the time of liberation as a result of their partisan struggle tions. Predictably, intellectual freedom was severely cur-
against German occupation. In Bulgaria and Romania, tailed, with draconian penalties enforced against those
the non-Communists were ousted from the coalition expressing “reactionary” or “counterrevolutionary”
government during the spring and summer of 1945 and, ideas. Finally, to one degree or another, the Communist
by 1947, the takeover was complete. The Polish Commu- regimes in all the Eastern European countries persecuted
233
churches, recognizing that religion represented a power- Dahrendorf, Ralf. Reflections on the Revolution in Eu-
ful challenge to the official ideology and that, institution- rope. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2005. Study
ally, the churches presented a dangerous challenge to of the breakup of the Soviet bloc at the end of the Cold
monopolistic rule by the Communist Party. Leading War.
church officials in many countries were arrested and Feis, Herbert. Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin: The War
tried for conspiracy against the state. They Waged and the Peace They Sought. Reprint.
In the Atlantic Charter of 1941, President Roosevelt Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967. A
and Prime Minister Churchill had stated their opposition detailed examination of the wartime diplomacy of the
to territorial changes without the consent of the peoples Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain
affected, as well as their support for the principle of dem- from the outset of the Grand Coalition in 1941 to the
ocratically elected governments. Contrary to this posi- conclusion of the war in Europe in the spring of 1945.
tion, vast areas of Eastern Europe were permanently _______. Between War and Peace: The Potsdam Con-
transferred to the Soviet Union or divided among the So- ference. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
viet satellite states without the consent of their inhabit- 1960. A continuation of Feis’s definitive study, Chur-
ants. Millions of people were displaced. Similarly, rather chill, Roosevelt, Stalin (see above), covering Grand
than embrace democracy, Eastern Europe fell victim to Coalition diplomacy from the spring through the sum-
Soviet-dominated totalitarian dictatorships that tram- mer of 1945.
pled on human rights. The spirit of resistance, however, Hammond, Thomas T., ed. The Anatomy of Communist
continued to flicker in the hearts of the Eastern Europe- Takeovers. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
ans and, over the next forty years, it would periodically Press, 1975. An anthology of histories of communist
burst forth, only to be ruthlessly crushed by the Commu- takeovers, with nine excellent chapters dedicated to
nist authorities up until the end of the Cold War. the post-World War II takeovers in Eastern Europe.
—Howard M. Hensel Korbel, Josef. The Communist Subversion of Czechoslo-
vakia: 1938-1948. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer-
Further Reading
sity Press, 1959. A history of the Communist takeover
Berglund, Sten, and Frank Aarebrot. The Political His-
in Czechoslovakia, tracing the process from the pre-
tory of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century: The
war period to the final takeover in 1948.
Struggle Between Democracy and Dictatorship.
Seton-Watson, Hugh. The East European Revolution.
Lyme, N.H.: E. Elgar, 1997. Detailed examination of
Reprint. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1985. Cov-
the oscillation between freedom and totalitarian re-
ers the postwar period of the Communist takeovers
gimes in pre- and postwar Eastern Europe.
and their aftermath, through the death of Stalin in
Black, C. E., and E. C. Helmreich. Twentieth Century
1953.
Europe: A History. 4th ed. New York: Alfred A.
Ulam, Adam B. Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet For-
Knopf, 1972. An excellent general overview of the
eign Policy, 1917-1973. 2d ed. New York: Praeger,
development of Europe from 1900 to 1972, with six
1974. One of the basic histories of Soviet foreign pol-
chapters dedicated exclusively to the twentieth cen-
icy from the Revolution of 1917 to the mid-1970’s,
tury history of the Soviet Union and the states of East-
with two chapters dedicated to the Soviet Union’s
ern Europe.
wartime diplomacy.
Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. The Soviet Bloc: Unity and
Conflict. 2d ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer- See also: Aug. 14, 1941: Atlantic Charter Declares a
sity Press, 1967. An examination of the establishment Postwar Right of Self-Determination; Nov. 28-Dec.
and evolution of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe. 1, 1943: Tehran Conference Promotes Allied Cooper-
Written by a future national security adviser in Presi- ation in Iran; Feb. 4-11, 1945: Yalta Conference; July
dent Jimmy Carter’s administration. 17-Aug. 2, 1945: Potsdam Conference.
234
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Casablanca Conference
January 14-24, 1943

Casablanca Conference
At the Casablanca Conference, British and American Churchill of the United Kingdom accepted, but Soviet
leaders drew up a blueprint for the Allied conduct of premier Joseph Stalin declined, because the Battle of
World War II in Europe and the Pacific, as well as Stalingrad had just begun and he could not leave his
establishing policies governing the conduct and country. The recently liberated town of Casablanca, in
conclusion of the war. The conference determined the Morocco, was selected for the conference, which opened
course of Allied operations through the next two years. on January 14, 1943.
Roosevelt was accompanied by his chief civilian ad-
Locale: Casablanca, Morocco viser, Harry Hopkins, and by his two military advisers,
Categories: World War II; diplomacy and General George C. Marshall, chief of staff of the U.S.
international relations Army, and Admiral Ernest King, U.S. chief of naval op-
Key Figures erations. Churchill arrived with his military and naval
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of advisers, notably General Sir Alan Francis Brooke, chief
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 of the British General Staff. The Allied leaders had no
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the difficulty in agreeing upon a number of military matters,
United States, 1933-1945 such as continuation of the bombing of Germany and the
Ernest King (1878-1956), U.S. chief of naval priority given to naval resources to transport supplies
operations, 1942-1945 across the Atlantic, nor did they oppose each other on the
1943
George C. Marshall (1880-1959), chief of staff of the French problem.
U.S. Army, 1939-1945, and later secretary of state, With the liberation of French Africa, the Allies had had
1947-1949 to find a leader for the French. Instead of turning to Gen-
Alan Francis Brooke (1883-1963), chief of the British eral Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French forces,
General Staff, 1941-1946, and later first Viscount whom both Churchill and Roosevelt distrusted, they had
Alanbrooke, 1946-1963 selected General Henri Giraud as supreme French com-
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), French general and mander for North Africa. Considerably angered by this
head of the French Committee of National Liberation selection, de Gaulle had refused to have anything to do
Henri Giraud (1879-1949), French commander in with Giraud or his government. At Casablanca, Roose-
North Africa velt and Churchill invited de Gaulle to make peace with
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), commander in Giraud and named him commander with Giraud; a tem-
chief of U.S. forces in Europe, supreme commander porary reconciliation was reluctantly achieved.
of Allied forces in North Africa, and later president The British and the Americans were less in accord
of the United States, 1953-1961 when it came time to discuss future strategy for the war.
Harold Alexander (1891-1969), British commander in The British wanted to continue fighting in the Mediterra-
chief of Middle Eastern forces and later first Earl nean until a large number of troops could be concentrated
Alexander of Tunis, 1952-1969 for an invasion of France across the English Channel.
Harry Hopkins (1890-1946), special assistant to Churchill hoped that Italy could be invaded and forced to
President Roosevelt surrender, which in turn would bring Turkey into the war
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; on the Allied side and perhaps permit an invasion of the
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central Balkans. In this way, he believed, Germany could be at-
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet tacked through the “soft underbelly of Europe.” Maxi-
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 mum gains could be exploited with a minimum risk
and without committing insufficient troops to a difficult
Summary of Event struggle in France.
Late in 1942, after the defeat of the Axis forces at the The Americans, particularly Marshall and King, op-
Second Battle of El Alamein and after the Anglo-Ameri- posed this plan. They viewed Mediterranean action as
can invasion of northwest Africa, President Franklin D. merely diversionary and said that the only way Germany
Roosevelt suggested a meeting of the Allied leaders to could be brought to defeat was through a massive cross-
plan further wartime strategy. Prime Minister Winston Channel invasion. King was particularly opposed to the
235
Casablanca Conference The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
British strategy, and he threatened to divert landing-craft Significance

production to the war against Japan in the Pacific, which The strategic decisions made at Casablanca set the stage
he believed should have the priority anyway. He was over- for the Allied invasions of Sicily and Italy, the conduct of
ruled, however, by Roosevelt on the basis of a 1940 agree- the war in Asia and Africa, and ultimately for the inva-
ment among the American chiefs of staff that in a two- sion of Normandy in Operation Overlord. Those deci-
front war, the European conflict should take priority. sions have sometimes been eclipsed, however, by dis-
Roosevelt agreed to a limited continuation of the Medi- cussion of the press conference held on the final day.
terranean war, and General Dwight D. Eisenhower was Critics of Roosevelt’s statement at the Casablanca
appointed supreme commander of the Allied forces in the Conference came to contend that requiring uncondi-
Mediterranean. His deputy was the British commander, tional surrender hurt the Allied cause more than it
General Harold Alexander (later the first Earl Alexander helped. It indicated to the Axis peoples that nothing less
of Tunis). Eisenhower and Alexander were told to plan an than total defeat would be accepted and therefore pro-
invasion of Sicily that would take place when the Axis longed the war and reduced the chances of resistance
Powers were driven out of North Africa. In the meantime, groups within those countries overthrowing the regimes
planning of the cross-Channel invasion proceeded. in order to obtain reasonable concessions from the
Twelve decisions emerged from the conference, nine Allies. Furthermore, such critics maintained, Roose-
of them significant. These included strengthening the at- velt’s statement established an idealistic goal that could
tacks on U-boats in the North Atlantic, increasing the be achieved only with great human suffering and that was
strategic bombing of Germany, providing material sup- not in accord with the realities of the conflict.
port for Russia, launching a limited offensive in the Pa- Other scholars have disagreed, pointing out that the
cific by attacking Rabaul, opening up the Burma Road policy did not in fact undercut German resistance groups,
and supporting China, increasing air activities in the Chi- which were simply not strong enough to succeed. Some
nese and Burmese regions, and stabilizing North Africa historians have argued that the policy was unimportant to
and invading Sicily. The Allies also agreed to plan for the the Germans until late in the war, when it did provide
expansion of the western front that would be
brought about by the cross-Channel invasion,
and they adopted a policy for the uncondi- Conference at Casablanca, 1943
tional surrender of Germany, Italy, and Japan.
The most controversial decision made at Lisbon Spain
Casablanca appeared to be impromptu. Roo- Portugal
sevelt, who remembered the mistakes made
by President Woodrow Wilson during World
War I, wanted to send a clear message that the a
Atlantic Gibraltar Se
forms of government in the Axis countries n
Mediterrane a
were unacceptable, and their defeat and re- Tangier
Ocean
moval were significant as an objective of the
Allies. He would frequently reiterate this po- Ri
ft
sition throughout the war. Thus, at a press Casablanca Mou
ntains
conference held on January 24, the final day Rabat Fez
at Casablanca, Roosevelt announced that the
i n s
“elimination of German, Japanese, and Italian n t a
war power means the unconditional surrender M o r o c c o o u
M
by Germany, Italy, and Japan.” He went on to s
Marrakech a
say that he did not mean the destruction of the t
l
people of those countries but rather “the de-
A
struction of the philosophies which are based Agadir

on conquest and the subjugation of other peo-
ple.” Reportedly taken aback by this state- Algeria
ment, Churchill nevertheless indicated his
agreement.
236
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Creates Jackson Hole National Monument
some propaganda value. Ultimately, it allowed the Allies versity Press, 1991. Kimball places emphasis on Roo-
to defeat the Axis Powers “according to an accepted for- sevelt’s personal diplomacy and sees Casablanca and
mula,” and although it did not allay Allied suspicions of unconditional surrender as a commitment of Russia to
one another, it lessened them to some extent. the Allied effort and a sense that the Anglo-Ameri-
— José M. Sánchez and Robert Franklin Maddox cans would run the show after the war.
Sherwood, Robert E. Roosevelt and Hopkins. New York:
Further Reading
Harper & Row, 1948. This work gives a thorough
Armstrong, Anne. Unconditional Surrender: The Impact
treatment of the Roosevelt polices from the perspec-
of the Casablanca Conference on World War II. New
tive of a close adviser.
Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1961. An-
Smith, Gaddis. American Diplomacy During the Second
alyzes the impact of the unconditional surrender pol-
World War. New York: Harper & Row, 1985. This
icy on the conduct of the war and on the Germans.
work does not regard the statement of unconditional
Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War. Vol. 4:
surrender as being particularly important.
The Hinge of Fate. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950.
Wilt, Alan F. “The Significance of the Casablanca Deci-
This volume includes Churchill’s memoirs of the Ca-
sions, January, 1943.” Journal of Military History 55
sablanca Conference.
(October, 1991): 517-529. The author concludes that
Feis, Herbert. Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin. Princeton,
this meeting provided a realistic agenda for the
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967. Written by a
Anglo-American conduct of the war.
distinguished diplomatic historian, this solid work an-
alyzes the major events at the Casablanca Confer- See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II:
ence. Pacific Theater; Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World
1943
Haycock, D.J. Eisenhower and the Art of Warfare: A War II: European Theater; Aug. 14, 1941: Atlantic
Critical Appraisal. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, Charter Declares a Postwar Right of Self-Determina-
2004. Discussion of Eisenhower’s military career in- tion; Aug. 19, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943: Battle of Stalingrad;
cludes chapters on the Casablanca Conference, the Oct. 23-Nov. 3, 1942: Second Battle of El Alamein;
operations arising from it, and Eisenhower’s relation- Nov. 8, 1942: Invasion of North Africa; July 9-Aug.
ship with General Marshall. 17, 1943: Allied Forces Invade Sicily; Sept. 3-18,
Kimball, Warren F. The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as 1943: Western Allies Invade Italy; June 6, 1944: In-
Wartime Statesman. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Uni- vasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe.
March 15, 1943

Roosevelt Creates Jackson Hole National Monument
When President Franklin D. Roosevelt created Jackson John W. McCormack (1891-1980), U.S.
Hole National Monument using powers granted to him congressman from Massachusetts, 1927-1970,
by the Antiquities Act of 1906, a coalition of Western House majority leader, 1939-1946, 1949-1952,
landowners attempted to have the act repealed. Their 1955-1961, and later speaker of the House,
attempt ended in failure when the president refused to 1961-1970
sign the bill repealing the act into law. Edward Robertson (1881-1963), U.S. senator from
Wyoming, 1943-1948
Locale: Jackson Hole, Wyoming; Washington, D.C. Newton B. Drury (1889-1978), director of the National
Categories: Government and politics; laws, acts, Park Service, 1940-1951
and legal history; environmental issues John F. Lacey (1841-1913), U.S. representative from
Key Figures Iowa, 1889-1890 and 1893-1906
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), president of the
United States, 1933-1945 United States, 1901-1909
John D. Rockefeller, Jr. (1874-1960), American Stephen T. Mather (1867-1930), director of the
millionaire philanthropist National Park Service, 1917-1928
237
Roosevelt Creates Jackson Hole National Monument The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Summary of Event provisions in the bill and had slowed the measure’s prog-
The Antiquities Act of 1906 was one of many laws ress through Congress. Many Westerners had wanted to
passed during the Progressive Era that influenced con- put a limit on the size of any potential monuments, re-
servation and preservation for generations afterward. stricting them, for example, to 350 acres or less. Al-
Under the leadership of President Theodore Roosevelt, though section 2 specified that the land area for such
Congress passed legislation creating the Forest Service, monuments would be strictly limited in size, no specific
the Bureau of Reclamation, and other agencies. Progres- maximum area was written into the law.
sive legislation ranged from consumer protection laws Theodore Roosevelt and later chief executives fre-
such as the Delaney Act (creating the Food and Drug Ad- quently chose to interpret the law in sweeping terms. For
ministration) to regulations concerning development in example, within two years following the Antiquities
federal reserves. Act’s passage into law, Roosevelt invoked its provisions
Unlike much other Progressive Era legislation, the to place the rim of the Grand Canyon off limits to mining.
Antiquities Act appeared fairly limited in scope. The act Under Roosevelt’s leadership, Grand Canyon National
was drafted to discourage amateur archaeologists and Monument was created in 1908. Eight years later, Con-
“pot hunters” from looting artifacts from sites located on gress passed legislation creating Grand Canyon National
federal lands. Section 1 of the act stated that “any person Park. The new park included most, but not all, of the land
who shall appropriate, excavate, injure, or destroy any in Grand Canyon National Monument. The shift from
historic or prehistoric ruin or monument, or any object of monument to park was not insignificant: It entailed the
antiquity, situated on lands owned or controlled by the dedication of resources to facilitate tourism and the care-
Government of the United States” could be fined up to ful transformation of the landscape to make the canyon
$500, imprisoned for up to ninety days, or both. accessible. Monument status had merely preserved the
Legislators hoped that these provisions would stop area from harm; it had not brought money or resources to
the wholesale stripping of archaeological sites in the the region, nor had it meant that the Park Service would
Southwest. The opening of the frontier through mining help tourists visiting the Grand Canyon.
and ranching was accompanied by a thriving trade in Na- Roosevelt had already created several other national
tive American artifacts. Wild West shows, dime novels, monuments before he acted to preserve the Grand Can-
and reports by noted writers such as Mark Twain and yon. The first site to receive such status under the Antiq-
Horace Greeley all fired the public’s imagination and uities Act was Devils Tower in Wyoming, a massive
contributed to the growing demand for Native American stone outcropping rising 857 feet above the surrounding
antiquities. countryside. Working from a list prepared by the secre-
By 1906, pot hunters had destroyed many burial sites taries of agriculture, the interior, and war, Roosevelt de-
and cliff dwellings that had lain undisturbed for centu- clared three additional national monuments in 1906: Pet-
ries. Reputable anthropologists and archaeologists often rified Forest and Montezuma Castle in Arizona, and El
found the remaining material damaged or unusable. The Morro in New Mexico. Succeeding administrations also
pot hunters tore down walls, scattered debris, and left a took advantage of the Antiquities Act to preserve sites
confusing, disheartening mess in their wake. Without throughout the country. For example, President William
government intervention, the archaeological record of H. Taft created the Colorado National Monument in 1911,
the native peoples of the American Southwest could be and President Herbert Hoover proclaimed the Black Can-
lost forever. As a result, Congressman John F. Lacey of yon of the Gunnison in Colorado a monument in 1933.
Iowa introduced legislation giving the president the Although some lawmakers questioned the necessity
power to proclaim a site a national monument in 1901, of the Antiquities Act, it remained relatively unchallenged
but opponents of the bill managed to delay its passage for until 1943. At that time, a situation arose that threatened
five years. After much negotiation, the Lacey Act, or An- to lead either to the repeal of the Antiquities Act or to
tiquities Act, passed in 1906. amendments that could seriously weaken it. The area
Section 2 of the act, which gave the president of the around Jackson Hole, Wyoming, had long been viewed
United States the power to declare “historic landmarks, as a possible addition to Yellowstone National Park. As
historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of early as 1898, Congressman Lacey had introduced legis-
historic or scientific interest” to be national monuments, lation to extend the park’s boundaries. Various plans
proved significant for environmental preservation. This were advanced over the years, but the government lacked
section had provoked more controversy than the other the funds to buy private landholdings in the region.
238
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Creates Jackson Hole National Monument
In 1924, Stephen T. Mather, director

of the National Park Service, persuaded
millionaire John D. Rockefeller, Jr., to
buy land in Jackson Hole for donation
to the government at a later date. Rocke-
feller’s agents quietly formed the Snake
River Land Company and discreetly pur-
chased land, taking care to pay its fair
market value. By 1933, the land com-
pany had acquired more than thirty-five
thousand acres, which, when added to
federal lands, meant that more than 92
percent of the property in the Jackson
Hole area could be placed under Park
Service control.
When the Park Service approached John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and his wife tour the Grand Tetons. Congressional grid-
Congress with a plan to create Grand lock arising from the Rockefellers’ interest in the proposed Grand Teton National
Teton National Park, however, it en- Park led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to create Jackson Hole National Monu-
countered resistance. A series of claims ment in 1943.
and counterclaims about Rockefeller’s
1943
interest in the area arose. Strange and
continually shifting alliances among cattle ranchers, president; they do not require his signature.) Roosevelt
preservationists, and the Forest Service prevented the chose not to sign the bill, thereby exercising what is
measure from passing for a decade. Finally, after he had known as a “pocket veto.” His inaction effectively nulli-
observed ten years of wrangling over Jackson Hole, fied the amendments to the Antiquities Act.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s patience apparently Senator Robertson and others tried to revive the issue
wore thin. Rather than wait any longer for Congress to in succeeding sessions of Congress, but they found that the
act, he proclaimed Jackson Hole a national monument on controversy driving Congress to act in 1943 was short-
March 15, 1943. lived. Their subsequent attempts to repeal the Antiquities
The antipark forces reacted immediately. Senator Ed- Act therefore failed to attract the same level of support as
ward Robertson of Wyoming rushed a bill into commit- had their initial attempt. Although the creation of other
tee amending the Antiquities Act to eliminate the possi- national monuments has occasionally proved controver-
bility of any future presidential proclamations, as well as sial, none has been as polarizing as Jackson Hole.
revoking the national monument status of Jackson Hole.
The Senate debated the proposed legislation, with many Significance
senators agreeing with its proposed limitations on presi- The Jackson Hole incident, in which the authority of the
dential powers. As discussion intensified in both houses Antiquities Act enabled the president to put an end to the
of Congress, Representative John W. McCormack spoke seemingly endless debate in Congress with one simple
out, defending the president’s actions. McCormack and proclamation, served as a demonstration of the impor-
others emphasized the partisan nature of the debate: Re- tance of the act. The act allows the president to move
publicans were solidly in favor of amending the act, and decisively to preserve threatened areas. It permits the
Democrats were opposed. Public interest groups spoke president to act independently.
out both for and against the amendments, with the Sierra This ability to overcome congressional gridlock was
Club among those opposed. one of the original motivations for the legislation. The
When the bill came up for a vote, it passed without conservationists and preservationists who had lobbied
discussion on the last day before the Christmas recess. for passage of the Antiquities Act in 1906 had recognized
Because the bill passed within ten days of Congress’ ad- the need for the president to act quickly and firmly in
journment, it would become law only if the president controversial or emergency situations. The power given
signed it. (Bills passed earlier in a congressional session to the president to bypass Congress was limited, since the
automatically become law if not explicitly vetoed by the president was unable to impart national park status—and
239
Roosevelt Creates Jackson Hole National Monument The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the financial and other resources that status entailed—to 1975. Wonderful color photographs. A concise his-
an area. The president’s monument-making power was tory of the National Park Service, including a discus-
more modest than Congress’ power to create a national sion of legislation that precedes brief descriptions of
park. parks and monuments.
That Congress failed to amend the Antiquities Act in Cutright, Paul Russell. Theodore Roosevelt, the Natural-
1943 or in subsequent years illustrates that the majority ist. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956. Examines
of members of Congress continued to agree that such Roosevelt’s interest in wildlife and natural history
action might still occasionally be desirable. In addition, and provides a context for much of his work on con-
despite the many disagreements over the merits of the servation issues.
Jackson Hole monument, most lawmakers realized that Daugherty, John, with Stephanie Crockett, William H.
declaring an area a national monument did not mean it Goetzmann, and Reynold G. Jackson. A Place Called
had to remain one. In some cases, as in the case of Jack- Jackson Hole: The Historic Resource Study of Grand
son Hole, the site might later be made a national park. In Teton National Park. Moose, Wyo.: National Park
others, sites could remain monuments indefinitely or, de- Service, 1999. Detailed study of the history of Jack-
pending upon the merits of the site, have their manage- son Hole, before and after its elevation to national
ment revert to the state or local government. In any event, park status. Maps, bibliographic references, and
Congress always retained the power to revoke a site’s index.
designation as either a national park or a national monu- Foresta, Ronald A. America’s National Parks and Their
ment. Keepers. Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Fu-
As originally conceived, the Antiquities Act was ture, 1984. Describes the legislation behind the Na-
meant to provide protection, often of an emergency national Park Service.
ture. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin D. Howland, Harold. Theodore Roosevelt and His Times.
Roosevelt had both had this function foremost in their New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1921.
minds when they invoked the act. There have been few Brief history of Theodore Roosevelt and the Progres-
other occasions when presidents have used the act to in- sive Era. Interesting in that the author’s perspective is
tervene in this fashion, but such action is not unheard-of. that of a contemporary of Roosevelt.
In 1969, for example, President Lyndon B. Johnson cre- Matthews, William H., III. A Guide to the National
ated Marble Canyon National Monument on the Colo- Parks. Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press,
rado River, stopping all dam development and giving en- 1968. Focuses primarily on national parks, although it
vironmentalists time to persuade Congress to extend the contains a brief section with visitors’ information for
boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park. Just as Roo- national monuments.
sevelt had in the Jackson Hole case, Johnson intervened
See also: Oct. 31, 1941: Mount Rushmore National
after years of increasingly acrimonious debate in Con-
Memorial Is Completed; Jan. 27, 1956-1966: Mission
gress failed to achieve results. That episode illustrates
66 Plan Is Implemented; Apr. 11, 1956: Echo Park
how the Antiquities Act provides a safety net for preserv-
Dam Proposal Is Defeated; June 12, 1960: Congress
ing the nation’s historic and natural resources.
Passes the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act; July 16,
—Nancy Farm Mannikko
1965: Mont Blanc Tunnel Between France and Italy
Further Reading Opens; Oct. 2, 1968: Johnson Establishes North Cas-
Bennett, Ross, ed. The New America’s Wonderlands. cades National Park; Feb., 1970: Natural Resources
Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, Defense Council Is Founded.
240
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Cousteau and Gagnan Develop the Aqualung
Spring, 1943
Cousteau and Gagnan Develop the Aqualung
Cousteau and Gagnan developed the Aqualung, a self- Thus, few changes were made in the technology of
contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) diving until air compressors were invented during the
that allowed divers to descend hundreds of meters early nineteenth century. This invention made it possible
below the surface of the ocean for recreation, scientific for fresh, pressurized air to be supplied to divers. This
study, or archaeological investigation. compressed air could be delivered in amounts that equal-
ized body pressure and the pressure exerted by the water
Also known as: Scuba that surrounded the diver. At first, the divers who utilized
Locale: France the method were limited to using diving suits, complete
Categories: Inventions; science and technology with fishbowl-like helmets. This “tethered” diving made
Key Figures divers relatively immobile. Such diving rigs, however,
Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997), French naval officer, were very useful when a diver was searching for sunken
undersea explorer, inventor, and author treasure or performing other complex tasks at a great
Émile Gagnan (b. 1900), French engineer depth. Tethered diving was especially valuable if a diver
needed to remain underwater for a long time.
Summary of Event Shallow-water work, diving efforts of shorter dura-
Undersea diving for the purposes of spying, to recover tion, underwater espionage, and recreational diving re-
lost treasures from wrecks, or to obtain natural treasures quired less cumbersome outfits and more mobility.
1943
(such as pearls) has been performed since ancient times. Scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)
The divers of antiquity, however, were able only to re- evolved to meet these requirements. Its development oc-
main below the surface for two or three minutes, and the curred in several incremental leaps forward. In one of the
depth to which they could venture was severely re- first such leaps, in 1880, Henry Fleuss of England devel-
stricted. In spite of these limitations, divers are men- oped an outfit that used a compartmented belt that con-
tioned in Homer’s Iliad (c. 750 b.c.e.; English transla- tained pure oxygen. Belt and diver were connected, and
tion, 1611), and Greek historians—including Herodotus the diver breathed the oxygen over and over.
(c. 484-c. 425 b.c.e.)—mention the use of divers by the A modification of Fleuss’s rebreathing system was
Greek kings in their many wars. used by the U.S. Navy for World War II espionage. Nev-
Clearly, once humans discovered the value of diving, ertheless, the system had three serious drawbacks: The
many attempts were made to prolong the time it was pos- deepest dives it allowed were to depths of 7.6 to 9 meters,
sible for divers to spend under water. The first device, de- pure oxygen was toxic to divers at depths greater than 9
scribed by Aristotle in 335 b.c.e., was probably the pro- meters, and divers could carry only enough oxygen to al-
genitor of the modern snorkel. It was a bent reed placed low them to remain submerged for a relatively short pe-
in the mouth, with one end above the water. Such devices riod of time. The system did have an advantage for spies,
are useful only for spying or for swimming near the sur- namely that the oxygen—breathed over and over in a
face of a body of water. Their use is restricted by limits closed system—did not reach the surface in the form of
on applicable reed—or snorkel—length and pressure telltale bubbles.
considerations. The next stage of scuba development occurred when
The most serious problem associated with pressure metal tanks, able to hold high-pressure compressed air,
occurs because the pressure on a diver’s body increases were designed. The tanks enabled divers to use air, rather
by about one-half pound per square centimeter for every than the potentially toxic pure oxygen. More important,
meter ventured below the surface. For this reason, it be- the much increased amount of usable oxygen that a diver
comes impossible to inhale surface air through a snorkel could carry in the tanks greatly lengthened the possible
below about 0.9 meters. This restriction results because duration spent under water. Initially, the main problem
below that depth, the human chest muscles are no longer with the system was that the air flowed continuously
strong enough to inflate the chest. In order to breathe at through a mask that covered the diver’s entire face. This
depths below 0.9 meters, a diver must utilize air under process wasted oxygen, and scuba divers expelled a con-
pressure, and the air pressure must increase continually tinual stream of air bubbles that precluded clandestine
as the depth of the dive is increased. activity.
241
Cousteau and Gagnan Develop the Aqualung The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Working as a team, Jacques Cousteau and Émile increase the depth to which a scuba diver could go with-
Gagnan developed an underwater oxygen regulator that out experiencing narcosis to 76 meters.
conserved oxygen by releasing only the amount of com-
Significance
pressed air that the diver required to breathe. Among the
The Aqualung made humans more comfortable under
advantages of the Cousteau-Gagnan apparatus was that a
the ocean and sparked a wave of undersea exploration
mobile diver could stay below the surface for a pro-
and recreational diving that has greatly enriched the
longed time period. As pointed out by Axel Madsen, the
knowledge of the seas. Today, millions of people en-
problem solved by Cousteau and Gagnan occurred be-
gage in scuba diving for the purposes of recreation and
cause humans breathe in and out, requiring a scuba
business. It has made possible developments in marine
mechanism that would prevent a diver from exhaling
biology, archaeology, geology, oceanography, histori-
spent air back into the oxygen supply. The solution was
ography, and many other sciences. Moreover, as a pop-
“a valve that would allow inhaling and exhaling through
ularizer of deep-sea diving through his writing—and
the same mouthpiece.”
later on television and in motion pictures—Cousteau in-
It was fortunate for Cousteau that his father-in-law, an
creased the knowledge and experience not only of scien-
executive for Air Liquide—France’s main producer of
tists but also of laypeople, including amateur divers as
industrial gases—directed him to Gagnan, an engineer at
the company’s Paris laboratory. Gagnan had been devel-
oping an automatic gas shutoff valve for Air Liquide, and
this valve became the Cousteau-Gagnan regulator. With
the valve in hand—and funding from Air Liquide—the
two men designed a first approximation of their system.
Cousteau tested this apparatus in 1943 in the Maine
River, but it did not work. By spring, however, additional
experimentation led to an acceptable device, which
Cousteau and Gagnan patented as the Aqualung. Soon,
exhaustive study showed that Aqualungs were suitable
for use at depths up to 68.5 meters.
This study also identified several perils associated
with Aqualung diving. For example, unless divers as-
cended and descended in slow stages, it was likely that
they would get “the bends” (decompression sickness),
the feared disease of earlier, tethered deep-sea divers.
Another problem was that, below 42.6 meters, divers en-
countered nitrogen narcosis. This condition led to im-
paired judgment that could cause fatal actions, including
removing one’s mouthpiece or developing an overpow-
ering desire to continue diving downward, to dangerous
depths.
Cousteau believed that the Aqualung had tremendous
military potential. To get it to the Allies, he traveled to
London soon after the Normandy invasion on June 6,
1944. The British, however, did not find Cousteau’s
Aqualung particularly important. Cousteau returned to
Paris and convinced France’s newly free government to
use Aqualungs to locate and neutralize underwater mines
laid along the French coast by the Wehrmacht.
Cousteau was commissioned to combine minesweep-
ing with the study of the physiology of scuba diving.
Amid this work, he and his colleagues discovered that by
using helium-oxygen mixtures in their tanks, they could Jacques Cousteau wearing an Aqualung. (Library of Congress)
242
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Cousteau and Gagnan Develop the Aqualung
well as people who merely observed the films and photo- victories during World War II, his development of the
graphs produced by divers. Aqualung, and his later explorations and endeavors.
—Sanford S. Singer Insight is given into his personality and activities.
Lee, Owen S. The Complete Illustrated Guide to Snorkel
Further Reading
and Deep Diving. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
Cousteau, Jacques-Yves. “Fish Men Discover a New
1963. Contains a wealth of information on many as-
World.” National Geographic 102 (October, 1952):
pects of diving for sport and business. Chapters 6
431-472. An interesting, illustrated article that details
(diving physics and physiology) and 7 (Aqualung
collaboration with Gagnan in the development of the
equipment and how it works) are most relevant. Infor-
Aqualung and some of its uses in underwater explora-
mative and well illustrated.
tion. Of particular interest to those wishing to learn
Madsen, Axel. Cousteau: An Unauthorized Biography.
about the beginnings of scuba diving from Cousteau.
New York: Beaufort, 1986. Covers many aspects of
_______. “The Ocean, a Perspective.” National Geo-
Cousteau’s experiences as a naval officer, as a
graphic 160 (December, 1981): 780-833. Describes
coinventor of the Aqualung, and an underwater ex-
many important aspects of ocean exploration and uti-
plorer. Chapter 4, on development of the Aqualung, is
lization (for example, mining the sea) using modern
particularly interesting and enlightening. Useful in-
tools and methods, including those Cousteau and his
sight into Cousteau’s personality and endeavors.
collaborators helped develop.
Parry, Zale, and Albert Tillman. Scuba America. Olga,
Cousteau, J. Y., with Frédéric Dumas. The Silent World.
Wash.: Whalestooth, 2001. A history of recreational
Reprint. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic So-
scuba diving in the United States.
ciety, 2004. An engaging book, made into a motion
1943
Smith, Robert W., ed. The New Science of Skin and Scuba
picture in 1956. Recounts many of the underwater ad-
Diving. Piscataway, N.J.: New Century, 1985. Acom-
ventures of and explorations by Cousteau and his
pendium of information developed by the Council for
colleagues from 1938, including postwar efforts at
National Cooperation in Aquatics. Designed to edu-
minesweeping along the French coast and develop-
cate those interested in the sport and technology of
ment of Aqualung methodology.
skin/scuba diving. Topics covered include snorkel-
Fergussen, J. Homer. “Diving.” McGraw-Hill Encyclo-
ing, skin and scuba diving, dive planning, lifesaving,
pedia of Science and Technology. 6th ed. New York:
and first aid. Coverage is simple, clear, and informa-
McGraw-Hill, 1987. A brief article on diving that
tive.
touches many bases succinctly. Topics explored in-
clude techniques used in scuba and saturation diving; See also: May 29, 1953: Hillary and Tenzing Reach the
aspects of diving physiology such as the effects of Top of Mount Everest; 1956: Heezen and Ewing Dis-
pressure, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide gases; cover the Midoceanic Ridge; July 20, 1964-Oct.,
and treatment of the bends. 1965: Navy Conducts Sealab Expeditions; Aug. 11,
Iverson, Genie. Jacques Cousteau. New York: G. P. 1968: Glomar Challenger Begins Collecting Ocean-
Putnam’s Sons, 1976. Contains much information on Floor Samples; Sept., 1970: Cousteau Announces
the life and career of Cousteau, including his trials and Large Decline in Ocean Life.
243
Oklahoma! Opens on Broadway The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
March 31, 1943

OKLAHOMA! Opens on Broadway
Oklahoma!, the first collaboration between Richard times. Its directors, however, had an idea. Having had
Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, was also the first some success with an innovative “folk” play, Green
musical drama to feature an innovative and strongly Grow the Lilacs (1931) by Oklahoman Lynn Riggs,
unified score and a production that integrated music Helburn and Langner tried to sell the idea of converting it
and dance into the story, setting new standards for the into a musical celebrating early twentieth century fron-
twentieth century musical. tier life. Takers were hard to find. Jerome Kern, com-
poser of an earlier integrated book musical, Show Boat
Locale: New York, New York (1927, with libretto and lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II),
Categories: Theater; music; dance was not interested. Composer Richard Rodgers was. Un-
Key Figures fortunately, Rodgers’s longtime collaborator, Lorenz
Richard Rodgers (1902-1979), American composer Hart, was seriously ill (he would die in 1943) and in any
Oscar Hammerstein II (1895-1960), American lyricist case skeptical about the suitability of Green Grow the Li-
Agnes de Mille (1905-1993), American choreographer lacs as material for a musical. Rodgers immediately
and dancer turned to veteran lyricist Hammerstein, who saw merit in
the idea.
Summary of Event The original play was a simple, loosely constructed
From the night it opened on March 31, 1943, at the St. story about cowboys and farmers living in the Oklahoma
James Theatre on Broadway, Oklahoma! was an imme- Territory at the time of statehood in 1907. The minimal
diate and smashing success. It ran for five years and a story, ornamented with the singing of genuine folk
then-record 2,212 performances, greatly advancing the songs, revolved around the rivalry for the hand of local
careers of composer Richard Rodgers and librettist and beauty Laurey between a handsome and good-natured
lyricist Oscar Hammerstein II. The show was one of the cowboy, Curly, and a surly hired man, Jud. In a casual
first strongly integrated “book” musicals, that is, musi- manner, author Riggs brought about the marriage of
cals with coherent plots and dramatically motivated Curly and Laurey while staging a dance party. When Jud
characters, as opposed to “revues,” which were simply tried to set fire to a haystack on which the newlyweds
collections of songs and sketches. The brilliant produc- were standing in order to escape the wedding-night
tion, directed by Rouben Mamoulian and presented by taunts of their friends, Curly leapt down to stop him. Jud
the prestigious Theatre Guild under its experienced pro- drew a knife, and in the ensuing struggle he was acciden-
ducers Theresa Helburn and Lawrence Langner, set a tally stabbed to death himself. As the play ended, Curly
standard in the American musical theater that stimulated was sure of an exoneration and could expect a happy life
a new seriousness and consciousness of musical theater with Laurey.
as an art form. Rodgers and Hammerstein took this play and rede-
The show’s tryouts in New Haven, Connecticut, and signed it, while keeping its frontier feel and folk atmo-
Boston, Massachusetts, earlier in March, 1943, had met sphere. Rodgers did not imitate folk songs, however. His
with general acclaim, but its development up to those try- own gift for flowing, melodious music suited the nostal-
outs had been difficult. The Theatre Guild, organized in gic view of America’s simpler past the duo sought to
1919, had been famous on Broadway as a producing or- convey. His rich harmonies and soaring lines, moreover,
ganization in the 1920’s and 1930’s. The guild had fitted well with a wartime audience needing a reaffirma-
brought distinguished European plays and new Ameri- tion of American frontier and heartland values. Rodgers
can works to the main stages of New York City. Among and Hammerstein tightened Riggs’s structure by divid-
other playwrights it sponsored, Eugene O’Neill had ing the action into the common two-act format for musi-
benefited greatly from the guild’s support. The guild had cals, by developing a minor, comedic love subplot, by
played a role in a milestone in the history of the Ameri- focusing the courtship and rivalry over Laurey at an elab-
can musical theater through its production of George orate box social, and by using dance and dance drama to
Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess, directed by Rouben Ma- highlight and advance motivation and story.
moulian, in 1935. The show’s underlying theme was the passing of the
By the early 1940’s, the guild had fallen on hard rough frontier and the coming of the more stable settlers
244
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Oklahoma! Opens on Broadway
or farmers, who represented a prelude to statehood and The second major collaboration of de Mille and the
civilization. This theme was present in the play as well, writers was the “The Farmer and the Cowman” song-
but Rodgers and Hammerstein extended and reinforced and-dance sequence, which opened act 2. Again a sort of
it at every point. In doing so, they created a new sort of dance drama, this episode represented an actual square
musical. All the songs were sung in character, tied to the dance at the site of the box social. It was also thematic of
plot or situation, and either significantly added to under- the passing of the frontier culture (the cowman) and the
standing of the theme or advanced the plot conflict. rise of the settlers (the farmer). This sequence was more
Curly’s gentle introduction with the song “Oh, What a upbeat, crowded, and conventional than was the opening
Beautiful Mornin’” was an innovation in curtain-raising of the first act, but it also segued perfectly from the end of
technique. There were no dancing girls or rousing cho- the previous act. The farmers and the cowmen reconcile,
rus, just a man sauntering through the corn evoking the after a brief fight. The dance drama functions as a media-
landscape, a pastoral vision in song based on Riggs’s tion of values and foreshadows the end of the play, in
own prose introduction to the original play. which cowman Curly and farmer Laurey marry and
Rodgers and Hammerstein made perhaps their most Jud—who represents the unruly and uncivilized pre-
brilliant move in deciding to feature dance as a major statehood frontier—is killed.
component of the show. Wanting to keep the folk charac- Much of De Mille’s choreography is playful. She
ter of the play but wishing as well not to be too folksy or also, however, increased the seriousness of the dance in
quaint, they needed to find someone who could combine Oklahoma!. She did not cast chorines, who were usually
energetic modern dance techniques with elements of tra- selected more for face and figure than for dancing ability.
ditional folk dance. They found Agnes de Mille, who She chose instead dancers who had been trained in ballet
1943
then was commanding attention with her choreography or modern disciplines, immediately elevating the quality
for the ballet Rodeo (1942) by Aaron Copland. She had of dancing and setting the standard for Broadway dance
researched folk dances for that show, which Rodgers and in the future. Three of her leading dancers in Oklahoma!
Hammerstein went to see. De Mille’s choreography fea- went on to prominent careers either on Broadway
tured the kind of combination of folk, modern, and ballet (Bambi Linn and Joan McCracken) or in ballet (Diana
styles they were looking for. De Mille created several Adams).
strikingly original dance sequences for Oklahoma!, none The box social in the musical was built upon play-
more influential than the extraordinary dream ballet that wright Riggs’s more casual dance episode, but it was de-
concludes act 1. signed to increase both the realistic drama and the sym-
The dream ballet, almost a miniature dance drama, bolic import of the event. At the box social, local girls put
combined a medley of tunes previously heard with a pan- up their food hampers for auction to the highest bidder,
tomime of Laurey’s troubled dream about the rivalry of planning to picnic with the young men, flirt, and find
Curly and Jud for her hand. In the dream, Curly is killed beaus. Amid it all, Curly and Jud bid on Laurey’s ham-
by Jud, and Laurey is won by the animal-like hired man. per. In a tense exchange of bidding, Curly wins only by
De Mille used stylized forms of popular and folk dances selling off his saddle, his horse, and finally his pistol.
in combination with the traditions of ballet, altered to fit Jud, the savage figure, loses; Curly sheds his cowboy
the expressive freedom and new movements of modern lifestyle and agrees to farm, thereby winning Laurey’s
dance. She created a startling musical, dramatic, and hand. The musical then proceeds to its conclusion gener-
dance episode to end the first act. ally along the lines of the original play.
Hammerstein had originally wanted a high-energy Rodgers and Hammerstein tightened the play, gave it
circus ballet to end the act. De Mille, however, called to a sharp thematic focus, softened Curly and Jud, sensed
his attention that a young girl who was afraid her undesir- the value of dance for propelling the show along, and
able suitor might kill the man she loved would more crafted songs that have lasted. Lighter numbers such as
likely have a nightmare. Hammerstein capitulated, and “The Surrey with the Fringe on Top,” “Kansas City,” “I
de Mille created a dance in which, by exposing the fright- Cain’t Say No,” and “Pore Jud Is Daid” alternate with
ening aspects of the heroine’s position, she increased the rich love songs such as “People Will Say We’re in
tension and moved the plot forward. She also took a risk Love.” The romantic quality of Curly and Laurey’s rela-
by emphasizing a dark element in the story—not the ac- tionship is heightened by contrast to the shenanigans of
cepted path for a theater genre meant primarily to enter- the comic lovers, Ado Annie and Will Parker. Innovative
tain—but it was a risk that paid off tremendously. and indeed startling for its time, Oklahoma! was melodi-
245
Oklahoma! Opens on Broadway The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ous and sweeping, and its focus on a version of American Oklahoma! greatly expanded on the idea of an inte-
frontier life helped make it a piece of Americana in its grated book musical established by Show Boat, more
own right. fully developing the link between the songs and the plot,
as well as attaining a higher level of realism in the story
Significance line. With these changes to the form of musical theater,
Oklahoma! had an immediate impact. An original cast the show set new standards for productions that fol-
album was recorded soon after the opening. A first for lowed, entering theater history as a milestone in Ameri-
musicals, this method of popularizing a show soon be- can popular culture.
came the norm. All later original cast albums from — Frederick E. Danker
Rodgers and Hammerstein shows had enormous sales
and remained vital and entertaining documents decades Further Reading
after their respective shows opened. Carter, Tim. “In the Workshop of Rodgers and Ham-
Even before the show’s five-year run on Broadway merstein: New Light on Oklahoma!” In Music Ob-
was concluded, a national touring show was produced. served: Studies in Memory of William C. Holmes,
From 1944 through 1954, the national company per- edited by Colleen Reardon and Susan Parisi. Warren,
formed Oklahoma! all over America. In 1945, an over- Mich.: Harmonie Park Press, 2004. Study of the
seas company performed for soldiers still stationed in the development of the original production highlighting
Pacific war zone. Foreign companies had great success insights into the final version of the musical made
as early as the late 1940’s. Revivals continued to be fre- available by examining Rodgers and Hammerstein’s
quent in later decades, and the show became a staple of creative process.
both indoor summer theaters and the vast outdoor stages Ewen, David. New Complete Book of the American
that dotted The United States in the South, Midwest, and Musical Theater. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Win-
Southwest. In that sense, Oklahoma! returned to its status ston, 1970. A massive survey with thorough descrip-
as a kind of folk play with music. tions and discussions of key musicals. Very good on
A 1955 film adaptation of the musical opened up the Oklahoma! Indexed.
necessarily restricted staging of the play, creating a more _______. Richard Rodgers. New York: Henry Holt,
realistic and expansive portrayal. The very successful 1957. Although this is an early study, Ewen’s thor-
film, which launched the film career of actor Shirley ough knowledge of the theater serves the book and
Jones, helped cement a new collaboration between reader well. Appendixes of show data and other com-
Broadway musicals and Hollywood. In particular, the positions; indexed.
Rodgers and Hammerstein musicals that followed Okla- Laufe, Abe. Broadway’s Greatest Musicals. Rev. ed.
homa! benefited from this collaboration. Rodgers and New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1977. A focused study
Hammerstein were astute businessmen and were fully of the best musicals. Full descriptions and some anal-
aware of the changes in media and technology that, after ysis. Chapters on Show Boat, Oklahoma!, South Pa-
the war, allowed saturation marketing and national expo- cific, and My Fair Lady, with summary coverage of
sure for the products of Broadway. Their later shows other shows and the era. Provides good contexts and
were just as fully thought out and integrated, using suc- readably traces the rise of the mature and classic mu-
cessful plays or novels as a base, and were enormously sical. Illustrated, and indexed, with data on shows.
successful on stage and screen. These included Carousel Mordden, Ethan. Beautiful Mornin’: The Broadway Mu-
(stage 1945, film 1956), South Pacific (stage 1949, film sical in the 1940’s. New York: Oxford University
1958), The King and I (stage 1951, film 1956), Flower Press, 1999. Focuses on Oklahoma! in a discussion of
Drum Song (stage 1958, film 1961), and The Sound of the development of the Broadway intergrated book
Music (stage 1959, film 1965). musical. Includes a chapter on the cast album. Index.
Other writers emulated Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Richard Rodgers: Fact Book, with Supplement. New
methods, and the era witnessed a great flowering of mu- York: Lynn Farnol Group, 1968. Full of data on each
sicals, among them Cole Porter’s Kiss Me, Kate (1948), show: casts, spin-off companies, outlines of the action,
Frank Loesser’s Guys and Dolls (1950) and The Most song titles, and film and television versions. Indis-
Happy Fella (1956), Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick pensable. Reviews of openings and revivals included.
Loewe’s My Fair Lady (1956), and Camelot (1960), and Riggs, Lynn. Green Grow the Lilacs. In Best American
Leonard Bernstein’s West Side Story (1957). Plays, 1918-1958, edited by John Gassner. New
246
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Eckert and Mauchly Develop the ENIAC
York: Crown, 1961. The most easily available source musicological analyses, it can be understood by the
of the original play. Very useful to see what Rodgers, lay reader. Interesting insights on Rodgers’s music for
Hammerstein, and de Mille had to work with and what Hammerstein’s lyrics in Oklahoma!
changes they made. Wilk, Max. OK! The Story of “Oklahoma!” New York:
Rodgers, Richard. Musical Stages: An Autobiography. Applause, 2002. Study of the development of Okla-
New York: Random House, 1975. An inside look homa! alongside critical analysis of the musical.
paying due attention to techniques, productions, See also: Oct. 16, 1942: Agnes de Mille Choreographs
struggles, and successes. Rodeo; Dec. 30, 1948: Porter Creates an Integrated
Swain, Joseph P. The Broadway Musical: A Critical and Score for Kiss Me, Kate; Sept. 26, 1957: Bernstein
Musical Survey. New York: Oxford University Press, Joins Symphonic and Jazz Elements in West Side
1990. Serious study of the music of Broadway shows. Story; Mar. 2, 1965: The Sound of Music Captivates
Although moderately sophisticated technically in its Audiences.
April, 1943-1946
Eckert and Mauchly Develop the ENIAC
John Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly revolution. The ENIAC was developed during World
developed the first general-purpose electronic digital War II at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering at
computer, leading directly to modern methods of
1943
the University of Pennsylvania by a team headed by John
computation. While the computer was extremely primitive William Mauchly and John Presper Eckert. Mauchly and
by later standards, even the ENIAC’s limitations fueled Eckert were working on behalf of the U.S. Ordnance
future advances, as they made clear the initial steps Ballistic Research Laboratory (BRL) at the Aberdeen
necessary in order to realize computers’ potential. Proving Ground.
Even early in the war, the BRL’s needs for ballistic
Also known as: Electronic Numerical Integrator and
firing tables had already far outstripped the combined
Computer
abilities of the available differential analyzers (Vannevar
Locale: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Bush’s analog computer) and teams of human comput-
Categories: Inventions; science and technology;
ers. In 1941, Mauchly had seen the special-purpose elec-
computers and computer science
tronic computer developed by John Vincent Atanasoff
Key Figures for solving sets of linear equations. Atanasoff’s com-
John Presper Eckert (1919-1995), American electrical puter was severely limited in scope and was never fully
engineer completed. The functioning prototype, however, helped
John William Mauchly (1907-1980), American convince Mauchly of the feasibility of electronic digital
physicist, engineer, and professor computation and led to Mauchly’s formal proposal in
John von Neumann (1903-1957), Hungarian American April, 1943, to develop the general-purpose ENIAC. The
mathematician, physicist, and logician BRL, in desperate need of computational help, agreed to
Herman Heine Goldstine (1913-2004), American army fund the project. Lieutenant Herman Heine Goldstine
mathematician oversaw the ENIAC project for the United States Army,
Arthur Walter Burks (b. 1915), American philosopher, acting as the Army’s liaison at the Moore School.
engineer, and professor The first substantial electronic computer, the ENIAC
John Vincent Atanasoff (1903-1995), American was designed, built, and debugged within two and one-
mathematician and physicist half years. Even given the highly talented team, such a
task could be accomplished only by taking as few design
Summary of Event risks as possible. Thus, the ENIAC ended up as an elec-
The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Com- tronic version of prior existing computers: Its functional
puter) was the first general-purpose electronic digital organization was similar to that of Bush’s differential an-
computer. By demonstrating the feasibility and value of alyzer, while it was programmed via a plugboard (similar
electronic digital computation, it initiated the computer to a telephone switchboard) along the lines of earlier
247
Eckert and Mauchly Develop the ENIAC The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
electromechanical calculators created by International project, arranged for the production run to be performed
Business Machines (IBM). Another consequence of the immediately prior to ENIAC’s formal dedication in 1946.
need to emulate prior devices was that the internal repre- The ENIAC was an impressive machine: It contained
sentation of numbers in ENIAC was decimal, rather than eighteen thousand vacuum tubes, weighed twenty-seven
the now-standard binary, since the familiar electrome- metric tons, and occupied a nine-by-fifteen-meter room.
chanical computers had all used decimal digits. The device’s final cost to the U.S. Army was about
Although the ENIAC was completed only after the $486,000. In return, the Army received a machine that
end of the war, its primary use remained military. In fact, computed up to one thousand times faster than its elec-
the first production run on the system was a two-month tromechanical precursors; for example, addition and sub-
calculation needed for the design of the hydrogen bomb. traction required only two hundred microseconds (mil-
John von Neumann, working as a consultant both to the lionths of a second). The basic cycle time of the computer
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and to the ENIAC was a remarkably fast ten microseconds, which meant
that it ran at a rate of 100,000 cycles
per second (100 kilohertz). Arithmetic
What Is ENIAC? would have been even faster, except
that the ENIAC’s decimal implementa-
The U.S. Army Ordnance Department and the Moore School of Electrical tion required multiple pulses per digit.
Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania published A Report on the As a result, an addition operation took
Eniac (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) on June 1, 1946, in- twenty cycles (or one-five thousandth
troducing the ENIAC computer: of a second) to complete. Nevertheless,
What the ENIAC Does at its dedication ceremony, the ENIAC
The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) is a high- was fast enough to calculate a fired
speed electronic computing machine which operates on discrete variables. shell’s trajectory faster than the shell it-
It is capable of performing the arithmetic operations of addition, subtrac- self took to reach its target.
tion, multiplication, division, and square rooting on numbers (with sign in- The machine was orders of magni-
dication) expressed in decimal form. The ENIAC, furthermore, remembers tude more complex than any predeces-
numbers which it reads from punched cards, or which are stored on the sor and employed a risky, new technol-
switches of its so called function tables, or which are formed in the process ogy in vacuum tubes; this caused much
of computation, and makes them available as needed. The ENIAC records concern about its potential reliability.
its results on punched cards from which tables can be automatically printed.
In response to this concern, Eckert, as
Finally, the ENIAC is automatically sequenced, i.e., once set-up . . . to fol-
the lead engineer, imposed strict safety
low a routine consisting of operations in its repertoire, it carries out the rou-
tine without further human intervention. When instructed in an appropriate regulations on all components, requir-
routine consisting of arithmetic operations, looking up numbers stored in ing the design to use components at lev-
function tables, etc., the ENIAC can carry out complex mathematical opera- els well below the manufacturers’ spec-
tions such as interpolation and numerical integration and differentiation. ified limits. The result was a machine
The speed of the ENIAC is at least 500 times as great as that of any other that ran for as long as three days with-
existing computing machine. The fundamental signals used in the ENIAC out a hardware malfunction.
are emitted by its oscillator at the rate of 100,000 per second. . . . Vacuum tubes perform most reli-
ably when they are warm, so, once it
The ENIAC patent application was filed with the U.S. Patent Office on June was turned on, the machine was sup-
26, 1947:
posed to kept running. A historical odd-
. . . With the advent of everyday use of elaborate calculations, speed has ity is that for some months after the
become paramount to such a high degree that there is no machine on the ENIAC’s delivery, the BRL continued
market today capable of satisfying the full demand of modern computa- its normal practice of shutting off all
tional methods. The most advanced machines have greatly reduced the time of its equipment at night. As a conse-
required for arriving at solutions to problems which might have required quence, much of the following day was
months or days by older procedures. This advance, however, is not adequate wasted getting the ENIAC operational
for many problems encountered in modern scientific work and the present again. The new speed of the computer
invention is intended to reduce to seconds such lengthy computations. . . . created a new problem: It required high-
speed availability of both programs and
248
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Eckert and Mauchly Develop the ENIAC
data in order to remain efficient. Otherwise, the com-

puter would spend most of its time idling, waiting for
data to be fed into it.
Data for the ENIAC were held in twenty accumula-
tors, each of which was capable of holding ten digits and
one operator; in modern terms, this represents a total of
only about one hundred bytes of storage. Such limited
storage posed a severe difficulty for performing complex
calculations. In many cases, the intermediate results of
such calculations were actually punched onto IBM cards
and fed to later program stages via a card reader—a pro-
cess that hardly took advantage of the underlying ma-
chine speed. To view image, please refer to print edition
The master control unit supported a variety of useful
programming functions, including iterative loops, condi-
tional branches, and subroutines. Programming the
ENIAC was accomplished by setting switches and phys-
ically connecting accumulators, function tables (a kind
of manually set read-only memory), and control units.
Connections were made via cables running between
1943
plugboards. This was a laborious and error-prone pro-
cess, often requiring a one-day setup time. The team
recognized this problem, and in early 1945, Eckert,
Mauchly, and Neumann worked on a design for a new
machine. Their basic idea was to treat both program and
data as the same kind of object, and in particular to store
them in the same high-speed memory; in other words,
they planned to produce a stored-program computer.
Neumann described and explained this design in his
“First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC” (EDVAC stood
for Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer). A technician operates an ENIAC II computer. (Hulton Archive/
Although Eckert had introduced the concept of a Getty Images)
stored-program computer even before Neumann joined
the ENIAC project, Neumann contributed new design
techniques and provided the first general, comprehen- dercut by the fact that Alan Mathison Turing’s concept of
sive description of the stored-program architecture. a universal machine (invented in 1935) would have been
Since the Moore School was constrained by the Espio- incoherent without the theoretical ability to store pro-
nage Act, the report on the EDVAC was distributed under grams, however impractical it would have been to pro-
Neumann’s name alone. This report had a decisive influ- duce such a machine.
ence in spreading a practical design for digital computa- After delivery of the ENIAC, Neumann suggested
tion—so much so that machines of this type (including that the computer could be wired in such a way that a set
almost all modern commercial computers) have come to of instructions would be permanently available and spe-
be called Neumann machines. cific instructions could be selected from that set by en-
As a consequence of the secrecy requirements that tries in the function tables. Adele Goldstine (wife of
initially prevented Eckert from taking credit for his con- Herman) and Richard Clippinger (head of the BRL Com-
tribution to stored-program computing, a bitter dispute puting Laboratory) implemented Neumann’s idea, pro-
later arose about who “really” invented the concept of viding sixty instructions that could be invoked from the
stored-program computers. The answer appears to be programs stored into the function tables. Despite slowing
that the invention was a joint effort. Special claims to in- down the computer’s calculations, this technique was so
tellectual priority by either Eckert or Neumann are un- superior to plugboard programming that it was used ex-
249
Eckert and Mauchly Develop the ENIAC The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
clusively thereafter. In this way, the ENIAC was con- 1949, they produced the BINAC computer (at a loss) and
verted into a kind of primitive stored-program computer. the UNIVAC I in 1951, with both machines using mer-
cury storage. They sold out to Remington Rand when
Significance they had financial problems, and Eckert ultimately be-
The ENIAC’s electronic speed and the stored-program came a vice president of Sperry Rand. The patent issue,
design of the EDVAC clearly had incredible potential however, was not over. After Sperry Rand tried to en-
even during the vacuum-tube age. This potential, how- force patent rights, Honeywell sued. In 1973, the patent
ever, posed a serious engineering challenge, one which was invalidated, largely for technical legal reasons, but
had to be solved in order for computing to develop fur- also because Atanasoff had demonstrated previously the
ther. It was necessary to produce a computer memory viability of some of the innovations the patent attributed
store that would be simultaneously large, inexpensive, to the ENIAC.
and fast. Without such fast memories, the electronic con- The memory problem that the ENIAC introduced was
trol logic at the heart of a computer would spend most of resolved finally with the invention of the magnetic core
its time idling. Vacuum tubes themselves (used in the in the early 1950’s. Core memory was installed on the
control) were not an effective solution to the problem be- ENIAC and soon on all new machines. The ENIAC con-
cause of their large power requirements and heat genera- tinued in operation until October, 1955, when parts of
tion. it were retired to the Smithsonian Institution. Having
The EDVAC design draft proposed using mercury de- proved the viability of digital electronics, and having led
lay lines, which were used earlier in radar. These delay directly to stored-program computers, its impact can be
lines converted an electronic signal into a slower, acous- recognized in every digital computer today.
tic signal in a mercury solution; to provide continuous — Kevin B. Korb
storage, the acoustic signal picked up at the other end was
regenerated and sent back into the mercury. Maurice Further Reading
Vincent Wilkes at the University of Cambridge was the Burks, Arthur W., and Alice R. Burks. “The ENIAC:
first to complete such a system (called the EDSAC), in First General-Purpose Electronic Computer.” Annals
May, 1949. One month earlier, Frederick Calland Wil- of the History of Computing 3 (October, 1981): 310-
liams and Tom Kilburn at Manchester University 399. A technical examination of the origin and design
brought their prototype computer into operation, using of the ENIAC, with particular consideration of the re-
cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) for their main storage. Thus, lated patent dispute. Incorporates commentary by
England took an early lead in developing computing sys- other principals and responses by the authors. Use-
tems, largely because of a more immediate practical de- fully illustrated.
sign approach. Campbell-Kelly, Martin, and Michael R. Williams, eds.
Neumann, together with Arthur Walter Burks and The Moore School Lectures. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT
Goldstine, started a computer research group at the Insti- Press, 1985. Lecture notes from a special course held
tute for Advanced Study (IAS). The IAS group decided at the Moore School in the summer of 1946 that
upon a new kind of parallel memory—unlike EDSAC’s greatly aided the dissemination of the stored-program
sequential memory—using a new kind of CRT, called concept. Lecturers included all the major designers
the Selectron. The new design introduced a variety of involved in the ENIAC and many others. Papers
synchronization problems; also, the Selectron was not range from introductory to highly technical.
ready on time. The IAS machine was finally built using Fleck, Glen, ed. A Computer Perspective. Cambridge,
the Williams CRT. While late (it was completed in Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973. An entertain-
1952), the IAS computer nevertheless was very success- ing, pictorial survey of the history of computing ma-
ful, very fast, and was copied at a variety of institutions, chinery from 1890 through the 1940’s, based on an
giving birth to the MANIAC, JOHNNIAC, ILLIAC, IBM-sponsored exhibition. Contains photographs of
SILLIAC, and the like. many pioneer researchers, their machines, and vari-
In the meantime, Eckert and Mauchly, in a dispute ous related documents.
with the Moore School of Electrical Engineering over the Goldstine, Herman H. The Computer from Pascal to von
ENIAC patent, had quit and formed the Electronic Con- Neumann. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
trol Company (later the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Cor- Press, 1972. Especially interesting for its detailed ac-
poration). They managed to keep the patent rights. In count of the developments at the Moore School and
250
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Inflation and Labor Unrest
the Institute for Advanced Study, in which Goldstine reprints historic papers from early computer develop-
was directly involved. ment efforts. Includes a forty-page annotated bibliog-
Hally, Mike. Electronic Brains: Stories from the Dawn raphy.
of the Computer Age. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Stern, Nancy. From ENIAC to UNIVAC: An Appraisal of
Henry Press, 2005. A survey of the creation of the the Eckert-Mauchly Computers. Bedford, Mass.: Dig-
most important early computers, beginning with the ital Press, 1981. Reviews the history of Eckert and
ENIAC. Bibliographic references and index. Mauchly’s association and the computers they devel-
McCartney, Scott. ENIAC: The Triumphs and Tragedies oped, concentrating on the social aspects. Issues ver-
of the World’s First Computer. New York: Walker, dicts on the priority and personal disputes in the story
1999. Thorough history of the ENIAC, including which cannot be assessed in isolation. Includes, as an
philosophical precursors and practical analysis of the appendix, Neumann’s “First Draft of a Report on the
contribution of each participant in the program. Bib- EDVAC.”
liographic references and index. Williams, Michael R. A History of Computing Technol-
Metropolis, N., J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds. A ogy. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1985. A
History of Computing in the Twentieth Century. New comprehensive and balanced presentation of the de-
York: Academic Press, 1980. A collection of papers velopment of computer technology from the numeri-
originally presented at a conference on computing cal systems of ancient Egypt through the first genera-
history at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in tion of electronic digital computers. Recommended
1976. The authors include many of the principals infor all general readers.
volved in the early development of computers and
1943
computer software. Annotated bibliography. See also: Aug., 1949: First Electronic Stored-Program
Randell, Brian, comp. The Origins of Digital Computers. Computer Is Completed; Mar. 31, 1951: UNIVAC I
New York: Springer-Verlag, 1973. This anthology Becomes the First Commercial Electronic Computer.
April 8, 1943-June 23, 1947

Inflation and Labor Unrest
On the heels of the Great Depression and in the face of Summary of Event
wartime limits on wages, labor turned to mass In examining the crisis in U.S. labor relations that fol-
disruption and strikes to alleviate the poverty of the lowed World War II, one is confronted not by a single
working class. dramatic event but by a series of interrelated industrial
struggles. Between 1945 and 1948, concerns about the
postwar economy and labor reorganization swelled into
a nationwide wave of strikes that influenced all levels of
Categories: Business and labor; economics
employment. The strikes occurred in the political vac-
Key Figures uum created by divisions within the U.S. workforce, the
William Green (1873-1952), president of the American shift in industrial production from a wartime to a peace-
Federation of Labor, 1925-1952 time economy, and the legacy of wartime governmental
John L. Lewis (1880-1969), president of the United intervention into labor activities.
Mine Workers, 1920-1960 During the war, government intervention into indus-
Philip Murray (1886-1952), president of the Congress trial relations had been deemed necessary to ensure
of Industrial Organizations, 1940-1952 uninterrupted production of war materials. Beginning
Walter P. Reuther (1907-1970), emerging voice of the in 1940, under the slogan National Unity, the govern-
Auto Workers Union after World War II ment enforced a policy of uneasy collaboration between
Rolland J. Thomas (1900-1967), president of the unions and employers. William Green of the American
United Auto Workers, 1939-1946 Federation of Labor (AFL) and Philip Murray of the
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) pledged that
States, 1945-1953 for the duration of the war, there would be no work stop-
251
Inflation and Labor Unrest The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
pages or walkouts, which had characterized the prewar quested a 30 percent increase in wage rates without a
era during the rise of the CIO. Furthermore, they volun- price increase at General Motors. In response, the com-
tarily renounced many of their administrative decision- pany offered a 10 percent cost-of-living increase and
making powers to a War Labor Board. would not allow union discussion of industry price rates.
Composed of four members each from labor, man- In April, United Auto Workers president Rolland J.
agement, and the public, the board’s primary duties were Thomas and lead negotiator Walter P. Reuther were urg-
to regulate wages and settle disputes between labor and ing union members toward a settlement that could be
management. In such disagreements, the board not only reached without a work stoppage, but by early Septem-
was the final arbiter but also set limits on what the dis- ber some auto plants around Detroit were already on
agreeing parties could negotiate voluntarily. Thus, in strike, and the national union decided to call for a strike
July, 1942, the War Labor Board implemented the Little vote. When General Motors failed to respond to a union
Steel formula, which set a relatively severe restriction on offer to have all issues settled by arbitration if the com-
the wages of employees of national steel industries. On pany would open its books for public examination,
April 8, 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an 225,000 workers walked out on November 21, led by
order to freeze wage increases to a percentage equal to newly elected president Reuther.
the estimated rise in the cost of living since January 1, The auto strikers were soon joined by workers
1941: 15 percent. Employees who had already received throughout industry. On January 15, 1946, 174,000 elec-
10 percent in increases could bargain for only 5 percent trical workers struck General Electric. The next day,
more. Eventually applied to the entire industrial sector, 93,000 meat packers struck. On January 21, 750,000
the ultimate effect of the Little Steel formula was that steelworkers struck U.S. Steel. At the height of these
wartime abundance of overtime work was prevented and 250 lesser disputes, 1.6 million workers were on
from raising actual levels of take-home pay in basic in- strike. On April 1, 340,000 of Lewis’s coal miners struck
dustries. again, causing a nationwide brownout. A May 23 rail-
Despite these governmental efforts to create eco- road strike by engineers and trainmen over work-rule
nomic stability, commodity prices rose 33 percent. Infla- changes brought an almost complete shutdown of the na-
tion rates were severe enough to provoke strikes during tion’s commerce.
the war, against the “no-strike” pledges of most wartime The strike wave, however, was not limited entirely to
industrial union leaders. In 1943, almost five thousand industrial workers. Strikes were widespread among
unauthorized work stoppages occurred, affecting more teachers and municipal workers, and there were more
than two million laborers. During the same year, John L. strikes in transportation, communication, and public util-
Lewis, president of the United Mine Workers, urged his ities than in any previous year. In short, the first six
followers to strike, despite recriminations from the gov- months of 1946 marked the most concentrated period of
ernment and from some fellow unionists. In the end, labor-management strife in U.S. history, with 2.97 mil-
Lewis’s miners won “portal to portal” pay—a formula lion workers involved in strikes—and by the end of the
whereby the War Labor Board circumvented its own year, that figure had risen to 4.6 million.
wage freeze by granting Lewis’s people pay for the time Spurring the strikers was the idea of counter-power
it took them to arrive at their workstations. over such management decisions as the speed of work,
That such a major walkout could take place given the numbers of workers per task, what foremen were accept-
harsh wartime restrictions made many labor analysts able, and how the work was organized. The real uniting
predict chaos after the war ended—and many of their factor for the unions, however, was the long-standing
concerns were realized. The dissolution of the War La- push for higher wages. In 1947, the government moved
bor Board following the United States’ victory over Ja- to contain the strike movement. In the auto dispute, Pres-
pan in 1945 brought on a massive wave of strikes. With ident Harry S. Truman appointed a fact-finding board
the end of national price controls, the already high infla- and appealed to the strikers to return to work pending its
tion rate soared to unprecedented heights, yet employee decision; similar boards were created for numerous other
wages, held by the Little Steel formula, showed little industries. In most cases, however, the findings of the
growth. To overcome the gap between prices and wages, strike boards were insufficient to satisfy union demands.
unions attempted to negotiate wage increases. When ne- Where fact-finding boards were unable to set limits on
gotiations failed, strikes were called. the strike wave, the government turned to direct seizure
Beginning in 1946, the United Auto Workers re- of industries, still authorized under wartime powers.
252
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Inflation and Labor Unrest
Overall, unions made little effort to combat the gov- bor struggles; discusses the major strikes of U.S.
ernment’s attack. Except for Lewis’s United Mine workers between 1877 and 1970, including the 1946
Workers, fined $3.5 million for insubordination, all re- strike wave. Index.
turned to work when the government seized their indus- DeCaux, Len. Labor Radical: From the Wobblies to the
tries. After June 23, 1947, they had less choice in the mat- CIO. Boston: Beacon Press, 1970. A “personal his-
ter: The Taft-Hartley Act, passed on that date, contained tory” that spans the period from 1910 to the 1960’s.
provisions that restricted labor unions from organizing As a participant in the labor movement, DeCaux pro-
aggressively or conducting militant activities. In most vides a unique perspective on the 1940’s strike wave.
cases, unions accepted the conclusions of the govern- Index.
ment’s fact-finding boards, although by 1947 this often Lens, Sidney. The Crisis of American Labor. New York:
meant a decline in wages to below wartime levels. In- Sagamore Press, 1959. A political and social analysis
deed, by March of that year, auto and steel workers’ sala- of post-World War II labor unrest. Focuses on key
ries were 25 percent less than two years before. labor leaders, including John L. Lewis and Walter
Reuther. Index.
Significance
Lingeman, Richard R. Don’t You Know There’s a War
The final settlement of the strike wave granted wage in-
On? The American Home Front, 1941-1945. Updated
creases of only 17 percent, not enough to keep up with
ed. New York: Nation Books, 2003. Details all as-
lost income from cutbacks in overtime. Contract lan-
pects of the American domestic experience during
guage regarding control over the workplace strength-
World War II, from Japanese internment to rationing.
ened management at the expense of the workers, and
Lipsitz, George. Class and Culture in Cold War Amer-
wage increases with no bar against price hikes meant that
1943
ica. South Hadley, Mass.: J. F. Bergin, 1981. Ana-
unions’ gains came at the expense of the consumer.
lyzes the effects of the collective actions and aspira-
The labor unrest was finally quelled by the conserva-
tions of workers after World War II on the United
tive political response to the strikes of 1943 and 1946,
States’ economic, political, and social identity. Con-
combined with the emerging conservatism of the Cold
tains a chapter chronicling the strike wave of 1946.
War as embodied in the Taft-Hartley Act. To enforce its
Bibliography, index.
restrictions, that act included strict anticommunist oaths
Zieger, Robert. John L. Lewis: Labor Leader. Boston:
for union officers. Elimination of domestic communists
Twayne, 1988. Describes in detail Lewis’s rise
from the trade union movement was seen not only as a
through the ranks of the United Mine Workers; com-
way to prevent another massive strike wave but also as an
pares Lewis’s goals for the labor movement with
essential ingredient of the larger anticommunist crusade
those of Walter Reuther. Index.
typified by Senator Joseph McCarthy and his counter-
parts on the House Committee on Un-American Activ-
See also: 1941-1945: 6.6 Million Women Enter the
ities (HUAC).
U.S. Labor Force; June 25, 1941: Roosevelt Bans
— Edward A. Zivich, Thomas J. Edward Walker, and
Discrimination in Defense-Industry Employment;
Cynthia Gwynne Yaudes
Jan. 30, 1942: Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price
Further Reading Control Act; Aug. 4, 1942: United States Begins the
Barnard, John. Walter Reuther and the Rise of the Auto Bracero Program; June 3-9, 1943: Zoot-Suit Riots
Workers. Boston: Little, Brown, 1983. A complete bi- Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles; June 20-
ography of the celebrated union organizer; discusses 21, 1943, and Aug. 1, 1943: Race Riots Erupt in De-
his view of the place of labor in the U.S. economy. troit and Harlem; Feb. 20, 1946: Employment Act;
Brecher, Jeremy. Strike! San Francisco: Straight Arrow June 23, 1947: Taft-Hartley Act Passes over Tru-
Books, 1972. Narrates and analyzes rank-and-file la- man’s Veto.
253
Warsaw Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
April 19-May 16, 1943

Warsaw Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis
Jewish inhabitants of the Warsaw Ghetto, established could pass through the ghetto’s boundaries during day-
by the Nazis as one of many ghettos to centralize Jews light hours, but the gates were permanently closed in Oc-
for eventual transport to slave-labor and concentration tober, 1941, imprisoning everyone within its walls.
camps, rose in resistance against the German military. Once completely segregated, ghetto occupants suf-
Two clandestine Zionist youth organizations, with an fered from life-threatening living conditions. In 1941
estimated combined strength of nearly one thousand alone, more than forty-three thousand people died. The
members, began a campaign of armed resistance that Jewish Council, or Judenrat, led by Adam Czerniakow,
lasted for twenty-seven days. The uprising was quelled, was appointed by the Nazis to supervise all aspects of life
but it inspired death-camp revolts and civilian in the ghetto. The council had to confront massive prob-
resistance during the remaining years of World War II. lems, such as acquiring enough food, medical supplies,
and housing for the inhabitants. Families were packed
Locale: Warsaw, Poland
into cramped apartments, children were forced to beg in
the streets, and even an extensive black market of goods
unrest; atrocities and war crimes
and services could not support the increasing number of
Key Figures people. In addition to these hardships, Jews were forced
Adam Czerniakow (1880-1942), leader of the Warsaw into labor in several factories and workshops within the
Jewish Council ghetto, producing textiles and armaments for the German
Yitzhak Zuckerman (1915-1981) and army. Many workers died from the extreme physical la-
Zivia Lubetkin (1914-1976), founders and leaders of bor, given that their diet of less than 1,000 calories per
the Jewish Fighting Organization day. The population also was decimated by epidemics of
Mordechai Anielewicz (1919-1943), commander of the typhus and other diseases, by starvation and frequent
resistance mass executions, and, eventually, by forced deportations
Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945), German Reichsführer, to the death camps.
1929-1945, who called for the ghetto’s evacuation The death camps in Poland were created after the Nazi
Jürgen Stroop (1895-1952), German SS general who hierarchy at the Wannsee Conference in January, 1942,
commanded the German forces
against the uprising
Major Jewish Ghettos in Europe
Summary of Event
Before the start of World War II, the
largest community of Jews in Eu- Riga
rope was in Warsaw, Poland, with a Latvia
Baltic Shavli Vitebsk
population exceeding 350,000. After
Sea Lithuania Vilna
the Nazis invaded Poland in Septem- Smolensk
Kovno
ber, 1939, they established the War- Minsk
saw Ghetto, to which all Jews were Soviet
Bialystok Novogrudok
forced to move. The Warsaw Ghetto, Union
P o l a n d Warsaw Pinsk
separated from the rest of the city by
Lodz Lublin
a continuous 20-foot wall topped by
Germany Radom Opole Lubelskie
barbed wire, was the largest among Kielce
Brody
more than eight hundred ghettos Krakow Lvov
built by the Nazis in Europe. After
the ghetto was demarcated in No- Kolomyia
vember, Jews from outside Warsaw Budapest
were shipped in from Germany,
Hungary Black
France, and Greece on a continual Sea
basis. At first, visitors and residents
254
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Warsaw Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis
decided to implement the so-called fi- Himmler’s Inhumanity

nal solution of the Jewish question—
the extermination of all Jews in Europe. On October 4, 1943, Heinrich Himmler spoke to one hundred of his elite
Part of this planned genocide included Schutzstaffel (SS) group leaders in Posen, occupied Poland, about the atti-
increased transports from the ghetto to tude he expected from his special troops toward non-Aryans and Jews, in-
the death camps. Squads of Jewish po- cluding those living in the Warsaw Ghetto:
lice had to conduct “roundups,” and One principle must be absolute for the SS man: we must be honest, de-
posters announced that those being decent, loyal and friendly to members of our blood and to no one else. What
ported would be allowed to carry no happens to the Russians, what happens to the Czechs, is a matter of utter in-
more than 15 kilograms (33 pounds) of difference to me. Such good blood of our own kind as there may be among
luggage, including provisions for sev- the nations we shall acquire for ourselves, if necessary by taking away the
eral days. Between July and October, children and bringing them up among us.
310,000 of the 380,000 residents of the Whether the other races live in comfort or perish of hunger interests me
Warsaw Ghetto were deported. Most only in so far as we need them as slaves for our culture; apart from that it
of those designated for the transports does not interest me. Whether or not 10,000 Russian women collapse from
exhaustion while digging a tank ditch interests me only in so far as the tank
were the elderly, occupants of the poor-
ditch is completed for Germany.
houses, refugees, and children. During
We shall never be rough or heartless where it is not necessary; that is
that time, Jewish leaders inside the War- clear. We Germans, who are the only people in the world who have a decent
saw Ghetto had received evidence that attitude to animals, will also adopt a decent attitude to these human animals,
these transports were designated for the but it is a crime against our own blood to worry about them and to bring
1943
Treblinka death camp. Judenrat leader them ideals. . . . I shall speak to you here with all frankness of a very serious
Czerniakow refused to sign orders for subject. We shall now discuss it absolutely openly among ourselves, never-
such large-scale deportations, and he theless we shall never speak of it in public. I mean the evacuation of the
committed suicide in July, 1942. Jews, the extermination of the Jewish race.
From July, 1942, until April, 1943, We have taken from them what wealth they had. I have issued a strict or-
members of the Jewish underground der, which SS-Obergruppenführer Pohl has carried out, that this wealth
should, as a matter of course, be handed over to the Reich without reserve.
within the ghetto accumulated weapons
We had the moral right, we had the duty to our people, to destroy this
and ammunition from the black market
people which wanted to destroy us.
and the Polish underground. The Jew- Altogether, however, we can say, that we have fulfilled this most diffi-
ish Fighting Organization (Zydowska cult duty for the love of our people. And our spirit, our soul, our character
Organizacja Bojowa) and the Jewish has not suffered injury from it.
Military Union (Zydowski Zwiazek
Source: “Speech to the SS Officers.” In International Military Tribunal, The Trial
Wojskowy) created several secret arms of German Major War Criminals (London: The Authority of H.M. Attorney-
factories, began building subterranean General by H.M. Stationery Office, 1946-1951).
shelters and bunkers, and implemented
a training program for attacking the Na-
zis. The groups, led by Yitzhak Zucker-
man and Zivia Lubetkin, the only female commander of ghetto by nearly one-third, with streets outside the new
the Jewish Fighting Organization, also established a cou- ghetto’s boundaries reoccupied by non-Jewish Poles.
rier system for smuggling money and weapons, forged Because another, and final, evacuation of the ghetto was
documents, and critical information. However, this mo- likely, the resistance movement’s leaders convinced a
bilization did not receive unanimous support from the majority of the remaining inhabitants to support an
Jewish leaders, who feared reprisals from the Nazi mili- armed uprising. They spent months preparing for the in-
tary and risks to the entire ghetto. evitable struggle, and by the time of the uprising, they
When deportations resumed in January, 1943, the re- had assembled twenty-two fighting units.
sistance fighters launched their first revolt, but more than After Schutzstaffel (SS) leader Heinrich Himmler or-
six thousand residents were transported to the death dered in early February the evacuation of the entire
camp despite resistance. Nazi officials also murdered ghetto, resistance leaders established routes—from roof-
one thousand Jews on the final day of the expulsion in re- tops to the sewers—with vantage points so that fighters
taliation for this revolt, and they reduced the size of the could launch assaults or hide from Nazi retaliation. How-
255
Warsaw Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ever, the resistance fighters faced serious disadvantages. tion. It also confirmed Nazis determination to implement
They had only a small arsenal of rifles, homemade the “final solution” despite armed opposition.
bombs, and Molotov cocktails to use against German News of the young resistance fighters’ heroism spread
Stuka dive-bombers, howitzers, tanks, machine guns, to the death camps, where three prisoner revolts forced
and troops that could be deployed to suppress a rebellion. the closure of all the death camps by the beginning of
When three thousand Nazi troops and armed police 1945. The resistance fighters of the Warsaw Ghetto up-
entered the ghetto on April 19 to deport the remaining in- rising have been commemorated through memorials and
habitants, most of the residents did not report to the as- ceremonies around the world for their decision to die
sembly point (Umschlagplatz). Instead, the Jewish resis- with honor and dignity.
tance groups responded with grenades and gunfire, —Nancy D. Kersell
marking the first, and the largest, uprising in an urban
ghetto within Nazi-occupied Europe. Further Reading
After the start of the uprising, the Nazis deployed Corni, Gustavo. Hitler’s Ghettos: Voices from a Belea-
more than two thousand soldiers, who used more and guered Society, 1939-44. London: Arnold, 2003. Pro-
more firepower, including bombs, during the battles that vides a detailed, well-documented description of
erupted daily throughout the ghetto. Few members of the ghetto conditions, incorporating extensive historical
resistance had combat experience, and they had to con- research and eyewitness testimony.
serve their limited ammunition, so they relied on fre- Gutman, Israel. Resistance: The Warsaw Ghetto Upris-
quent, rapid attacks and a careful stockpiling of weapons ing. Boston: Houghton, 1994. Offers a richly detailed
to sustain their offensive. To combat this guerrilla-style analysis of the political circumstances leading to the
warfare, the Nazi troops under the command of SS gen- Warsaw Ghetto uprising. Contains maps, photo-
eral Jürgen Stroop resorted to a variety of tactics, from graphs, and an extensive bibliography.
setting fire to buildings and cutting off all utilities to Hilberg, Raul. The Destruction of the European Jews. 3d
placing poisonous gas in water mains and sewer pipes. ed. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003.
With minimal outside assistance or hope of rescue, the An unrivaled study of the bureaucratic process of de-
resistance fighters struggled vainly but persisted against struction by the Nazis against the Jews of Europe.
rising casualty rates and the Nazis’ superior weaponry. Analysis situates the concentration and death camps
Block by block, Nazi troops forced the resisters to evacu- within that systematic process. Focuses especially on
ate under heavy artillery bombardment or to avoid being developments that transformed the conventional con-
killed by fire. Those who were caught were immediately centration camps into centers of mass murder such
executed. On May 8 the resistance leaders’ headquarters as those at Treblinka and Auschwitz-Birkenau in
was destroyed, and resistance commander Mordechai German-occupied Poland.
Anielewicz was killed. Lande, David. Resistance! Occupied Europe and Its De-
By the time the uprising ended on May 16, more than fiance of Hitler. Osceola, Wis.: Zenith Press, 2001.
twenty thousand people had been killed, and the ghetto Relies on many interviews and other reports of the
was in ruins. The Warsaw Ghetto was officially and fi- people who lived under Nazi government, emphasiz-
nally liquidated after the remaining sixteen thousand oc- ing those who helped the Allied cause by undermin-
cupants were transported to Treblinka. A small number ing German administration.
of Jewish insurgents who managed to escape or were res- Laqueur, Walter, and Judith Tydor Baumel, eds. The Ho-
cued later joined partisan groups in the forests outside locaust Encyclopedia. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Uni-
Warsaw. versity Press, 2001. A detailed, comprehensive sur-
vey of all aspects of the Holocaust. Includes more
Significance than two hundred photos and many helpful research
The Warsaw Ghetto uprising, despite its tragic outcome, tools.
inspired the Armia Krajowa (the Polish home army) in Meed, Vladka. On Both Sides of the Wall. Washington,
exile, Jewish partisans, and other resistance groups D.C.: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,
throughout occupied Europe for the remainder of the 1999. A vivid personal memoir by a member of the
war. The uprising refuted commonly held perceptions underground resistance at the Warsaw Ghetto. In-
that Jews who were arrested and then deported to concludes rare photographs.
centration camps had passively accepted their subjuga- Sloan, Jacob, ed. and trans. Notes from the Warsaw
256
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United Nations Holds Its First Conference on Food and Agriculture
Ghetto: The Journal of Emmanuel Ringelblum. New Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. U.S. Holocaust Memorial Mu-
York: Schocken Books, 1974. Contains translated seum. http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/
journal entries by the archivist of the Warsaw Ghetto focus/uprising/. Another highly recommended re-
from 1939 to 1942. Includes maps. source, from one of the major centers for Holocaust
U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum. Center for Ad- studies in the United States.
vanced Holocaust Studies. “Ghettos, 1939-1945: See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
New Research and Perspectives on Definition, Daily European Theater; 1941-Aug. 25, 1944: French Re-
Life, and Survival.” Washington, D.C.: Author, 2005. sistance; Aug. 9, 1942: Stein Is Killed by the Nazis;
A 175-page report of a symposium on the question of Sept. 30-Oct. 1, 1943: Citizens Rescue Danish Jews
Jewish ghettos during World War II, focusing on ev- from Germans; Feb. 11, 1945: Soviet Exiles and Pris-
eryday life in the ghettos. oners of War Are Forced into Repatriation; Apr. 9,
Warsaw Ghetto. Jewish Virtual Library. http://www 1945: Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the Nazis; Oct. 24,
.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/. An excellent resource not 1945: Norwegians Execute Nazi Collaborator Quis-
only for details of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising (click ling; 1946: Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective
on “Holocaust,” then on “Ghettos”) but also on the Responsibility for War Crimes; 1956: Wiesel’s Night
Holocaust in general. Includes photographs, maps, an Recalls the Holocaust; 1963: Arendt Speculates on
extensive bibliography of suggested readings and the Banality of Evil; 1967: Celan Introduces the Con-
Web sites, and more. Highly recommended. cept of Poetic “Breath-Measure.”
1943
May 18-June 3, 1943
United Nations Holds Its First Conference on
Food and Agriculture
During World War II, representatives of forty-four chairman of the Food and Agriculture Organization
nations met to discuss improving the living standards council
of the world’s hungry poor by influencing scientific, Lester B. Pearson (1897-1972), chairman of the
technological, and economic aspects of world food interim commission and later prime minister of
production and trade. The Food and Agriculture Canada, 1963-1968
Organization of the United Nations was formed at this
conference, which was called by U.S. president Summary of Event
Franklin D. Roosevelt at the urging of First Lady In his now-famous Four Freedoms state of the union ad-
Eleanor Roosevelt. dress in 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared
four essential human freedoms, including “freedom
Also known as: Food and Agriculture Organization
from want . . . everywhere in the world.” Just two years
of the United Nations; Hot Springs Conference
later, after war had broken out around the world, Roose-
Locale: Hot Springs, Virginia
velt called a conference on food and agriculture to be
Categories: United Nations; social issues and
held from May 18 to June 3, 1943. Warfare, however,
reform; agriculture; organizations and institutions
made international travel difficult and dangerous. When
Key Figures Roosevelt asked nations to send representatives to the
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the conference, forty-four sent delegates. Because the con-
United States, 1933-1945 ference predated the formation of the United Nations, the
Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962), First Lady of the forty-four countries were mainly associated with the
United States, 1933-1945, who urged the president Allied Powers of the United States, Canada, and the
to call the conference United Kingdom during World War II.
Frank L. McDougall (1884-1958), Australian Nutrition, the scientific study of how calories, vita-
proponent of economic policy for food security mins, and nutrients affect human health, was still a rela-
Stanley Bruce (1883-1967), former prime minister of tively new science in the early twentieth century. In-
Australia, 1923-1929, and first independent creasing knowledge of nutrition created the idea that a
257
United Nations Holds Its First Conference on Food and Agriculture The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
nation, by promoting and nutrition and food production, vately distributed in October of 1942. McDougall stated
could improve the health, living standards, and produc- that more than half the world’s laborers work in agricul-
tivity of its citizens and the citizens of less-developed nature; food, he added, would be a major preoccupation af-
tions. With new standards of adequate nutrition, malnu- ter the war. By this time, World War II had disrupted pro-
trition was exposed in populations of every nation of the ductivity and food trade routes across the continents. The
world, even the affluent. Malnutrition proved to be a war had been forcing many nations to think about nutri-
symptom not only of agricultural shortcomings but also tion policy. Government food rationing would become
of problems in infrastructure and trade, economics, dis- necessary to ensure survival of civilians and troops dur-
semination of information, and the governance of naing a time of decreased productivity, disrupted trade, and
tions. inflated prices.
The International Institute for Agriculture (IIA), es- Eleanor Roosevelt, after reading McDougall’s memo,
tablished in 1905, was the first intergovernmental orga- arranged a meeting in response. She encouraged Presi-
nization devoted to studying agricultural productivity. dent Roosevelt to organize a conference. Despite the per-
Headquartered in Italy, the IIA gathered agricultural sta- ils of travel, forty-four nations sent representatives to
tistics, funded research and development, organized in- Hot Springs, Virginia, from May 18 to June 3, 1943. At-
ternational conferences, and published technical and sta- tendees included representatives from Australia, Bel-
tistical reports. Political turmoil in Europe surrounding gium, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia,
World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II led Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dominican Repub-
the IIA to molder. lic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Great
Even while the storm of World War II was gathering, Britain, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Iceland,
several publications linking economics and nutrition cat- India, Iran, Iraq, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, the
alyzed an interest in food and agriculture as a means of Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Pan-
improving living standards. As a member of the League ama, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, Union of
of Nations, Frank L. McDougall began working with South Africa, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics,
American and British nutritionists to establish political United States of America, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Yu-
policy on nutrition. In 1935, McDougall analyzed the goslavia. A representative from Denmark unofficially at-
dire findings of these specialists and wrote The Agricul- tended.
tural and the Health Problems. Stanley Bruce, a leading Roosevelt named Judge Marvin H. Jones, the United
proponent of food security, addressed the league on the States’s wartime food administrator, the chairman of the
same topic in 1935. Bruce, who was an outspoken com- Hot Springs Conference. The initial goals for Hot
plement to McDougall’s persistent academic presence, Springs included laying the foundations for a permanent
would later have a leadership role in the Food and Agri- intergovernmental organization for developing nutri-
culture Organization of the United Nations. In 1937, the tional and agricultural policies for member states.
league published another report that was widely read Many of the participating nations sent topical special-
across the world: The Relation of Nutrition to Health, Ag- ists—namely in agriculture, trade, and statistics—rather
riculture, and Economic Policy. This publication be- than strictly diplomatic representatives. Consequently,
came a best seller among league documents. The New scientific and economic subjects were covered along
York Times editorialized it as a book of the year, and sev- with political subjects. Participants made recommenda-
eral nations, including Germany, implemented its ideas. tions on nutrition, malnutrition and disease, the forma-
At the time these items were published, the Great De- tion of national organizations, the exchange of informa-
pression—with its simultaneous surpluses and fam- tion and technology, the gathering and dissemination of
ines—was fresh in the memory of world leaders and citi- statistics, research, cooperative efforts in water and land
zens. Unfortunately, World War II erupted before the management, and international security for food produc-
league committed to a plan of action in nutrition. tion and trade. Politically tense topics included a funding
McDougall, who continued to research and write ex- structure for the organization, provisions for market
tensively to promote solutions for food insecurity, pro- control, and consequences for both food-producing and
duced a memorandum for the U.S. Department of Agri- food-importing countries. Conference attendees, how-
culture (USDA) on international food problems. Called ever, agreed on the major goals of improving national
“Draft Memorandum on a United Nations Programme diets, increasing food production, disseminating techni-
for Freedom from Want of Food,” the memo was pri- cal and scientific knowledge, and creating a permanent
258
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United Nations Holds Its First Conference on Food and Agriculture
international organization. The name Food and Agricul- Further Reading

ture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) was es- Aall, Pamela, Daniel T. Miltenberger, and Thomas G.
tablished. Weiss. Guide to IGOs, NGOs, and the Military: In
The Interim Commission on Food and Agriculture, Peace and Relief Operations. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
charged with creating “a specific plan for a permanent Institute of Peace Press, 2000. An overview of the
organization in the field of food and agriculture,” also FAO’s role among specialized agencies in the late
was formed at the conference. Each of the original forty- twentieth century.
four participating countries was allowed one representa- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na-
tive for this commission; Lester B. Pearson, a Canadian tions. http://www.fao.org. The Web site for the FAO,
diplomat and politician, was made the chairman. which includes many resources. Includes links to on-
The interim commission’s first charge was to draft the line primary sources, including the FAO’s original
FAO constitution. It planned the scope of activities for constitution, signed in 1945. Highly recommended.
the Food and Agriculture body of the United Nations. Hambidge, Gove. The Story of FAO. New York: Van
The commission’s first report to participating nations in- Nostrand, 1955. A definitive source on the conditions
cluded the draft constitution. When the constitution was leading up to the conception of the FAO.
acceptable to the forty-four nations, the FAO would have Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. FDR and the
its first official conference. Creation of the U.N. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Uni-
The interim commission established committees and versity Press, 1997. Examines President Franklin D.
subcommittees to prepare reports on important topics, Roosevelt’s role in creating the United Nations.
including nutrition and food management, agricultural Miller, Berna, and James D. Torr, eds. Developing Na-
1943
production, fisheries, forestry, and statistics. Forestry tions. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Greenhaven Press,
was not originally discussed at the Hot Springs Confer- Thomson/Gale, 2003. Examines the social, economic,
ence, but it was advanced by the interim commission. moral, and ethical implications of a world in poverty.
The commission also recommended that the IIA be O’Brien, John B. “F. L. McDougall and the Origins of
merged into the new FAO. With the signing of the FAO the FAO.” Australian Journal of Politics and History
constitution at the first session of the Food and Agricul- 46, no. 2 (2000): 164-174. Describes Frank L. Mc-
ture Conference in Quebec in 1945, the Hot Springs Con- Dougall as a driving force in the international food
ference goals came to fruition and the FAO was formed and economics movement.
as a specialized U.N. agency. Phillips, Ralph W. FAO: Its Origin, Formation, and Evo-
lution, 1945-1981. Rome: Food and Agriculture Or-
ganization, 1981. Introductory chapters list the key
Significance players leading up to the Hot Springs Conference.
The problems of wars and famine that haunted the first Staples, A. L. S. The Birth of Development: How the
half of the twentieth century brought food and hunger to World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization, and
the forefront of policy makers’ consciousness. Contem- World Health Organization Changed the World,
porary developments in economics, agriculture, and nu- 1945-1965. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press,
trition paved the way for food policies that could im- 2006. Focuses on the development of international or-
prove living standards for all on an international level. ganizations in the post-Cold War period that pio-
These advancements, combined with the twentieth cen- neered issues such as worldwide economic develop-
tury interest in the development of intergovernmental ment and its necessary role in enhancing the quality of
agencies, made the FAO a flourishing entity. life for all individuals.
The FAO, the first specialized agency of the United Wells, Robert N. Peace by Pieces: United Nations
Nations, has improved awareness of and standards for Agencies and Their Roles. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow
nutrition, particularly among rural and poorer nations. Press, 1991. Describes the historical foundations and
The FAO continues to promote scientific and economic the scope of U.N. agencies, comparing and contrast-
initiatives in peacetime, and it organizes humanitarian ing FAO with other international food agencies.
relief in times of drought, famine, and war. The FAO has
grown to be the largest agency in the U.N. system, with See also: Oct. 5, 1942: Oxford Committee for Famine
180 member states and more than 4,300 employees. Relief Is Founded; 1943-1944: Famine Decimates
—Jessica M. Efron Bengal; July 22, 1946: World Health Organization
259
Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Proclaims Health a Basic Human Right; Dec. 11, Nations World Food Programme Is Established; July
1946: UNICEF Is Established; July 10, 1954: Eisen- 1, 1967: European Economic Community Adopts the
hower Begins the Food for Peace Program; 1959- Common Agricultural Policy; Dec. 13, 1968: Hardin
1961: Famine Decimates China; Feb., 1962: United Argues for Population Control.
June 3-9, 1943

Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles
In the Zoot-Suit Riots, sailors on leave cruised through read and discussed by people in Los Angeles in 1943. In
Mexican American neighborhoods and beat the young 1940, the paranoia generated by books such as Martin
men they found there. The riots, one of more than 250 Dies, Jr.’s The Trojan Horse in America (1940) and Har-
incidents of U.S. racial violence and unrest in 1943, old Lavine’s Fifth Column in America (1940) led to the
made clear the extent of the racism directed at the creation by the California state legislature of a joint com-
Mexican American community. mittee to investigate communist, fascist, Nazi, and other
foreign-dominated groups.
Locale: Los Angeles, California The Joint Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American
Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; social Activities in California was also known as the Tenney
issues and reform Committee, after its leader, Jack Tenney, a music com-
Key Figures poser and state senator. The Mexican American commu-
Carey McWilliams (1905-1980), American magazine nity became one of the objects of Angelenos’ growing
editor and chair of the Sleepy Lagoon Defense fear of foreigners in 1942, when the Tenney Commit-
Committee tee launched an investigation of the Sinarquistas, an anti-
Jack Tenney (1898-1970), California state senator, communist society that had tried to influence politics in
1942-1954 Mexico and was charged with perpetrating subversive
Fletcher Bowron (1887-1968), mayor of Los Angeles, activities in the barrios of Los Angeles. The hearings of
1938-1953 this committee, which continued until 1945, contributed
Earl Warren (1891-1974), governor of California, to the city’s xenophobic response to the Mexican Ameri-
1943-1953, and later chief justice of the United can community during the entire decade.
States, 1953-1969 Another factor that cast Mexican Americans in a sus-
Jose Diaz (d. 1943), Mexican American youth and picious light was the American public’s obsession with
murder victim juvenile delinquency. Between 1942 and 1943, the Los
Angeles press presented a highly distorted view of delin-
Summary of Event quency, focusing primarily on the activities of Mexican
The events that culminated in the Zoot-Suit Riots of 1943 gangs. Many of these gangs adopted the pachuco life-
cannot be traced to only one or two sources. A close ex- style, which had originated in El Paso, Texas, and mi-
amination of the social and political climate of Los An- grated west; it was essentially a generational rebellion
geles in the early 1940’s reveals that a combination of against both Mexican and American cultures. Not only
factors was responsible for the riots. All these factors, did the pachuco gangs adhere to traditionally violent
however, reflected the city’s attitude toward minorities methods of settling disputes, but they also tried to under-
in general and, more specifically, the Mexican American score their identity by wearing zoot suits. These con-
population of Los Angeles. sisted of trousers with overly wide pant-legs that tapered
Fully expecting a sea attack from Japan after the to narrow cuffs and overly wide and long jackets with
bombing of Pearl Harbor in December, 1941, military wide lapels and padded shoulders, often accompanied by
and civilian authorities in Los Angeles took a hard look a wide, flat felt hat. Already an outlandish fashion for the
at the activities of all minorities in the city. All Japanese time, the oddity of zoot suits was heightened because
were moved inland, away from the shoreline. The fear of they were often dyed particularly loud colors, drawing
subversive activities among the Japanese was extended even more attention to their wearers.
to all minorities by a series of books that were widely This bizarre fashion acquired insidious overtones as a
260
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles
result of a series of Li’l Abner comic strips entitled Palo Verde gang in East Los Angeles on August 1, 1942,
“Zoot-Suit Yokum” that appeared in newspapers nation- resulted in the slaying of a young Mexican American
wide between April 11, 1943, and May 23, 1943. In these named Jose Diaz, whose body was found beside a swim-
strips, Al Capp ascribed conspiratorial machinations to ming hole called the Sleepy Lagoon. On January 13,
the wearers of zoot suits, thereby labeling them as a po- 1943, seventeen reputed gang members were convicted
tential threat to the American way of life. The zoot- of manslaughter and assault in the case, even though the
suiters came to be thought of in Los Angeles as the an- fact of a murder had never been established and a murder
tithesis of everything for which “real” Americans, like weapon had never been produced. All these convictions
servicemen, police, and politicians, stood. were overturned in 1944 through the efforts of a fact-
The gang rivalries that occasionally erupted between finding committee formed by magazine editor Carey
the pachuco gangs culminated in an incident that, with McWilliams. Nevertheless, the publicity generated by
the help of the press, accentuated the reputation for crim- the trial convinced many members of the Anglo commu-
inality of Mexican American youth. According to police nity that the so-called Mexican problem was a genuine
accounts, a clash between the Belvedere gang and the menace to their welfare.
1943
Two victims of violence by U.S. servicemen huddle on the street in Los Angeles during the Zoot-Suit Riots of June, 1943. (AP/Wide
World Photos)
261
Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
As a result of the Sleepy Lagoon case, Mexican An investigation by the Tenney Committee was be-
American youth became the focus of a widespread police gun immediately following the riots. The committee
investigation. The Tenney Committee began a new set of charged that the riots had been started by Communists
hearings specifically focused on the connections be- who had sought to indoctrinate the zoot-suit-wearing
tween juvenile delinquents, Mexican Americans, and pachucos. The committee’s findings were refuted by
subversives. During those hearings, members of the po- Carey McWilliams. Speaking before the Committee on
lice and sheriff’s departments expounded the police the- Un-American Activities in California, McWilliams
ory that crime was a matter of race. placed the blame on the sailors who had been dating the
In 1943, the Los Angeles County Grand Jury recom- girlfriends of the zoot-suiters. He also contended that the
mended that all delinquent and “pre-delinquent” Mexi- riots were caused by racial prejudice, a point that was
can American youth be placed in special facilities. The echoed by the African American press, as well as by First
1943 grand jury also proposed denying juvenile court ju- Lady Eleanor Roosevelt.
risdiction for participants in zoot-suit gang offenses. By
encouraging the police to redouble their efforts to control Significance
the Mexican American gangs, this court action increased Ironically, the Zoot-Suit Riots were, to a great extent, a
the resentment of the Mexican American community. By blessing in disguise for the minority communities of Los
this time, many Mexican Americans were convinced that Angeles. To prevent a recurrence of the June confronta-
the Los Angeles Police Department and the Anglo com- tion, the Navy command in Los Angeles and Southern
munity in general had embarked on a systematic cam- California and Mayor Fletcher Bowron of Los Angeles
paign to destroy their way of life. closely examined the conditions plaguing the city’s mi-
The hostility between the Anglos and the Mexicans norities. Since the Navy had trouble determining the ex-
that had been inflamed by the press, city officials, and the act cause of the Zoot-Suit Riots, it concentrated on the
police erupted into violence in late May, when about a problems facing the African American community. In a
dozen sailors fought with a group of pachucos near report dated July 29, 1943, both the Navy and various
downtown Los Angeles; one of the sailors was seriously city officials agreed that discrimination against blacks
wounded. On June 3, 1943, a group of about fifty sailors was indeed being practiced in the areas of transportation,
decided to take revenge for their comrade. They smug- recreation, and housing. Even though the purpose of this
gled weapons out of the Naval Reserve Armory and used study was to prevent a riot among black sailors, it set the
them to attack anyone they could find wearing zoot suits. stage for the activities of other civic committees by stat-
The next night, two hundred sailors cruised the Mexican ing that discrimination was a serious problem in Los An-
American district in a fleet of taxicabs, stopping periodi- geles.
cally to beat lone zoot-suiters. The sailors were followed It was not until 1944 that a serious attempt was made
by the police, who arrested the youths after the sailors to probe the cause of the Zoot-Suit Riots. An investiga-
had beaten them. tive committee chaired by Carey McWilliams attempted
The violence continued and escalated over the next to bring about a “return to sanity in Los Angeles.” As a
few days. Army soldiers and marines joined the sailors, result of the meeting, Governor Earl Warren formed a
as did civilians and off-duty police officers. They all con- citizens’ committee to investigate the origin of the riots.
verged on the Mexican American neighborhoods, strip- Warren’s committee concluded that not all Mexicans
ping and beating any Mexican Americans they could were zoot-suiters and that the origin of the riots stemmed
find—whether they wore zoot suits or not. At the height from the outbreak of juvenile delinquency in Los An-
of the riots, on June 7, more than five thousand Anglos geles. The report and recommendations of the citizens’
attacked Mexican Americans and African Americans in committee eventually led to the formation of the quarter-
East Los Angeles, Watts, and other poor neighborhoods. million-dollar Youth Project, which, in conjunction with
The authorities began to assert control on June 8: The the California Youth Authority, became one of the most
Los Angeles City Council passed an ordinance making effective means of handling juvenile delinquency in the
the wearing of zoot suits a misdemeanor, and shortly af- city’s history.
ter midnight that night, the U.S. military declared that The Mexican American community in Los Angeles
downtown Los Angeles was off-limits to all military per- benefited more directly from the formation of a legion
sonnel. Sporadic incidents continued the next day, June of community organizations. By 1947, the Welfare
9, after which the riots effectively ended. Planning Council had affiliated these organizations to
262
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles
produce the Community Relations Conference of South- Mazón, Mauricio. The Zoot-Suit Riots: The Psychology
ern California. This conference assumed a pivotal role in of Symbolic Annihilation. Austin: University of Texas
ending racial segregation in public housing projects and Press, 1984. This fascinating book explores the psy-
in Los Angeles’s fire department. The conference also chological factors that contributed to the Zoot-Suit
helped the police department establish a human relations Riots. The chapter entitled “The ‘Zoot-Suit Yokum’
course, which at least set as a goal the prevention of racist Conspiracy” is particularly effective because of the
behavior by police officers. inclusion of panels from the comic strip. The author’s
—Alan Brown failure to provide specific details concerning the riots
themselves is a major drawback.
Further Reading
Pagán, Eduardo Obregón. Murder at the Sleepy Lagoon:
Adler, Patricia Rae. “The 1943 Zoot-Suit Riots: Brief
Zoot Suits, Race, and Riot in Wartime L.A. Chapel
Episode in a Long Conflict.” In An Awakened Minor-
Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. De-
ity: The Mexican-Americans, edited by Manuel P.
tailed study of the riots and the racial issues they re-
Servin. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Glencoe Press, 1974.
vealed, beginning with the Sleepy Lagoon trial of
The definitive account of the Zoot-Suit Riots. In addi-
1942. Bibliographic references and index.
tion to providing a day-by-day report of the riots
Redl, Fritz. “Zoot Suits: An Interpretation.” Survey
themselves, the author clarifies both the causes and
Midmonthly 73 (October, 1943): 259-262. Contem-
the effects of the violence.
porary source explaining the lure that zoot suits had
Escobar, Edward J. Race, Police, and the Making of a
for young people during the 1940’s. Demonstrates
Political Identity: Mexican Americans and the Los
what the wearing of zoot suits meant to minority
Angeles Police Department, 1900-1945. Berkeley:
1943
groups at the time.
University of California Press, 1999. Provides crucial
background for the Zoot-Suit Riots, examining the See also: Apr. 8, 1943-June 23, 1947: Inflation and La-
history of relations between the Los Angeles Police bor Unrest; June 20-21, 1943, and Aug. 1, 1943: Race
Department and Mexican Americans during the four Riots Erupt in Detroit and Harlem; May 17, 1954: Su-
decades leading up to the riots. preme Court Ends Public School Segregation; July
Himes, Chester B. Crisis 34 (July, 1943): 200-201. This 23-July 30, 1967: Race Rioting Erupts in Detroit;
eyewitness account of the riots is valuable because of Feb., 1968: Kerner Commission Explores the Causes
the author’s detailed observations. The article is en- of Civil Disorders; Aug. 24-30, 1968: Chicago Riots
hanced by the inclusion of photographs. The author’s Mar the Democratic National Convention; June 27-
lack of objectivity, however, tends to reduce his credi- July 2, 1969: Stonewall Rebellion Ignites Modern
bility. Lesbian and Gay Rights Movement.
263
Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Compel Flag Salutes The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
June 14, 1943

Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Compel
Flag Salutes
In 1940, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that it was their epithets for the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Many
constitutional for public schools to expel children who people who opened their doors to Jehovah’s Witnesses’
refused to salute the American flag. Three years later, knocks became quite irate when they heard their reli-
in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, gions and their clergy maligned. Even when the Wit-
the Court overturned its decision, ruling that under the nesses were clearly unwelcome, they would return re-
First Amendment the state had no authority to compel peatedly.
political speech. Besides being offended by their proselytizing tactics,
many people questioned whether Jehovah’s Witnesses
Also known as: West Virginia State Board of Edu-
were loyal Americans. Witnesses were willing to obey
cation v. Barnette
the laws of the United States or any other government un-
der which they lived, as long as the laws were not con-
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history; civil
trary to what they believed to be God’s law. Because they
rights and liberties
believed that God had no interest in World War I, Jeho-
Key Figures vah’s Witnesses refused to serve in the American mili-
Robert H. Jackson (1892-1954), associate justice of the tary and, consequently, went to prison. Witnesses in Ger-
United States, 1941-1954 many experienced a similar fate. Both sides in the war
Harlan Fiske Stone (1872-1946), associate justice of perceived Jehovah’s Witnesses as unpatriotic and dis-
the United States, 1925-1941, and chief justice, loyal.
1941-1946 As events in Europe unfolded in the 1930’s, increas-
Felix Frankfurter (1882-1965), associate justice of the ing the possibility that the United States might once
United States, 1939-1962 again be involved in a world war, local American com-
Hugo L. Black (1886-1971), associate justice of the munities sought to inculcate patriotism and penalize
United States, 1937-1971 nonconformity. Such was the case in Minersville, Penn-
Frank Murphy (1890-1949), associate justice of the sylvania. Pursuant to state law, the school board in that
United States, 1940-1949 town sought to encourage patriotism in public school
William O. Douglas (1898-1980), associate justice of children by making a flag salute ceremony, including the
the United States, 1939-1975 Pledge of Allegiance, a required part of the school day.
Charles Taze Russell (1852-1916), founder of the Believing the flag salute to be the equivalent of worship-
Jehovah’s Witnesses ing a graven image, which is prohibited in the Old Testa-
Summary of Event ment, children of Jehovah’s Witnesses refused to partici-
In 1872, in the state of Pennsylvania, a new American re- pate in the ceremony. The penalty for their refusal was
ligious sect was born that, in time, spread around the expulsion.
globe. Its founder was Charles Taze Russell, who be- The Jehovah’s Witnesses sought a decision from the
came the first president of the Watch Tower Bible and federal courts exempting them on religious grounds from
Tract Society. The members of the new sect were called participation in the flag salute ceremony. They were suc-
by a variety of names, including Russellites and Bible cessful in the lower federal courts, but the school board
Students. In time, however, they came most commonly appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1940, in the case
to be known as Jehovah’s Witnesses. of Minersville v. Gobitis, the Supreme Court, with only
Members of the sect became unpopular with many one justice dissenting, reversed the lower courts and up-
Americans because of both their religious beliefs and held the right of a school board to require patriotic exer-
their aggressive door-to-door proselytizing. Jehovah’s cises, such as the flag salute ceremony, of all students
Witnesses believed that they alone were God’s chosen regardless of their religious beliefs. Justice Felix Frank-
people, and they believed that the clergy of other faiths furter, writing for the majority, noted that the purpose of
were working for Satan. While they did not spare the flag salute was the promotion of national unity. He
Protestant and Jewish clergy, they reserved the worst of considered such promotion to be a matter of educational
264
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Compel Flag Salutes
policy with which courts should not in- West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette
terfere. Persons were free to hold what-
ever religious beliefs they chose, but Associate Justice Robert H. Jackson delivered the majority opinion, ex-
their beliefs did not entitle them to excerpted here, of the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in the case of whether stu-
emption from public policies of general dents can be compelled to salute the American flag.
application.
There is no doubt that, in connection with the pledges, the flag salute is a
Following the Gobitis decision, such form of utterance. Symbolism is a primitive but effective way of communi-
patriotic ceremonies became increas- cating ideas. The use of an emblem or flag to symbolize some system, idea,
ingly common in the public schools of institution, or personality, is a short cut from mind to mind. Causes and na-
the nation, forcing hard choices on Je- tions, political parties, lodges and ecclesiastical groups seek to knit the loy-
hovah’s Witnesses with children in the alty of their followings to a flag or banner, a color or design. The state an-
public schools. Many chose to follow nounces rank, function, and authority through crowns and maces, uniforms
their religion rather than the law, and and black robes; the church speaks through the cross, the crucifix, the altar
their children were expelled from and shrine, and clerical raiment. Symbols of state often convey political
school. In some instances, after expul- ideas just as religious symbols come to convey theological ones. Associ-
ated with many of these symbols are appropriate gestures of acceptance or
sion the children were treated as delin-
respect: a salute, a bowed or bared head, a bended knee. A person gets from
quents, taken from their families, and
a symbol the meaning he puts into it, and what is one man’s comfort and in-
placed in institutions. Also in the after- spiration is another’s jest and scorn. . . .
math of the Gobitis decision, Jehovah’s It is also to be noted that the compulsory flag salute and pledge requires
Witnesses increasingly became victims affirmation of a belief and an attitude of mind. It is not clear whether the
1943
of violence. Violence against them had regulation contemplates that pupils forego any contrary convictions of their
existed before the Supreme Court deci- own and become unwilling converts to the prescribed ceremony or whether
sion, but it increased afterward. At vari- it will be acceptable if they simulate assent by words without belief and by a
ous times, as they sought to promulgate gesture barren of meaning. It is now a commonplace that censorship or sup-
their religion, they were attacked by pression of expression of opinion is tolerated by our constitution only when
mobs, had dogs turned loose on them, the expression presents a clear and present danger of action of a kind the
state is empowered to prevent and punish. It would seem that involuntary
and had rocks and boiling water thrown
affirmation could be commanded only on even more immediate and urgent
at them.
grounds than silence. But here the power of compulsion is invoked without
In the midst of this wave of violence, any allegation that remaining passive during a flag salute ritual creates a
one event occurred that offered the Wit- clear and present danger that would justify an effort even to muffle expres-
nesses some hope in the legal arena. In sion. To sustain the compulsory flag salute we are required to say that a bill
another Supreme Court case involving of rights which guards the individual’s right to speak his own mind, left it
Jehovah’s Witnesses, three justices who open to public authorities to compel him to utter what is not in his mind.
had been with the majority in Miners-
ville v. Gobitis took the highly unusual
step of saying that they had reconsid-
ered the matter and now believed the earlier case to have in the Gobitis case, had become chief justice of the
been incorrectly decided. The statement was almost an United States in 1941. In addition to the chief justice, the
invitation to the Witnesses to try again. They had their Witnesses knew they had the support of the three justices
opportunity in West Virginia State Board of Education v. who had indicated that they had changed their minds:
Barnette. Hugo L. Black, William O. Douglas, and Frank Murphy.
Relying on the Gobitis opinion for its authority, the Only one more vote was needed for a majority. Justice
West Virginia State Board of Education had adopted a Robert H. Jackson, who had been appointed to the Court
resolution ordering that the flag salute become a regular by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1941, provided
school activity. The Witnesses again sought judicial vin- that vote. Chief Justice Stone assigned Justice Jackson
dication of their rights when some of their children were the task of writing the opinion of the Court, which was
expelled for refusing to salute the flag. The case again handed down on Flag Day, June 14, 1943.
progressed to the Supreme Court, and this time, the Court Justice Jackson viewed the controversy from a differ-
ruled in favor of the Jehovah’s Witnesses. ent perspective than had the justices in the Gobitis major-
Harlan Fiske Stone, who had been the lone dissenter ity. To them, the question was whether the religious be-
265
Supreme Court Rules That States Cannot Compel Flag Salutes The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
liefs of the Jehovah’s Witnesses exempted them from the Significance

compulsory flag salute. To Justice Jackson, the question West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, by
was whether the state had the authority to compel chil- overruling Minersville v. Gobitis, removed the legiti-
dren to salute the flag in the first place. He did not con- macy which the Court had conferred on compulsory flag
sider the controversy to revolve around the free exercise salute exercises in 1940. Moreover, because the decision
of religion but rather around the freedom of speech. He was rendered on the basis of the right to freedom of
saw no need to determine whether the religious convic- speech rather than the right to free exercise of religion,
tions of the Witnesses exempted them from the require- persons could choose not to participate in the flag salute
ment to salute the flag if the state lacked the authority to even if they held no specifically religious beliefs prohib-
make the flag salute a legal duty. iting their participation. It was, however, the Jehovah’s
In Justice Jackson’s opinion, the First Amendment’s Witnesses and others who refused to salute the flag for
guarantee of freedom of speech deprived the state of au- religious reasons who were the primary beneficiaries of
thority to compel the flag salute, because the freedom of the decision.
the individual to speak implies the freedom of the indi- The Supreme Court’s Barnette decision, in combina-
vidual not to speak what he does not believe. Jackson de- tion with other factors, resulted in decreased persecution
nied that patriotism needed to be propped up by compul- of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Mindful of the need for enforce-
sory ceremonies. He further denied that the Court was ment to give weight to the Court’s ruling, the Department
invading the sphere of competence of school boards. of Justice conscientiously sought to enforce that ruling
Through the due process clause of the Fourteenth without engaging in widespread prosecutions. United
Amendment, the First Amendment’s guarantee of free- States attorneys spoke with school officials who at-
dom of speech placed limitations on what states and their tempted to require flag salutes and tried to persuade them
to end the practice. The threat of federal prosecution usu-
instrumentalities, such as school boards, could do. He as-
ally brought compliance.
serted that it was the responsibility of the Court to see
Also contributing to the decreased persecution of the
that limitations imposed by the Bill of Rights were not
Jehovah’s Witnesses was that the nation was at war. The
exceeded. In this case, the West Virginia State Board of
flag salute controversy had been going on for a long time,
Education had exceeded one of these limitations. The
but by 1943 most Americans had more on their minds
compulsory flag salute was unconstitutional.
than a few children who would not salute the flag. Adolf
Justice Frankfurter, an Austrian Jew and naturalized
Hitler was clearly a greater threat than the school behav-
citizen who had written the majority opinion in Min-
ior of children of the Jehovah’s Witness sect.
ersville v. Gobitis, was now in the position of having to Beyond its effect upon the Jehovah’s Witnesses, the
write a dissent. Clearly uncomfortable with the possibil- Court’s decision in West Virginia State Board of Educa-
ity of being perceived as one who sanctioned the perse- tion v. Barnette contributed to a growing body of law as-
cution of unpopular minorities, he reminded the majority serting that the First Amendment protected both the right
that he himself was a member of “the most vilified and to speak and the right to refuse to speak, as well as the
persecuted minority in history.” Frankfurter asserted that rights to act and to refuse to act when the actions in ques-
he would have voted with the majority if his personal tion were primarily expressive or interpretable as a form
opinion were all that mattered. As a judge, however, he of speech. It was the precedent of the Barnette case, for
could not permit his personal opinion to control his vote. example, that led the Court to decide in 1989 that flag
He continued to consider the flag salute an educational burning was a constitutionally protected form of speech,
exercise, one which did not interfere with anyone’s free- since the earlier decision suggested that neither speech
dom of speech. nor expressive actions could be curtailed for the purpose
Frankfurter noted that Jehovah’s Witnesses, children of preserving the American flag’s symbolic value.
and parents, were free to use their right of free speech to — Patricia A. Behlar
denounce the flag salute and everything it stood for. If
any law attempted to prevent that, Frankfurter said that Further Reading
he would be the first to rule that it was unconstitutional. Conant, Michael. Constitutional Structure and Purposes:
He continued to believe, however, that a compulsory flag Critical Commentary. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
salute ceremony was a legitimate educational measure Press, 2001. Commentary on a range of constitutional
within the scope of school officials’ authority. issues. Includes sections on both the Supreme Court’s
266
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Race Riots Erupt in Detroit and Harlem
flag salute cases and its flag desecration cases. Biblio- cago Press, 1962. Thorough case study of the flag sa-
graphic references and index. lute controversy. Discusses the parties to the cases,
Dilliard, Irving. “The Flag-Salute Cases.” In Quarrels the opinions of Supreme Court Justices, public reac-
That Have Shaped the Constitution, edited by John A. tions to the decisions, and the impact of the decisions.
Garraty. Rev. ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. Penton, M. James. Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Je-
Brief account of the flag salute cases written for the hovah’s Witnesses. Toronto, Ont.: University of To-
general reader. Although its primary focus is on the ronto Press, 1985. A useful history of the Jehovah’s
reasoning of the justices of the Supreme Court, it does Witnesses by a Canadian historian who was himself a
not neglect the plight of the Jehovah’s Witnesses. fourth generation Jehovah’s Witness until being ex-
Jackson, Robert H. Dispassionate Justice: A Synthesis of pelled for heresy. Includes some discussion of the flag
the Judicial Opinions of Robert H. Jackson. Edited salute controversy. Contains bibliography and index.
by Glendon Schubert. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, Simon, James F. The Antagonists: Hugo Black, Felix
1969. Includes Justice Jackson’s majority opinion in Frankfurter, and Civil Liberties in Modern America.
West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989. Using an engag-
as well as discussion of Jackson’s position in other Je- ing writing style to reach a general audience, the au-
hovah’s Witnesses cases. thor focuses on the above-named justices, emphasiz-
Lee, Francis Graham. Church-State Relations. Westport, ing their human qualities and their competition for
Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. Discusses the flag sa- leadership on the Supreme Court. He devotes several
pages to their conflict in the flag salute controversy.
lute cases in the context of the general history of sepa-
Indexed, well researched and documented, but no bib-
ration of church and state in the United States. Biblio-
1943
liography.
graphic references and index.
Manwaring, David Roger. Render unto Caesar: The See also: June 17, 1963: Supreme Court Limits Bible
Flag Salute Controversy. Chicago: University of Chi- Reading in Public Schools.
June 20-21, 1943, and August 1, 1943

Race Riots Erupt in Detroit and Harlem
The race riots in Detroit and Harlem were among the Summary of Event
most violent of the 250 such outbreaks that occurred in The entry of the United States into World War II required
1943, as wartime America experienced growing racial the complete mobilization of the U.S. economy to pro-
and ethnic tensions on the home front. They vividly duce the materials necessary to defeat the Axis Powers.
demonstrated the contradiction between the United One consequence of this national mobilization was the
States’ fight for freedom abroad and the denial of basic migration of millions of African Americans from the ru-
freedoms to African Americans at home. ral South to the industrial centers of the north in search of
high-paying factory jobs vacated by whites inducted into
Locale: Detroit, Michigan; Harlem, New York the armed forces. In addition to economic betterment, Af-
Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; social rican Americans hoped to escape the harsh legacy of Jim
issues and reform; civil rights and liberties Crow relations that characterized the South, a system that
Key Figures effectively maintained segregation of the races and ne-
Edward J. Jeffries, Jr. (1900-1950), mayor of Detroit, gated black political power by preventing African Ameri-
1940-1948 cans from voting through mechanisms such as the poll tax.
Harry F. Kelly (1895-1971), governor of Michigan, As they migrated northward, African Americans hoped
1943-1946 to make better lives for themselves and their children.
Fiorello Henry La Guardia (1882-1947), mayor of There was, however, little real change for African
New York City, 1934-1945, and chief of the U.S. Americans upon their arrival in northern American cit-
Office of Civilian Defense, 1941-1942 ies. Some white workers resented their arrival and partic-
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the ipated in “hate strikes.” In addition, few cities were pre-
United States, 1933-1945 pared to handle the sudden influx of tens of thousands of
267
Race Riots Erupt in Detroit and Harlem The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
African Americans. With domestic production oriented In the riot’s aftermath, Michigan Governor Harry F.
primarily to the war effort, there was increased competi- Kelly appointed a committee to investigate what had
tion between blacks and whites over scarce amenities. caused it. The committee found no evidence of foreign
Some blacks sought escape from the bleak conditions subversives instigating the riot; it blamed the riot on the
confronting them by enlisting in the military, only to suf- militancy of the African American press and on African
fer further injustices. The armed forces remained strictly American leaders. The panel exonerated the Detroit Po-
segregated throughout World War II, as blacks were ex- lice Department (which was less than 1 percent black) of
cluded from the Marines and the Coast Guard and were any wrongdoing. Jeffries’s administration rejected re-
relegated to the Navy’s mess section. peated calls for a grand jury inquiry into the causes of the
It is against this backdrop that the 1943 riots in Detroit riot and of the actions undertaken by the police to quell
and Harlem must be understood. Detroit, the reputed the riot.
“Arsenal of Democracy,” experienced lesser racial dis- African American leaders such as James J. McClen-
turbances prior to the riot of June, 1943. The most nota- don, president of the Detroit Chapter of the National
ble such disturbance occurred when African Americans Association for the Advancement of Colored People
were forcibly prevented from moving into the Sojourner (NAACP), as well as the black press, disputed the com-
Housing Project in 1942 by police armed with guns and mittee’s findings. They charged that the police had not
tear gas. This ongoing racial antagonism culminated in been fair in their treatment and protection of African
the June riot. Americans during the riots. They also maintained that
The immediate impetus of the riot occurred late in the the police generally failed to protect blacks from attacks
evening of June 20 at the Belle Isle municipal park. Mi- by whites, even assisting white attackers in some cases,
nor clashes between blacks and whites took place and that police had authorized a shoot-to-kill policy for
throughout the day. The bloody riot that would eventu- black rioters. African American leaders also accused the
ally leave thirty-four people dead (twenty-five of them city administration of Detroit of failing to act on previous
black, seventeen of whom were killed by the police) was committee reports specifying necessary improvements
precipitated by two rumors. The first rumor held that an for African Americans in Detroit, especially regarding
African American man had raped a white woman at the housing and education. The committee pointed out the
amusement park and that a group of African Americans hypocrisy of the United States fighting Nazi and Japa-
had begun to riot. Shortly afterward, the second rumor nese racism abroad while condoning and maintaining
began at a popular black nightclub. This one said that similarly racist behavior at home.
some white sailors had killed an African American As was true for the Detroit riot, the precipitating event
woman and her baby by throwing them off of the bridge of the Harlem riot of 1943 was a rumor. On Sunday night,
that connected Belle Isle to Detroit, and that the police August 1, 1943, a white New York police officer
had begun to beat African Americans in the city. wounded an African American army private, Robert
The actual rioting began early in the morning of June Bandy, who had intervened on behalf of an African
21. Police reported stabbings, store windows being American woman being questioned by the officer at a
smashed, looting, and indiscriminate interracial beatings Harlem hotel. A rumor began to circulate that a black sol-
of pedestrians and passengers in cars and public trans- dier had been shot and killed by the police.
portation. At the riot’s end, in addition to the thirty-four The rumor found a receptive audience. As in Detroit,
dead, more than one thousand people had been injured. the residents of Harlem, the majority of whom were Afri-
Detroit suffered more than two million dollars in prop- can American, faced job discrimination. For example,
erty losses and lost 100 million work hours in war pro- the aircraft industries in nearby Long Island refused to
duction, according to one account. Detroit Mayor Ed- hire African Americans, even though newspaper adver-
ward J. Jeffries, Jr., conceded that much of the loss of life tisements clamored for workers needed by that industry.
and property could have been prevented had federal The complete lack of African American faculty mem-
troops been requested earlier from President Franklin D. bers in permanent teaching positions at any of the city’s
Roosevelt, especially considering that the Detroit Police four municipal colleges was also a sore point to the com-
Department was understaffed by approximately one- munity. A critical shortage of housing confronted resi-
third because of the draft. It was with the arrival of fed- dents, and existing housing in Harlem was dilapidated.
eral troops that order was finally restored in Detroit very Even so, New York Mayor Fiorello Henry La Guardia
late in the evening of June 21. had recently authorized a semipublic housing develop-
268
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Race Riots Erupt in Detroit and Harlem
ment for lower Manhattan that would be all white. Added On a national scale, the riots were a visible testi-
to this situation were continual accounts of police brutal- mony and ugly reminder of the wide chasm that existed
ity and verbal harassment suffered by Harlemites, espe- between the expressed ideals of the United States—
cially African American servicemen. Harlem had be- freedom, democracy, justice, and equality—and the real-
come a tinderbox, and it needed only the Bandy incident ity of the black experience in America. Despite the riots,
to ignite it. however, the plight of African Americans remained
Upon hearing the rumor, a group of African Ameri- largely ignored by the United States’ white population
cans immediately took to the streets of Harlem. They through the end of the 1940’s. President Roosevelt, for
began to destroy white property. Residents initially con- example, studiously avoided using the riots as a spring-
fined themselves to breaking the windows of white mer- board to discuss racism and necessary social reforms. He
chants; only later did looting occur. Almost none of the sought to avoid mentioning them at all, fearing that high-
interracial clashes that characterized the Detroit riot oc- lighting the nation’s internal strife would harm its unified
curred. When the riot ended at daybreak on August 2, the war effort. The underlying problems that led to the riots
damage totaled six deaths (five African Americans and of 1943 would achieve national prominence only in the
one Caucasian), five hundred injuries, five million dol- following two decades, with the Supreme Court’s deci-
lars worth of property damage, 550 arrests, and 1,450 sion desegrating schools in Brown v. Board of Education
stores either damaged or destroyed. Further destruction (1954) and the rise of the Civil Rights movement in the
probably was prevented by Mayor La Guardia’s prompt 1960’s.
and effective leadership at the scene of the riot, pleas — Craig M. Eckert
for calm by recognized African American leaders who
1943
toured the area in sound trucks countering the rumor Further Reading
about the Bandy shooting, and the dispatching of biracial Anderson, Carol. Eyes Off the Prize: The United Nations
teams of military police to Harlem. and the African American Struggle for Human Rights,
A committee was empaneled to investigate the riot. 1944-1955. New York: Cambridge University Press,
Again, no evidence was found of foreign instigation of 2003. Study of petitions to the nascent United Nations
the event. In marked contrast to the Detroit administra- by African Americans seeking human rights in the de-
tion, La Guardia acknowledged that the black commu- cade following the Harlem and Detroit riots. Ex-
nity had legitimate grievances and pledged to take steps tremely useful for understanding both the causes of
to remedy them. the riots and their immediate aftermath.
Dalfiume, Richard M. “The ‘Forgotten Years’ of the Ne-
Significance gro Revolution.” In The Negro in Depression and
The race riots in Detroit and Harlem represented the most War, edited by Bernard Sternsher. Chicago: Quadran-
destructive of the almost 250 racial battles that occurred gle Books, 1969. Very well-done piece in which
in forty-seven cities throughout the United States in Dalfiume argues that the roots of black militancy in
1943. Such disturbances had immediate effects on the the 1960’s began to take hold in the 1940’s. Easily un-
country during the war, as well as a long-term impact on derstood and enlightening discussion of white dis-
race relations in the postwar era. crimination against blacks during the 1940’s. Useful
In New York, the City-Wide Citizens Committee on analysis of Roosevelt’s ambivalence regarding race
Harlem was formed to articulate black needs. It achieved relations and a good bibliography.
limited success in obtaining jobs for blacks and in keep- Lee, Alfred M., and Norman D. Humphrey. Race Riot.
ing black concerns before the general public. In Detroit, New York: Octagon Books, 1968. Probably the most
the findings of the governor’s committee intensified the widely cited work concerning the Detroit race riot. It
already strained relations between blacks and whites. is a chronology of events leading up to the riot, listing
The panel overemphasized the militancy of African all pertinent people and places. Includes a critical as-
American leaders and the stridency of the African Amer- sessment of the investigatory committee’s final re-
ican press, while minimizing the serious discrimination port.
affecting the black community. Social, economic, and Marshall, Thurgood. Crisis 50 (August, 1943): 232-233.
political conditions in Detroit would continue to deterio- Angry and defiant in tone, this short essay represents
rate, ultimately setting the stage for the United States’ the black response and rejection of the report of the
most extensive urban riot in the summer of 1967. governor’s committee charged with investigating the
269
Sartre’s Being and Nothingness Expresses Existential Philosophy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Detroit riot. Essential reading regarding the distur- cember, 1971): 661-681. A first-rate analysis of the
bance, for it views the events from a black vantage plight of blacks, especially soldiers, in the United
point. States during World War II. Contains a brief discus-
Shapiro, Herbert. “Wartime Violence.” In White Vio- sion of events in Harlem and Detroit. Indispensable
lence and Black Response: From Reconstruction to reading for an understanding of the national context in
Montgomery. Amherst: University of Massachusetts which the Detroit and Harlem riots occurred.
Press, 1988. An outstanding summary of the black sit- White, Walter. A Man Called White: The Autobiography
uation in The United States during World War II, es- of Walter White. New York: Viking Press, 1948. This
pecially within the military and the labor movement. highly readable account of racism and discrimination
Contains probably the most extensive and best bibli- in the United States in the twentieth century, by one of
ography related to the Detroit and Harlem riots. the leaders of the NAACP, contains separate chapters
Shogan, Robert, and Tom Craig. The Detroit Race Riot: on the Detroit and Harlem riots. The latter is espe-
A Study in Violence. Philadelphia: Chilton Books, cially interesting as it is a firsthand account of the
1964. A good general overview of the factors that led event and White’s general impressions as he wit-
to the riot as well as the actual riot itself. Contains sup- nessed it.
plementary information about the riot gleaned from See also: June 3-9, 1943: Zoot-Suit Riots Exemplify
government memoranda obtained through the Free- Ethnic Tensions in Los Angeles; May 17, 1954: Su-
dom of Information Act. preme Court Ends Public School Segregation; July
Sitkoff, Harvard. Journal of American History 58 (De- 23-July 30, 1967: Race Rioting Erupts in Detroit.
June 25, 1943

Sartre’s BEING AND NOTHINGNESS Expresses
Existential Philosophy
Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness, first rude awakening. He saw France quickly fall to the Nazis,
published while France was occupied by the Germans, was himself interned in a German prison camp, and,
became a generation’s key to living authentically. It when released, found himself living in a Paris under for-
responded to Martin Heidegger’s Being and Time by eign occupation. Beneath the pall of his country’s de-
articulating Sartre’s version of existentialism, a spair, he wrote L’Être et le néant (1943; Being and Noth-
distinctively twentieth century philosophy. ingness, 1956), a work of philosophy that emphasized
how much freedom the human consciousness intrinsically
Also known as: L’Être et le néant possessed. The book not only ontologically grounded this
Locale: Paris, France freedom but also suggested that liberty weighed heavily
Categories: Philosophy; literature on people. Sartre illustrated with psychological thumb-
Key Figures nail sketches his thesis that awareness of freedom’s im-
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), French philosopher plications was shamefacedly ignored by most.
Raymond Aron (1905-1983), a friend of Sartre who On June 25, 1943, when the book appeared, and so
introduced him to the philosophy of Martin long as the French were still groaning under their Nazi
Heidegger, which was decisively to shape Sartre’s overlords, Sartre’s message found little response. As
thought soon as the country was liberated and the war ended,
Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986), French philosopher, however, Sartre’s text was picked up by an immense au-
feminist, and Sartre’s lover dience that had been yearning for freedom and now was
looking for a break with the immediate, bitter past. With
Summary of Event the book’s popularity, Sartre, who since 1931 had been
Before World War II, Jean-Paul Sartre had devoted supporting himself as an obscure schoolmaster, had to
much of his time as a writer to literature, composing nov- face what few serious philosophers have been bothered
els and short stories while dabbling in philosophy. The with: fame. The French thinker, having already com-
war, which he thought would be a short one, came as a bined the careers of philosopher and fiction writer, took
270
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Sartre’s Being and Nothingness Expresses Existential Philosophy
up yet another occupation as a public figure. in France but also in other European countries and in the
From then on, Sartre’s literary career was bound up United States, that Sartre’s book spoke. It provided them
with his interventions in political and social affairs. with a new code based on two postulates: The engaged
Ironically, as he gained more prominence and had more person chose beliefs, recognizing this as a free decision;
effect on the French nation, his philosophy became more that person then acted in a committed way to sustain
modest in its pretensions for the individual, repeatedly those beliefs. Thus, the position one ultimately took was
demonstrating how hedged in a single person is by the not as important as one’s way of arriving at it and, having
constraints of environment. Meanwhile, in his fiction, arrived at it, of living in a way that proved one’s alle-
Sartre dwelled on characters who threw away their free- giance to it. With the foundations of all ethical systems
dom rather than accept the anxiety and responsibility its slipping, Sartre’s philosophy grounded morality in the
acceptance demanded. self, which many youths believed was the only thing that
Many of the French who had survived World War II was still reliable.
had come to believe that all ideals were hollow—brutality Ethical elements of Being and Nothingness made up
on both sides had made a mockery of them—while their the message that most of Sartre’s young fans took away
prewar leaders were compromised as bunglers or trai- from the text, but this message did not contain all the es-
tors. The individualistic, down-to-earth message of Jean- sential points of the book. In fact, much of the work con-
Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness, which spoke of sisted of densely argued passages on such philosophical
abandoning all grand theories and evaluating each moral topics as the features of the cogito, which few, except for
law as to whether it met the tests of authenticity and free- the philosophically trained, probably waded through.
dom, appealed tremendously to those who had come What attracted Sartre’s large nonacademic following
1943
through the recent traumas. It was to the youth, primarily was his basic stance and his way of illustrating it. In the
book, he made use of pithy examples to drive home his
points. For example—to take a famous case—to show
how another person’s glance can transfix the viewed in
shame and bafflement, Sartre describes a voyeur peering
through a hotel keyhole who then looks up and finds that
he is being watched. This makes Sartre’s philosophical
point beautifully palatable.
Furthermore, as a playwright as well as a philosopher,
Sartre could function as his own popularizer, presenting
his ideas in simplified form through dramatic situations.
To view image, please refer to print edition This helped make his work accessible. Readers could
turn to Being and Nothingness after having been pre-
pared for his concepts by watching such relatively lighter
fare as No Exit. Thus, the philosophical text’s popularity
was built partially on Sartre’s own skill as a propagan-
dist.
The major fictional form Sartre worked with in the
postwar years was drama. The most acclaimed of his
plays, Huis-clos (1944; In Camera, 1946; better known
as No Exit, 1958), followed hard on the heels of Being
and Nothingness. This tightly constructed drama opens
with three strangers finding themselves mysteriously
trapped in a locked room and quickly getting on each
other’s nerves. Gradually, they realize they are in Hell,
where the only—but sufficient—torture is that the
doomed are forced to live with people with whom they
are maddeningly incompatible.
In No Exit, Sartre wittily created a revised morality in
Jean-Paul Sartre in 1963. (AP/Wide World Photos) which it was not sin that damned one but rather the re-
271
Sartre’s Being and Nothingness Expresses Existential Philosophy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
fusal of freedom in characters who would not adapt to close but often tempestuous relation with the Commu-
others. Other works, while continuing to catalog eva- nists, coming to share many of their announced princi-
sions of freedom, fit more with his political concerns. He ples, such as their belief that workers should control
was afraid that France would be swallowed up by an alli- industry, but constantly upbraiding them for failing to
ance with the United States and pointed out America’s live up to their own ideals. It was his dialogue with the
faults. In his play La Putain respectueuse (1946; The Re- Communists that caused him to scale down his claims for
spectful Prostitute, 1949), for example, he castigated the an individual’s autonomy as he fit his original concept to
United States for its racial intolerance and hypocrisy. a partial acceptance of Marxist determinism.
Forming a bridge between his philosophy and fiction In his works examining writers, Sartre had attempted
was Sartre’s literary criticism. In Qu’est-ce que la to anchor their freedom in choices made in circum-
littérature? (1947; What Is Literature?, 1949), he pro- stances hampered by the exigencies of class, sex, race,
duced a theory of writing that turned to the more hopeful and other factors. In his second major philosophical
elements of his first philosophy. Sartre said that human tome, Critique de la raison dialectique, I: Théorie des
freedom, which is everywhere denied in practice, is at ensembles pratiques (1960; Critique of Dialectical Rea-
least preserved in good fiction. The honest writer solicits son I: Theory of Practical Ensembles, 1976), Sartre
a reader’s freedom, asking for an open mind and heart. In abandoned his focus on the individual altogether and
return, the author promises to write from his or her freest tried to locate freedom in group behavior. The direct po-
levels. This was easier said than done, as Sartre was to re- litical precipitant of the text was the war France had be-
veal in such major studies of authors as Saint-Genet: come involved in with its colony Algeria. Incensed by
Comédien et martyr (1952; Saint Genet: Actor and Mar- his country’s leader’s misguided attempts to hold on to
tyr, 1963). In these works, he both explored how writers the remnants of a lost empire and noticing the effective-
asserted freedom by making their responses stick in diffi- ness of mass protest, Sartre portrayed the power that
cult situations and underlined the many obstacles to free rested with the people when they organized into creative,
expression contained in normal situations. fighting mobs. Drawing his examples from the French
An important area in French politics after the war was Revolution, he revised his concept of freedom, making
the relationship between the country’s large Communist its bastion leaderless, democratically organized crowds
Party—the largest institution on the political left—and and placing its antithesis in stultified groups such as
liberal and radical intellectuals who were independent of army units.
the party. As one of these independents, Sartre had a The celebrity that the success of Being and Nothing-
ness brought to Sartre put the thinker, who was so con-
scious of moral responsibility, in a position from which
Sartre on Shame he could affect politics. His later writings struggled to be
both responses to France’s social situations and remold-
Being and Nothingness (1943), Jean-Paul Sartre’s ma- ings and refinements of his opinion of the amount and
jor existentialist work, includes pointed discussion on value of an individual’s freedom.
the element of shame and how shame shapes a person’s
self-conception: Significance
Consider for example shame. . . . I have just made an Sartre was a leftist, but his book was not appreciated by
awkward or vulgar gesture. This gesture clings to me; I the largest established leftist group in France, the Com-
neither judge it nor blame it. I simply live it. I realize it in munist Party. Attraction to Sartre’s philosophy, the Com-
the mode of for-itself. But now suddenly I raise my head. munists believed, turned young people away from the
Somebody was there and has seen me. Suddenly I realize Party and more suitable reading matter such as the works
the vulgarity of my gesture, and I am ashamed. It is cer- of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Consequently, Com-
tain that my shame is not reflective, for the presence of
munist intellectuals were enlisted to wage war against
another in my consciousness, even as a catalyst, is in-
Being and Nothingness.
compatible with the reflective attitude; in the field of my
reflection I can never meet with anything but the con- The most famous of the Marxist writers involved in
sciousness which is mine. But the Other is the indispens- this war was György Lukács, but he merely lambasted
able mediator between myself and me. I am ashamed of Sartre’s bourgeois decadence, bringing more rancor than
myself as I appear to the Other. rigor to the debate. More thoughtful was Henri Lefeb-
vre’s L’Existentialisme (1946), which allowed that Sar-
272
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Sartre’s Being and Nothingness Expresses Existential Philosophy
tre’s distaste for conventions was well founded but said Further Reading
that he went overboard in granting so much power in life Boulé, Jean-Pierre. Sartre, Self-Formation, and Mascu-
to individual subjectivity. What is especially interesting linities. New York: Berghahn Books, 2005. A study
about this critique is that later Lefebvre would recant his of Sartrean existentialism as a model of the formation
position, attacking dogmatic Marxism and aligning his of individualistic identity in general and of masculine
own work with Sartre’s. In such projects as Critique de la identity in particular. Bibliographic references and
vie quotidienne (1947-1962; partially translated as Ev- index.
eryday Life in the Modern World, 1971), Lefebvre would Flynn, Thomas R. Sartre and Marxist Existentialism.
abandon the major Marxist categories of labor and pro- Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. The
duction and, following Sartre’s emphasis on the every- book wrestles with the same problem Sartre did, that
day, analyze oppression as it is manifested in daily life. of integrating his early sense of individual respon-
Although Sartre would have liked a French left that sibility with his later feeling for the weight of cir-
was independent, he accepted that the Communists were cumstances. Offers a careful and readable treatment
the dominant group on the left for the foreseeable future. of the main philosophical categories of Being and
He defended his book against the Party’s charges and Nothingness. Includes notes, bibliography, and an
opened a dialogue with the group that would reach over index.
the years and lead him to write some of his most extraor- Hayman, Ronald. Sartre: A Life. New York: Simon &
dinary works. Schuster, 1987. A fair but far from adulatory biogra-
Still, rather than from the Communists, the most tren- phy of Sartre that gets at what distinguished Sartre
chant criticism of Being and Nothingness came from his from other thinkers of his period. Contains notes, pho-
1943
friend Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Merleau-Ponty, a fellow tos, a bibliography, an index, and a chronology that
existentialist philosopher, took Sartre to task in his major lists the events of Sartre’s life alongside a time line of
work Phénoménologie de la perception (1945; Phenom- the major historical events of the era.
enology of Perception, 1962). Acknowledging the bril- Hoven, Adrian van den, and Andrew Leak, eds. Sartre
liance of much of Sartre’s analysis, Merleau-Ponty cen- Today: A Centenary Celebration. New York: Berg-
tered his objection on what he considered to be Sartre’s hahn Books, 2005. Compilation of tributes, critiques,
sterile dualizing, his rigid oppositions between self and and reassessments of Sartre’s work, published on the
objects and between self and others. one-hundredth anniversary of his birth. Bibliographic
Merleau-Ponty believed that the self was not the iso- references and index.
lated consciousness Sartre supposed but instead a com- Jeanson, Francis. Sartre and the Problem of Morality.
posite built up of both its own impulses and impulses Translated by Robert V. Stone. Bloomington: Indiana
gathered from the world. To properly integrate under- University Press, 1980. Sartre recommended this
standing of one’s self with that of the world, Merleau- book, originally published in 1947, as a treatment
Ponty argued, one must begin by seeing that these of his early philosophy. The book deals acutely with
categories are never separate in reality. It should be ethical problems studied by Sartre, at times wax-
emphasized, nevertheless, that as different as his view ing poetic as the author tries to convey the pleasures
was from that of Sartre, it had been formed by a deep of the subject. Contains a foreword by Sartre, a later
meditation on Being and Nothingness. reconsideration of the material by the author, and
The next generation of French philosophers, the an index.
structuralists, who emerged in the 1960’s, repudiated Poster, Mark. Existential Marxism in Postwar France:
Sartre. They believed that overarching structures, such From Sartre to Althusser. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
as that of language, were more important determinants University Press, 1975. A well-informed account of
of human life than was consciousness. They came to the political implications of Being and Nothingness
sharpen their positions by attacking Sartre, and in this and how they were interpreted by the right and the left
way they acknowledged the continued influence of his in France. Poster shows how much of Sartre’s work
thought. Sartre’s Being and Nothingness had formed the was created in a debate with other political thinkers.
thought of one era and became the fountainhead of the Index and bibliography.
powerful influence that the next era’s thinkers fought to Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. Translated by
resist. Hazel Barnes. New York: Philosophical Library,
—James Feast 1956. In places the book is so densely argued as to be-
273
Tank Battle at Kursk Devastates German Forces The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
come opaque. In such places, it is easy to lose the See also: 1944-1960: Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic
thread of the argument. Other passages, however, are Voice to Existential Philosophy; 1949: Beauvoir’s
amazing for their linkage of profound philosophical The Second Sex Anticipates the Women’s Movement;
inquiry with lucid examples drawn from psychology. 1951: Rise of the New Novel; 1952: Tillich Examines
Schilpp, Paul Arthur, ed. The Philosophy of Jean-Paul Modern Anxiety in The Courage to Be; Jan. 5, 1953:
Sartre. LaSalle, Ill.: Open Court, 1981. A good source- Waiting for Godot Expresses the Existential Theme of
book that contains an interview with Sartre as well as Absurdity; Oct. 31, 1959: Ionesco’s Rhinoceros Re-
twenty-eight essays by leading Sartre experts. Of par- ceives a Resounding Worldwide Reception; 1960’s:
ticular interest are the discussion of Sartre’s relation Sixties Culture in the United States Rediscovers the
to Merleau-Ponty and the analysis of how Sartre em- Works of Hesse; 1964-1972: Marcuse Publishes
bodied some of the ideas of Being and Nothingness in Foundational New Left Works; Apr. 29, 1964:
drama. Bibliography and index. Weiss’s Absurdist Drama Marat/Sade Is Produced.
July 4-12, 1943

Tank Battle at Kursk Devastates German Forces
Although one of the shortest battles of World War II, Summary of Event
the Battle of Kursk was the largest tank battle in the Following the disastrous Battle of Stalingrad, which
history of warfare and is considered a major turning ended on February 2, 1943, Adolf Hitler and the German
point in the war. Although the Soviet Union lost nearly general staff were desperate to regain the initiative on the
200,000 troops to Germany’s 50,000, the battle was Eastern Front. On May 3, Hitler met with Germany’s ma-
nevertheless a decisive Soviet victory. The German jor generals in Munich to decide battle strategy. A plan
army lost its capacity to launch any further offensives conceived by General Erich von Manstein called for lur-
on the Eastern Front, and it began a long tactical ing Russian forces to attack a 75-mile bulge in the Ger-
retreat, while a reinvigorated Soviet army began an man lines. A German retreat toward the Dnieper River
advance that led to the gates of Berlin. would cause attacking Russian forces to overextend their
lines. A reinforced German army would counterattack on
Also known as: Battle of Kursk; Operation Citadel
the flanks, causing severe damage to Russian forces.
Locale: Kursk, western Soviet Union
Hitler, however, preferred a more aggressive plan in
which Germany would strike first instead of waiting for a
unrest; military history
Russian attack. This plan was proposed by his chief of
Key Figures the Army General Staff, Kurt Zeitzler. It called for an at-
Erich von Manstein (1887-1973), German field tack by elite German divisions on a Russian 150-mile-
marshal commanding Army Group South wide bulge that stretched from the city of Kursk to north
Georgy Zhukov (1896-1974), Russian marshal and of the industrial city of Kharkov. A large and heavily
commander of Northern Forces in the Kursk Bulge mechanized force would attack Russian forces from
Kurt Zeitzler (1895-1963), German chief of the Army three sides, surrounding them as German tanks, rein-
General Staff, who planned Operation Citadel forced by new Panther and Tiger tanks, would launch
Konstantin Rokossovsky (1896-1968), Russian general blitzkrieg attacks on Russian forces from the north and
and commander of forces in the Central Front south. Zeitzler’s plan, named Operation Citadel, re-
Walter Model (1891-1945), German general and ceived Hitler’s support after two days of debate. The at-
commander of the Ninth Army, which attacked the tack was planned for May, so that the tank-slowing mud
northern sector of the Kursk Bulge of the Russian spring thaw—which would be dry by
Hermann Hoth (1898-1971), German commander of May—would not present a problem.
the Fourth Panzer Army who attacked the south side Delays in production of Tiger tanks and tank-killing
of Kursk Salient Ferdinand self-propelled guns (also called Elephants)
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- caused Hitler to delay the start of Operation Citadel until
1945 July 4. Meanwhile, Russia’s spy network (code-named
274
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Tank Battle at Kursk Devastates German Forces
Lucy) was able to obtain many details about the opera- neuvered to destroy each other at relatively close range in
tion. The Russian commander, Marshal Georgy Zhukov, the middle of blinding dust. The situation nullified the
ordered deep minefields, consisting of hundreds of thou- advantage new German tanks had in armament and fire-
sands of antitank and antipersonnel mines, to be set along power over the Soviet T34 tank, the staple of the Russian
the salient (the area that extends into enemy territory) at army, which had not undergone significant improvement
Kursk. Antitank trenches were dug, and thousands of since the start of the war. Also working against Germany
camouflaged antitank guns were moved into position. A were the continual malfunctions of its new Panther tanks.
force of thirty-one hundred planes, thirty-six hundred The Panther’s design problems would not be corrected
tanks, and 1.3 million Russian soldiers was in place to until the winter of 1943.
blunt the attack by an expected 900,000 German troops Instead of an organized conflict, the Battle of Kursk
outfitted into fifty divisions (seventeen of which were ar- was a series of encounters in which necessity dictated
mored). German forces were supported by about twenty- tactics. German technical advantages were more than
seven hundred tanks and eighteen hundred aircraft. offset by Russian numerical advantages. By the end of
German forces attacked in two major groups, north the day on July 12, German forces had lost 350 tanks and
and south, with thin lines in the middle. The battle com- ten thousand soldiers. A Russian counteroffensive led re-
menced with preliminary attacks on July 4, as General maining forces under General Hoth to stage a tactical re-
Walter Model’s Fourth Panzer Division attempted to treat. By July 23, Hoth’s forces were driven back to
take Soviet outposts in the south; the Luftwaffe (German where the ill-fated Operation Citadel had begun. Mean-
air force) bombed Soviet front positions in the north. By while, continued attacks on the southern front led to the
evening, both sides attempted to weaken each other by liberation of the city of Kharkov on August 23. On July
1943
concerted artillery bombardment. The major clash came 12 in the north, Zhukov had launched a counteroffensive
on July 5, as the Russian air force attempted to obliterate against surviving German forces. Within three weeks
Luftwaffe bases. What is likely the largest air battle ever Zhukov would retake the city of Orel.
fought in a single day followed during the next few
hours. The air battle proved to be a draw; neither side Significance
gained air superiority. However, the new Soviet IL-2 (a The Battle of Kursk officially ended on July 12, and so
formidable ground-attack plane), the Yak-9 Soviet did Germany’s capacity to launch major offensives on
fighter plane, and the skill of Soviet pilots proved to be a the Eastern Front. The date also marks the official begin-
match for the formidable German Luftwaffe. ning of the Russian juggernaut, which pushed German
Following the air battle, Army Group North launched forces out of Russia and much of Eastern Europe back to
a major frontal attack. In spite of the incredible depth of the very gates of Berlin.
Russian defenses, Army Group North was able to pene- Also on July 12, Anglo-American forces were in their
trate nearly 6 miles into Russian defenses during the second day of marching through Sicily, unopposed by
opening days of the battle. The penetration, though, re- the Italian army, preparing to land on the Italian main-
sulted in the German tanks being open to close-range an- land. For Hitler this meant withdrawing key units from
titank fire from their more lightly armored sides. The Russia to meet his newest crisis. Angered at the General
commander of Russian Central Forces, General Kon- Staff, which came up with the idea of the failed Opera-
stantin Rokossovsky, responded by sending into the tion Citadel, Hitler withdrew into increasing isolation.
breach antitank and artillery brigades supported by 350 No longer trusting his generals, Hitler micromanaged
fighter planes. By July 7, the northern attack ground to a most future troop movements. It was clear that the fall of
halt, as the Germans lost twenty-five thousand soldiers the Third Reich was not a matter of if but of when.
and two hundred tanks. Southern German forces under The Battle of Kursk also stands as testimony to the
General Hermann Hoth, which consisted of six hundred Red Army’s coming of age. Defensive tactics perfected
tanks and 300,000 soldiers, pressed on the attack by by the Russians were able to stop German blitzkrieg tac-
swinging south of Russia’s defense line. The Southern tics. Russian counteroffensive tactics led to the retreat of
Forces wound up 50 miles southeast of Kursk, near the German forces, providing the opportunity to plan strate-
small village of Prokhorovka. Their movements, how- gic offensive maneuvers. In addition, the rapidly devel-
ever, were closely followed by the Russians. oping Russian air force proved that it could stand up to
On July 12, the largest tank battle in human history the famed German Luftwaffe, while Russian armored ca-
took place at Prokhorovka, as fifteen hundred tanks ma- pabilities proved that Russia could smash Germany’s
275
Battle of Kula Gulf The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
famed Panzer divisions by numerical if not by technolog- the battle as well as troop movements of both Ger-
ical advantage. man and Russian forces. Part of the Praeger Illus-
— Irwin Halfond trated Military History series. Bibliography, index,
illustrations.
Further Reading
Stewart, Richard W., ed. The United States Army in a
Cross, Robin. The Battle of Kursk: Operation Citadel,
Global Era: 1917-2003. Vol. 2 in American Military
1943. New York: Penguin Books, 2005. A detailed
History. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military His-
and readable account of the battle and the overall op-
tory, U.S. Army, 2005. Originally written and pub-
eration. Contains an index and a bibliography.
lished in 1956 as a textbook for Army officers in train-
Glantz, David M., and Jonathan House. The Battle of
ing, this updated work provides a detailed history of
Kursk. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004.
the role of the Army in times of international strife.
A massive scholarly study making use of Soviet and
Includes many illustrations, maps, and photographs.
German archival sources. Maps, tables, illustrations,
Available at http://www.army.mil/cmh/. Click on
endnotes, comprehensive bibliography, and appen-
image-link for the book.
dixes.
_______. When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army See also: Mar. 1, 1941: Bulgaria Joins the Tripartite
Stopped Hitler. Lawrence: University Press of Kan- Pact; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8, 1942: Germany Invades
sas, 1998. Provides excellent background to the role Russia; Aug. 19, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943: Battle of Stalin-
of the Russian army in World War II. Written for gen- grad; 1943-1948: Soviets Take Control of Eastern Eu-
eral readers but based on archival sources and appro- rope; Sept. 3-18, 1943: Western Allies Invade Italy;
priate for all students. Bibliography, index, maps. June 6, 1944: Invasion of Normandy Begins the Lib-
Healy, Mark. Kursk, 1943. Westport, Conn.: Green- eration of Europe; May 8, 1945: V-E Day Marks the
wood Press, 2004. Close to a 100-page synopsis of End of World War II in Europe.
July 6, 1943
Battle of Kula Gulf
The Solomon Islands were a crucial stepping-stone in Summary of Event
the island-hopping strategy used by the Allies during During its modern history, Japan often felt isolated, de-
World War II to retake the South Pacific territory prived of natural resources, and disrespected by the pow-
captured by Imperial Japan from 1941 to 1942. The erful nations of the West. In World War II, Imperial Ja-
Battle of Kula Gulf showed that the Allies were pan had enormous ambitions to control the oceans
committed to bold offensive strikes that would push the surrounding China and the Pacific Islands. As an island
Japanese back toward Tokyo. nation, Japan had no choice but to expand by conquest if
it wanted to find its place in the sun. To show that an
Asian nation could rival the military powers of Europe
Locale: Kula Gulf, Solomon Islands, Melanesia
and America, Japan needed to conquer the South Pacific.
Categories: Military history; World War II
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander of the
Key Figures Combined Fleet, told the prime minister of Japan that he
Teruo Akiyama (1890-1943), Japanese admiral doubted his ability to control such a large area, but he
Walden L. Ainsworth (1886-1960), administrative would throw all his ships and personal energies into the
commander of all U.S. Pacific Fleet destroyers, war. Early victories in 1941-1942 by the navy and air
1942-1945, and commander of Task Force 18 and force surprised even Yamamoto. Japan eventually con-
Cruiser Division 9, 1943 trolled roughly six million square miles. This sphere was
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), supreme commander bounded by the Kuril Islands to the north, the Hawaiian
of Allied forces in the Southwest Pacific, 1942- Islands to the east, New Guinea and the Solomons in the
1945 south, and Southeast Asia and China in the west.
Isoroku Yamamoto (1884-1943), commander of the Many British, American, and Dutch forces were un-
Japanese Combined Fleet prepared and ill equipped for the rapidity of the Japanese
276
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of Kula Gulf
1943
A survivor of the sunken USS Helena is transferred from the destroyer that rescued him to a battleship after the Battle of Kula Gulf.
(AP/Wide World Photos)
Pacific offensive. However, Japan’s military expansion training. The Japanese were unable to defend their far-
and naval victories could not continue forever. The flung territories, in part because they could not replace
Allies (the United States, Great Britain, the Netherlands, the four aircraft carriers they lost at Midway, whereas
and Australia), led in the Southwest Pacific by General American shipyards manufactured thousands of amphib-
Douglas MacArthur, were forced to retreat from many ious landing craft, cruisers, and escorts that were essen-
Pacific islands by Japan’s early tactical advances. The tial to the recapture of the lost islands. The six-month-
Allies, however, gained strength and confidence with long Battle of Guadalcanal in the Solomons showed that
time and experience. Their combined industrial power American marines could withstand intense suffering in
was thrown into full production mode in response to the miserable tropical conditions and still achieve victory
Japanese aggression. against the Japanese.
After three key Japanese losses in 1942, the momen- The Japanese defense of the Pacific Islands began to
tum shifted to the Allies the following year. The Battle of disintegrate by the summer of 1943. After they had been
the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway demonstrated forced to evacuate from Guadalcanal in the south and the
that the Allies could win aircraft-carrier-based fights Aleutians in the north, the Japanese realized that no
against superior Japanese aircraft, torpedoes, and pilot amount of courage or fierceness could compensate for a
277
Battle of Kula Gulf The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
flawed strategy and inadequate military supply chain inch guns, while Akiyama responded with Type 93 tor-
from distant Tokyo. pedoes (nicknamed Long Lance torpedoes by U.S.
Operation Cartwheel was the code name for the troops), which had superior range and accuracy to Amer-
American plan to use a sequential island-hopping strat- ican torpedoes. One such torpedo sank the destroyer
egy to take control of the Pacific Islands, one island at at Strong, which went down with forty-six casualties.
time. The Allies would face heavy resistance in places However, twenty-six hundred American troops were
like the Kula Gulf, because the Japanese were instructed able to reach shore safely and with little resistance.
never to surrender and to fight to the death. The Ameri- The naval battle lasted approximately thirty minutes.
can forces planned to spearhead a major offensive in the Akiyama’s flagship Niizuki suffered heavy damage
Solomon Islands as a stepping-stone on the way to the when radar-directed guns from Ainsworth’s cruisers hit
Japanese mainland. Bombardment of Tokyo had already it. Akiyama quickly tried to retreat, and as the American
commenced in 1942 with the Doolittle raid, in which ships pursued, they sailed right into the path of more Jap-
Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle successfully led a anese torpedoes. All three American cruisers were hit,
squadron of B-25 bombers from an aircraft carrier six and the destroyer Helena was sunk by three torpedo ex-
hundred miles offshore to attack the Japanese mainland. plosions. The first torpedo detonated across the bow,
The Solomon Islands are located east of Papua New slicing off the front of the Helena, and it went down a few
Guinea and just shy of ten thousand miles away from To- minutes later. The torpedoes failed to save Niizuki, how-
kyo. Their remote location made them difficult for Japan ever, and Akiyama was killed when his flagship sank.
to communicate with and to resupply. Control of the Approximately three hundred Japanese soldiers went
shipping lane known as “the Slot” that ran through the down with Niizuki. Nagatsuki ran aground during its run
middle of the Solomons was essential to disrupting the for the open ocean, allowing American bombers to hit
empire’s supply chain. An important Japanese military the ship repeatedly until its ammunition magazines ex-
base and airfield at Munda, on the Solomon island of ploded. Although American cruisers fired twenty-five
New Georgia, allowed Japanese troops to be resupplied hundred rounds from their six-inch cannons, Niizuki was
via the so-called Tokyo Express. The U.S. Navy also the only Japanese ship that actually sank in the Battle of
needed to destroy Japanese airfields at Munda and Vila, Kula Gulf.
near Kula Gulf.
Significance
Vila was a strategic airstrip on the south end of
The Battle of Kula Gulf was technically a standoff, as
Kolombangara Island in the Solomons. The night before
both fleets lost important ships and suffered serious casu-
the Battle of Kula Gulf, Rear Admiral Walden L. Ains-
alties. However, the tide of war had turned in the larger
worth ordered the bombardment of Vila as a way to pre-
Pacific conflict, following the devastating Japanese loss
vent reinforcements from Vila from reaching Munda. In
at Guadalcanal. Under the circumstances, a standoff en-
the early hours of July 6, 1943, the U.S. fleet entered
forced the status quo, confirming the growing Allied
Kula Gulf. It comprised four destroyers (Chevalier,
control of the Pacific and preparing the way for the cen-
Nicholas, O’Bannon, and Strong), three light cruisers
tral Pacific offensive that would begin less than five
(Helena, Honolulu, and St. Louis), and several transport
months later. The Battle of Kula Gulf allowed the Japa-
and support ships.
nese to inflict damage with their torpedoes, but the Allies
When the American ships entered the gulf, ten Japa-
held the upper hand in refusing to run for cover and sink-
nese destroyers under the command of Admiral Teruo
ing Niizuki with Admiral Akiyama aboard.
Akiyama, including Nagatsuki, Yunagi, and the flagship
— Jonathan L. Thorndike
Niizuki, simultaneously sailed into Kula Gulf. Seven of
the Japanese ships were carrying 4,000 soldiers on their Further Reading
way to the airbase at Munda. The Japanese ships had al- Bateson, Charles. The War with Japan: A Concise His-
ready landed about 850 troops on Kolombangara. It was tory. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press,
crucial for Ainsworth to stop the delivery of the addi- 1968. One of the earlier attempts by a military histo-
tional troops. Kula Gulf was the crossroads where the rian to focus a book-length study exclusively on the
two fleets met. Pacific theater during World War II. Very detailed
American radar detected the enemy ships several history with photographs, index, and maps.
minutes before the Japanese knew about the American Duus, Peter, ed. The Twentieth Century. Vol. 6 in The
ships. Ainsworth opened fire first with long-range six- Cambridge History of Japan. New York: Cambridge
278
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Allied Forces Invade Sicily
University Press, 1988. This authoritative work is the ducted by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and General
standard in the field of Japanese history. This volume MacArthur.
expertly brings together the best scholars in the mod- Taaffe, Stephen R. MacArthur’s Jungle War: The 1944
ern period. New Guinea Campaign. Lawrence: University Press
Frank, Richard B. Downfall: The End of the Imperial of Kansas, 1998. General MacArthur played an in-
Japanese Empire. New York: Random House, 1999. strumental role in the amphibious conquest of New
Focuses on the end of the World War II with the bat- Guinea and the South Pacific, but the military estab-
tles in the Pacific and the controversy surrounding the lishment often did not see the importance of New
destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with atomic Guinea to overall victory in World War II.
bombs.
Keegan, John. The Second World War. New York: Vi- See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
king Penguin, 1990. The best single-volume history cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
of World War II, by a preeminent British military his- Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast
torian who focuses on both Pacific and European the- Asia; Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan Invades the
aters. Index and photographs. Philippines; Apr. 18, 1942: Doolittle Mission Bombs
Spector, Ronald H. Eagle Against the Sun: The American Tokyo; May 7-8, 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea; June
War with Japan. New York: Free Press, 1985. Special 3-5, 1942: Battle of Midway; Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. 9,
attention paid to the conflict between the United 1943: Battle of Guadalcanal; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27,
States and Japan at sea and through air raids con- 1944: Central Pacific Offensive.
1943
July 9-August 17, 1943
Allied Forces Invade Sicily
The invasion of Sicily, the first and largest joint Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), British
amphibious operation of World War II and the initial general in command of the British Eighth Army
step of the two-year Italian campaign, also marked the Albert Kesselring (1881-1960), German field marshal
first Allied taking of an Axis area in Europe. Code- Alfredo Guzzoni (1887-1965), Italian general
named Operation Husky, the invasion lasted thirty-eight Guy Simonds (1903-1974), Canadian major general in
days and was fought over rough terrain. The Allies command of the First Canadian Infantry Division
achieved their objective of taking Sicily and toppling
Mussolini’s Fascist regime, but a lack of air and naval Summary of Event
coordination permitted a large German army to escape By the end of 1942, the Anglo-American North Africa
to the mainland. The Allies would pay a large price for campaign was in the final stages of defeating the once-
this mistake during the Italian campaign. formidable Afrika Korps, which was headed by the Ger-
man military genius General Erwin Rommel. The Battle
Also known as: Operation Husky
of Stalingrad was in its final stages as well, and Joseph
Locale: Pantelleria, Italy; Sicily
Stalin continued his long-standing demand for a second
front to be opened in Europe to relieve pressure in the
unrest; military history
east. To this end, a ten-day secret meeting was held at Ca-
Key Figures sablanca in mid-January, 1943, which was attended by
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), American general Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and their re-
in command of the invasion and later president of spective military advisers.
the United States, 1953-1961 Proposals at the meeting included discussion of inva-
Harold Alexander (1891-1969), British general in sions of Greece, the Balkans, Sardinia, France, and Sic-
charge of Allied land forces and later first Earl ily. Because Operation Torch (which was a success by
Alexander of Tunis, 1952-1969 mid-March, 1943) would place the British Eighth Army,
George S. Patton (1885-1945), American general in under General Bernard Law Montgomery, and the U.S.
command of the U.S. Seventh Army Seventh Army, under General George S. Patton, in Tuni-
279
Allied Forces Invade Sicily The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
sia, less than 100 miles from Sicily, meeting participants Panzer Division, a German division equipped with Tiger
agreed that it would be possible, logistically, to invade tanks, but these forces eventually were dispersed by na-
Sicily by that summer. val gunfire and the U.S. Second Armored Division.
The invasion of Sicily, code-named Operation Patton would then easily capture Agrigento and pro-
Husky, was planned to include subsequent landings on ceed largely on his own initiative along the west coast of
the Italian mainland, a mere 2 miles from the island. It Sicily and then inland to take Palermo. Amid flower-
was believed that such a move would topple the Fascist strewn streets on July 22, Patton accepted the mass sur-
regime of Benito Mussolini and cause Italy (Germany’s render of Italian troops. Two day’s later, Mussolini’s
chief European ally) to drop out of the war. It would also own Fascist Grand Council withdrew its support for his
give the Allies control of shipping lanes on the Mediter- leadership. The following day, he was arrested and jailed
ranean Sea. A cross-Channel invasion was also agreed to by order of the king of Italy, who immediately entered
at Casablanca, but this would take place only when prep- into secret negotiations with the Allies to withdraw Italy
arations were adequate. from the war.
Plans for Operation Husky, which called for simulta- The fall of Palermo was followed by a race between
neous air and seaborne landings on Sicily, were finalized Montgomery and Patton over whose army could reach
by Eisenhower on June 7. On June 11, the British inva- Messina first. However, staunch resistance by General
sion force left port. Its first objective was Pantelleria, an Hans Hube’s badly outnumbered forces stalled both
island between Tunisia and Sicily that contained several Allied generals. What neither general suspected was that
airfields. Before a single soldier stepped foot on Pantel- Hube was launching not a defense but a tactical evacua-
leria, the 10,000 Italian defenders surrendered. The main tion to the mainland. Under orders from the German
invasion force (an Allied land force led by British gen- commander in chief in Italy, General Albert Kesselring,
eral Harold Alexander), consisting of 180,000 troops and German forces had constructed a strong defensive line
1,375 ships (the largest fleet yet assembled), was now (the Etna line) around Messina, intending to hold the
ready to embark and face a defending force of 90,000 Allies while German forces slipped away to the main-
German troops, led by General Albert Kesselring, and land. The evacuation began on August 11.
315,000 Italian troops, led by General Alfredo Guzzoni. Patton rolled into Messina on August 14, fifty min-
The invasion began on the evening of July 9 with utes before the arrival of Montgomery, but hours had
nearly 2,800 U.S. paratroopers (among them the Eighty- passed since the last of Kesselring’s forces had evacu-
second Airborne Division, which was making its first ated from Sicily. However, the German evacuation was
combat jump), and the British First Airlanding Brigade, soon followed by an invasion by an elite German army of
which attacked with 137 glider planes. Windy condi- ninety thousand—along with sixty-two thousand Italian
tions, which hampered the amphibious landing the fol- soldiers, ten thousand vehicles, and forty-four tanks—
lowing day, played havoc with Allied airborne troops as which would cross the Strait of Messina to fight again.
well. Only twelve gliders reached their designated areas. Failure to plan for the German resistance at Messina is
Half came down at sea, drowning their passengers, while considered one of the great blunders in modern military
the others came down over a wide area. Pilot inexperi- history.
ence and the wind spread U.S. paratroopers over a 50- The conquest of Sicily had taken thirty-eight days and
mile radius. Casualties amounted to 23 percent of the cost the Allies 22,800 casualties. The Axis powers suf-
U.S. force and 27 percent of the British force. The cha- fered 165,000 casualties, 30,000 of which were German.
otic landings did, however, first confuse the German From Sicily, the Allies had a wide range of choices as to
forces, but because they believed a much larger attack where they would invade the Italian mainland. On Sep-
was taking place, they were able to reinforce their infan- tember 3, Montgomery’s forces landed at Calabria, at the
try and armored capabilities in Sicily. “toe” of the Italian mainland. A joint Anglo-American
Allied landings came on July 10, supported by heavy force landed on September 9 at Salerno, one day after It-
naval gunfire. British forces and Canadian forces, led by aly’s capitulation.
Major General Guy Simonds, landed in the east, virtually
unopposed, and within a few hours were able to walk into Significance
Syracuse. U.S. troops landed on the beaches in the Gulf The invasion of Italy was the first joint amphibious oper-
of Gela, meeting some resistance, depending on the area. ation in World War II and can be considered as a small
The heaviest opposition came from the Hermann Göring dress rehearsal for D-Day (June 6, 1944). The Sicily in-
280
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Allied Forces Invade Sicily
vasion brought Anglo-American and Canadian forces to August, 1943. New York: Harper Perennial, 1991. A
the doorstep of the European continent, setting the stage detailed scholarly study of the invasion of Sicily. In-
for the invasion of the Italian mainland (set to take place dex, footnotes, bibliography, maps, illustrations, ap-
the following month). While Sicily was not the second pendixes.
front that Stalin had demanded, the invasion did cause Lamb, Richard. War In Italy, 1943-1945: A Brutal Story.
Adolf Hitler to withdraw elite troops during the final Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 1996. An analysis
stages of the Battle of Kursk on the Eastern Front; it also of the Italian campaign that draws from Italian ar-
tied down twenty German divisions, which had been at- chives. Gives particular attention to civilian suffering.
tempting to slow the Allied advance up the Italian penin- Index, illustrations, maps, index, bibliography.
sula. The invasion was also directly responsible for Lovering, T. T. A., ed. Amphibious Assault, Manoeuvre
speeding the fall of Mussolini and the detachment of It- from the Sea: Amphibious Operations from the Last
aly from the Axis powers. Century. London: Crown, 2005. A comprehensive
On the negative side, the disastrous landing of Allied history of seaborne landings, including the landings at
airborne troops, the lack of coordination between British Sicily and locations on the Italian mainland in 1943.
and U.S. generals, and the lack of planning to prevent the Illustrations, bibliography, index.
escape of the entire German army across the Strait of Pack, S. W. C. Operation Husky: The Allied Invasion of
Messina, has led military historians to label the invasion Sicily. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1977. A schol-
of Sicily an example of everything military planning arly study of the invasion of Sicily. Footnotes, bibli-
should not be. In the final analysis, the successful take- ography, index.
over of Sicily by Allied forces fell far short of being a Tomblin, Barbara Brooks. With Utmost Spirit: Allied
1943
victory. Naval Operations in the Mediterranean, 1942-1945.
—Irwin Halfond Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2004. A
thorough history of Allied operations in the Mediter-
Further Reading
ranean region during World War II, with chapters on
Bruce, Collin John. Invaders: British and American Ex-
the Sicilian campaign.
perience of Seaborne Landings, 1939-1945. Annapo-
lis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1999. A history of am- See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
phibious operations during World War II. Includes European Theater; May 20-June 1, 1941: Germany
discussion of the invasion of Sicily. Illustrations. Invades Crete; Dec. 11, 1941: Germany and Italy De-
Cross, Robin, et al. World War II. New York: DK, 2004. clare War on the United States; Sept. 3-18, 1943:
A well-written study of all fronts of World War II. Ex- Western Allies Invade Italy; June 6, 1944: Invasion of
cellent for providing background to the global con- Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe; July 25,
flict. Index, footnotes, bibliography, maps, illustra- 1944: Allied Forces Break German Front in France;
tions, appendixes. Aug. 15, 1944: Operation Dragoon; May 8, 1945: V-E
D’Este, Carlo. Bitter Victory: The Battle for Sicily, July- Day Marks the End of World War II in Europe.
281
Stormy Weather Offers New Film Roles to African Americans The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
July 21, 1943

STORMY WEATHEROffers New Film Roles to
African Americans
Stormy Weather and other big-band musicals created without spoiling the story should a local or Southern the-
new roles for African Americans in Hollywood films, ater object to such scenes.
allowing some actors the opportunity to escape older Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), under the direction
stereotypes and take on more substantive roles. of Louis B. Mayer, offered its first long-term contract to
an African American artist when it signed Lena Horne.
Locale: Hollywood, California
The musical Panama Hattie (1942) featured Horne,
Categories: Motion pictures and video; social issues
sumptuously gowned and playing herself, performing a
and reform
Latin song. For most of her film career, Horne found her-
Key Figures self limited to roles as an onstage performer. The studios
Lena Horne (b. 1917), African American actor and had not made her into a maid, but they had not made her
singer into much of anything else, either. Horne described her-
Walter White (1893-1955), executive secretary of the self as “a butterfly pinned to a column” in her films.
National Association for the Advancement of All-black musicals were considered a risk, and nearly
Colored People (NAACP) fourteen years had passed since the last one was pro-
Wendell Willkie (1892-1944), Republican presidential duced when MGM decided to proceed with Arthur
candidate and attorney Freed’s production of Cabin in the Sky (1943), directed
Louis B. Mayer (1885-1957), head of Metro-Goldwyn- by Vincente Minnelli. The film’s depiction of African
Mayer studios Americans resembled that of earlier films. Blacks in the
Hazel Scott (1920-1981), African American actor and film were depicted as removed from the daily routine of
musician American life, and the film’s characters were placed in
Hattie McDaniel (1895-1952), African American actor remote, idealized worlds. Black stereotypes were played
Summary of Event up, and folk culture was passed off as actual African
Prior to the 1940’s, African Americans in Hollywood American culture.
films were generally limited to playing a few stereotyped On July 21, 1943, Twentieth Century-Fox introduced
roles, such as the mammy, the villain, the jungle dweller, a different kind of all-black musical: Stormy Weather. As
the servant, or the jester. There were a few exceptions, in the integrated book musicals being produced on
however, including the films of African American direc- Broadway, the songs and dances of Stormy Weather were
tor Oscar Micheaux. Even in films in which black actors integral to the film’s storyline, which did not revolve
were cast in servant roles, some were shown to be unin- around the stereotypes of Cabin in the Sky. Stormy
hibited entertainers or jesters, as in the films Hallelujah Weather was the story of an African American dancer
(1929) and Hearts in Dixie (1929). (portrayed by Bill Robinson) who wooed Lena Horne
The African American as entertainer became particu- and eventually won her over. The film was also a revue of
larly important in the musicals of the 1940’s. Dustpans black entertainment as seen through the eyes of Robin-
and mops were exchanged for zoot suits and sequined son. Stormy Weather displayed the talents of such Afri-
gowns. As Hollywood’s African American singers, danc- can American performers as Fats Waller, Cab Calloway,
ers, musicians, and acrobats grew in popularity, a plat- Katherine Dunham, Ada Brown, and the Nicholas
form evolved for them to display their talents. Unrelated Brothers. In the South, where all-black films were usu-
song-and-dance numbers were injected into some films; ally shunned, both Stormy Weather and Cabin in the Sky
African American entertainers would pop up and enter- reached the all-black movie houses, where audiences
tain the film audience, unhampered by a story line. Fre- greeted them with enthusiasm. The films also enjoyed
quently, a nightclub scene would be introduced into a popularity at Army camps and abroad.
film so that performers would have a natural setting in The National Association for the Advancement of
which to entertain. Because such musical numbers were Colored People (NAACP) had been attempting to force
not integrated into the films’ plots, scenes featuring Afri- change in Hollywood’s degrading treatment of African
can Americans could be cut from a specific print of a film Americans for twenty-five years. With the success of
282
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Stormy Weather Offers New Film Roles to African Americans
these 1940’s musicals, the NAACP found one of its best sody in Blue (1945). She invested her characters with re-
weapons. The group’s big gun was Lena Horne. NAACP finement and taste by always sitting upright at the piano,
Executive Secretary Walter White assumed personal professionally gowned and supremely confident. Unfor-
control over Horne’s career. White felt that, since Horne tunately, her brand of militancy may have dampened her
was beautiful and had not yet been typecast, she would be career, and many later African Americans viewed her as
able to establish a different kind of Hollywood image for a woman who was simply trying to prove her worth.
African American women. Stormy Weather and the other big-band musicals of
Hazel Scott was another African American performer the 1940’s came at a time of war abroad; it was also a
who refused to be typecast. She had been a child prodigy, time when the war for racial equality was beginning to
reading by the age of three, learning piano at four. Scott erupt on the home front. These 1940’s musicals were
grew into a demanding performer who never attempted Hollywood’s first attempts, no matter how archaic by
to conceal her color or her fiery temperament. She re- later standards, to move beyond black stereotypes. The
fused to appear before segregated audiences or accept musicals represented the first time African Americans
fictional roles in films, because she felt she would have to could be seen out of their servant, mammy, or jungle cos-
perpetuate stereotypes. Instead, she consistently ap- tumes; they had been elevated to the status of acceptable,
peared in films as herself, seated at the piano as she even glamorous, entertainers. Except for small glimpses
would have been in a nightclub. Her specialty was in of real-life characterizations in Stormy Weather, how-
blending classics and swing music in such films as I ever, African Americans were still not portrayed as ev-
Dood It (1943), Broadway Rhythm (1944), and Rhap- eryday Americans in everyday situations.
With the release of Stormy Weather and the other big-
1943
band musicals of the 1940’s, a new front was opening for
African American artists. The social climate of the coun-
try was also beginning to change. Wendell Willkie, the
1940 Republican presidential candidate, had aligned
himself with the NAACP and was representing the orga-
nization in negotiations with the Hollywood studios.
Willkie was giving the NAACP campaign new clout.
In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had issued
an executive order that forbade racial and religious dis-
crimination in employment in war-related industries. In-
tegration was being pushed by the government. Many of
the more liberal studios agreed to follow new racial
guidelines when depicting African American characters
and to use African American extras whenever possible.
New opportunities were beginning to benefit African
American entertainers while paving the way for the
emergence of sympathetic African American characters.
The studios also strove to integrate more African Ameri-
cans into behind-the-scenes jobs. Even Variety an-
nounced, “Better Breaks for Negroes in H’Wood.”
African American artists themselves were taking dif-
ferent paths with their lives and careers. Lena Horne and
Hazel Scott were confident in their mission, although
Horne sought to manipulate the system from within more
than did Scott. However, other African Americans who
had already fought for their niche in the Hollywood sys-
tem did not want to shake up the status quo.
Horne, especially, was feeling the heat from other Af-
This poster advertising Stormy Weather features Lena Horne, rican Americans who were afraid that she was beginning
Cab Calloway, and Bill Robinson. a large-scale campaign on the part of African American
283
Stormy Weather Offers New Film Roles to African Americans The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
actors to raise their status, and in the process, to eliminate orientation film produced by Frank Capra and directed
jobs held by African Americans who excelled at the by Stuart Heisler that was distributed to the public. In-
older, stereotyped roles. One unofficial but influential stead of a handkerchief-headed mammy, the film de-
group of African American Hollywood actors protested picted a distinguished African American mother who
her close association with the NAACP, saying that she was concerned about and proud of her G.I. son. The sol-
would make it impossible for them to get work, since dier, too, was not portrayed as a superstitious clown but
soon there would be no more “jungle” or “plantation” as an intelligent African American recruit who qualified
parts left. Hattie McDaniel, who had been enormously for officer training.
successful playing stereotypical African American During this time of struggle abroad and at home, the
maids, sympathized with Horne’s position but would not stereotyped image of the African American began to
support it; McDaniel argued that Horne was not realistic crumble. Through the success of Stormy Weather and
in her approach to working in a white person’s world. other big-band jazz musicals, Hollywood sought to ele-
When the Disney Studios released Song of the South vate its servants and mammies to roles as entertainers.
(1946), the film seemed to signal the demise of the “Afri- With their talents uncovered and with a change in the so-
can Americans” as entertainers stereotype. A throwback cial climate, African Americans began to be offered
to the extreme stereotypes of the 1920’s and 1930’s, more sympathetic, realistic, and positive roles. Follow-
Song of the South took place in the pastoral old South, ing the war came further advancements, as African
with Hattie McDaniel providing the voice of the family Americans pressed on to win other roles more in keeping
mammy. Although the film made a profit, it was panned with their status in and contributions to American life
by both the white and black press and incited protests and culture.
from black audiences. — Steven C. Kowall

Song of the South did not presage a return to the stereo- Bogle, Donald. Bright Boulevards, Bold Dreams: The
types of earlier films. The United States in the 1940’s had Story of Black Hollywood. New York: One World
confronted fascism in Europe, and the nation was re- Ballantine Books, 2005. A survey of the history of
minded by civil rights groups of the bigotry and racial in- African Americans in Hollywood, from the 1910’s
equality in American industries and in the armed forces. through the 1950’s. Bibliographic references and
More forcefully than ever before, The United States was index.
urged to right its old wrongs. _______. Toms, Coons, Mulattoes, Mammies, and
Sympathetic and real-life African American charac- Bucks: An Interpretive History of Blacks in American
ters began to emerge on the scene alongside the 1940’s Films. 4th ed. New York: Continuum, 2001. Maps out
jazz musicals. In The Ox-Bow Incident (1943), Leigh a sixty-year span of the cinematic portrayal of African
Whipper portrayed a somber African American preacher Americans, from a 1903 version of Uncle Tom’s
who objected to the lynching of suspected cattle rustlers. Cabin to the “blaxploitation” films of the early
In In This Our Life (1942), Eric Anderson played an 1970’s. Also takes a look at black cinema abroad and
intelligent young law student arrested on hit-and-run compares it to Hollywood.
charges. Anderson’s character was able to maintain his Buckley, Gail Lumet. The Hornes: An American Family.
dignity and innocence until the guilty party, played by New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986. This book, written
Bette Davis, stepped forward. In Alfred Hitchcock’s by Lena Horne’s daughter, spans eight generations of
Lifeboat (1944), a group of Americans confined to a bat- the Hornes, a family that often served in the role of
tered lifeboat after their freighter is torpedoed symbol- black ambassadors to white America. Filled with
ized the elements of American society. An intelligent family pictures and memorabilia, this book takes a
African American steward (Canada Lee) represented personal look at Lena Horne, framed in the light of a
America’s second-class citizenry. Lee’s character was rich heritage and photographed through the eyes of
first greeted by Tallulah Bankhead as “Charcoal,” but her daughter.
when it was revealed he saved a white woman and child Horne, Lena, and Richard Schickel. Lena. New York:
from drowning, he became “Joe.” Doubleday, 1965. An autobiography of Lena Horne,
War films also began eschewing caricatured African one of the principal stars of 1940’s musicals. Delves
American roles. The Negro Soldier (1944) was an Army- into Horne’s thirty years on Broadway, in films, in
284
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Australians Elect First Women to Parliament
nightclubs, and on television and offers her strong rican Americans as irresponsible, loyal, lazy, and
opinions and fresh insights into other African Ameri- humble through the sex-and-violence “blaxploitation”
can artists of her era. pictures of the 1970’s.
Leab, Daniel. From Sambo to Superspade: The Black
Experience in Motion Pictures. Boston: Houghton See also: Mar. 19, 1955: Poitier Emerges as a Film Star
Mifflin, 1975. Chronicles the portrayal of African in The Blackboard Jungle; Sept. 15, 1965: I Spy De-
Americans in films from their earliest days up until buts to Controversy; Sept. 17, 1968: Carroll Becomes
1974. Demonstrates how the African American actor the First African American Woman to Star as a Non-
has been stereotyped, from “Sambo” portrayals of Af- domestic on Television.
September, 1943
Australians Elect First Women to Parliament
Two women were elected to the Australian elected. She was endorsed by the Liberal Party and was
parliament—the senate and the house of elected to represent Darwin, Tasmania, in the Australian
representatives—in 1943, marking the first time house of representatives. She was impelled to enter poli-
women held national legislative seats in Australia. tics in part because of her husband’s career; Joseph Ly-
ons had been leader of the United Australia Party (UAP).
1943
Locale: Australia Enid Lyons bitterly resented her husband’s successor,
Categories: Government and politics; women’s Robert Gordon Menzies, whom she believed had be-
issues trayed her husband by resigning from the cabinet in pro-
Key Figures test over what he saw as inaction on the part of the gov-
Dorothy Tangney (1911-1985), first woman elected to ernment shortly before Joseph Lyons’s death.
the Australian senate The 1943 elections were marked by political chaos
Enid Muriel Lyons (1897-1981), first woman elected to that reflected the country’s turbulent situation. The Pa-
the Australian house of representatives and cific theater of World War II had broken out in December
appointed to a federal cabinet position of 1941, and in 1942, Singapore had fallen to Japanese
John Curtin (1885-1945), prime minister of Australia troops, leading many Australians to fear that Australia
Joseph Aloysius Lyons (1879-1939), prime minister of would be the next target for Japanese invasion. The elec-
Australia tions would represent a major shift in power from the
Robert Gordon Menzies (1894-1978), prime minister UAP, primarily right-wing, to the ALP, a social-demo-
of Australia cratic party. The ALP, Australia’s oldest political party,
was founded by the trade union movement and repre-
Summary of Event sents the urban working class.
Forty-one years after Australia’s Commonwealth Fran- At the time, the ALP was under the leadership of
chise Act (1902) gave all women the right to vote in elec- John Curtin, who many had accused of using the war
tions for the two houses of the new Commonwealth Par- as an excuse to socialize the country. Curtin had pushed
liament, the house of representatives and the senate, two for conscription for overseas service, which was a rever-
women—Dorothy Tangney and Enid Muriel Lyons— sal of his previous position, and promised a plan for
were elected to Parliament. reconstruction after the war that included full employ-
Tangney, representing Western Australia, gathered ment, assisted immigration, and improvements in social
enough votes to fill a vacancy in the Australian senate. At security. Many Australians looked to him to keep the
age thirty-two, she was the first woman to gain endorse- country safe.
ment for the senate from the Australian Labor Party World War II had changed Australia, particularly af-
(ALP), and she remained a senator for twenty-five years ter the Japanese successfully isolated the country. As
until her political defeat in 1967. Lyons had been a in many other countries, the war made it necessary
teacher and was the wife of former prime minister Joseph for women to work outside the home and take jobs
Aloysius Lyons, who had died two years before she was that traditionally had been dominated by or exclusive
285
Australians Elect First Women to Parliament The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
to men. No major political party, until this time period, few and far between. The government would remain
had endorsed a female candidate. Women did run for of- male dominated until 1983, with the election of trade
fice, but they did so on the tickets of minor parties or as union leader Robert Hawke, of the Labor Party, as prime
independents. minister.
However, not all social and cultural attitudes regard- Tangney, one of the longest-serving women of the
ing gender roles were positive, and change was accom- Australian parliament, served until June, 1968. During
panied by media sarcasm and “putting women in their her tenure, she served on committees such as the Stand-
place.” For example, the media used the term “mother- ing Committee on Regulations and Ordinances, the Se-
hood politics” to describe some of the policy changes lect Committee on the Development of Canberra, and the
that were affecting Australian society. The media made Parliamentary Joint Committee on Social Security. In
frequent references to Lyons as the “mother figure” of 1968, she became the first Western-Australian-born
Australian politics, and Lyons and Tangney were de- woman to be appointed a dame commander of the British
picted upholding traditional gender roles, pouring tea Empire. In 1974, the Tangney federal electoral division
or cutting cake. At the same time, many believed that in Western Australia was named in her honor. In 1999, a
women were by nature morally superior to men and street in Canberra, formerly known as Administration
thus would “clean up” corrupt government and right in- Place, was changed to Dorothy Tangney Place.
justices. Lyons did not serve as long as did Tangney, but in her
Lyons was a conservative Roman Catholic from Aus- time she was responsible for the extension of child en-
tralia’s most provincial area, which may have been a ma- dowment in 1950 and the raising of the allowance paid to
jor factor in making her palatable to, and electable by, women who had returned from military service. She was
Australian voters. Her speeches in Parliament generally appointed dame grand cross of the Order of the British
championed traditional views on the family and other so- Empire in 1957 for her public service and dame of the
cial issues, such as maternity care, child endowment, and Order of Australia in 1980. After her retirement in 1950
education, but “women’s issues” were important to her because of illness, she worked as a newspaper columnist,
as well. She had been one of the founders of the Victorian chaired the Jubilee Women’s Convention in 1951, was a
section of St. Joan’s International Alliance, a feminist member of the Australian Broadcasting Commission,
Catholic organization dedicated to securing political, so- and published two autobiographical books: So We Take
cial, and economic equality between men and women Comfort (1965) and Among the Carrion Crows (1972).
and furthering the civic work of Catholic women. Her In 1973, Tangney and Lyons appeared together on a 45-
political platform during the campaign included a belief cent Australian stamp.
in the rights of women, family issues, maternity care, —Cat Rambo
raising the pension given to widows, and the elimination
of discrimination in employment. Further Reading
By contrast, Tangney was considerably more com- Fabian, Suzanne, and Morag Loh. Left-wing Ladies: The
mitted to an agenda of social reform. Like Lyons, she had Union of Australian Women in Victoria, 1950-1998.
been a teacher, but she espoused more progressive views Flemington, Vic.: Hyland House, 2000. A history of
in her campaign. She worked to extend federal powers women’s participation in liberal, left-wing politics in
over social services and to institute Commonwealth as- Victoria, Australia, in the second half of the twentieth
sistance in education and the development of Australian century.
National University. Lyons’s inaugural speech marked Irving, Helen. To Constitute a Nation: A Cultural History
the first time a woman had addressed the house of repre- of Australia’s Constitution. New York: Cambridge
sentatives. She said of the event, “You can imagine how I University Press, 1999. A thorough examination of the
felt, going there making my first speech. My lips were creation and development of Australia’s constitution.
stiff when I started. I could hardly enunciate a word but I Also discusses women’s and minority issues.
felt the kindness of all these men sitting there wishing me _______, ed. The Centenary Companion to Australian
well.” Federation. New York: Cambridge University Press,
1999. A comprehensive overview and history of the
Significance Australian Federation, which preceded the founding
Despite the historic elections of Lyons and Tangney, in 1901 of the Commonwealth of Australia and its bi-
women in the Australian government continued to be cameral representative government.
286
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Sinatra Establishes Himself as a Solo Performer
Lyons, Joe. Political Love Story: Joe and Enid Lyons. Woollacott, Angela. To Try Her Fortune in London: Aus-
Sydney, N.S.W.: Rainbow, 1988. Written by Enid Ly- tralian Women, Colonialism, and Modernity. New
ons’ son, this book discusses, primarily, the time pe- York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Discusses the
riod before Enid’s husband’s death. It does, however, migration of Australian women to London and their
include several chapters about her later career. impact on the British Empire, including the English
Oldfield, Audrey. Woman Suffrage in Australia. New suffrage movement.
York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. An over- See also: Mar. 15, 1944: France Grants Suffrage to
view of the history of suffrage movements in Austra- Women; May 3, 1947: Japanese Constitution Grants
lia, comparing their struggle with that of suffragists in New Rights to Women; Dec. 20, 1952: United Na-
England and the United States. tions Convention on the Political Rights of Women Is
Sawer, Marian, and Gianni Zappala, eds. Speaking for Approved; 1955-1956: Indian Parliament Approves
the People: Representation in Australian Politics. Women’s Rights Legislation; Jan. 24, 1966: Gandhi
Carlton South, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, Serves as India’s First Female Prime Minister; Nov.
2001. Examines the history of representative gov- 7, 1967: United Nations Issues a Declaration on
ernment in Australia, with a special focus on rep- Equality for Women; Nov. 5, 1968: Chisholm Be-
resenting minority and indigenous populations and comes the First African American Woman Elected to
women. Congress.
1943
September, 1943
Sinatra Establishes Himself as a Solo Performer
After selling a million copies of “All or Nothing at these very serious times, causing bobby-soxers to swoon
All,” crooner Frank Sinatra proved that his box-office in the aisles at his concert performances.
clout was greater than that of the bandleaders for Frank Sinatra had a very good year in 1943. “All or
whom he had fronted. Nothing at All” sold more than a million copies, and by
September was number one on the music charts. Hefty
Also known as: “All or Nothing at All” film and radio contracts and sold-out stage and nightclub
Locale: United States performances attested to Sinatra’s drawing power. No
Categories: Music; entertainment longer was he a mere vocalist doing refrains or an “extra
Key Figures added attraction” tacked on to some stage show headlin-
Frank Sinatra (1915-1998), American singer and actor ing a big band and its leader. He now performed as a solo
Dolly Sinatra (1896-1977), Sinatra’s mother artist, earning more than a million dollars a year.
Harry James (1916-1983), American trumpeter and Legend has it that Frank Sinatra was an overnight sen-
bandleader sation, but that is not true. Sinatra’s career developed
Tommy Dorsey (1905-1956), American trombonist and slowly before his tremendous success beginning in the
orchestra leader early 1940’s. During the 1930’s, Dolly Sinatra, his
George Evans (1902-1950), American press agent and tough-minded mother, lined up singing jobs for him at
Sinatra’s mentor Italian weddings, Irish political rallies, and social clubs
around Hoboken, New Jersey. She even bought him a
Summary of Event portable public address system and provided money for
The early 1940’s in the United States are remembered as orchestrations for bands. Sinatra and his mother bad-
the war years, with the “Free World” fighting against gered music companies, song pluggers, local radio sta-
Germany, Italy, and Japan. Citizens sacrificed to buy war tions, musicians, and semiprofessional pickup bands for
bonds and endured rationing. Entertainment, however, any chance for him to sing.
also flourished. Pinup model Betty Grable’s legs were In the beginning, Sinatra’s voice was not promising. It
insured for a million dollars. Bing Crosby and Bob Hope was high, and some listeners thought it sounded terrible.
produced road pictures. Frank Sinatra, the pencil-thin Neither were his looks an asset. He stood 5′10″ tall,
crooner known as “the Voice,” added to the culture of weighed 138 pounds, and had a 29-inch waist. This
287
Sinatra Establishes Himself as a Solo Performer The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
scrawny frame, his protruding ears, and his sharply angu-

lar face gave him an emaciated look.
In spite of these handicaps, Sinatra was determined to
succeed as a singer. His first important break came when,
as a singing waiter at the Rustic Cabin in Jersey Pali-
sades, he was heard by Harry James. James had formed
his own band in 1939 and was looking for a male vocal-
ist. Sinatra signed on and toured with the band, but dur-
ing their six months together, neither James nor Sinatra
made much of a stir in the music world. Their August,
1939, recording of “All or Nothing at All” sold a disap-
pointing eight thousand copies.
Sinatra joined the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra in Janu-
ary, 1940. This provided an excellent showcase for the
young singer. He was heard on Dorsey records and net-
work radio and seen on the stages of important motion-
picture theaters. He also appeared in several films featur-
ing Dorsey’s orchestra, such as Las Vegas Nights (1941),
which introduced “I’ll Never Smile Again.”
During this time, Sinatra learned how to play to teen-
age audiences, making it appear as though he were star-
ing intently into the eyes of each girl in the audience, as if
she were his inspiration, and seemingly baring his soul
for her alone. He also learned to blend the power and
softness of each song’s wording, creating an intensity Frank Sinatra. (Charles Granata/KEG Productions)
and conviction in what he sang. Most important, Sinatra
watched Dorsey’s seemingly effortless trombone phras-
ing, discovering that although Dorsey appeared not to be tion” on the bill headed by Benny Goodman. The show
taking breaths, he actually was, through a tiny opening at opened on December 30, 1942.
the side of the mouth. Sinatra developed a similar tech- George Evans, a master press agent, entered Sinatra’s
nique for his voice, learning to sing six to eight bars of mu- career at this point. Evans happened to be at a perfor-
sic without a visible breath. Because of his unusual breath mance where an excited girl threw a rose at Sinatra and
control, Sinatra produced flowing, unbroken melodies in another moaned. Evans saw the potential of sensational-
which he could slide gently from one note to another. His izing Sinatra. He became responsible for some of the
singing style made him unique—and marketable. hysteria and bizarre behavior of Sinatra fans at the Para-
Because of Sinatra’s delivery and his growing legion mount Theater, encouraging the establishment of fan
of fans, journalists began to pay more attention to clubs and courting press coverage of invented news
Dorsey’s vocalist than to Dorsey as orchestra leader. events about “Sinatramania.”
Budding star Sinatra pressed for greater prominence of Even Evans could not have foreseen what would hap-
his name on billings. Dorsey became displeased, realiz- pen once he tapped into the fans’ fierce adulation and
ing that Sinatra was upstaging the Dorsey orchestra. Si- hormones. Fans—dubbed “bobby-soxers” because they
natra was equally unhappy, wanting to move on as a solo wore ankle-length socks with saddle shoes—screamed,
act. After bitter litigation, he finally bought out his con- stomped, fainted, tore at Sinatra’s clothing, overturned
tract from the Dorsey organization. cars, and ran under the horses of mounted policemen to
At the time, booking agents were not impressed by ex- get autographs or photos of “The Sigh Guy.” They col-
band singer Sinatra, now detached from the famous lected his hair clippings, repeatedly watched his films,
Dorsey orchestra. When Sinatra found work at the mobbed train stations when he arrived, and adopted his
Mosque Theater in Newark in 1942, however, he was tastes in everything from ice cream to prizefighters. They
heard by the manager of the New York Paramount. This sent hate mail to his critics and picketed vociferously.
led to Sinatra’s being engaged as an “extra added attrac- Shops around theaters sometimes boarded up their win-
288
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Sinatra Establishes Himself as a Solo Performer
dows during his appearances, and the police considered Significance

him to be a traffic hazard. During the 1930’s, male vocalists tried to imitate Bing
An estimated two thousand fan clubs had sprung up Crosby’s casual style of singing. During the 1940’s,
by 1943, including the Bobby Sox Swoonerettes, the they aimed at imitating Sinatra’s “natural” vocalizing, as
Bow-tie-dolizers, and the Hotra Sinatra Club. Some well as following Sinatra’s lead in breaking away from
clubs had their own publications, providing advice on big-band dominance. Sinatra’s chief competitors, in-
writing to Sinatra (who often received more than five cluding Perry Como, Bob Eberle, and Dick Haymes,
thousand fan letters per week), distributing Sinatra but- soon became adept at using some of Sinatra’s styliz-
tons, featuring sentimental portraits of Sinatra’s family ing techniques. For example, they realized that Sinatra
life, listing newly released records and scheduled ap- achieved an amazing intimacy with his audiences through
pearances, and even inventing Sinatra cheers, such as “H his expert handling of the microphone, making it an ex-
and a U and a B, B, A; Hubba, Hubba, Frankie Hey.” tension of his own vocalization to create suspense and
Sinatra broke house attendance records wherever he tension or to suggest innocence and sincerity. Indeed, Si-
appeared, including the Hollywood Bowl in 1943. The natra’s recognition that the microphone was an instru-
Paramount Theater in New York became “the home of ment to be used by a vocalist, rather than merely a device
swoon,” with Sinatra as the Sultan of Swoon. He ap- to convey the voice, was at the heart of his success as a
peared there four years in a row, for a record total of eigh- performer.
teen weeks. His appearance on Columbus Day, 1944, Sinatra’s competitors also picked up on his breath-
provoked a riot when the girls inside the theater refused control techniques, his ability to handle legato phraseol-
to vacate their seats to make room for the next wave of ogy seemingly without breathing and seemingly without
1943
girls. Police officers had to pry them loose. effort. Moreover, they could duplicate his excellent dic-
In 1943, Columbia Records signed Sinatra, wanting tion and, to some extent, even his shadings of vocal color,
him to rerecord “All or Nothing at All,” but a musicians’ the articulation, rhythm, and nuances of words and mu-
strike prevented the recording. Because Sinatra could not sic. No one, however, could duplicate Sinatra’s penchant
refurbish the song, Columbia rereleased the old Harry for singing from the heart about his frustrations, disap-
James 1939 version. The neglected record that had sold pointments in love, and hang-ups. As Sinatra sang, he in-
eight thousand copies in 1939 became an instant classic stinctively became engrossed in the lyrics and music. He
in 1943, selling more than one million copies and estab- lived his songs, and audiences could feel his pain or ec-
lishing Sinatra as a star with clout. Only Bing Crosby be- stasy.
fore him was able to achieve that kind of power without Gradually the smooth, silken voice and the bow-tie
the backing of a name band. image of the young Sinatra gave way to a more “hip,” up-
Also in 1943, Sinatra signed on to radio’s Lucky Strike tempo, laid-back style. He was among the first to use
Hit Parade. With Sinatra’s arrival, the radio program twelve-inch LP (long-playing) albums, well suited for
shifted its longtime emphasis away from brassy bands to building moods. He sequenced new bouncy love ballads
the Sinatra sound. Meanwhile, his films, such as Higher on such albums as Swing Easy! (1954) and Songs for
and Higher (1943) and Reveille with Beverly (1943), Swingin’ Lovers (1956).
cleaned up at the box office. In an Ebony issue in 1958, Sinatra wrote that Billie
Sinatra’s career as a singer and film star declined Holiday had the greatest influence on his singing style
somewhat at the end of the 1940’s and during the early during the 1950’s. He recalled listening to her vocal ren-
1950’s. The bobby-soxers were approaching adulthood. ditions in the 1930’s and being impressed by her sponta-
Sinatra’s private life hit the scandal sheets, and his voice neous sound, the raw, human quality that she brought to
had deepened. To survive, Sinatra had to change. He re- her songs, in part sustained melody mingled with unex-
dedicated himself to his career after winning an Acad- pected spoken phrases. He also noted the autobiographi-
emy Award as Best Supporting Actor in 1954 as the cal nature of her songs, ones associated with her own
feisty Italian underdog Maggio in From Here to Eternity drug and personal problems. These elements eventually
(1953). He moved to Capitol Records, producing his fin- surfaced in Sinatra’s own unique style of the 1950’s and
est works, and he launched successful nightclub appear- 1960’s.
ances, concerts, and television variety-show perfor- Sinatra also acknowledged his debt to Mabel Mercer,
mances, entering one of the most prolific phases of his particularly for her meticulous attention to the shadings
career. of words. Moreover, Sinatra formed a stylistic bond with
289
Sinatra Establishes Himself as a Solo Performer The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
some of the jazz greats of the 1940’s and 1950’s, includ- Pleasants, Henry. The Great American Popular Singers.
ing Count Basie, Peggy Lee, Louis Armstrong, and Ella New York: Simon & Schuster, 1974. Although only
Fitzgerald. All these kindred spirits interpreted their one essay focuses on Sinatra, the author juxtaposes
songs in a seemingly artless fashion, with a natural con- Sinatra’s talents with America’s great singers in other
versational ease, using slight rhythmic jerks of head and essays. Because of Pleasants’s expertise in Western
shoulders, finger snapping and hip swaying, bending and classical music, he can technically assess Sinatra’s
teasing the rhythms of words and music. The inimitable music talents better than most.
Sinatra always found his own style and interpretation, in- Pugliese, Stanislao G., ed. Frank Sinatra: History, Iden-
corporating his animated storytelling powers and the in- tity, and Italian American Culture. New York: Pal-
trospective vocalizations associated with the highs and grave Macmillan, 2004. Collection of critical essays
lows of his own personal life. on Sinatra and cultural history, focusing on both
—Richard Whitworth American and Italian American culture. Biblio-
Further Reading
Rockwell, John. Sinatra: An American Classic. New
Hamill, Pete. Why Sinatra Matters. Boston: Little,
York: Random House, 1984. Expands and updates
Brown, 2003. Examination of the importance of
Henry Pleasants’s assessment of Sinatra as the great-
Frank Sinatra to American culture and to musical and
est American pop singer of the twentieth century.
cinematic history. Bibliographic references and film-
Sinatra, Nancy. Frank Sinatra, My Father. Garden City,
ography.
N.Y.: Doubleday, 1985. Thoughtful commentary
Kahn, Ely J., Jr. The Voice: The Story of an American
from an insider of the Sinatra clan on how her fa-
Phenomenon. New York: Harper, 1947. A Sinatra
ther survived for decades in the brutal music world.
profile, appearing in The New Yorker, provides valu-
The book tells Sinatra’s side of controversies sur-
able data from a Sinatra contemporary on the young
rounding him.
singer and on the strange behavior and adoration of
his fans during the early 1940’s. Funny and revealing. See also: Mar. 28, 1946: Parker’s Playing Epitomizes
Kelley, Kitty. His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Bebop; Oct. 3, 1946: Mahalia Jackson Begins Her Re-
Frank Sinatra. New York: Bantam Books, 1986. cording Career; Jan. 21, 1949-Mar. 9, 1950: Davis
Controversial biography of Sinatra clawing his way Develops 1950’s Cool Jazz; June 11, 1949: Hank Wil-
up the greased pole of entertainment, emphasizing the liams Performs on The Grand Ole Opry; Spring,
lurid and sensational. For balance, read Nancy Sina- 1955: Berry’s “Maybellene” Popularizes Rock and
tra’s affectionate examination of her father’s life and Roll; 1956-1957: Presley Becomes a Rock-and-Roll
times. Sensation.
290
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Waksman Discovers the Antibiotic Streptomycin
September, 1943-March, 1944

Waksman Discovers the Antibiotic Streptomycin
Selman Abraham Waksman, who coined the word organisms intermediate between bacteria and fungi. His
“antibiotic,” searched for antibacterial substances in research included a study funded by the National Tuber-
soil microorganisms, discovering eighteen antibiotics, culosis Association on the fate of the tubercle bacillus
including streptomycin, the first drug effective against when introduced into soil. From 1932 to 1935, Waksman
tuberculosis. established that the germ could not survive because of
the antagonism of soil microbes. This finding substanti-
Locale: New Brunswick, New Jersey ated the fact already known that pathogenic germs intro-
Categories: Health and medicine; biology; chemistry duced to soil disappeared. At the time, his finding did not
Key Figures seem to lead to anything new; it was only another exam-
Selman Abraham Waksman (1888-1973), Soviet-born ple of microbes inhibiting other microbes.
American soil microbiologist and 1952 Nobel Dubos obtained his doctorate under Waksman in
laureate in physiology or medicine 1927 and then worked at the Rockefeller Institute in New
René Dubos (1901-1982), French-born American who York. He came to wonder what would happen if soil were
was the first to demonstrate the feasibility of enriched with pathogenic germs. He pondered if perhaps
obtaining antibiotics from microorganisms their introduction would encourage soil microbes antag-
William Hugh Feldman (1892-1974), American onistic to them to flourish. In February, 1939, Dubos an-
pathologist who developed, with H. Corwin nounced that he had tracked down such an antagonistic
1943
Hinshaw, the first effective chemotherapy of microorganism, Bacillus brevis, and from it isolated two
tuberculosis antibacterial substances, tyrocidine and gramicidin. The
H. Corwin Hinshaw (1902-2000), American latter proved to be the first true antibiotic drug, attack-
bacteriologist who studied the antitubercular effects ing pneumococcus, staphylococcus, and streptococcus
of sulfa drugs, sulfones, and antibiotics on animals germs. Too toxic for human therapy, it came into use in
treating animals, arousing public interest when at the
Summary of Event 1939 New York World’s Fair, sixteen of the Borden
The discovery of streptomycin was not a matter of cow herd developed a streptococcal udder infection, and
chance as was penicillin; it was the result of a well- gramicidin cured twelve of the cows of the bacteria.
planned program of research. Some microbiologists in Dubos’s discovery alerted scientists to the possibil-
the late nineteenth century believed in a struggle for exis- ity of finding other powerful drugs in microorganisms.
tence in the microbial world, and in 1889 Paul Vuillemin When Baron Florey and Ernst Boris Chain in England,
used the word “antibiosis” in reference to this natural an- who were then preparing a purely academic survey of
tagonism between species. Some microbiologists also microbial antagonisms, learned of gramicidin, they be-
believed microbes contained substances that inhibited came aware immediately of the chemotherapeutic poten-
the growth of other microbes. There were attempts to iso- tial of penicillin, an antibacterial mold substance found
late chemotherapeutic agents from molds and bacteria, by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, but never regarded as
but the field was abandoned in the early twentieth cen- anything more than a laboratory curiosity for more than
tury as barren until the reawakening of interest in such ten years. As a result, Florey and Chain began their clas-
agents by René Dubos in the 1930’s. sic investigation of penicillin.
Dubos was a student of Selman Abraham Waksman. The central figure in exploiting this field, however,
Both men emigrated to the United States in their twen- was Waksman. He seized on Dubos’s work and con-
ties. Waksman spent his entire career at Rutgers Univer- verted his research on soil actinomycetes into a search
sity, becoming the leading figure in soil microbiology in for antibacterial substances in them. The actinomycetes
the United States. He was extraordinarily prolific, pro- proved to be the most fertile source for antibiotics.
ducing more than five hundred articles and twenty-eight Waksman coined and defined the word “antibiotic” in
books. His expertise was the population of microorgan- 1941 for the novel drugs found in microbes. He devel-
isms that inhabit the soil. He elaborated the ecology, tax- oped soil enrichment methods and discovered eighteen
onomy, and physiology of thousands of species. He spe- antibiotics between 1940 and 1958. He cultured thou-
cialized in one type of soil microbe, the actinomycetes, sands of soil microbes in artificial media and screened
291
Waksman Discovers the Antibiotic Streptomycin The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
them for activity. The promising ones were then chemi- vealed streptomycin’s ability to reverse the lethal course
cally processed to isolate antibiotics. of the inoculations, and they concluded that it was highly
Streptomycin was the most important of Waksman’s effective in inhibiting the germ, exerting a striking sup-
discoveries. In September, 1943, with his students Eliza- pressive effect, and was well tolerated by the animals.
beth Bugie and Albert Schatz, he isolated a soil actino- Feldman and Hinshaw were now ready to test human
mycete, Streptomyces griseus, which contained an anti- patients. Merck agreed to supply the streptomycin for
biotic he named “streptomycin.” It was antagonistic to the tests. Hinshaw enlisted two physicians from a nearby
gram-negative bacteria. His report appeared in January, sanitarium. On November 20, 1944, and for the next
1944, and two months later, another article claimed six months, a twenty-one-year-old woman with far-
that streptomycin was active against the deadly tubercle advanced pulmonary tuberculosis (one of her lungs al-
germ, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ready subjected to surgery, the other being eaten away)
Waksman wondered if streptomycin would be active received streptomycin. In June of 1945, she was dis-
against laboratory cultures of pathogenic germs, as well charged, her tuberculosis arrested; she married eventu-
as in living animals. He established an arrangement with ally and had three children. This happy ending was fol-
the drug manufacturer Merck. Merck would support lowed by many more. Hinshaw and his associates made a
his research and do extensive animal testing. In return, preliminary report on thirty-four patients in 1945 and a
Merck had the right to apply for patents on any processes fuller evaluation of one hundred cases in 1946. Strepto-
it developed. Rutgers University would receive royalties mycin succeeded in the treatment of tuberculosis of the
from the sale of products. The Waksman group and lungs, skin, bones, joints, meninges, and genito-urinary
Merck tests indicated streptomycin activity on germs organs. The antibiotic brought humans back from the
against which penicillin was useless. Above all, strepto- edge of death.
mycin had activity against the tubercle bacillus, which Toxic effects also emerged in the form of injury to the
raised the possibility of therapy against the most resis- organ of equilibrium in the ear and deafness in some
tant, irreversible of all common infectious diseases: tu- cases. These were sometimes transitory, sometimes per-
berculosis. manent, and related to the dose and duration of therapy.
In the 1940’s, tuberculosis had not been fully under By carefully using streptomycin between a range of too
control. There had been no cure, only prolonged bed rest little and too much of the drug, the damage and injury
and a regimen of nutritious food. The tubercle germ could be minimized.
could invade any organ of the body, and in its various
forms, the disease took a horrifying toll. A diagnosis of
tuberculosis entailed lifelong disability, and patients
died because the available treatment was so limited.
The medical world took notice of the clinical tests
conducted by William Hugh Feldman and H. Corwin
Hinshaw at the Mayo Clinic. The two researchers had
been investigating the chemotherapy of tuberculosis in
the 1930’s. Many scientists believed that such therapy
was unattainable, but they refused to accept this verdict.
They worked with sulfa drugs and sulfones and found
some effect in suppressing the growth of tubercle bacilli,
but not their eradication. Feldman visited Waksman be-
fore Waksman’s discovery of streptomycin and indi-
cated his desire to try any promising antibiotics.
When Waksman found antitubercular effects in 1944,
he wrote at once to Feldman to offer streptomycin for his
studies. Feldman and Hinshaw had developed a practical
system to determine the ability of a drug to slow the course
of tuberculosis in guinea pigs. They used streptomycin
on guinea pigs inoculated with the tubercle germ. In De-
cember, 1944, they issued their first report. The tests re- Selman Abraham Waksman. (The Nobel Foundation)
292
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Waksman Discovers the Antibiotic Streptomycin
Feldman and Hinshaw deserve the credit for the reve- Combination therapy proved the key to the future of
lation of the efficacy of streptomycin against tuberculo- chemotherapy, as the combination delayed the appear-
sis. They demonstrated its value in carefully constructed ance of resistant strains. Better drugs soon appeared, the
trials. Some observers believe that they should have most potent being isoniazid. Known to chemists since
shared the 1952 Nobel Prize with Waksman. 1912 but of no value until 1952, three pharmaceutical
companies independently found isoniazid to be as effec-
Significance tive as streptomycin. The two drugs in combination be-
With the realization that streptomycin was the first effec- came the standard initial therapy against tuberculosis. By
tive chemotherapeutic remedy for tuberculosis, Waks- 1970, there were eleven drugs in all, and by the judicious
man and Merck agreed that no company should have a use of combinations, physicians could achieve recovery
monopoly on its commercial production. Merck agreed in nearly all cases of pulmonary tuberculosis.
to transfer its rights to Rutgers, which would license By the end of the 1950’s, new cases of tuberculosis
companies to produce it. By 1948, eight firms were man- had diminished to the extent that the disease seemed on
ufacturers. With the increased availability of the drug, the way to extinction, at least in the developed countries
the most extensive study of a single drug ever undertaken of the world. The enthusiasm for the chemotherapy of
took place as the manufacturers donated streptomycin at tuberculosis, however, was not always matched by the
an estimated value of $1 million for a large-scale cooper- recipients. A combination of indifference, refusal of
ative series of clinical trials involving several thousand treatment, and lack of access to adequate medical care,
tubercular patients. Major testing took place at the Cor- especially among lower socioeconomic groups, kept tu-
nell Medical School, which studied the most acute forms berculosis alive.
1943
of tuberculosis—tubercular meningitis and miliary tu- In the United States, tuberculosis strikes those who
berculosis—hitherto 100 percent fatal. The most chronic are homeless or live in crowded, unsanitary conditions;
form was pulmonary, and the National Tuberculosis As- have inadequate diets; or are drug addicts, alcoholics, or
sociation sponsored studies of this form. living with AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syn-
The Veterans Administration organized a third major drome), whose immune system has been weakened.
trial at its hospitals to test thousands of World War II vet- Drug therapy can control and cure tuberculosis, but the
erans discharged with tuberculosis. The Public Health patient must continue a medication of two or more drugs
Service sponsored another clinical trial. These trials es- daily from a minimum of nine months to two years or
tablished streptomycin’s effectiveness. One result was a more. Once a patient feels well again, he or she often
remarkable decline in tuberculosis mortality, especially abandons the treatment before completion. By stopping
among children. By 1950, streptomycin found use before completion, a person is not cured, the disease re-
against seventy different germs against which penicillin turns, and he or she can infect others, thereby producing
was useless. In addition to tuberculosis, these included new cases. Tuberculosis remains the leading cause of
several gram-negative infections of the abdomen, pelvis, death in the world among infectious diseases.
urinary tract, and meninges. —Albert B. Costa
Waksman did more than discover a major antibiotic;
his work encouraged others to attempt to isolate them Further Reading
by means of screening programs similar to those he Dowling, Harry F. Fighting Infection: Conquests of
devised. The 1950’s witnessed a large increase in the the Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
number of antibiotics, and antibiotics became a large University Press, 1977. Dowling considers the antibi-
industry with total production of more than 9 million otics, sulfa drugs, vaccines, and serums that have
pounds in 1955. played a noteworthy role in combating and preventing
Streptomycin was not perfect. As early as 1946, re- infectious disease. This is one of the best books on
ports appeared on the resistance of bacilli. Such resistant the control of diseases in the twentieth century and
strains could be responsible for the failure of therapy. includes an expert account of streptomycin and its
New drugs came to the rescue of streptomycin. In the clinical trials.
1940’s, Swedish investigators found para-aminosali- Epstein, Samuel, and Beryl Williams. Miracles from Mi-
cylic acid to inhibit the tubercle bacillus, although not as crobes: The Road to Streptomycin. New Brunswick,
effectively as streptomycin. In 1949, the Veterans Ad- N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1946. This is a
ministration combined the two drugs. straightforward record of Waksman’s research that
293
Western Allies Invade Italy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
produced streptomycin. The authors include a chapter Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2006. A history of
on Dubos and his discovery of gramicidin. medicine and medical discoveries with chapters on
Lappé, Marc. Germs That Won’t Die. Garden City, N.Y.: streptomycin and penicillin.
Doubleday, 1982. Important for the documentation Waksman, Selman A. The Conquest of Tuberculosis.
and discussion of the overuse and misuse of antibiot- Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964. Dis-
ics, the rise of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, cusses tuberculosis, including its long history, spread,
and the danger they represent to human health. diagnosis, discovery of the tubercle microbe, treat-
Lechevalier, Hubert A., and Morris Solotorovsky. Three ments, tests, preventive measures, and the develop-
Centuries of Microbiology. 1965. Corrected reprint. ment of the chemotherapy of tuberculosis. For a wide
New York: Dover, 1974. The authors reconstruct the audience.
main lines of development of microbiology. The lon- _______. My Life with the Microbes. New Brunswick,
gest section is on chemotherapy with a fine narrative N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1954. A solid,
on Waksman and on the work of Feldman and Hin- straightforward, and accessible narrative of Waks-
shaw at the Mayo Clinic. man’s life and work. Provides details of Waksman’s
Levy, Stuart B. The Antibiotic Paradox: How the Misuse career, his relations with other scientists, and the pub-
of Antibiotics Destroys Their Curative Powers. Cam- lic’s response to his antibiotic discoveries.
bridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2001. A leading researcher in
molecular biology explores a modern-day evolution- See also: Summer, 1945: Duggar Develops the First
ary change in bacteria because of misuse of antibiotics. Tetracycline Antibiotic; Nov., 1947: First Broad-
Sneader, Walter. Drug Discovery: A History. Hoboken, Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered; July 2, 1952: Salk
N.J.: Wiley, 2005. More than a compilation of drugs, Develops a Polio Vaccine; 1957: Isaacs and Linden-
this work provides an interesting narrative of the ori- mann Discover Interferons; 1957: Sabin Develops the
gins, development, and history of drugs with espe- Oral Polio Vaccine; 1967: World Health Organiza-
cially significant social and medical import. Includes tion Intensifies Its Campaign to Eradicate Smallpox;
discussion of antibiotics. June, 1967: Scientists Debate the Addition of Antibi-
Straus, Eugene W., and Alex Straus. Medical Marvels: otics to Animal Feed; 1969: German Measles Vaccine
The One Hundred Greatest Advances in Medicine. Is Developed.
September 3-18, 1943

Western Allies Invade Italy
World War II Allies invaded Italy, forcing the Germans Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), supreme
to use troops and resources that might have been used commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force
in northern France. The operation was a major factor in Albert Kesselring (1885-1960), German commander in
the collapse of Benito Mussolini’s Fascist government chief, South
and in Italy’s declaration of war on the Germans. Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), commander of
the British Eighth Army
Locale: Italy Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), prime minister of Italy,
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil 1922-1943
unrest George S. Patton (1885-1945), commander of the U.S.
Key Figures Seventh Army
Harold Alexander (1891-1969), British commander of
the Fifteenth Army Group and later first Earl Summary of Event
Alexander of Tunis, 1952-1969 One of the decisions made by President Franklin D. Roo-
Pietro Badoglio (1871-1956), prime minister of Italy, sevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill at the Casa-
1943-1944 blanca Conference in February of 1943 was to occupy
Mark W. Clark (1896-1984), commander of the U.S. the island of Sicily to ensure the safety of Allied shipping
Fifth Army lines in the Mediterranean. At the time, no decision was
294
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Western Allies Invade Italy
made as to an invasion of the Italian mainland. General Hitler. A meeting between Mussolini and Hitler, in which
Dwight D. Eisenhower was given overall military com- Mussolini requested the transfer of Italian divisions from
mand of the Mediterranean theater, while General Har- the Russian front to be used in the defense of Italy, had
old Alexander was in command of the invasion force, the brought no results. During a subsequent meeting of the
Fifteenth Army Group. Fascist Grand Council on July 24, Mussolini was handed
The Invasion of Sicily was preceded by the capture of a vote of no confidence. On the following day, he was
a small garrison on the island of Pantelleria on June 11, dismissed from office by the king of Italy, Victor Em-
1943. The Germans were not convinced that the capture manuel III, arrested, and spirited away to a hotel on the
of this island pointed to an invasion of Sicily, but were Gran Sasso in the Abbruzzi Mountains.
tricked by a British ruse that sug-
gested that an Allied invasion of Sar-
dinia was forthcoming. What Is Fascism?
Following a monthlong bombard-
ment of Axis air bases, the Fifteenth Benito Mussolini outlined Italian Fascism in “The Doctrine of Fascism”
Army Group, consisting of the Brit- (1932), written for an Italian encyclopedia:
ish Eighth Army under General
. . . Fascism could not be understood in many of its practical manifestations
Montgomery and the U.S. Seventh
as a party organization, as a system of education, as a discipline, if it were not
Army commanded by General always looked at in the light of its whole way of conceiving life, a spiritualized
George S. Patton, carried out two way. The world seen through Fascism is not this material world which appears
separate landings on the southern on the surface, in which man is an individual separated from all others and
1943
coast of Sicily on July 9 and July 10. standing by himself, and in which he is governed by a natural law that makes
Supported by naval gunfire and air- him instinctively live a life of selfish and momentary pleasure. The man of Fas-
borne operations, the Allies landed cism is an individual who is nation and fatherland, which is a moral law, bind-
160,000 troops on the island. The ing together individuals and the generations into a tradition and a mission, sup-
Allies benefited greatly from supe- pressing the instinct for a life enclosed within the brief round of pleasure in
rior air power, having thirty-seven order to restore within duty a higher life free from the limits of time and space:
a life in which the individual, through the denial of himself, through the sacri-
hundred planes as opposed to six-
fice of his own private interests, through death itself, realizes that completely
teen hundred Axis aircraft. Although
spiritual existence in which his value as a man lies.
the landing itself went relatively Therefore it is a spiritualized conception, itself the result of the general reac-
smoothly, tragedy struck when U.S. tion of modern times against the flabby materialistic positivism of the nine-
airborne drops encountered friendly teenth century. Anti-positivistic, but positive: not sceptical, nor agnostic, nor
fire. Montgomery’s forces ran into pessimistic, nor passively optimistic, as are, in general, the doctrines (all nega-
some stubborn German resistance tive) that put the centre of life outside man, who with his free will can and must
south of Catania, while Patton, whose create his own world. Fascism desires an active man, one engaged in activity
forces had landed on the left flank, with all his energies . . . .
first moved through western Sicily Against individualism, the Fascist conception is for the State; and it is for
and later assisted the British. On the individual in so far as he coincides with the State, which is the conscience
and universal will of man in his historical existence. It is opposed to classical
August 17, both forces arrived in
Liberalism, which arose from the necessity of reacting against absolutism, and
Messina, on the northern tip of the is-
which brought its historical purpose to an end when the State was transformed
land. In spite of complete Allied air into the conscience and will of the people. Liberalism denied the State in the in-
superiority, the Germans had man- terests of the particular individual; Fascism reaffirms the State as the true real-
aged to evacuate more than 100,000 ity of the individual. And if liberty is to be the attribute of the real man, and not
troops and a considerable number of of that abstract puppet envisaged by individualistic Liberalism, Fascism is for
vehicles to the Italian mainland. liberty. And for the only liberty which can be a real thing, the liberty of the
The fall of Sicily was a major State and of the individual within the State. Therefore, for the Fascist, every-
factor in the collapse of Benito Mus- thing is in the State, and nothing human or spiritual exists, much less has value,
solini’s government. The Fascist outside the State. In this sense Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State, the
leadership had become increasingly synthesis and unity of all values, interprets, develops and gives strength to the
whole life of the people.
disenchanted with Mussolini, in par-
ticular with his alliance with Adolf
295
Western Allies Invade Italy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Mussolini was succeeded as prime minister by Mar- tended to surprise the defenders by forgoing preparatory
shal Pietro Badoglio, a former Fascist leader whose em- naval bombardment, was faced with counterattacks from
issaries had negotiated secretly with the Allies in Lisbon the Germans that almost turned the entire invasion into a
and Madrid. Badoglio’s problem was to make peace with disaster. Only with the help of skillful naval gunnery, ar-
the Allies and extricate Italy from the war, while prevent- tillery, and considerable air support could the invasion
ing the Germans from defending Italy against an ex- force maintain its precarious positions on the beach. By
pected Allied invasion. September 18, the beachhead was at last secured and the
The collapse of the Fascist government in Italy German offensive could be checked. Montgomery, after
brought to the fore the still unresolved issue of the entire some prompting to accelerate, at last had managed to
purpose of the Italian campaign. U.S. military planners make contact with the beachhead on September 16.
had insisted all along that the Italian campaign was to be
Significance
no more than a secondary effort, insisting that the pri-
The Germans realized that their failure to drive the Allies
mary Allied effort had to be Operation Overlord, the
back into the sea left them only one option: a gradual
Normandy invasion. In their view, the purpose of the
withdrawal northward beyond Naples, where they had
Italian campaign was merely to force the Germans to
established a strong defensive zone, the so-called Winter
commit troops and resources in the Italian theater to pre-
line or Gustav line. The Allied campaign to penetrate this
vent their use on the eastern front and, more important,
line met with little success. In an effort to break the stale-
against an Allied invasion in Normandy. On the other
mate, the Allies, on January 22, 1944, resorted to a land-
hand, British military planners—perhaps with an eye to-
ing behind the German lines on the beaches at Anzio. In
ward postwar settlements in the Balkans—assigned far
spite of initial successes, the effort bogged down, and
greater importance to the Italian theater. The conflict of
during four months on the beachhead, the Allies had to
opinion was reflected in that it took until the end of July
evacuate more than thirty thousand casualties. Follow-
to authorize an invasion of the Italian peninsula.
ing a combined air-ground offensive, a breakthrough
On September 3, an armistice was signed between It-
was at last effected, and Allied troops entered Rome on
aly and the Allies. By mid-October, the Badoglio gov-
June 4, two days before the Normandy invasion.
ernment had declared war on Germany and was recog-
The Allied drive toward the new German defensive
nized by the Allies as a cobelligerent. Although the
positions south of Bologna—the so-called Gothic line—
announcement of the Italian capitulation took many Ger-
again bogged down, and the offensive could not be re-
mans by surprise, Hitler had prepared for such an even-
sumed until the spring of 1945. Bologna fell on April 21,
tuality ever since Mussolini’s overthrow by ordering
only a few days before Mussolini was captured and
troops to assemble for possible entry into Italy. Thus, by
executed by partisans. In fact, since March, 1945, Schutz-
the beginning of September, the Germans had eight divi-
staffel (SS) General Karl Wolff secretly had been negoti-
sions in readiness in the north of Italy, in addition to Field
ating surrender terms for the German forces in Italy with
Marshall Albert Kesselring’s forces in southern Italy.
Allen Dulles, the chief of the American Office of Strate-
The invasion of the Italian mainland began on Sep-
gic Services in Switzerland. Fighting in Italy ceased on
tember 3. It involved the movement of two British divi-
May 2, 1945, five days before the final capitulation of
sions under General Bernard Law Montgomery across
Germany.
the narrow Straits of Messina into Calabria. On Septem-
—Helmut J. Schmeller
ber 9, another British division landed at Taranto. The
Italians were unprepared for the invasions, but the Ger- Further Reading
mans reacted quickly, occupying Rome and airfields in Axelrod, Alan. Patton: A Biography. New York: Pal-
the vicinity, thereby putting an end to any hopes for a grave Macmillan, 2006. A biographical account of
possible Allied airborne operation in the area. General Patton’s legacy, with the chapter “Conqueror
Unlike the invasions in Calabria and Taranto, which of Sicily,” which discusses his leadership during the
met with virtually no resistance, Allied landings at Sa- Sicilian invasion.
lerno (Operation Avalanche) on September 9 met with Breuer, William B. Drop Zone Sicily: Allied Airborne
stiff resistance. An invasion force of 55,000 troops for Strike, July, 1943. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press,
the initial landings, with another 115,000 to follow, was 1983. An account of airborne operations, based
confronted by a much smaller contingent of German de- largely on interviews with participants. Photographs,
fenders. Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, who had in- maps, index.
296
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Black Wednesday Demonstrates Dangers of Smog
Clark, Mark W. Calculated Risk. New York: Harper Kitchen, Martin. “Italy and the Balkans.” In A World in
Brothers, 1950. Memoirs of General Clark, covering Flames: A Short History of the Second World War in
the period from July, 1940, to the Moscow Confer- Europe and Asia, 1939-1945. New York: Longman,
ence of 1947. Excellent description of the Italian cam- 1990. Concise interpretation that places military
paign. Photographs, maps, index. events in a broader political context. Maps and index.
Graham, Dominick, and Shelford Bidwell. Tug of War: Liddell Hart, B. H. History of the Second World War.
The Battle for Italy, 1943-1945. New York: St. Mar- New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1971. Comprehen-
tin’s Press, 1986. Comprehensive, lucid account of a sive, authoritative analysis of the strategic and tactical
campaign that assumed unintended proportions. aspects of the war. More than fifty excellent maps;
Maps, index, chronology. general and subject index.
Haycock, D. J. Eisenhower and the Art of Warfare: A Tomblin, Barbara Brooks. With Utmost Spirit: Allied
Critical Appraisal. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, Naval Operations in the Mediterranean, 1942-1945.
2004. Examines the tactical warfare of General Eisen- Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2004. A
hower and his troops, with chapters on the Allied in- thorough history of Allied operations in the Mediter-
vasion of Sicily and of Italy. ranean region during World War II, with chapters on
Hickey, Des, and Gus Smith. Operation Avalanche: The the Sicilian campaign, Messina, Salerno, and Opera-
Salerno Landings, 1943. New York: McGraw-Hill, tion Avalanche.
1984. A day-by-day account, based on eyewitness re- See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
ports and historical documentation. Discusses tactical European Theater; May 20-June 1, 1941: Germany
conceptions of Clark and Kesselring. Photographs, Invades Crete; Dec. 11, 1941: Germany and Italy De-
1943
maps, index. clare War on the United States; July 9-Aug. 17, 1943:
Keegan, John. “Italy and the Balkans.” In The Second Allied Forces Invade Sicily; June 6, 1944: Invasion of
World War. New York: Viking, 1989. Analyzes the Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe; July 25,
war periodically and thematically. Focuses on strate- 1944: Allied Forces Break German Front in France;
gic dilemmas faced by Axis and Allied leaders. Pho- May 8, 1945: V-E Day Marks the End of World
tographs, maps, index. War II in Europe.
September 8, 1943
Black Wednesday Demonstrates Dangers of Smog
“Black Wednesday,” a photochemical pollution not the first occurrence of pollution over the Los Angeles
episode in Los Angeles, demonstrated for the first time basin; Spanish mariners were the first to look out over the
the extent of the health dangers posed by smog. It basin and see what would later be known as smog. The
resulted in the first governmental actions designed to name the sailors gave to the area was the Bay of Smokes.
address the smog problem in Los Angeles. By the early 1940’s, residents’ complaints of burning
eyes and irritated throats were increasing. A streetcar
Locale: Los Angeles, California strike in July, 1943, caused more people to drive, in-
Categories: Environmental issues; health and creasing the number of automobiles on the streets and
medicine highways. As a result, a heavy layer of smog developed.
Key Figure The streetcar strike ended on July 23, but the smog re-
A. J. Haagen-Smit (1900-1977), professor at the mained and even increased in concentration. On Mon-
California Institute of Technology day, July 26, the air pollution reached its maximum con-
centration, and the episode was referred to as a “gas
Summary of Event attack,” a term that had ominous overtones in connection
On Wednesday, September 8, 1943, Los Angeles, Cali- with World War II.
fornia, experienced a new—or more severe—type of air The war had brought a large infusion of industry to
pollution that caused plant damage, eye irritation, crack- California, and Los Angeles was experiencing increased
ing of stretched rubber, and a decrease in visibility. It was effluents in the air from dirty smokestacks; at that time,
297
Black Wednesday Demonstrates Dangers of Smog The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
few pollution controls existed in heavy industry. In 1943 area for four days or more. An unusual set of topographic
alone, Southern California received $8 billion in war and climatic factors exists in Los Angeles, however,
contracts. Manufacturing jobs in the region increased making the area prone to persistent pollution concentra-
from 152,000 in 1940 to 446,000 in 1943. The increase in tion.
economic development also meant a substantial increase Topographically, Los Angeles lies in a basin with
in Los Angeles’s population. The increase in population high mountains to the north and east. Offshore, a persis-
entailed an increase in automobile traffic as well. How- tent high-pressure system is extant most of the year, es-
ever, most observers assumed that the evident rise in air pecially during summer and early fall. Subsidence in this
pollution in the city was a function of industrial pollution air mass produces hot, dry air in the upper levels. Below,
rather than automobile exhaust. a cold ocean current of upwelling bottom water parallels
On September 8, 1943, a dense cloud of pollution the coast slightly offshore. Westerly winds, moving
hovered over Los Angeles, and the Los Angeles Times across this upwelling, are chilled from below, creating a
dubbed the day Black Wednesday. People realized that cool, moist layer of air near the surface.
something was wrong and that action must be taken to al- Weak southerly and southwesterly winds move the
leviate the problem. The source of the pollution was cool, moist air up the low, sloping plain of the Los An-
quickly but erroneously identified as a synthetic rubber geles Basin. Mountain barriers around the city prevent
factory in Boyle Heights. further movement of air inland. With cool, moist air
During World War II, one of the major supply short- overlaid by hot, dry air, a temperature inversion is pro-
ages was of natural rubber. By 1943, 97 percent of the na- duced. Because the temperature inversion is trapped by
tion’s previous sources of crude rubber were controlled mountains, the potential exists for it to last for several
by the Japanese. Brazil’s rubber plantations were the days. The probability of a pollution episode is higher un-
only sources left outside Axis control, and Brazilian pro- der such topographical conditions than it would be in ar-
duction was insufficient. The solution to this problem eas where a stagnating high-pressure system alone pro-
was a fairly new invention, synthetic rubber. A gas plant duces a temperature inversion.
in Boyle Heights was converted to produce a synthetic In terms of composition, two types of urban atmo-
called butadiene, an essential constituent in the produc- spheres are recognized. The traditional atmosphere, ex-
tion of synthetic rubber. Butadiene is a flammable, gas- emplified by that of New York City, is characterized by
eous hydrocarbon derived from petroleum, and one re- particulate smog, a combination of smoke and fog com-
sult of its production was a highly malodorous effluent. posed largely of suspended particulate matter. The mod-
The plant’s production of butadiene seemed the most ern atmosphere is epitomized by that of Los Angeles,
likely cause of Black Wednesday. which experiences photochemical smog rather than par-
With the apparent source of the smog identified, offi- ticulate smog. Photochemical smog is a complex mixture
cials attempted to correct the situation. The rubber of products formed by the interaction of sunlight with ni-
plant’s hours of operation were reduced, and special fil- tric oxide, hydrocarbons, and other air pollutants found
ters were installed. The smog, however, persisted. The in automobile exhaust, as well as power plant emissions
plant was closed so that built-in pollution controls could and the effluvia of petroleum refining and storage facili-
be added. Installation was completed in mid-December ties.
and appeared to be a success: The smog was gone. Offi- Ensuing years brought the realization that negative ef-
cials were as yet unaware, however, of the influence of fects of smog were as bad upwind of the Boyle Heights
seasonal meteorological conditions—particularly of plant as downwind. Moreover, the presence of irritant
temperature inversions—upon smog levels. gases miles away from the rubber plant indicated that the
A temperature inversion is a situation in which the air problem existed region-wide. The first reaction to this re-
temperature is higher at higher altitudes than it is at lower alization was to ban stationary pollution sources, such as
altitudes. Southern California is less likely to experience outdoor burning, backyard incinerators, and smudge
a temperature inversion in winter than in summer or early pots. Industries were ordered to install scrubbers on their
fall, because the Pacific high-pressure system is farther stacks. Still, smog remained.
south during the winter than it is at those other times of By 1947, the problem was severe enough that civic or-
year. Moreover, in other parts of the world, a pollution ganizations protested through the news media. In 1948,
episode would be caused by the combination of a temper- the state legislature passed a law permitting the forma-
ature inversion and light winds occurring over a given tion of air-pollution control districts. That same year, Los
298
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Black Wednesday Demonstrates Dangers of Smog
Angeles formed a pollution control district. The agency Nixon in 1970. Over time, progress began to be made
first attempted to control industries and open burning. As both in Los Angeles and throughout the nation in control-
a result, visibility in Los Angeles improved, but eye irri- ling automotive air pollution. Such progress was ham-
tation and other problems persisted. Studies of Los An- pered, however, by the competing interests of health,
geles smog were undertaken to find the sources of the re- business, and consumer convenience.
maining problems. —Ralph D. Cross
By 1950, Los Angeles smog was identified as photo-
Further Reading
chemical. In 1951, Professor A. J. Haagen-Smit of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
California Institute of Technology published a paper in
“Photochemical Air Pollution.” In Air Conservation:
which he demonstrated that in the presence of sunlight,
The Report of the Air Conservation Commission of the
hydrocarbons and nitric dioxide reacted to form a variety
AAAS. Washington, D.C.: Author, 1965. A very good
of oxidation products such as ozone, which could ac-
account of photochemical air pollution, which uses
count for the effects in Los Angeles.
Los Angeles as an example. Covers sources, reac-
Following Haagen-Smit’s work, the officials set out
tions, impacts, and controls.
to control the leakage of gasoline vapors from storage
Elsom, Derek. Smog Alert: Managing Urban Air Qual-
tanks in order to rectify the situation. When this action
ity. London: Earthscan, 1996. Study addressing possi-
failed to achieve the desired effect, the officials finally
ble solutions to air polution. Includes case studies of
concluded that the approximately 2.5 million automo-
different cities, which explain how Los Angeles dif-
biles in the Los Angeles area, using some five million
fers from other urban areas and the implications of
gallons of gasoline daily, had to be the primary source of
that difference.
1943
Los Angeles’s smog. At that time, automobiles were re-
Leighton, P. A. Photochemistry of Air Pollution. New
leasing more than one ton of hydrocarbons per day into
York: Academic Press, 1961. A technical treatment of
the Los Angeles atmosphere.
the chemistry involved in the formation of photo-
chemical smog.
Significance
Middleton, J. T., and A. J. Haagen-Smit. “The Occur-
With the automobile identified as the probable major
rence, Distribution, and Significance of Photochemi-
cause of photochemical smog, the Automobile Manufac-
cal Air Pollution in the United States, Canada, and
turers Association formed the Vehicle Combustion
Mexico.” Journal of the Air Pollution Control Associ-
Products Committee in 1953. The committee further de-
ation 11 (1961): 129-134. A good analysis of the ge-
fined the problem and sought solutions. Concurrently, an
ography of photochemical air pollution in 1961.
effort was made to reduce hydrocarbon emissions from
Stern, A. C., ed. Air Pollution. New York: Academic
stationary sources such as refineries.
Press, 1976. A good account of air pollution and its ef-
By 1958, a substantial reduction in hydrocarbons
fects on the environment, humans, plants, and ani-
from stationary sources was achieved, but smog was still
mals.
a serious problem. It was apparent that some type of auto-
Strauss, W., and S. J. Mainwaring. Air Pollution. Balti-
motive controls were needed. In 1959, the California leg-
more: Edward Arnold, 1984. An excellent treatise on
islature added air quality standards to the health and
air pollution covering pollution sources, effects, mea-
safety code. Then, in 1960, the California Motor Vehicle
surement, and control.
Pollution Control Board was created to implement the
VanNijnatten, Debora L., and W. Henry Lambright.
new standards.
North American Smog: Science-Policy Linkages
The California regulations had some effect, but it re-
Across Multiple Boundaries. Orono: University of
mained for the federal government to implement envi-
Maine Press, 2001. This pamphlet argues for attack-
ronmental policies that would have a real impact on air
ing North American smog on a continental level and
pollution. In 1955, the Air Pollution Control Act was in-
discusses the scientific and environmental-policy im-
troduced. This act stipulated that the federal government
plications of that position. Bibliographic references.
would provide research and technical assistance, but
state and local governments would be responsible for See also: Oct. 26-31, 1948: Pennsylvania Town Suf-
controls. This law was followed by the Clean Air Acts of fers Deadly Temperature Inversion; July 14, 1955:
1963 and 1967, as well as by the creation of the Environ- Congress Passes the Air Pollution Control Act;
mental Protection Agency by President Richard M. 1960’s: Mumford Warns of the Dangers of Growing
299
Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from Germans The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Cities; Dec. 17, 1963: Clean Air Act Grants Federal Act; May, 1967: Greenhouse Effect Is First Predicted;
Authority to Regulate Air Pollution; 1965: Bookchin Oct. 20, 1969: Pittsburgh Residents Form the Group
Publishes Crisis in Our Cities; Oct. 20, 1965: Con- Against Smog and Pollution; Dec. 31, 1970: Congress
gress Passes the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Amends the Clean Air Act.
September 30-October 1, 1943

Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from Germans
When German Gestapo and SS troops sought to if the German Wehrmacht and Gestapo were not there.
apprehend seven thousand Danish Jews, thousands of There did exist, however, a small Danish resistance
Danes hid their fellow citizens and helped them escape movement, whose members were dealt with harshly by
to neutral Sweden. the Gestapo whenever they were apprehended.
This uneasy truce lasted three years. Although news
Locale: Denmark was limited, Danes knew what was happening in sur-
Categories: World War II; atrocities and war rounding countries, but as long as they were left alone,
crimes; humanitarianism and philanthropy they thought they could survive. What finally aroused
Key Figures the Danes to action was Hitler’s decision to go after the
Marcus Melchior (d. 1969), a rabbi of the Copenhagen seven thousand Danish Jews as he had persecuted Jews
Synagogue all over Europe. The Danes saw this as an attack on their
Peder Hansen (fl. mid-twentieth century), Danish countrymen and the beginning of a more repressive pol-
fisherman who, along with many others, risked his icy toward Denmark. Consequently, an aroused and
life in many trips transporting Jews from Denmark united Denmark rose to the challenge.
to Sweden In September, 1943, the Germans made plans to
Aage Bertelsen (1901-1957), Danish high school teacher round up all Danish Jews and ship them to Theresienstadt
Werner Best (1903-1989), German civilian concentration camp in Terezin, Czechoslovakia. From
administrator of occupied Denmark there they would be sent to extermination camps in
Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz (1904-1973), maritime German-occupied Europe. Gestapo and Schutzstaffel
attaché in the German legation in Copenhagen and (SS) raids were scheduled for the Jewish New Year,
head of shipping operations in Denmark Rosh Hashanah, when Jews would be home. The date
Christian X (1870-1947), king of Denmark, r. 1912- was the night of Friday, October 1, 1943.
1947, who took an unequivocal stand for the Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz, a German government
protection of Denmark’s Jewish citizens official who had lived in Denmark since 1928, risked his
life to warn Danish political leaders of the impending
Summary of Event raid. They in turn warned the Jewish community. On the
Denmark was unique among the occupied countries of night of September 30, 1943, in an impassioned plea be-
Europe during World War II. The German occupation fore his Copenhagen congregation, Rabbi Marcus Mel-
was less brutal than in Poland or Norway, for example. chior warned all Jews to go into hiding immediately.
The Danes, realizing the futility of standing up to a Ger- Word of the impending raid spread quickly through-
man blitzkrieg, put up only token resistance in April of out Copenhagen and elsewhere in Denmark. Christian
1940, when Germany sent a naval task force and one ar- police, mail carriers, shopkeepers, workers, students,
mored division against the Danish army of fourteen thou- teachers, and taxi drivers took time off work to warn their
sand. The Nazi regime considered the Danes to be an Jewish friends and acquaintances. Students ran through
Aryan race and wished to make a “model protectorate” of the streets, entering cafes and searching for Jews to warn.
Denmark to show German “generosity” to the world. Friends, relatives, and many complete strangers volun-
Propaganda films showed the Danes going about their teered their homes and apartments as places of refuge for
lives in a somewhat normal fashion. The Danish govern- their fellow citizens.
ment, including the king, was kept in place, with consid- On Sabbath night, October 1, 1943, the horror of coor-
erable liberty to conduct normal affairs of government as dinated Gestapo raids descended on Denmark. There
300
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from Germans
was a total of 284 victims, mostly the old and sick who ment. Prior to 1943, the numbers involved in the resis-
had not been warned or could not get away. The other tance were small, and members were not very effective in
seventy-two hundred Jews found hiding places scattered their use of sabotage against the Germans. Beginning in
throughout Denmark. The danger for them was by no October, 1943, many thousands joined the resistance and
means over. Denmark is a small, open country with flat thousands of others cooperated with them. By the end of
land and few natural hiding places. the war, there were fifty-six thousand members of the
Sweden publicly announced its willingness to accept Danish underground.
an unlimited number of Jews from Denmark, but there The underground had direct contact with the Allies in
remained the obvious problem of getting all those people London. Its sabotage groups carried out 2,160 major op-
past German guards to vessels which could carry them erations against rail lines, 785 against factories working
past German patrol boats to the safety of Sweden. Find- for the Germans, 431 against German military installa-
ing transportation to a coastal site where they could clan- tions and depots, and 167 against ports, shipyards, and
destinely find a way to Sweden proved very difficult for ships. The railroad sabotage was so effective that in 1944
many. the train that crossed Jutland, Germany’s main line of
An example of this problem was the plight of two hun- communication with its military forces in Norway, took
dred Danish Jews who had found refuge in Bispebjerg ten days to cross rather than the normal five hours. In
Hospital. German troops surrounded the hospital, set up these and other operations, eighty-eight Danes lost their
checkpoints, and examined all incoming and exiting lives and seven hundred were wounded.
ambulances. While the Gestapo were trying to decide The Germans knew that the Danish police had coop-
whether to order a search of the hospital, they were sud- erated with the rescue of Jews and had done nothing to
1943
denly caught off guard by a funeral cortege of twenty to prevent sabotage against the Germans. On September
thirty taxis leaving the chapel with refugees. 19, 1944, the Germans seized all police stations in Den-
Aage Bertelsen was a schoolteacher who, with the mark. They arrested two thousand Danish police officers
help of his wife and a team of neighbors, managed to help and sent them to concentration camps. Another five
five hundred Jews on their way. His house was identified thousand, however, eluded the Germans and joined the
by its blue curtains and operated almost in the open as a underground. For nearly a year, there were no police in
way station for Jews seeking to flee the country. Another Denmark, but the crime rate was exceptionally low be-
group operated out of a Scandinavian bookstore in Co- cause of the self-policing of the Danish people. Serious
penhagen and had control of about twelve fishing ves- offenses were handled by the organized resistance move-
sels. The rear room of the bookstore served as a tempo- ment. The result of all this was a spirit of national unity.
rary rendezvous point for embarking refugees. The Danes had risen to the challenge and triumphed in
Gestapo raids continued, and eventually 425 Jews the midst of great adversity.
were sent to Theresienstadt. The smuggling of Jews con- Denmark was unique in saving so many of its Jewish
tinued. The Danish resistance located fishermen and oth- citizens. No other occupied country came even close in
ers willing to transport Jews to Sweden and set a modest terms of percentages. More than 98.5 percent of Danish
price for passage. Word of mouth identified the principal Jews were still alive at the war’s end. Other nations also
contact points: the bookshop, Bispebjerg Hospital, the rescued many Jews. Italy, for instance, preserved 85 per-
Rockefeller Institute, the Elsinore Sewing Club, “the cent of its Jewish population, while Holland managed
house with blue curtains” in Lyngby, and the Danish- to hide eighteen thousand Jews for a period of years,
Swedish Refugee Service. a very sizable proportion of the twenty-five thousand
The risk was great for all involved, and it cost money who tried to evade arrest. With smaller and more assimi-
to operate boats. Nevertheless, fishing boats, pleasure lated Jewish populations, these three countries were
craft, and merchant vessels clandestinely left one at a better able to resist the Nazis’ Holocaust program. Still,
time over a period of several days to transport to a safe active if less successful efforts to hide Jews from detec-
haven most of the entire Jewish population of Denmark. tion could be observed in Poland, France, and even Ger-
many, among other countries occupied or controlled by
Significance the Nazis.
One of the most important and immediate effects of an The concerted effort in Denmark, however, was most
entire nation joining together to help the persecuted Jews remarkable. Denmark had a long tradition of acceptance
was the sudden growth of the Danish resistance move- of Jews as equal members of society. The Danish Parlia-
301
Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from Germans The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ment in 1690 rejected the idea of establishing a typical Meltzer, Milton. Rescue: The Story of How Gentiles
Jewish ghetto in Copenhagen, calling the ghetto concept Saved Jews in the Holocaust. New York: Harper &
“an inhuman way of life.” In 1814, all forms of racial and Row, 1988. Written in a simpler style for young
religious discrimination were outlawed in Denmark. adults, but comprehensive nevertheless. Based on
Churches throughout Denmark had repeatedly taught eyewitness accounts, diaries, letters, memoirs, and in-
the Biblical admonition to treat all people with respect terviews.
since they were created in the image of God. That tradi- Petrow, Richard. The Bitter Years: The Invasion and Oc-
tion from Danish culture was drawn on in the time of cupation of Denmark and Norway, April, 1940-May,
crisis. 1945. New York: William Morrow, 1974. A factually
On Sunday, October 3, 1943, as German soldiers oriented scholarly comparison of the World War II
were attempting to round up Danish Jews, Danish Chris- experiences of Denmark and Norway. Particularly
tians heard their pastors strongly condemn such actions significant since both countries are Scandinavian,
as contrary to scripture and Christian love. The Danish The form of resistance pursued by the Danes was
church declared its “allegiance to the doctrine that bids quite different from the actions of the Norwegians.
us obey God more than man.” The Holocaust demon- The distinct geographic and political conditions are
strated the depths of human evil committed against other also addressed. Two lengthy and tightly written chap-
human beings, but the Danish example, along with those ters deal with the rescue of Danish Jews.
of other occupied countries, also demonstrated the deeds Rittner, Carol, and Sondra Myers, eds. The Courage to
of kindness and concern performed by those who believe Care: Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust. New
that the image of God is still discernible in human beings. York: New York University Press, 1986. From the
—William H. Burnside award-winning film, The Courage to Care. Mostly
first-person narratives of rescue in various occupied
Further Reading
countries. Includes many photographs.
Flender, Harold. Rescue in Denmark. New York: Simon
Yahil, Leni. The Holocaust: The Fate of European
& Schuster, 1963. A readable narrative of the rescue
Jewry, 1932-1945. New York: Oxford University
of Danish Jews by their fellow citizens. The personal-
Press, 1990. A thorough and scholarly analysis of the
ities and activities of each of the main groups involved
historical repercussions and meaning of the Holo-
in the rescue are detailed. Includes a photograph sec-
caust. The result of twenty years of research, this may
tion.
well be the most authoritative history of Hitler’s war
Friedman, Philip. Their Brothers’ Keepers. New York:
against the Jews. Originally published in Israel and
Holocaust Library, 1978. Of interest to those wanting
later translated into English. Includes a section on the
to compare the Danish experience in World War II
Danish Jewish experience.
with that of neighboring countries where Jews also
were rescued. Includes only one chapter on Denmark, See also: 1941-Aug. 25, 1944: French Resistance; Jan.
and accepts too uncritically some of the stories it re- 20, 1942: Wannsee Conference and the “Final Solu-
ports. tion”; Aug. 9, 1942: Stein Is Killed by the Nazis; Apr.
Levine, Ellen. Darkness over Denmark: The Danish Re- 19-May 16, 1943: Warsaw Ghetto Armed Uprising
sistance and the Rescue of the Jews. New York: Holi- Against Nazis; Apr. 9, 1945: Bonhoeffer Is Executed
day House, 2000. Focuses on the individual Danish by the Nazis; Oct. 24, 1945: Norwegians Execute
people who risked their lives for their Jewish fellow- Nazi Collaborator Quisling; Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1,
citizens. Bibliographic references and index. 1946: Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg.
302
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Alaska Highway Is Completed
October, 1943
Alaska Highway Is Completed
Responding to fears that Alaska could be cut off if the The usual practice was for surveyors to mark out a
Japanese took control of the North Pacific, the U.S. route first. Bulldozer operators then cleared the route,
Army Corps of Engineers and the Public Roads eliminating trees and other obstacles, and crews operat-
Administration built the Alaska Highway. The 1,621- ing power shovels and graders to set the contours of the
mile road through subarctic wilderness formed a land- road followed. In the last stage, the road surface was
based link between Alaska and the rest of North packed down and graded. If gravel was available nearby,
America. it was sometimes added for topping, but most of the road
was left with only a dirt surface.
Locale: Alaska; Canada There were additional obstacles. Rivers had to be
Categories: Engineering; transportation; travel and bridged with wooden bridges, and clearances had to be
recreation blasted out of cliffsides. There were constant equip-
Key Figures ment breakdowns caused by extreme temperatures, and
William M. Hoge (d. 1979), U.S. Army general and other, unanticipated problems resulted from subarctic
first on-site commander of the Alaska Highway soil conditions. Engineers had to learn how to build on
construction project muskeg—ground that turned into jellylike mud in the
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the summer months—and on permafrost—permanently
United States, 1933-1945 frozen ground on which the surface becomes mucky
1943
William Lyon Mackenzie King (1874-1950), prime when stripped of plant cover. Some rivers froze from the
minister of Canada, 1935-1948 bottom up, wrecking bridges and flooding surrounding
roadways.
Summary of Event Brigadier General William M. Hoge, the command-
During the first months after the United States’ entry into ing officer of the project in early 1942, flew across the
World War II, the need for a reliable land route between Rocky Mountains in a small plane piloted by a bush pilot,
the United States and its Alaskan territory became ur- seeking a viable way across the Continental Divide. He
gent. In early 1942, Japanese forces rapidly advanced discovered the pass that was ultimately used to cross the
across the Pacific Ocean. Two islands in the Western divide, near Watson Lake, at an elevation of only about
Aleutians, Attu and Kiska, were invaded soon afterward. three thousand feet. The work continued, until by the end
American military planners feared Japanese attacks of November, 1942, a rough single-lane road stretched
would endanger the sea passage and coastal flight paths approximately 1,620 miles, from Fort Saint John, British
from West Coast ports to Alaska. They decided to build a Columbia, to Big Delta, Alaska.
long-discussed highway to Alaska as insurance against This achievement marked the end of the highway as a
this threat. U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt ap- high-priority military mission. Civilian contractors, who
proved the project and plan on February 11, 1942. With had been working alongside army engineers from the be-
the further assent of Canadian prime minister William ginning, took over, and the entire project was placed un-
Lyon Mackenzie King, the highway was begun with the der the supervision of the Public Roads Administration.
speed and concentration of resources made possible by For the next year, the contractors and a skeleton force of
wartime priorities. service personnel concentrated on upgrading the road,
Troops immediately went north to start construction widening it to two lanes, rerouting it to find more direct
along the proposed route. The biggest detachment arrived paths where possible, and replacing washed-out bridges
at Dawson Creek, British Columbia (chosen because this with new, sturdier ones. The deadline for this work was
town marked the end of existing rail connections) in the end of October, 1943. This schedule was essentially
March, 1942. Their first task was to turn a rough trail to met, and most highway workers left for home by Novem-
Fort Nelson, some 250 miles away, into an all-weather ber, leaving only a small maintenance force to make es-
road. Meanwhile, other regiments started working at the sential repairs during the winter months.
other end, at Big Delta and at Tok in Alaska. Another Although the Alaska Highway’s completion in 1943
group undertook construction at Whitehorse, an approxi- was a major milestone in the region’s development, work
mate midpoint of the highway, located in the Yukon. on the highway was far from over. The road was not
303
Alaska Highway Is Completed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
opened to general civilian travel until the end of World inhabitants soon found their way of life changed. Tele-
War II. At that time, the Canadian section of the road was graph and telephone lines were put up between major in-
turned over to the government of Canada. stallations along the road, bringing modern communica-
In the next half century, there was seldom a time when tions to the area for the first time. The scope and daring of
upgrading and rebuilding were not in progress some- the project was widely publicized in the United States,
where along the highway. One result of this labor was the arousing an interest in Alaska that continued in the post-
shortening of the road: A journey estimated as 1,621 war era.
miles in 1942 eventually became approximately 1,500 The direct ecological effects of the road were signifi-
miles as more direct routes were found. The vast major- cant but not severe. Aside from a few moose shot to pro-
ity of the highway was paved with asphalt, and gentler vide food, the region’s wildlife was not endangered.
grades replaced some of the steep slopes of the original Most wildlife simply stayed well away from the noisy
road. Traveling the Alaska Highway nevertheless re- machines, and at its worst, the land-clearing did not cut
mained one of the adventures in North American tour- wide enough swaths to disturb habitats significantly.
ism, as the severe winter weather required constant main- Even so, an estimated two million trees were felled in the
tenance and repair to the easily damaged surface. building of the road. Huge amounts of trash were left
Even in the short term, the effects of the extensive along the way, including large vehicles that were simply
Alaska Hightway project far exceeded its military uses. abandoned when the difficulties or cost of repairing them
The highway opened a hitherto isolated region, making it became too large. The land’s appearance along the road
accessible to the world. That region’s Native American itself changed because of minor earthmoving and the
A stretch of the Alaskan Highway connecting Edmonton, Canada, with Fairbanks, Alaska. (Library of Congress)
304
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Alaska Highway Is Completed
The Alaska Highway Significance

In some ways, the Alaska Highway
was to the 1940’s what the moon
landings were to the 1960’s—a ma-
Alaska
jor technological achievement, con-
ducted as a quasimilitary venture
Fairbanks with ultimately peaceful purposes.
Aided by favorable publicity, the
Delta Junction highway project caught Americans’
Tok Dawson City imagination much as the moon land-
Northwest
ings later did. One result was an in-
Anchorage
Yu k o n Te r r i t o r i e s creased interest in all things Alas-
Valdez Haines kan, which continued in subsequent
Junction years. The highway reinforced the
Whitehorse image of Alaska as the last terrestrial
Watson frontier, the last pristine wilderness.
Lake
The impact of the highway on
Atlin
Alaska, and on the people who live
Juneau Fort Nelson in the subarctic Northwest, went far
beyond mere population growth.
1943
British The road connected a region where
P a c i f i c
the only previous means of travel
Columbia Fort St. John
had been by dog sled or in small,
O c e a n
Dawson A l b e r ta shaky aircraft. This isolation had im-
Creek posed a way of life very different
from that in the rest of North Amer-
Edmonton
ica. Few consumer items or commer-
cial foodstuffs were available, and
communication with the outside
world was slow and uncertain at
growth of settlements. Many of these scars faded into the best. Like all frontiers, Alaska had offered freedom from
vastness of the northern landscape as the years passed. some of the strictures of civilization, but at a high price in
The long-range effects of the highway were diffuse endurance and loneliness. With the coming of the high-
but enormous. Land access made it possible for some way, this loneliness was alleviated for many.
200,000 service personnel to be stationed in Alaska dur- Highway engineers devised innovations for building
ing World War II. A fair number stayed on or returned af- on muskeg and on permafrost that were later applied to
ter they left the service, as did some of the soldiers and ci- new highways linking the cities of Fairbanks, Valdez,
vilians who worked on the road. Between 1940 and 1950, and Anchorage and to access roads to the Alaska High-
Alaska’s population increased from 72,524 to 128,643, a way itself. The same discoveries and techniques were
startling rate that brought most of the usual problems of also important in the construction of the Trans-Alaska oil
rapid development to the hitherto remote territory. pipeline. A mostly unsuccessful sidelight of the Alaska
With the highway opened to the public after the war, Highway, the Canol pipeline operation, which was de-
Americans could travel to Alaska in their own cars for signed to bring oil from newly discovered fields near
the first time. Some went as tourists, but the adventurous Great Bear Lake, served as a trial project for the later
or the desperate migrated to find work at military con- Trans-Alaska pipeline.
struction sites, in the newly discovered oilfields, or in The Alaska Highway now forms an integral part of
other parts of the expanding Alaskan economy. They North America’s infrastructure. Responsibility for its
contributed to Alaska’s continuous population growth in maintenance is borne by three different governments: the
the post-World War II years. Alaskan statehood, attained state of Alaska, the Yukon Territory, and the Canadian
in 1959, was hastened by these events. federal government (for the parts of the highway that
305
Alaska Highway Is Completed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
pass through British Columbia). The split of responsibil- attractions, and the day-to-day life in the region are
ities has been effective, and the long-term cooperation also included.
has set an example for work between the United States Morrison, William R. True North: The Yukon and North-
and Canada on other environmental and economic mat- west Territories. New York: Oxford University Press,
ters, such as the joint U.S.-Canadian report on acid rain. 1998. History of the roads through the Yukon Terri-
The building of the Alaska Highway was one of the tory, particularly the Alaska Highway. Bibliographic
great engineering achievements of the twentieth century. references and index.
It was a saga of adventure and danger, of waste and mis- Olsenius, Richard. “Alaska Highway: Wilderness Es-
calculation, and of discoveries about the effects of sub- cape Route.” National Geographic 180 (November,
arctic terrain and weather on people, materials, and 1991): 68-99. A combination travelogue and treasure
machinery. It set the stage for further development of of lore and history about the highway, presented in the
Alaska and led other Americans to greater awareness of magazine’s positive and vivid style. Contains spec-
the far north’s unique features. tacular color photographs and an excellent bound-in
—Emily Alward map of the road.
Twichell, Heath. Northwest Epic: The Building of the
Further Reading
Alaska Highway. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1992.
Coates, Ken. North to Alaska: Fifty Years on the World’s
A definitive account, covering actual field work and
Most Remarkable Highway. Fairbanks: University of
living conditions, political background, the major
Alaska Press, 1991. A history that gives equal atten-
players, and the related Canol and Northwest Staging
tion to the technical, logistical and human factors of
Route operations. The author is a winner of the Allen
working in an isolated locale. Also evaluates the
Nevins Prize in American history and the son of Colo-
road’s impact on the postwar far Northwest.
nel Heath Twichell, who commanded several engi-
Haigh, Jane. Alaska Highway: A Historic Photographic
neering regiments during the project.
Journey. Whitehorse, Y.T.: Wolf Creek Books, 2001.
Alongside many photographs of the highway, pro- See also: June 26, 1959: St. Lawrence Seaway Opens;
vides a history of its construction, use, and cultural ef- Sept. 13, 1963: Controversial Glen Canyon Dam Is
fects. Completed; Nov. 21, 1964: Verrazano-Narrows
Krakauer, Jon. “Ice, Mosquitoes, and Muskeg—Build- Bridge Opens; July 16, 1965: Mont Blanc Tunnel Be-
ing the Road to Alaska.” Smithsonian 23 (July, 1992): tween France and Italy Opens; Feb. 10-Apr. 16, 1970:
102-111. Although not as detailed as full-length histo- Alpine Avalanches Prompt Snow-Management Pro-
ries, this article contains human interest angles on the grams; June 16, 1970: Trans-Amazon Highway Is
building of the highway. Glimpses of travelers, tourist Announced.
306
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Thai-Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor
October 25, 1943

Thai-Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor
Relying on forced labor by close to fifty thousand nial authorities around 1900 but was abandoned because
Allied prisoners of war and tens of thousands of of problems posed by the terrain. Work began in June,
Burmese people, the Japanese constructed the Thai- 1942, on an approximately 420-kilometer (260-mile) rail
Burma Railway, a strategic railroad designed to line from Kanchanaburi in Thailand to Thanbyuzayat in
provide swift transportation for its troops and arms Burma. This crash program was to be completed at any
during World War II. Thousands of prisoners of war cost, and work started from each end simultaneously.
and tens of thousands of Burmese perished under The Japanese obtained track-building material and
brutal working conditions, later dramatized in a novel other equipment from railways seized in Malaya (now
and an award-winning film. Malaysia) but had to construct the line across rugged ter-
rain and through jungles. Tens of thousands of indige-
Also known as: Death Railway; Burma Railway nous people were conscripted as forced laborers, and
Locale: Between Kanchanaburi, Thailand, and approximately fifty thousand Allied prisoners of war,
Thanbyuzayat, Burma (now Myanmar) captured in Southeast Asia, were moved to the area and
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; World compelled to do construction work, a clear violation of
War II; engineering; military history; human rights international law.
Key Figures One group of Allied prisoners was forced to construct
Philip Toosey (1904-1975), senior Allied officer a railway bridge across the River Kwai near Kanchan-
1943
imprisoned in the Japanese camp aburi, and a prison camp was set up at the nearby village
Frank Pantridge (1916-2004), British physician of Tamarkan to house the prisoners of war (POWs). The
imprisoned in the Japanese camp and a decorated senior Allied officer among these prisoners was Lieuten-
war hero, who later pioneered cardiopulmonary ant Colonel Philip Toosey, a British officer captured
resuscitation and invented the defibrillator when the British colonial enclave in Singapore fell in
Boon Pong Sirivejjabhandu (fl. mid-twentieth February, 1942. As ranking POW officer, Toosey tried to
century), Thai merchant who provided food and maintain order and some level of morale. At the same
supplies to prisoners time, he attempted to ensure the well being of the prison-
Teruo Saito (fl. mid-twentieth century), Japanese ers and have them treated decently by the Japanese.
assistant camp commandant When Toosey protested against mistreatment of pris-
Pierre Boulle (1912-1994), World War II Allied oners, he was himself beaten by Japanese guards. He
undercover agent and novelist helped prisoners escape and tried to slow bridge con-
struction. He made arrangements with a local Thai mer-
Summary of Event chant, Boon Pong Sirivejjabhandu—who was secretly
Following the establishment of the pro-German Vichy sympathetic toward the Allies—to provide prisoners
government in France in 1940, Japanese troops occupied with food and medicine beyond the minimum allotted by
Indochina (now Vietnam), leaving the existing Vichy co- the Japanese. Nevertheless, because of harsh conditions,
lonial administration nominally in charge. Thailand, al- thousands of prisoners became ill and died. By war’s end
lied with Japan, declared war against the Allies shortly in August, 1945, Toosey weighed about 100 pounds. He
after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941. Japanese was regarded as a hero and was decorated for bravery by
forces invaded Burma (now Myanmar) and occupied the British army. Toosey and other Tamarkan prison
much of the country, capturing Rangoon (Yangon) in camp survivors later criticized his negative portrayal in
March, 1942. This assured Japanese control of most of the 1952 Pierre Boulle novel Le Pont de la rivière Kwai
Southeast Asia, but Allied naval threats against Japanese (The Bridge over the River Kwai; 1954); an award-
shipping continued, creating a need for overland supply winning film based on the novel appeared in 1957.
routes through the Indochina-Thailand-Burma area that Boulle, a French resident of Malaya, joined the
Japan controlled. French in Indochina when World War II began. In 1940,
One supply route required the creation of a railway after Vichy authorities took over Indochina and Japanese
link between the Japanese-occupied zones of Thailand troops arrived, Boulle went to Singapore to join the
and Burma. A route had been attempted by British colo- Allies. After Singapore was taken by the Japanese in
307
Thai-Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Thai-Burma Railway, 1943 being convicted for war crimes.

Boulle portrayed POW officers as
getting preferential treatment, but
Toosey and the camp’s medical offi-
cer, Frank Pantridge, actually under-
Thanbyuzayat went the same hardships and priva-
tion as other prisoners.
Three
Pagodas The railway was completed on
Pass October 25, 1943, and many surviv-
ing prisoners were subsequently re-
T h a i l a n d
turned to regular POW camps. Some
were retained to perform mainte-
nance work on a wooden bridge and
a concrete-and-steel bridge along the
railway line. The two bridges had
B
been completed earlier in 1943 but

u
Kwa
River Kwai were sporadically bombed by the

Kw
bridge
r
Allies, and sporadically repaired. A

i
ai
ai
Y
m
decisive bombing raid in April, 1945,

No
i
made them permanently unusable.

a
Kanchanaburi
Bangkok Significance
During the three years from the start
of the Thai-Burma railway to the
Andaman Japanese surrender, tens of thousands
Gulf of
of Asian conscripts and Allied pris-
Sea
Thailand
oners died. While there are no precise
figures available, close to nine thou-
sand Allied prisoners are buried in the
area, not including a large number of
deceased U.S. prisoners whose re-
1942, Boulle secretly worked as an Allied agent. Ar- mains were re-interred in U.S. cemeteries after the war.
rested during a mission in Indochina, Boulle was impris- To build the railway, war crimes against civilians and
oned by the Vichy authorities. Boulle spent the remain- POWs were clearly committed on a massive scale.
der of the war in Allied-controlled areas after escaping, Boulle’s novel and the subsequent film version fo-
an escape arranged by Allied intelligence. Though he cused on the relations among a few fictional Allied and
was never in the sort of prison camp he described in his Japanese individuals and on the building of the bridge,
novel, Boulle knew about the war crimes of Japan’s rail- with less prominent attention to prisoner mistreatment
way project. and virtually no attention to the mistreatment of the con-
Other significant differences between Boulle’s novel scripted Burmese workers. Boulle’s tale about the rise and
and how things really happened include the portrayal of fall of this bridge in an exotic location is remembered as
the Japanese as inept railway builders who were depen- part of U.S. popular culture. The railway line itself, now
dent on prisoner know-how. Engineers of the Japanese greatly upgraded, has become an attraction for Japanese
Fifth Railway Regiment had designed the railway and tourists, who visit the cemeteries of the war dead there.
bridge, using conscripted local people and war prisoners Several area museums also commemorate the period.
to perform heavy labor. Also, Boulle depicted the Japa- —Michael McCaskey
nese camp commander as a tragic figure. The Japanese
commandant was indeed harsh, but his second-in-com- Further Reading
mand, Sergeant Major Teruo Saito, tried to help prison- Boulle, Pierre. The Bridge Over the River Kwai. Trans-
ers, and Toosey’s postwar testimony saved Saito from lated by Xan Fielding. New York: Gramercy Books,
308
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated
2000. This English version of Boulle’s often con- Southeast Asia, tells the story of the Thai-Burma
troversial novel first appeared in 1954 and inspired Railway.
the 1957 Columbia Pictures film The Bridge on the Stewart, John. To the River Kwai: Two Journeys, 1943,
River Kwai, which used the British version of the 1979. London: Bloomsbury, 1988. A collection of
novel title. Published first as Le Pont de la rivière reminiscences over time, with historical compari-
Kwai in 1952. sons, by a POW camp survivor.
_______. My Own River Kwai. Translated by Xan Summers, Julie. The Colonel of Tamarkan: Philip Toosey
Fielding. New York: Vanguard Press, 1967. Boulle’s and the Bridge on the River Kwai. New York: Simon
nonfiction account of his experiences as an intelli- & Schuster, 2005. A one-of-a-kind work written by
gence agent in Southeast Asia during World War II. Toosey’s granddaughter, who had access to his per-
Published as Aux sources de la rivière Kwai in 1966. sonal papers, family records, and memories of the
Davies, Peter N. The Man Behind the Bridge: Colonel period.
Toosey and the River Kwai. London: Athlone Press, Tamayama, Kazuo. Railwaymen in the War: Tales by
1991. This historical study includes a laudatory fore- Japanese Railway Soldiers in Burma and Thailand,
word about Toosey by the United Kingdom’s prince 1941-47. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. The
Philip. first major source from a Japanese perspective, based
Dunlop, Ernest Edward. The War Diaries of Weary on official military records and personal reminis-
Dunlop: Java and the Burma-Thailand Railway, cences, compiled by a Japanese historian living in the
1942-1945. Melbourne, Vic.: Nelson, 1986. These United Kingdom. Includes accounts of the fierce and
lengthy war diaries, a major source of firsthand in- unforgiving fighting between Japanese and British
1943
formation by an Australian POW in Burma, were also Commonwealth troops in Burma.
published in a 758-page Japanese translation in 1997.
Hardie, Robert. The Burma-Siam Railway: The Secret See also: Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on South-
Diary of Dr. Robert Hardie, 1942-45. Sydney, N.S.W.: east Asia; Oct. 29, 1945-Feb. 23, 1946: Japanese Gen-
Collins, 1983. A graphic account of the railway by an eral Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes; Aug. 12,
Australian POW survivor, translated into Japanese in 1949: Geneva Conventions Establish Norms of Con-
1993. duct in War; Dec. 2, 1949: United Nations Conven-
Kinvig, Clifford. River Kwai Railway: The Story of the tion Suppressing Human Trafficking Is Adopted;
Burma-Siam Railroad. London: Conway, 2005. Kin- Aug. 22-Sept. 3, 1955: United Nations Sets Rules for
vig, a specialist on the history of World War II in Treatment of Prisoners.
November 4, 1943
World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated
The reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory Martin D. Whitaker (1902-1960), first director of the
produced the first substantial quantities of plutonium, Oak Ridge National Laboratory
making the production of usable amounts of energy Eugene P. Wigner (1902-1995), director of research
from a chain reaction practical. The reactor played a and development at Oak Ridge
major part in the development of the first nuclear
bomb. Summary of Event
The construction of the nuclear reactor at Oak Ridge
Locale: Oak Ridge, Tennessee
National Laboratory in 1943 was a vital part of the
Categories: Engineering; science and technology;
Manhattan Project, the effort by the United States during
energy
World War II to develop an atomic bomb. The successful
Key Figures operation of that reactor was a major achievement not
Enrico Fermi (1901-1954), Italian-born American only for the project itself but also for the general develop-
physicist who directed the first controlled nuclear ment and application of nuclear technology. The first di-
chain reaction at the University of Chicago rector of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory was Martin
309
World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
D. Whitaker and the director of research and develop- Slow or fast, however, a heat-producing nuclear reac-
ment was Eugene P. Wigner. tion is an energy conversion process, and it requires fuel.
The nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and neu- There is only one readily fissionable element that occurs
trons. A nuclear reaction for any purpose involves the naturally and can be used as fuel. It is a form of uranium
fissioning, or splitting, of the nucleus of a fissionable called U-235. It is, however, a rare form. Only 0.7 per-
atom by hitting it with a neutron from a material that cent, one part in 140, of all naturally occurring uranium is
emits an occasional neutron naturally. When an atom U-235. The remainder is U-238, which does not fission
splits, two things happen: A tremendous amount of ther- readily. Therefore, the concentration of the “active ingre-
mal energy is released and two or three neutrons, on the dient,” U-235, is not high enough to achieve a “critical
average, escape from the nucleus. If all the atoms in a ki- mass” of a reasonable size. The critical mass is the
logram of uranium 235 (U-235) were to fission, they amount of fissionable material needed for a chain reac-
would produce as much heat energy as the burning of tion. One way around this problem is the process of en-
3,000,000 kilograms of coal. richment, which increases the concentration of U-235
The benefit of the energy released during fission is sufficiently for a chain reaction to occur.
obvious, but the extra neutrons also are important, be- Enriched uranium is used to fuel the reactors used by
cause if at least one of them hits another atom and causes electric utilities. Also, the much more plentiful U-238
it to fission (and thus release more energy and more neu- can be converted into Pu-239, a form of the synthetic ele-
trons), the process will continue. It will become a self- ment plutonium, which does fission readily. That con-
sustaining chain reaction that will pro-
duce a continuing supply of heat.
Inside a reactor, a nuclear chain reac-
tion is controlled so that it proceeds rela-
tively slowly. The most familiar use for
the heat thus released is to boil water and
make steam to turn the turbine genera-
tors that produce electricity to serve in-
dustrial, commercial, and residential
needs. On the other hand, the fissioning
process in a weapon proceeds very rap-
idly so that all of the energy in the atoms
is produced and released virtually at
once. Therefore, the first application of
nuclear technology was to produce the
two atomic bombs that ended World
War II.
The work that began at Oak Ridge in
1943, however, had to be preceded by a
major event that took place in 1942. At
the University of Chicago, Enrico Fermi
had demonstrated for the first time that it
was possible to achieve a self-sustaining
atomic chain reaction. More important,
the reaction could be controlled: It could
be started up, it could generate heat and
sufficient neutrons to keep itself going,
and it could be turned off. That first
chain reaction was very slow, and it gen-
erated very little heat; but it demon-
strated and proved the principle that Oak Ridge National Laboratory around 1944. The first nuclear reactor was
controlled fission was possible. housed in the white building at right center. (Courtesy, Martin Marietta)
310
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated
version process is the way fuel is produced for a nuclear medical treatment. Ultimately, the Hanford Engineer
weapon, and was, thus, the major objective of the Oak Works’ reactors in Washington State produced the pluto-
Ridge effort: to develop a pilot operation for separating nium for the bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki on
plutonium from the uranium in which it was produced. August 9, 1945.
Large-scale plutonium production, which had never At first, Oak Ridge was essentially a “company town”
been attempted before, eventually would be done at the built and run by the federal government. A planned com-
Hanford Engineer Works in Washington. First, however, munity for laboratory employees and their families, it
it had to be proved on a small scale at Oak Ridge. was complete with grocery stores, schools, and all the
Four rural eastern Tennessee communities—Wheat, standard features of any other separate community. It
Elza, Robertsville, and Scarboro—lay not far from was, however, completely fenced in and secured by
Knoxville in the valley beside the Clinch River where the armed guards. In two and a half years, Oak Ridge became
U.S. government acquired twenty-four thousand hect- the fifth largest city in Tennessee, with a population that
ares needed for the Oak Ridge facility. On its first visit to peaked at seventy-five thousand. When the war was
the area, the site selection committee was pleased with over, however, the population fell to thirty-six thousand.
what it saw and made the following report: In July, 1945, Monsanto Chemical Company took
over operating responsibility for Oak Ridge. The produc-
The topography is such that a number of operations tion of radioisotopes was expanded, and work began on
could find reasonably flat areas divided by protective designing two additional reactors. The original objec-
hills. The driving distance to Knoxville is less than tives for which Oak Ridge had been built had been
twenty miles, and service from two important railroads achieved, and subsequent activity at the facility was di-
1943
is immediately available. . . . Water from the Clinch rected toward peacetime missions that included basic
River is regulated . . . and because of the nearby Norris studies of the structure of matter.
Dam is relatively free of silt. A relatively small part of
the land is under cultivation, indicating that a small num- Significance
ber of families would have to be moved. When the bombs were dropped, the war stopped. Re-
duced to simplest terms, the most immediate impact of
the work done at Oak Ridge was its contribution to end-
One thousand families were paid a total of $2.6 mil-
ing World War II, with the United States emerging intact
lion for their property by the government, which relo-
to remain the principal preserver of freedom in the world.
cated the former residents and agreed to care for the
History since 1945 undeniably would have been much
sixty-five cemeteries that also were purchased. Ground
different if the United States’ victory in the Pacific had
was broken for the construction of the Oak Ridge reactor
not been decisive.
on February 1, 1943, only two months after Fermi’s suc-
Nuclear technology, like any other technology, is
cess in Chicago. In fact, the basic data for the design of
neutral and can be developed for and applied to a variety
the Oak Ridge facility came from the original Chicago
of purposes. Interestingly enough, the great advances in
reactor. Oak Ridge was the world’s first operating nu-
nuclear technology since 1945 have not been for military
clear reactor to produce substantial amounts of heat, and
uses. Delivery systems have changed dramatically, but
it was built in only nine months. The reactor was started
the real advances in and new applications of nuclear
up on November 4 under Fermi’s supervision and was
technology have been in nonmilitary areas: terrestrial
flawless.
electric power generation, nuclear medicine, space
The Oak Ridge laboratory (originally called Clinton
power, and ship propulsion (even though it is principally
Laboratories) was constructed by the Du Pont Corpora-
for naval vessels). All those areas have profited from the
tion and operated by the Metallurgical Laboratory of the
pioneering efforts at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
University of Chicago. The facility produced several
—John M. Shaw
grams of plutonium by March 1, 1944. The material was
sent to the Los Alamos laboratory in New Mexico for Further Reading
testing. By July the reactor operated at four times its orig- Bernardini, Carlo, and Luisa Bonolis, eds. Enrico Fermi:
inal power level. By the end of that year, however, plu- His Work and Legacy. New York: Springer, 2004. A
tonium production at Oak Ridge had ceased, and the laudatory history of Fermi, his work, and his place in
reactor thereafter was used principally to produce radio- the development of nuclear physics. Includes the
isotopes for physical and biological research and for chapters “The Birth of Nuclear Energy: Fermi’s Pile”
311
World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
and “From the Chicago Pile 1 to the Next-Generation Olwell, Russell B. At Work in the Atomic City: A Labor
Reactors.” and Social History of Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Knox-
Faulkner, Peter, ed. The Silent Bomb: A Guide to the ville: University of Tennessee Press, 2004. A brief but
Nuclear Energy Controversy. New York: Vintage comprehensive history of the people and community
Books, 1977. Sponsored by Friends of the Earth, this of Oak Ridge, site of the nuclear laboratory and reac-
book deals with the controversies of “safe” radiation tor. Discusses the employees that make up the “com-
levels, potential disasters at nuclear plants, and the pany town,” the community’s transformation after
economics of nuclear power. World War II, and postwar health and safety con-
Glasstone, Samuel. Sourcebook on Atomic Energy. 3d cerns.
ed. Huntington, N.Y.: Krieger, 1979. A balanced pre- Seaborg, Glenn T. Nuclear Milestones: A Collection of
sentation of all aspects of atomic energy, it requires Speeches. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1972. A se-
only a rudimentary knowledge of science or mathe- ries of speeches and reminiscences by a nuclear phys-
matics to understand its narrative. An excellent icist who was part of the growth of nuclear energy and
source book for the laboratory or library. knew the major personalities of the new discipline.
Hales, Peter B. Atomic Spaces: Living on the Manhattan Lavishly illustrated with photographs.
Project. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997. A Wilson, Jane, ed. All in Our Time: The Reminiscences of
unique cultural history of the communities created, Twelve Nuclear Pioneers. Chicago: Bulletin of the
and destroyed, to make way for the Manhattan Proj- Atomic Scientist, 1975. The twelve pioneers depicted
ect. A relevant story for all communities displaced by assisted in the long labor and birth of nuclear energy,
the government’s nuclear programs, including the nursing it through wartime, and watching it grow to
towns cleared to build Oak Ridge. A recommended maturity in a world of peace. Easy and readable, it
study at the intersection of technology and culture. provides glimpses, occasionally humorous, into the
Bibliographical references, index. thoughts and feelings of modern-day pioneers.
Hewlett, R. G., and O. E. Anderson, Jr. The New World
1939/1946. Vol. 1 of A History of the United States See also: 1947: Construction Starts on Brookhaven
Atomic Energy Commission. University Park: Penn- Nuclear Reactor; Beginning 1949: Hanford Nuclear
sylvania State University Press, 1962. The first in a Reservation Becomes a Health Concern; Dec. 20,
series, this volume discusses the discovery of atomic 1951: World’s First Breeder Reactor Produces Elec-
fission, the race to produce the first bomb, and the tricity; Jan. 21, 1954: First Nuclear-Powered U.S.
problems of control and of harnessing the energy. Submarine Is Launched; June 27, 1954: Soviet Union
Inglis, David Rittenhouse. Nuclear Energy: Its Physics Completes Its First Nuclear Power Plant; Oct. 17,
and Its Social Challenge. Reading, Mass.: Addison- 1956: First Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Opens;
Wesley, 1973. A basic primer for readers interested in Aug., 1957: Price-Anderson Act Limits Nuclear Lia-
nuclear energy and its history, applications, and con- bility; Dec. 2, 1957: First U.S. Commercial Nuclear
trol. Presents the social challenges inherent in this en- Plant Opens; Dec. 12, 1963: General Public Utilities
ergy source. Announces Plans for a Commercial Nuclear Reactor.
312
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Central Pacific Offensive
November 20, 1943-November 27, 1944

Central Pacific Offensive
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz’s central Pacific offensive cember 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s com-
of 1943-1944 was a major component of the Allies’ mitment to a Europe-first strategy combined with Ja-
“twin-axis” strategy to defeat Japan in World War II. pan’s stunning victories—commencing with the attack
on Pearl Harbor—to preclude an immediate central Pa-
Locale: Micronesia cific drive. However, once Allied forces halted Japanese
Categories: World War II; military history; wars, expansion at the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway (May-
uprisings, and civil unrest June, 1942) and then seized the initiative at Guadalcanal
Key Figures and Papua (August, 1942-February, 1943), Admiral Er-
Chester W. Nimitz (1885-1966), U.S. commander in nest King, U.S. Fleet commander in chief (CominCh),
chief of the Pacific Fleet, 1941-1945 began promoting a central Pacific offensive as the best
Raymond A. Spruance (1886-1969), Nimitz’s chief of means to maintain pressure on the Japanese in the short
staff and successor and commander of the Central term and to achieve ultimate victory in the long term.
Pacific Force Advocated by King at the January 14-23 Casablanca
Marc A. Mitscher (1887-1947), U.S. commander of Conference, a central Pacific offensive received formal
Task Force 58 approval at the May 11-25, 1943, Trident Conference. At
Ernest King (1878-1956), commander in chief of the Trident, President Roosevelt, British prime minister
U.S. Fleet, 1941-1945, and chief of Naval Winston Churchill, and their respective military chiefs
1943
Operations, 1942-1945 agreed that Nimitz should seize the Marshalls and
Jisaburf Ozawa (1886-1966), Japanese commander of Carolines while MacArthur continued operations in New
the First Mobile Fleet Guinea and the Solomon Islands, with priority given to the
central Pacific. Thus was born the “twin-axis” strategy.
Summary of Event On November 20, 1943, the central Pacific drive com-
In late autumn, 1943, forces from the U.S. Navy, menced when marines and soldiers invaded Butaritari
Marines, and Army, directed by Admiral Chester W. (Makin) and Tarawa in the Gilbert Islands (Operation
Nimitz in his capacity as commander in chief of the Pa- Galvanic). They were supported by Admiral Raymond
cific Fleet (CinCPac), embarked on an unprecedented A. Spruance’s Central Pacific Force (which would be-
island-hopping campaign against the Japanese in the come the Fifth Fleet in April, 1944). Not initially ear-
central Pacific. Involving complicated amphibious oper- marked as an objective, the Gilberts, located twenty-five
ations against a series of fiercely defended strongholds, hundred miles west of Hawaii, became one when Ameri-
Nimitz’s offensive combined with operations conducted can planners concluded that invading the Marshalls
by General Douglas MacArthur in the southwest Pacific would divert resources from MacArthur’s campaigns al-
to produce a “twin-axis” advance that played a crucial ready under way and thus ordered Nimitz to make the
role in the Allies’ ultimate victory over Japan in World Gilberts his first target.
War II. Army forces secured Butaritari against tougher than
Nimitz’s central Pacific offensive represented a de- anticipated resistance, while Tarawa produced one of
layed implementation of War Plan Orange, a contin- the bloodiest battles in Marine Corps history. Lasting
gency strategy for conflict with Japan developed by seventy-six hours, the Tarawa campaign witnessed the
American military planners during the interwar period. marines wipe out nearly the entire five-thousand-man
In its final prewar version (1938), War Plan Orange pro- Japanese garrison, suffering more than three thousand
vided for a drive by naval forces across the central Pa- casualties, including more than one thousand dead, in the
cific involving the capture of islands—the Marshalls, process. “Bloody Tarawa” shocked American leaders
Carolines, and Marianas—mandated to Japan after and the public, prompted a call for a congressional inves-
World War I. This was to be followed by the relief of the tigation, and demonstrated that U.S. forces had much to
garrison defending the Philippines, which planners as- learn about amphibious operations.
sumed the Japanese would attack, and a major fleet en- From the Gilberts, Nimitz’s forces moved on to the
gagement, whose outcome would decide the conflict. Marshalls, an island group located six hundred miles
Once the United States entered World War II in De- northwest of Tarawa. Bypassing the eastern atolls, ma-
313
Central Pacific Offensive The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
that Chuuk had been rendered use-

less and that the Carolines—origi-
nally slated to be the next target—
could be bypassed in favor of an
assault against the Marianas, located
one thousand miles northwest of
Enewetak and only twelve hundred
miles southeast of Japan. As for the
Japanese garrisons in the Carolines,
they would be left to wither, cut off
from any source of supplies and thus
eliminated as a military factor.
Operation Forager, the attack on
the Marianas, began June 15, 1944,
when two marine divisions, sup-
ported by an army division in reserve,
invaded Saipan. Recognizing the
Marianas’ strategically significant lo-
cation and the potentially devastat-
ing impact of their loss, Saipan’s
U.S. troops in the 165th Infantry wade ashore under fire during the bloody Battle of thirty-two-thousand-man garrison
Tarawa. (National Archives) conducted a well-executed defense
designed to inflict maximum casual-
ties while delaying the American ad-
rines and soldiers, again supported by Spruance, landed at vance. Meanwhile, the Japanese navy undertook an op-
Kwajalein, Roi, and Namur, in the center of the chain, on eration, codenamed A-Go, to destroy the Central Pacific
January 31, 1944 (Operation Flintlock). On February 17, Force and thereby leave U.S. ground forces without na-
in Operation Catchpole, they landed at Enewetak, at the val and air support.
chain’s western edge. Again encoun-
tering significant resistance, Ameri-
can forces completed both operations
quickly (by February 21), inflicting
more than twelve thousand casualties
while suffering fewer than one thou-
sand and demonstrating that they had
digested the lessons of Tarawa.
While the Marshalls campaign un-
folded, the Central Pacific Force neu-
tralized Chuuk, the major anchorage
for Japan’s Combined Fleet in the
Caroline Islands. On February 17-18,
Admiral Marc A. Mitscher’s Task
Force 58 launched a series of mas-
sive carrier-borne air strikes that de-
stroyed 275 aircraft, sank 41 mer-
chant ships and warships, and did
tremendous damage to the base’s fa-
cilities. Mitscher’s raid had major
implications for the future of the cen- Two U.S. officers plant the American flag on the beach at Guam, one of the islands
tral Pacific drive, convincing Nimitz taken during the central Pacific offensive. (National Archives)
314
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Central Pacific Offensive
Directed by Admiral Jisaburf Ozawa, the A-Go of- Significance

fensive ended in disaster when Mitscher’s Task Force The American drive across the central Pacific, between
58, having ascertained enemy intentions, intercepted the November 20, 1943, and November 27, 1944, witnessed
Japanese. The resulting Battle of the Philippine Sea U.S. forces perfect their conduct of amphibious opera-
(June 19-20) struck an irreversible blow to Japan’s naval tions, as they pierced the defensive perimeter established
air arm, costing it 476 aircraft, 445 pilots, and 3 carriers it by the Japanese to protect the vast empire they had con-
could not replace. On Saipan itself, the fighting ground quered in the opening months of the Pacific war. Admiral
on for three bloody weeks, until July 9. The Americans Nimitz’s advance inflicted serious damage on Japan’s
suffered more than sixteen thousand casualties. Japanese military power, depriving it of militarily significant
dead numbered more than thirty thousand, including an bases, annihilating entire garrisons while isolating oth-
untold number of civilians who committed suicide, ers, and eliminating Japanese naval air power. Simulta-
rather than surrender, by throwing themselves off the neously, the central Pacific offensive brought the United
steep cliffs on the island’s northern end. States bases in the Marianas from which it could launch a
Saipan’s fall prompted the resignation (July 18) of strategic bombing campaign against the Japanese home
Hideki Tojo, Japan’s prime minister and war minister islands and put Nimitz’s forces in position to undertake
since 1941, who had been instrumental in the decision to the future invasions of Iwo Jima (February, 1945) and
go to war against the United States. Tojo’s fall could not, Okinawa (April, 1945).
however, reverse the tide. On July 21, U.S. forces contin- — Bruce J. DeHart
ued the Marianas campaign by invading Guam, follow- Further Reading
ing up on July 24 with an assault on Tinian. As had been Carter, Worrall Reed. Beans, Bullets, and Black Oil: The
1943
the case on Saipan, Japanese defenders fought fero- Story of Fleet Logistics Afloat in the Pacific During
ciously, but they could only delay the inevitable. Ameri- World War II. Newport, R.I.: Naval War College
can forces declared Tinian secure on August 1, followed Press, 1998. An important analysis of the complicated
by Guam on August 10. Tinian’s conquest provided the logistics involved in the central Pacific offensive.
U.S. Twenty-First Bomber Command with bases from Gatchel, Theodore. “The Shortest Road to Tokyo,” in
which its newly developed B-29 Superfortresses would The Pacific War Companion, edited by Daniel Mar-
conduct, beginning in November, a devastating strategic ston. Oxford, England: Osprey, 2005. Offers a con-
bombing campaign against Japan. cise analysis and overview of the central Pacific cam-
Nimitz’s drive in the central Pacific during 1944 con- paign, emphasizing the difficulties Nimitz had to
cluded with Operation Stalemate, comprising invasions overcome in coordinating a complicated undertaking.
of Peleliu (September 15) and Angaur (September 17) in Isely, Jeter A., and Philip A. Crowl. The U.S Marines and
the Palau Islands. Angaur was secured by October 21, Amphibious War: Its Theory and Practice in the Pa-
and Peleliu was under Allied control by November 27, cific. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University, 1951.
marking the successful conclusion of the central Pacific Older but indispensable for understanding amphibi-
offensive. Designed to secure air and naval bases from ous operations in the central Pacific.
which MacArthur’s impending invasion of the Philip- Miller, Edward S. War Plan Orange. Annapolis, Md.:
pines could be supported, Peleliu and Angaur proved Naval Institute Press, 1991. Traces the evolution of
bloody affairs for the marines and soldiers who had to America’s pre-World War II planning for conflict
overcome a dug-in, determined enemy, difficult terrain, with Japan, which included the concept of a naval
and excessive heat that occasionally reached 115 degrees drive across the central Pacific.
Fahrenheit. Marine casualties on Peleliu alone numbered Sledge, E. P. With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Oki-
more than sixty-five hundred, while army losses ex- nawa. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
ceeded thirty-two hundred total, with most occurring on Gripping memoir of a U.S. Marine who fought on
Anguar. While the victories on Peleliu and Angaur did Peleliu; gives the reader a sense of what operations in
allow the Americans to establish a major fleet anchorage the central Pacific were like for those who did the
fighting.
at Ulithi, bases in the Palaus played no role in MacAr-
thur’s invasion of Leyte, a development leading some See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
scholars to conclude that Operation Stalemate was un- cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
necessary. Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast
315
Cairo Conference and Declaration Addresses War in the Pacific The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Asia; Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan Invades the sablanca Conference; June 12-20, 1944: Battle of the
Philippines; May 7-8, 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea; Philippine Sea; Oct. 23-26, 1944: Battle for Leyte
June 3-5, 1942: Battle of Midway; Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. Gulf; Feb. 23, 1945: American Flag Is Raised at Iwo
9, 1943: Battle of Guadalcanal; Jan. 14-24, 1943: Ca- Jima.
November 23-30, 1943

Cairo Conference and Declaration Addresses War
in the Pacific
The Cairo Conference was a summit meeting attended against the Axis Powers. This change emboldened the
by British prime minister Winston Churchill, U.S. Allies in their planning and permitted them to address the
president Franklin D. Roosevelt, Chinese Nationalist crisis in Asia and the Pacific, where Japan was waging a
leader Chiang Kai-shek, and others. The focus of the war against China, the United States, and Great Britain.
deliberation was the prosecution of World War II in In November, 1943, U.S. president Franklin D. Roo-
the Pacific theater. Roosevelt also informed Churchill sevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill—
that General Dwight D. Eisenhower had been selected who had previously agreed to meet with Soviet premier
to lead the invasion of France. Joseph Stalin in late November at Tehran, Iran—agreed
to meet in Cairo, Egypt, with Chinese Nationalist presi-
Also known as: Sextant (code name) dent Chiang Kai-shek (also known as Jiang Jieshi) to dis-
Locale: Cairo, Egypt cuss the planning and prosecution of the war against Ja-
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations; pan in Asia and the Pacific. While planning the war in
wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; World War II the Pacific was the stated purpose of the Cairo Confer-
Key Figures ence, both Roosevelt and Churchill had other concerns
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), British prime minister, that were of great importance to each leader. Roosevelt
1940-1945 and 1951-1955 wanted to prepare for the Tehran Conference with Stalin
Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi; 1887-1975), director- and Churchill; he recognized that Stalin’s main interest
general of the Chinese Nationalist Party, 1938- was the timetable for the Anglo-American invasion of
1975, president of the mainland Republic of China, France, because that action would draw German troops
1925-1949, and president of the Republic of China away from the Eastern front with the Soviet Union.
on Taiwan, 1950-1975 Churchill supported that offensive but was concerned
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), supreme that necessary assets not be taken away from the Italian
commander of Allied forces in Europe and North campaign, which had been launched earlier in the fall of
Africa, 1943-1945, and later president of the United 1943. He wanted to secure Rome before diverting the re-
States, 1953-1961 sources necessary for the planned invasion of France in
Louis Mountbatten (First Earl Mountbatten of Burma; 1944.
1900-1979), head of the Allied Southeast Asia Churchill arrived at Alexandria, Egypt, on HMS Re-
Command, 1943-1945 nown on November 21, 1943, and then flew on to Cairo;
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the he was at the airport in Cairo to welcome Roosevelt when
United States, 1933-1945 the president arrived the next day. Preliminary discus-
sions were held on November 22, 1943, when Roosevelt
Summary of Event and Churchill met for two sessions; in addition, Chur-
While gains made by the Germans and Japanese in the chill met with Chiang Kai-shek, who urged the western
earlier years of World War II were still evident in mid- Allies to launch a major offensive in Southeast Asia.
1943, the war’s momentum had begun to shift in favor of The Cairo Conference, codenamed Sextant, offically
the Allies. In the east, the Soviets stood firm against the opened on November 23, 1943, with its initial session be-
Germans, and the British and Americans were preparing ing focused on Asia. Chiang Kai-shek urged that a mas-
to launch an invasion of Italy. While the crisis in the sive offensive against the Japanese be launched through
west continued, it was tempered by solid achievements Burma. Churchill supported this proposal and argued
316
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Cairo Conference and Declaration Addresses War in the Pacific
that the Japanese had overextended themselves. The with little gain. They believed, however, that the opera-
Allies had more than 325,000 troops that they could de- tion would occupy and divert a significant number of
ploy for the operation, which would be intended not only German troops, which was important to Operation Over-
to eliminate the Japanese presence but also to distract lord’s success. The British saw through the American
Japanese troops from China and their occupied islands in position and realized that Roosevelt was supporting Sta-
the Pacific. British general Louis Mountbatten was to lin’s interests as well as expressing American policy.
command this primarily British offensive. Roosevelt The Cairo Conference ended without any clear deci-
was supportive but not enthusiastic about the operation. sion on the Mediterranean offensive. The American and
Later on November 23, Churchill and his daughter British diplomats and Chiefs of Staff prepared for the
Sara took Roosevelt to see the Sphinx. The second ses- Tehran Conference in Iran; the emerging partnership be-
sion of the conference opened late on the morning of No- tween Roosevelt and Stalin would become more evident
vember 24; the topic was Europe, specifically Operation at that meeting.
Overlord, the planned invasion of France. Roosevelt
Significance
dominated this session and repeatedly stated his concern
The Cairo Conference of November, 1943, was a signifi-
that the integrity of Overlord could be placed at risk by
cant milestone in World War II Allied diplomacy. This
focusing too many resources on the operations in the
meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Chiang Kai-
Mediterranean, particularly in Italy. The Italian cam-
shek produced the Cairo Declaration, which was an-
paign had bogged down in recent weeks and showed no
nounced on November 30, 1943. The declaration delin-
signs of a quick victory. Churchill saw Italy as the “soft
eated the Allied aims to defeat Japan and addressed the
underbelly of Nazi Europe” and argued that victory was
imposition of postwar terms on Japan regarding the res-
1943
at hand and only needed firm resolve and additional re-
toration of territories. The European war was also ad-
sources. He also urged that the Allies carefully look at the
dressed, and it was in these deliberations that the differ-
potential gains that successful operations in Greece and
ences between Churchill’s Mediterranean priority and
Turkey would produce. Roosevelt’s aides wondered if
Roosevelt’s preference in scheduling Operation Over-
Churchill was still thinking of correcting his blunder at
lord became evident. The military conversations be-
Gallipoli in 1915.
tween the American and British Chiefs of Staff did not
Roosevelt recognized the value of Mediterranean op-
resolve the multitude of concerns that needed to be ad-
erations against the Germans, but he was focused on the
dressed. The differences between Roosevelt and Chur-
planning for Operation Overlord and the postwar rela-
chill carried over into the Tehran Conference with Stalin,
tionship between the United States and the Soviet Union.
which opened on November 28, 1943.
Roosevelt announced that General Dwight D. Eisen-
—William T. Walker
hower, who was present, would command Overlord.
Thursday, November 25, was Thanksgiving Day, and Further Reading
Roosevelt hosted Churchill and others present for a tradi- Best, Geoffrey. Churchill: A Study in Greatness. New
tional Thanksgiving dinner. On the same day, the British York: Hambledon and London, 2001. Perhaps the
Chiefs of Staff formally proposed a comprehensive Med- most useful single-volume biography of Churchill;
iterranean offensive in Italy, the Aegean Islands, and includes valuable insights on Churchill’s use of per-
Greece, as well as a campaign that, with Turkish support, sonal diplomacy and summit meetings, including the
would recover all of Turkey. Cairo Conference.
On November 26, Eisenhower—who in addition to Edmonds, Robin. The Big Three: Churchill, Roosevelt,
his other commands was the supreme Allied commander and Stalin in Peace and War. London: Hamish Ham-
in the western Mediterranean—announced support for ilton, 1991. A standard and reliable study of the rela-
British Mediterranean strategy. He argued that it should tionships of the three leaders that provides a wealth of
be sustained with the limited resources available and that information on the summit meetings.
the hierarchy of priorities should be first Italy and then Gilbert, Martin. Churchill: A Life. New York: Henry
the Aegean, followed by more eastern advances. In fact, Holt, 1991. One-volume biography of Churchill by
Eisenhower and the American Chiefs of Staff did not his official biographer; provides a balanced perspec-
think that the Mediterranean offensive would be as suc- tive and considerably detailed information on all as-
cessful as Churchill and the British Chiefs of Staff ar- pects of Churchill’s work—including the Cairo Con-
gued; the Americans envisioned a high level of violence ference.
317
Tehran Conference Promotes Allied Cooperation in Iran The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Kimball, Warren F. Forged in War: Roosevelt, Chur- terpretation of the war that was personal but has en-
chill, and the Second World War. New York: William dured.
Morrow, 1997. An excellent scholarly study of the Sainsbury, Keith. The Turning Point—Roosevelt, Stalin,
Roosevelt-Churchill relationship as it emerged dur- Churchill, and Chiang Kai-Shek, 1943: The Moscow,
ing the war; considerable attention is drawn to their Cairo, and Teheran Conferences. New York: Oxford
contrasting styles at the summit meetings. University Press, 1986. Sainsbury’s study remains
Meacham, Jon. Franklin and Winston: An Intimate Por- the most thorough book on the two phases of the Cairo
trait of an Epic Friendship. New York: Random Conference and related Moscow and Tehran meet-
House, 2003. Worthwhile study of the Roosevelt- ings; it demonstrates the growing confidence of Stalin
Churchill relationship that was being transformed and the fragility of the alliance.
during 1943, the year of the Cairo Conference.
Ramsden, John. Man of the Century: Winston Churchill See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II:
and His Legend Since 1945. New York: Columbia Pacific Theater; Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World
University Press, 2002. This important work covers War II: European Theater; Jan., 1941: Nationalist
Churchill’s development of his own legend and the Chinese Forces Battle Communists as Japan Ad-
interpretations of others; all aspects of Churchill’s vances; Jan. 14-24, 1943: Casablanca Conference;
role during World War II are addressed in this study. Sept. 3-18, 1943: Western Allies Invade Italy; Nov.
Reynolds, David. In Command of History: Churchill 28-Dec. 1, 1943: Tehran Conference Promotes Allied
Fighting and Writing the Second World War. New Cooperation in Iran; June 6, 1944: Invasion of Nor-
York: Random House, 2005. An outstanding book mandy Begins the Liberation of Europe; Feb. 4-11,
that focuses on Churchill’s leadership as a diplomat 1945: Yalta Conference; July 17-Aug. 2, 1945:
and a politician and as a historian who advanced an in- Potsdam Conference.
November 28-December 1, 1943

Tehran Conference Promotes Allied Cooperation in Iran
The World War II Allied Powers met in Tehran to Summary of Event
formulate a strategy to defeat Nazi Germany. The The Tehran Conference during World War II was the
United States and Great Britain agreed to launch an first meeting of the Allied Powers at which the Big Three
invasion through France in May, 1944, while the leaders were all present: Franklin D. Roosevelt, presi-
Soviet Union attacked Germany from the east. The dent of the United States of America; Joseph Stalin, gen-
Soviets agreed to join the war against Japan after eral secretary of the Central Committee of the Commu-
Germany surrendered. The Allies also promised to nist Party of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; and
respect Iran’s independence and to continue economic Winston Churchill, prime minister of the United King-
support for the Iranian government. dom. Although their primary concern was the defeat of
Nazi Germany, each of the leaders had long-term na-
Locale: Tehran, Iran
tional goals for the conference.
Categories: World War II; diplomacy and
Stalin, made stronger by his recent victories against
international relations
Germany, was intent on gaining territory and influence
Key Figures in Eastern Europe. Churchill, fearing that the Soviet
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the Union intended to grab territory and power in postwar
United States, 1933-1945 Europe, had arranged a pre-conference meeting with
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of Roosevelt in Cairo to secure unity between the United
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 States and Great Britain in dealing with Stalin. Churchill
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; was disappointed in the Cairo Conference, because Roo-
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central sevelt was not interested in the issue of Stalin’s plans but
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet wanted to talk instead about postwar policies and the for-
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 mation of the United Nations.
318
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Tehran Conference Promotes Allied Cooperation in Iran
In fact, Roosevelt was hoping to meet privately with rope, and it was agreed that these troops would arrive in
Stalin in Tehran to discuss the issue of global postwar the spring of 1944. It was further agreed that the Big
political and economic stability. Roosevelt wanted to Three powers would keep in close touch with one an-
form a United Nations organization similar to the failed other regarding the impending military operations and
League of Nations, with the United States, Great Britain, that a cover plan would be developed to mislead the en-
the Soviet Union, and China acting as the enforcers of in- emy as to when and where the invasion would occur.
ternational peace. Roosevelt was already in extremely Operation Overlord, or D day, as the invasion of
poor health, however, and he arrived in Tehran on No- Normandy in northern France was called, actually was
vember 28, 1943, in a failing physical condition that launched on June 6, 1944. Stalin promised that once Ger-
weakened his bargaining capabilities. Stalin was in high many was defeated, he would declare war against Japan.
spirits, bolstered by his recent victories against the Ger- All three Allied leaders were adamant that the Axis
mans. Powers must accept unconditional terms of surrender,
The first task for the United States and Great Britain and that once defeated, the nations supporting the Axis
was to secure the Soviet Union’s full cooperation with Powers would be divided into territories to be controlled
their war policies in order to defeat the Axis Powers. The by the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain.
primary issue was opening a second front in Western Eu- The postwar occupation of Germany itself was dis-
rope, which Stalin had been urging ever since Germany cussed, but no decisions were taken as to the specifics
had launched its surprise attack on the Soviet Union in of the reorganization of Germany’s government and
1941. Great Britain and the United States promised to be- economy.
gin the invasion in the spring of 1944, but Stalin wanted The conference declarations included a commitment
1943
other concessions from Churchill and Roosevelt. Stalin to form the United Nations assembly through the cooper-
exacted their agreement to support Stalin’s partisans in ation and active participation of democratic nations.
Yugoslavia with commando operations, supplies, and Those nations were thought to be dedicated to world
equipment. peace and the elimination of tyranny, oppression, and
An even more consequential agreement concerned intolerance. All of these agreements were set forth in
the Soviet boundary with Poland after the war. Stalin de- the Tehran Declaration of December 1, 1943. In a sepa-
manded that the eastern part of Poland be added to the rate declaration, Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill rec-
Soviet Union and that the border be lengthened else- ognized the assistance of Iran in prosecuting the war
where. Despite the protests of the Polish government-in- and promised continued economic support for the gov-
exile in London, Churchill and Roosevelt agreed. Po- ernment of Iran. In particular, it was acknowledged that
land’s postwar borders were defined as lying along the Iran played an essential role in facilitating the transpor-
Oder and Neisse Rivers and the Curzon line. They also tation of supplies from overseas to the Soviet Union
agreed to allow Stalin to set up puppet communist gov- and that such support had created economic difficulties
ernments in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ro- for Iran.
mania, the Baltic States, and other Eastern European The invasion of the Soviet Union by Adolf Hitler in
countries occupied by the Soviet military forces. 1941 had placed Iran in a difficult position. The Allies
Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt next discussed strat- had to travel across Iran to transport war materials to the
egies for Operation Overlord, a French invasion that Soviet Union quickly, and this would violate Iran’s dec-
would open a second front in Western Europe. Churchill laration of neutrality at the outbreak of World War II. As
argued against the plan, favoring a Mediterranean cam- a result, on August 26, 1941, Great Britain and the Soviet
paign instead, but his argument fell on deaf ears. Roose- Union invaded and occupied Iran and began transporting
velt assured Stalin that the invasion of Western Europe munitions and other materials across the Middle Eastern
would take place in May, 1944, in conjunction with an nation. In January, 1942, Iran agreed to extend nonmili-
invasion of southern France. The strength of the southern tary assistance to the Allies, and in turn the Allied Powers
invasion would depend upon the availability of landing agreed to respect Iran’s territorial integrity and indepen-
craft and personnel. dence and to withdraw troops from Iran within six
Stalin agreed that Soviet forces would launch an of- months after hostilities ceased.
fensive at the same time in order to prevent the Germans In September, 1943, Iran declared war on Germany,
from transferring forces from the eastern to the western thereby qualifying for United Nations membership.
front. Stalin requested additional troops in Western Eu- Therefore, at the Tehran Conference, the Big Three pow-
319
Secret English Team Develops Colossus The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ers reaffirmed their commitment to respect Iran’s inde- Further Reading

pendence and territorial integrity. They also promised Gellman, Irwin F. Secret Affairs: Franklin Roosevelt,
economic assistance to the government of Iran insofar as Cordell Hull, and Sumner Welles. Baltimore: Johns
it was possible, taking into account the heavy demands of Hopkins University Press, 1995. Discusses competi-
military operations on far-flung fronts and the world- tive points of view among Roosevelt’s advisers.
wide shortages of transportation, raw materials, and Kimball, Warren F. The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as
supplies for civilian consumption. With reassurances of Wartime Statesman. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Uni-
friendship, cooperation, and common objectives, the Big versity Press, 1991. A candid evaluation of Roose-
Three conference leaders issued their declarations and velt’s foreign diplomacy.
departed for their own countries to implement the O’Neill, William L. World War II: A Student Compan-
agreed-upon war policies. ion. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Use-
ful overview of major events in World War II.
Significance
Perisco, Joseph E. Roosevelt’s Secret War. New York:
It has been suggested that whenever the Big Three pow-
Random House, 2001. Reveals Roosevelt’s tendency
ers—the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Brit-
to keep secrets from Congress, the public, and foreign
ain—met in conference, the agreements reached by them
leaders.
inevitably affected the future of the world. This was cer-
Van Minnen, Cornelius A., and John F. Sears, eds. FDR
tainly true of the Tehran Conference. At Tehran, Roose-
and His Contemporaries: Foreign Perceptions of an
velt, Stalin, and Churchill reached agreements on imme-
American President. New York: St. Martin’s Press,
diate war policies for defeating Nazi Germany, the
1992. Gives insights into how foreign governments
postwar reconfiguration of the map of Europe, and the
and political leaders regarded Roosevelt.
general organization of the United Nations. Agreements
on postwar realignments gave the Soviet Union a free See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II: Eu-
hand in taking over the Eastern European nations after ropean Theater; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8, 1942: Germany
the defeat of Germany, thereby setting the stage for the Invades Russia; 1943-1948: Soviets Take Control of
Cold War. The Tehran Conference also anticipated an- Eastern Europe; Nov. 23-30, 1943: Cairo Conference
other conference thirteen months later in Yalta, at which and Declaration Addresses War in the Pacific; June 6,
more specific discussions would be held concerning 1944: Invasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of
postwar European and world affairs. Europe; Feb. 4-11, 1945: Yalta Conference; Apr. 25-
—Marguerite R. Plummer June 26, 1945: United Nations Charter Convention.
December, 1943
Secret English Team Develops Colossus
A secret team of British mathematicians, cryptanalysts, Max H. A. Newman (1897-1984), mathematician in
and electronic engineers developed Colossus, the first charge of the Newmanry at Bletchley Park
all-electronic calculating device, in response to the William Tutte (1917-2002), cryptanalyst at Bletchley
need to decipher German military codes during World Park who deciphered the Lorenz “Fish” code
War II. Alan Mathison Turing (1912-1954), mathematician
and logician who conceived of a general computing
Also known as: Mark I; Mark II machine, or “Turing machine”
Locale: Dollis Hill and Bletchley Park, near London, C. E. Wynn-Williams (fl. mid-twentieth century),
England engineer at the Telecommunications Research
Categories: Computers and computer science; Establishment who designed the Heath Robinson,
inventions; science and technology; World War II predecessor to Colossus
Key Figures
Thomas H. Flowers (1905-1998), Post Office Summary of Event
electronics engineer who led the team that designed In 1939, during World War II, a team of scientists, math-
and built Colossus ematicians, and engineers met at Bletchley Park, outside
320
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Secret English Team Develops Colossus
London, to discuss the development of machines that Polish scientists had earlier examined a German
would break the secret code used in Nazi military com- Enigma and had broken the codes used between 1928
munications. The Germans were using a machine called and 1938 by employing electromechanical machines
Enigma to communicate in code between headquarters called Bombas. In 1938, however, the Germans made the
and field units. The Enigma used a substitution code Enigma more complicated, and the Poles were no longer
whereby a set of letters were substituted for the ones that able to break the codes. In 1939, the Polish machines and
normally made up the words. This in itself was not new; code-breaking knowledge passed to the British.
however, the Enigma enciphered only one letter and then Alan Mathison Turing was one of the mathematicians
shifted to a new position so that each letter of every word gathered at Bletchley Park to work on code-breaking ma-
had a different key. The senders and receivers of the chines. Turing was one of the first people to conceive of
codes knew which rotor was being used for the substitu- the “universal” use of digital computers—that is, their
tion. The machine-made code used several rotors and so use as general computing machines that could be adapted
had vast substitution possibilities, which made the code to more than one task. He first mentioned the “Turing
extremely difficult to decode. The Enigma was portable, machine” in an article, “On Computable Numbers,” pub-
was easy to use, and generated seemingly unbreakable lished in May 28, 1936, in the Proceedings of the London
codes. Mathematical Society. The Turing machine was a hypo-
1943
Colossus and two of its operators, December, 1943. (Smithsonian Institution)
321
thetical device for solving any problem dependent on more rapidly than the machine performed even at top
mathematical computation and was not restricted to one speeds.
task. Turing’s original and innovative contributions made Tommy Flowers, an electrical engineer at Dollis Hill,
him essential to the team working on code-breaking suggested an idea that transformed the Heath Robinson
machines. Turing suggested an improvement to the into the Colossus: storing the information from one
Bletchley code-breaking machine (the Bombe, the Brit- tape—the tape that held the Lorenz patterns—electroni-
ish version of the Polish Bomba) which increased the cally. That would eliminate the need to synchronize two
computing power of the machine. The Bombe was an mechnical actions (two paper tapes running in synchro-
electromechanical relay machine that was similar to the nization). With only one paper tape traveling through the
Enigma. The Bombe did not decode messages itself but decoder, being compared with an electronic “tape” that
worked out the position of the Enigma rotors. Once the held the Lorenz patterns, it would be possible to decode
position of the Enigma rotors was known, the message at rates much greater than that of the Heath Robinson.
could be decoded by specialists. The code-breaking Such a machine would require the use of what then
machines replaced the tedious method of decoding by was considered an enormous number of thermionic valves
hand, which, in addition to being slow, was ineffective in (vacuum tubes). Because these tubes were prone to break-
dealing with very complicated encryptions that were down and often needed to be replaced, skeptics ques-
changed daily. tioned the idea. Flowers persisted, noting that the break-
The Bombe was useful until the Germans resorted to a downs occurred in the presence of power surges, when
cipher known as “Fish” code, produced by the Lorenz the valves were powered up. If the machine were left
SZ40/42, a machine that was more sophisticated and less on at all times, the valves were unlikely to break down.
portable than the Enigma machines, which were used in Flowers succeeded in securing Newman’s support but
the field. Fish codes were used for high-level communi- failed to gain official support from Bletchley Park. He
cations and were binary (they used base 2, in which the therefore developed Colossus by bypassing the Bletch-
only numerals are 0 and 1); decrypting the code was done ley hierarch, gaining only the approval of Dollis Hill di-
by hand, based on the decryption worked out by William rector Gordon Radley. Working with Sydney Broadhurst
Tutte in 1941 after the Germans had violated their own and William Chandler, Flowers designed and built the Co-
rules by transmitted the same encrypted message twice lossus in an astoundingly brief eleven months at Dollis
with the same key settings. Max H. A. Newman, the Hill. Although Turing and Wynn-Williams were not di-
mathematician who was placed in charge of the subunit rectly involved with the design of the Colossus, their pre-
at Bletchley Park responsible for decrypting the Fish vious work on the Heath Robinson was crucial, since the
(eventually known as the “Newmanry”), realized that first Colossus was based on the Heath Robinson.
hand decoding was far too slow to keep up with the In December, 1943, the first Colossus, the Mark I,
Lorenz machine and believed that it was possible to de- was assembled at Bletchley Park after being shipped
sign an automated device that could break these codes there in parts from Dollis Hill; it was operational by Jan-
more quickly. uary, 1944. It used fifteen hundred valves and could read
Working with C. E. Wynn-Williams of the Telecom- five thousand characters per second from a paper tape.
munications Research Establishment (TRE) and engi- Faster speeds were possible, but at twice the speed the
neers from the Post Office Research Station at Dollis Hill paper tape would disintegrate, so the five-thousand-
in northwest London, Newman oversaw production of character rate was determined to be acceptable for nor-
the Heath Robinson machine, which could read two mal operations. Flowers had made arrangements for the
thousand characters per second. Operational by June, manufacture of the time-consuming components in case
1943, the Heath Robinson was a major advance but had other machines were required. The second generation,
problems with reliability, mainly because it was de- the Mark II, was in operation on June 1, 1944. It used
signed to compare two synchronized paper tapes, one twenty-four hundred valves and was extensively rede-
with the encrypted message and one with the Lorenz ma- signed: It was capable of parallel operations (it carried
chine’s encryption patterns. This mechanical action out several different operations at once, instead of one at
stretched the tapes, which soon were out of synch with a time), and it had a short-term memory. Nine Mark II’s
each other when the machine ran at rates of more than were constructed, and the original Mark I was converted
one thousand characters per second, leading to unreliable to a Mark II. An eleventh machine was constructed at the
readings. Moreover, there was a need to read characters end of the war.
322
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Secret English Team Develops Colossus
After World War II ended in 1945, the secrecy of the concept in print. He was also among the first to imagine
Bletchley operations led Prime Minister Winston Chur- the use of subroutines: smaller programs within a large
chill to order the machines dismantled, although two of program which pause the large program to conduct sepa-
the Mark II’s were moved to the Government Communi- rate tasks and then return command to the large program.
cations Headquarters (GCHQ) at Eastcote, North Lon- Turing also contributed to the computer output facilities,
don, and then Cheltenham. They were eventually dis- worked on the art of programming, and wrote the first
mantled as well. The approximately ten thousand men Manchester programming manual.
and women who worked at Bletchley—who had been Contrary to popular belief, the earliest binary, elec-
sworn to secrecy and had worked under a “need to know” tronic, semiprogrammable computers were arguably the
policy (being told only the information needed to com- Colossi, not the ENIAC developed by John Presper
plete an assigned task) had honored their commitment so Eckert and John William Mauchly—although the nearly
effectively that few outside the project knew about the simultaneous development of ENIAC, coupled with the
code-breaking work at Bletchley Park for more than secrecy under which the Colossi were cloaked, leaves
thirty years after World War II ended. open to debate the issue of which was “first.” Unlike the
Information began to emerge in 1976, when the term ENIAC, the Colossi used binary code; like ENIAC, they
of Britain’s Official Secrets Act ended. In the early were partially programmable, by rewiring. The ENIAC,
1990’s, Bletchley’s museums director, Tony Sale, began however, was “Turing complete”; that is, ENIAC was
to investigate the history of Colossus through some designed for general computing. What is beyond dispute,
rare photographs, circuit diagrams, and interviews with however, is that some of the most important figures at
Flowers and others; by 1996, he had succeeded in recon- the vanguard of computing—Turing, Newman, Flowers,
1943
structing a working replica of Colossus. and others—were also part of the Bletchley experience
and emerged from that experience to make key contribu-
Significance tions to the development of computers and computer pro-
The Colossus machines gave Britain the best code break- grams long after the war ended.
ers during World War II and provided information that —Patricia Summers, updated by Christina J. Moose
was crucial for the Allied victory. Equally important,
however, is their place in the history of computer sci- Further Reading
ence. Anderson, David. Was the Manchester Baby Conceived
The Colossus machines were special-purpose, pro- at Bletchley Park? Report UoP-HC-2006-001. Ports-
gram-controlled electronic digital computers, the only mouth, England: University of Portsmouth, 2006.
known electronic programmable computers in existence Uses primary source documents and sound clips to re-
in 1944. The later work of several of the people involved examine the history of computing in the light of key
with the Bletchley Park projects was important in com- figures such as Turing, Newman, Flowers, and their
puter development after the war. Newman went to Man- connection with the innovations at Bletchley Park as
chester University shortly after the war. He was inter- well as later developments.
ested in the impact of computers on mathematics and Coombs, Allen. “The Making of Colossus.” Annals of
received a grant from the Royal Society in 1946 to estab- the History of Computing 5 (July, 1983): 253-259.
lish a laboratory for calculating machines at Manchester. Coombs provides an account of how the Colossus was
Several other members of the Bletchley Park team joined built and put into operation. As one of the people who
Newman at Manchester, including Turing in 1948. Be- actually worked on the machine, Coombs offers an
fore going to Manchester University, however, Turing entertaining and well-informed report of the various
joined Britain’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL). At problems and concerns involved with the operation of
NPL, Turing worked on an advanced computer known as the Colossus.
the Pilot Automatic Computing Engine (Pilot ACE). Flowers, Thomas. “The Design of Colossus.” Annals of
While at NPL, Turing proposed the concept of a stored the History of Computing 5 (July, 1983): 239-252.
program, which was a controversial but extremely im- Flowers, who designed the Colossus, describes how
portant idea in computing. A “stored” program is in resi- the machine evolved from the earlier Heath Robinson
dence inside the computer and then a particular program machine. Flowers provides background information
and data are fed through an input device simultaneously. on the Heath Robinson and the modifications that had
Turing was among the first to explain the stored program to be made in order to produce the first Colossus. The
323
article is well written and a valuable firsthand ac- the project, and material already in the public domin-
count. ion. The result is a thoughtful, informative work. Il-
Gannon, Paul. Colossus: Bletchley Park’s Greatest Se- lustrated, with extensive references.
cret. London: Atlantic, 2006. Journalist Gannon Ritchie, David. The Computer Pioneers: The Making
makes use of documents finally declassified after of the Modern Computers. New York: Simon &
more than sixty years to tell the story of the code Schuster, 1986. Ritchie’s book is a well-written, en-
breakers: the cryptography, the military strategy, the tertaining account of the people involved with early
significance of Colossus to the history of computing, computer developments. He relies on information
and the personal heroism of the inventors and mathe- from other published sources for the chapters cover-
maticians. ing the Bletchley Park project, but presents the infor-
Good, Irving J. “Pioneering Work on Computers at mation in a refreshing manner. Ritchie provides a
Bletchley.” In A History of Computing in the Twenti- brief but helpful summary of the machines discussed
eth Century, edited by N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and in his book, as well as a glossary of terms, notes on
Gian-Carlo Rota. New York: Academic Press, 1980. sources, and recommendations for further reading.
This chapter by one of the men who worked on Colos- Watkins, Gwen. Cracking the Luftwaffe Codes: The Se-
sus provides interesting, firsthand observations about crets of Bletchley Park. St. Paul, Minn.: Greenhill,
the development of the Heath Robinson and Colossus 2006. An inside account of the day-to-day work at the
machines. The account is admittedly incomplete, German Air Section, the code-breaking staff at
since Good operated on the “need to know” basis and Bletchley Park, of which the author was a member
because some of the information was still classified. and to which she affectionately refers as the “biggest
Hodges, Andrew. Alan Turing: The Enigma. New York: lunatic asylum in Britain.”
Simon & Schuster, 1983. The Colossus is only one of
several projects that Hodges covers in his focus on See also: Apr., 1943-1946: Eckert and Mauchly De-
Alan Turing, his life, his profession, brilliance, and velop the ENIAC; Aug., 1949: First Electronic
the times he lived in. This is definitely a book to read if Stored-Program Computer Is Completed; 1951-1952:
one is interested in the history of computing, rather Teller and Ulam Develop the First Hydrogen Bomb;
than only one project. Mar. 31, 1951: UNIVAC I Becomes the First Com-
Randell, Brian. “The Colossus.” In A History of Com- mercial Electronic Computer; Apr., 1957: IBM De-
puting in the Twentieth Century, edited by N. Metrop- velops the FORTRAN Computer Language; Dec. 17,
olis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota. New York: Ac- 1959: Hopper Invents the Computer Language CO-
ademic Press, 1980. Randell offers one of the most BOL; May 1, 1964: Kemeny and Kurtz Develop the
complete amounts of the Colossus and the work done BASIC Computer Language; 1967-1970: Floppy
at Bletchley Park. He has gathered information from Disks Are Developed for Computer Data Storage;
numerous sources, including official government re- Aug. 8, 1969: First Use of Bubble Memory in Com-
leases, interviews with those directly involved with puters.
324
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Magnuson Act Repeals the Chinese Exclusion Act
December 17, 1943

Magnuson Act Repeals the Chinese Exclusion Act
The Magnuson Act repealed Asian exclusion laws in the United States declined from a peak of 107,475 in
passed in the nineteenth century. It opened the way for 1880 to 77,504 in 1940.
further immigration reforms, which eventually allowed The passage of the Magnuson Act, which repealed the
a vast number of Chinese people to immigrate to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, inaugurated profound
United States and become citizens. changes in the status of ethnic Chinese citizens and resi-
dents of the United States. It made Chinese immigrants,
Also known as: Immigration Act of 1943; Chinese many of whom had lived in the United States for years,
Exclusion Repeal Act eligible for citizenship. It also allowed a minuscule quota
Locale: Washington, D.C. of 105 Chinese persons per year to immigrate to the
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history; social United States. The 1943 bill was a result of U.S. recogni-
issues and reform tion of China’s growing international status under the
Key Figures post-1928 Nationalist government, as well as growing
Warren G. Magnuson (1905-1989), U.S. Congressman U.S. sympathy for China’s heroic resistance to Japanese
from Washington, 1937-1944, later a senator, 1944- aggression after 1937. It also was intended to counter
1981, and author of the Magnuson Act Japanese wartime propaganda aimed at discrediting the
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the United States among Asians by portraying it as a racist
United States, 1933-1945 nation.
1943
Chiang Soong Mei-ling (1898-2003), Chinese World War II was a turning point for Chinese-U.S. re-
stateswoman and wife of China’s Nationalist Party lations. After Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in Decem-
chairman and president ber, 1941, China and the United States became allies
against the Axis Powers. Chiang Soong Mei-ling—wife
Summary of Event of China’s wartime leader, Chiang Kai-shek—won
The Magnuson Act (also known as the Immigration Act widespread respect and sympathy for China during her
of 1943) was signed into law by President Franklin D. visit to the United States. She was the second female for-
Roosevelt on December 17, 1943. It ended the era of le- eign leader and the first Chinese national to address a
gal exclusion of Chinese immigrants to the United States joint session of Congress. In 1943, the United States and
and began an era during which sizable numbers of Chi- Great Britain also signed new equal treaties with China
nese and other Asian immigrants came to the country. It that ended a century of international inequality for
thus helped bring about significant changes in race rela- China. These events and the contributions of Chinese
tions in the United States. Americans in the war favorably affected the position and
The first wave of Chinese immigrants to the United status of Chinese Americans. The 1943 act also opened
States came from the Pearl River Delta region in south- the door for other legislation that eventually allowed
ern China. The immigrants began coming to California more Chinese to immigrate to the United States. In the
in 1848 during the gold rush and continued to come to the long run, these laws had a major impact on the formation
western states as miners, railroad builders, farmers, fish- of Chinese families in the United States.
ermen, and factory workers. Most were men. Many came The War Brides Act of 1945, for example, permitted
as contract laborers and intended to return to China. foreign-born wives of U.S. soldiers to enter the United
Anti-Chinese feelings, begun during the gold rush and States and become naturalized. Approximately six thou-
expressed in mob actions and local discriminatory laws, sand Chinese women entered the United States during
culminated in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, bar- the next years as wives of U.S. servicemen. An amend-
ring the immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years. ment to this act, passed in 1946, put the Chinese wives
The act was renewed in 1892, applied to Hawaii when and children of U.S. citizens outside the quota, resulting
those islands were annexed by the United States in 1898, in the reunion of many separated families and allowing
and made permanent in 1904. Another law, passed in ten thousand Chinese, mostly wives, as well as children
1924, made Asians ineligible for U.S. citizenship and of U.S. citizens of Chinese ethnicity, to enter the country
disallowed Chinese wives of U.S. citizens to immigrate during the next eight years.
to the United States. As a result, the Chinese population The Displaced Persons Act of 1948 granted perma-
325
Magnuson Act Repeals the Chinese Exclusion Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
nent resident status and eventually the right of citizen- latter group was mainly responsible for revolutionizing
ship to 3,465 Chinese students, scholars, and others the way Chinese Americans were perceived in the United
stranded in the United States by the widespread civil war States.
that erupted between the Chinese Nationalists and Com- — Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur
munists after the end of World War II. The Refugee Re-
lief Act of 1953 allowed an additional 2,777 refugees to Further Reading
remain in the United States after the civil war ended in a Chan, Sucheng, ed. Entry Denied: Exclusion and the
Communist victory that established the People’s Repub- Chinese Community in America, 1882-1943. Phila-
lic of China. Some Chinese students from the Republic delphia: Temple University Press, 1991. Articles
of China on Taiwan, who came to study in the United from nine scholars on different facets of the era.
States after 1950 and found employment and sponsors Chen, Jack. The Chinese of America. San Francisco:
after the end of their studies, were also permitted to re- Harper & Row, 1980. A comprehensive summary
main and were eligible for naturalization. with tables, graphs, and maps.
Kim, Hyung-chan, ed. Asian Americans and Congress: A
Significance Documentary History. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
Beginning with the Magnuson Act, the four immigration Press, 1996. Compilation of documents with com-
acts passed between 1943 and 1953—which allowed in- mentary. Includes the Chinese Exclusion Act, the
dividuals of Chinese descent to immigrate to the United Magnuson Act, other relevant acts of the 1940’s, and
States—can be viewed as a result of shifting relations be- the Immigration Act of 1965.
tween the United States and the Chinese government and Min, Pyong Gap, ed. Asian Americans: Contemporary
culture as a whole. They arose out of the alliance between Trends and Issues. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage,
the United States and the Republic of China in World 1995. A collection of essays that gives an overall pic-
War II, as well as U.S. involvement in the Chinese civil ture of Asian American issues.
war that followed. In a wider context, they were also the Riggs, Fred W. Pressure on Congress: A Study of the Re-
result of changing views on race and race relations that peal of Chinese Exclusion. 1950. Reprint. Westport,
World War II and related events brought about. Finally, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972. A detailed account of
they heralded the Immigration and Nationality Act the reasons for the repeal.
Amendments of 1965, which would revolutionize U.S. Steiner, Stanley. Fusang: The Chinese Who Built Amer-
immigration policy by ending racial quotas. Its most dra- ica. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. This book is
matic consequence was the significant increase of Asian sympathetic toward the Chinese; it is suitable for stu-
immigrants in general and Chinese immigrants in partic- dents and general readers.
ular into the United States. Sung, Betty Lee. Mountain of Gold: The Story of the Chi-
These new immigrants changed the makeup of Chi- nese in America. New York: I Company, 1967. A
nese American society and caused a change in the way good overview on Chinese immigration.
the Chinese were perceived by the majority groups in the Tung, William L. The Chinese in America, 1870-1973:
United States. Whereas most of the earlier immigrants Chronology and a Fact Book. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.:
tended to live in ghettoized Chinatowns, were poorly ed- Oceana, 1974. Useful and informative.
ucated, and overwhelmingly worked in low-status jobs
as laundrymen, miners, or railroad workers, the new im- See also: Feb. 19, 1942-1945: United States Interns
migrants were highly educated, cosmopolitan, and pro- Japanese Americans; July 1, 1946: Canada’s Citizen-
fessional. They came from the middle class, traced their ship Act Is Passed; June 27, 1952: McCarran-Walter
roots to all parts of China, had little difficulty accul- Act; Aug. 7, 1953: Refugee Relief Act; June 10, 1954:
turating and assimilating into the academic and profes- U.S. Government Program Begins Deporting Mexi-
sional milieu of peoples of European ethnicity in the can Workers; Jan. 2, 1968: Congress Enacts the Bilin-
United States, and tended not to live in Chinatowns. The gual Education Act.
326
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Scientists Determine That DNA Carries Hereditary Information
1944
Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty Determine That DNA Carries
Hereditary Information
Oswald T. Avery and colleagues demonstrated that the known to exist; some strains in this class were nonpatho-
genetic transformation of bacteria was caused by genic (that is, they did not cause disease).
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), providing direct Avery had demonstrated in 1917 that the blood and
evidence about the chemical nature of hereditary urine of patients infected by different pathogenic strains
information. Their discovery, doubted at first, contained distinct soluble substances, specific for each
eventually led geneticists to understand that DNA strain. Later, experiments suggested that these specific
carried life’s genetic blueprints. substances were polysaccharides, starchlike molecules
derived from the distinct cell coatings or capsules of
Also known as: “Studies on the Chemical Transfor-
these bacteria. Nonvirulent pneumococci were unen-
mation of Pneumococcal Types”
capsulated, and the differences in the coats of the encap-
sulated forms reflected the strain differences among the
Categories: Genetics; biology; science and
virulent pneumococci. Avery’s early work helped form
technology
the foundation of the scientific study of immunology.
Key Figures In 1928, Frederick Griffith, an English public health
Oswald T. Avery (1877-1955), American bacteriologist officer, reported the results of his experiments using dif-
Frederick Griffith (1881-1941), American ferent strains of pneumococci to infect mice. Griffith had
microbiologist observed the following: Mice injected with a nonpatho-
Colin Munro MacLeod (1909-1972), American genic (unencapsulated) strain of pneumococci did not
microbiologist contract pneumonia; mice injected with encapsulated
Maclyn McCarty (1911-2005), American pathogenic bacteria that had first been killed by heating
microbiologist also did not contract pneumonia. So far, there were no
Summary of Event surprises for bacteriologists. However, when Griffith in-
In the 1920’s, the field of genetics had progressed to the oculated mice with a combination of nonpathogenic bac-
teria and heat-killed pathogenic pneumococci, many of
1944
point of locating hereditary information within the cell.
Genes, which were as-yet-uncharacterized elements re- those mice contracted pneumonia and died. Moreover,
sponsible for the inheritable traits of organisms, had been live bacteria recovered from these animals were encap-
localized to the chromosomes of cells. In the cells of sulated.
higher organisms, multiple chromosomes are found Griffith had somehow transferred the virulence and
within the membrane-bounded compartment called the capsule-forming traits of one strain of bacteria to a for-
nucleus; within the simpler cells of bacteria, a single merly nonvirulent, unencapsulated strain. This acquired
chromosome is found without a specialized compart- pathogenicity was maintained in subsequent generations
ment. In both cases, these chromosomes were known to of these bacteria, and the phenomenon was dubbed “ge-
be made up of two major chemical components: protein netic transformation.” Soon after they were reported,
and a form of nucleic acid (an acid named for its nuclear Griffith’s experiments were repeated with similar find-
location). Thus, it was known that protein and deoxyri- ings in several laboratories.
bonucleic acid (DNA) were in chromosomes, and chro- One of the scientists who confirmed Griffith’s work
mosomes had something to do with the characteristic was Martin Dawson, a Canadian scientist then working
traits of organisms, but beyond that nothing was known in Avery’s laboratory at the Rockefeller Institute. Daw-
about the physical nature of genetic information. son took Griffith’s findings a step further and demon-
Oswald T. Avery was a bacteriologist at the hospital strated that genetic transformation did not require the in-
of the Rockefeller Institute in New York City. He was fection of a host animal—unencapsulated bacteria mixed
studying pneumonia, a disease caused by bacteria and a with killed encapsulated forms gave rise to encapsulated,
major cause of death in the late nineteenth and early virulent colonies in bacterial cultures in the laboratory.
twentieth centuries. Several different strains of pneu- Avery’s name did not appear on Dawson’s paper con-
mococci, the class of bacteria causing pneumonia, were firming Griffith’s findings; he was skeptical about trans-
327
Scientists Determine That DNA Carries Hereditary Information The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
formation. This is perhaps not surprising, considering “The Dream of Geneticists”

that Avery’s main contribution up to that time had been
in establishing the existence of distinct, stable forms of In a May 26, 1943, letter to his brother (also a bacteriol-
pneumococci, recognizable by just such characteristics ogist), Oswald T. Avery revealed his own excitement and
as Griffith’s work suggested could be transferred from surprise at his discovery of the chemical nature of hered-
strain to strain. itary information:
James Lionel Alloway, another scientist in Avery’s But at last perhaps we have it . . . In short, this sub-
laboratory, later produced cell-free extracts of broken stance is highly reactive and on elementary analysis con-
encapsulated bacteria and showed that such extracts forms very closely to the theoretical values of pure
were as effective as heat-killed cells in transforming desoxyribose nucleic acid (thymus type). Who could
nonvirulent strains. Alloway described precipitation that have guessed it? . . . If we are right, and of course that’s
he observed in his extracts after adding alcohol to them. not yet proven, then . . . by means of a known chemical
In a few years, these descriptions would be recognized as substance it is possible to induce predictable and heredi-
corresponding to the behavior of nucleic acids. At the tary changes in cells. This is something that has long
time, however, the identity of the transforming agent been the dream of geneticists.
in these extracts was unknown, and Alloway—like a
substantial number of biologists—believed it was most
likely to be protein.
Avery’s interest in the pursuit of the transforming be a polymer of identical repeating units, similar to some
principle appears to have been engaged at this point. The starch molecules.
combined weight of evidence, much of it from his own Such a structure for DNA seemed incompatible with
laboratory, was irresistible. Together with two new col- the variety and specificity of genetic information. The
laborators in his laboratory, Colin Munro MacLeod and molecule’s presumed uniformity was even more strik-
Maclyn McCarty, Avery performed the key experiments ing in comparison with the immense diversity that had
that first identified DNA as the active transforming mate- been observed among protein molecules, which—like
rial in genetic transformation. DNA—were known to be associated with chromosomes.
Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty exhaustively frac- The prevailing view held that proteins, not DNA, were
tionated transforming extracts, removing polysaccha- probably the vectors of genetic information. Even
rides, lipids, and proteins by physical, chemical, and though Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty had demon-
enzymatic treatments without removing the ability to strated that the transforming ability of their extract was
transform. Enzymes that degraded ribonucleic acid highest in the most pure, most protein-free preparations,
(RNA) were also unable to interfere with transformation, their claim for DNA’s role in genetic transformation still
but even trace amounts of DNA-degrading enzymes de- seemed implausible. Many thought that even minute
stroyed the transforming principle. They tested and re- traces of contaminating proteins could be responsible
tested their extracts, using different methods of measure- for transformation. Alternatively, some suggested that
ment and different sources of enzymes; their results transformation of pneumococci was a special case: DNA
continued to show that the transforming principle be- might have an anomalous effect on these cells that
haved like DNA. Furthermore, their extract was extraor- caused them to begin making capsules and become viru-
dinarily potent: It continued to transform even when di- lent in a fashion unrelated to genetic material.
luted to exceedingly low concentrations, down to “1 part
in 600,000,000” from the starting material. Significance
In 1944, Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty’s classic pa- It took several years and two other studies to resolve the
per entitled “Studies on the Chemical Transformation of doubt about DNA. In 1949, Rollin Hotchkiss, who had
Pneumococcal Types” appeared in the Journal of Exper- begun work in Avery’s laboratory in 1935, demonstrated
imental Medicine, presenting their evidence that DNA DNA-mediated transfer of an entirely different set of char-
was responsible for the transfer of genetic information. acteristics, related to antibiotic resistance, to a formerly
Far from being accepted as an elegant proof of DNA’s nonresistant strain of pneumococci. This showed conclu-
role, Avery’s paper met with resistance and disbelief for sively that capsule formation was not a special case.
several reasons. One reason was the presumed simplicity In 1952, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase grew virus
(if not monotony) of DNA’s structure. It was thought to cultures in the presence of two different radioactive com-
328
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Scientists Determine That DNA Carries Hereditary Information
pounds. These compounds were used to “tag” the two for both the science and the scientists involved. Illus-
candidates for genetic vectors: One tag was incorporated trated, with bibliography and index.
into the proteins of the viral particles and another was in- Portugal, Franklin H., and Jack S. Cohen. “Genetic
corporated into viral DNA. The viruses then infected Transformation by DNA.” In A Century of DNA: A
bacteria, reproduced themselves inside, and burst the History of the Discovery of the Structure and Func-
bacterial cells to release many progeny viruses. tion of the Genetic Substance. Cambridge, Mass.:
Hershey and Chase showed that, in the viral infec- MIT Press, 1977. A discussion for the general scien-
tions they studied, virus proteins (identified by their spe- tific reader, with extensive treatment of Avery’s con-
cific radioactive tag) remained outside the bacterial cell, tributions. Illustrated, with bibliography and index.
while the tagged viral DNA was injected into each bacte- _______. “The Mechanism of Gene Expression.” In A
rium. They thus showed that this DNA alone was respon- Century of DNA: A History of the Discovery of the
sible for the subsequent production of progeny, which in Structure and Function of the Genetic Substance.
turn demonstrated that viral genetic information resided Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1977. A discussion for
in the same chemical substance that had carried the genes the general scientific reader, with extensive treatment
of pneumococci in Avery’s work. The case for DNA as of Avery’s contributions. Illustrated, with bibliogra-
the genetic vector had become irrefutable. phy and index.
In April, 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick Tudge, Colin. In Mendel’s Footnotes: An Introduction to
published their model of the double, helical structure of the Science and Technologies of Genes and Genetics
DNA, a model that explained how complex genetic in- from the Nineteenth Century to the Twenty-Second.
formation could be carried by a polymer built from sim- London: Jonathan Cape, 2000. Begins as a history of
ple subunits and how this polymer could be replicated the development of genetics and genetic technologies
over and over in generation after generation. Watson and and builds on that history to become a speculative text
others, whose work formed the basis for the new field of on the future of the science and its applications. Bib-
molecular biology, traced their interest in nucleic acids liographic references and index.
to Avery’s experiments. Watson, James D. The Double Helix: A Personal Account
—Jennifer L. Cruise of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. New York:
Atheneum, 1968. An eccentric book by an eccentric
Further Reading
man; the science is presented in a fairly approachable
Dubos, Rene J. The Professor, the Institute, and DNA.
1944
manner, and the larger story is accessible to anyone
New York: Rockefeller University Press, 1976. A bi-
interested in a view from the inside. Illustrated.
ography of Oswald Avery. Illustrated, with bibliogra-
_______. A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and So-
phy and index.
ciety. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor
Hotchkiss, Rollin D. “Gene, Transforming Principle,
Laboratory Press, 2000. Watson’s reflections on the
and DNA.” In Phage and the Origins of Molecular Bi-
social and scientific consequences of the discovery of
ology, edited by John Cairns, Gunther S. Stent, and
DNA. Indexes.
James D. Watson. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold
Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1966. A collection of es- See also: 1950: Boyd Defines Human “Races” by Blood
says on their work by the principal players in the early Groups; Feb. 23, 1952: Bevis Describes Amniocente-
days of molecular biology. Illustrated, with bibliogra- sis as a Method to Check Fetal Genetic Traits; Apr. 2,
phies. 1953: Watson and Crick Announce the Double-Helix
Judson, Horace Freeland. The Eighth Day of Creation: Model for DNA; 1955: Ochoa Creates Synthetic RNA;
Makers of the Revolution in Biology. New York: Si- 1961: Horsfall Detects the Link Between Cancer and
mon & Schuster, 1979. A historical account of the Altered DNA; Summer, 1961: Nirenberg Cracks the
development of ideas about the chemical nature of Genetic Code; Aug.-Sept., 1967: Kornberg and Col-
genes. A journalist, Judson writes with a fascination leagues Synthesize Biologically Active DNA.
329
Borges’s Ficciones Transcends Traditional Realism The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1944
Borges’s FICCIONES Transcends Traditional Realism
The dazzling short stories in Jorge Luis Borges’s then, not as a seventeenth century Spanish popular nov-
Ficciones transformed Latin American fiction, linking elist but as a Frenchman of the twentieth century, con-
it to the European tradition of visionary literature and scious of what had happened in literary history in the
pointing ahead to the tradition of Magical Realism that intervening centuries (including the publication of Cer-
he helped invent. vantes’s work). Though the words and paragraphs of the
two versions of Don Quixote de la Mancha are identical,
Locale: Buenos Aires, Argentina Borges assures the reader that the meanings of those
Category: Literature words and paragraphs are subtler, more ambiguous, and
Key Figure more self-consciously “literary” in Menard’s text than in
Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1986), Argentinean writer that of Cervantes.
What this brilliant parody of literary criticism by Bor-
Summary of Event ges revealed was the impact that a reader’s own culture
In 1944, the Argentinean poet, short-story writer, and es- has on his or her reading of a work. In the final sentence
sayist Jorge Luis Borges published Ficciones, 1935- of the piece, Borges invites a modern reader to consider
1944 (English translation, 1962), a collection of his short how the medieval Imitatio Christi (c. 1427; The Imita-
stories. Each story seemed to create and exist in a pocket tion of Christ, c. 1640-1530) by Thomas à Kempis would
universe, separate from reality but built on its own realist read if it were attributed to the modernist James Joyce.
rules. In each case, paradox was central to both the real- Would not a Joycean reading, he asks, renovate (for the
ism and the meaning of the story. contemporary reader) its “tenuous spiritual counsels?”
These were stories unlike any others, yet they referred With a vividness that authentic literary criticism must
constantly to other writings, real and imagined. They perforce lack, Borges addresses the issue of the reader as
were utterly avant-garde yet deeply linked to the Euro- true author of the text—an issue that would later loom
pean literary tradition. They built from an almost halluci- large in the critical writings of Jacques Lacan and others.
natory realism of detail to an absolutely hallucinatory Borges played with literature, and he expected his read-
sense of reality, a sense that was ominous, nightmarelike, ers to be literate, even philosophical, if they were to un-
and freighted with omens and destiny. Borges’s stories derstand the terms of that play.
would influence a host of other Latin American writers In his essay “Narrative Art and Magic,” Borges dis-
and—particularly after Borges was awarded the presti- cussed two ways in which cause and effect can be under-
gious International Publishers’ Prize for 1961—gain a stood, whether in life or in fiction. According to the natu-
world readership for his work. ralistic view, events are merely “the incessant result of
In “Pierre Menard, Author of Don Quixote,” the “real- endless, uncontrollable processes,” signifying nothing in
istic” setting was that of a short work of literary criticism, themselves. A gunshot wound, for example, is simply the
complete with footnotes, citations, stylistic compari- result of firing a gun. It is from this naturalistic perspec-
sons, and bibliographic listing of previous works, pub- tive that most people view their lives, and naturalism is
lished and unpublished. It was the nature of the book the philosophical stance of modern, scientific culture.
under discussion, however, that gave the piece its hallu- The other perspective is magical. Familiar from anthro-
cinatory quality, for the work it critiqued was a fragment, pological literature, in which “every detail is an omen
textually identical, word for word, with the famous work and a cause,” the magical perspective ascribes meanings
of Miguel de Cervantes, El ingenioso hidalgo don Qui- to events. A gunshot wound may be caused, in this magi-
xote de la Mancha (1605, 1615; The History of the Valor- cal view, by the breaking of a taboo, by the insertion of a
ous and Wittie Knight-Errant, Don Quixote of the pin into a wax doll, or by the symmetry between one
Mancha, 1612-1620; better known as Don Quixote de la death and another. In this view, all events have meaning,
Mancha). However, Borges’s piece represented itself as perhaps even multiple meanings, and the world is a text,
a critique of a story by a twentieth century Frenchman, full of puns, quotations, analogies, correspondences, and
Pierre Menard. omens.
Borges’s fictional author Menard, a reader is told, set For Borges, naturalism in the novel denuded it of the
himself the task of writing Don Quixote de la Mancha, dreamlike, visionary quality that, from Vergil and Dante
330
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Borges’s Ficciones Transcends Traditional Realism
to James Joyce and Franz Kafka, had been its crowning appear to some of his readers, shared the same paradoxi-
glory. The only possible integrity for the novel, he wrote, cal and hallucinatorily realistic approach to the act of cre-
lay in the magical perspective, and it was that magical ation.
perspective that he explored in the short stories that made Not all those who followed Borges shared his impla-
up Ficciones. Thus, in “The Garden of Forking Paths,” cable eye for paradox and mathematical rigor, but many
Borges constructed a World War I espionage story the later Latin American writers approved his juxtaposition
central enigma of which was a novel—written by a re- of magical elements with realism. Indeed, Magical Real-
tired Chinese scholar—in which each event led to two or ism came to be a dominant genre of Latin American fic-
more possible outcomes, which in turn led to two or more tion, with practitioners such as Gabriel García Márquez,
further possibilities, so that time became, in both the title Manuel Puig, Mario Vargas Llosa, and the magisterial
of Borges’s story and the novel itself, a garden of forking Carlos Fuentes. The short stories of Julio Cortázar, too,
paths. Life, Borges insisted, was a maze of possibilities, show traces of the Borgesian worldview of philosophical
and every story had myriad possible endings. In the cli- enigmas and mirrored realities, and the Mexican poet
max of the version of the story printed in Ficciones, the Octavio Paz is also at times overtly Borgesian. Borges’s
characters saluted each other as they might have been influence, moreover, extends beyond Latin America.
in other circumstances—in other timelines, in other Echoes and reflections of his pristine geometries can
branches of the same forking tale. be found in the Yugoslavian Milorad Pavic’s Hazarski
“Death and the Compass” was a detective story in recnik (1988; Dictionary of the Khazars, 1988), which is
which the detective found the killer by using cabalistic available in two versions (“male” and “female” editions)
knowledge. In doing so, the detective walked into a trap. that mirror each other exactly, with the exception of one
The trap was, literally, a diamond in space-time, formed paragraph. Borges’s influence is also visible in the marvel-
by four points, each one itself formed of a date and a loca- ous tales of the Italians Italo Calvino and Umberto Eco.
tion on a map. In the story, as the detective is about to die,
he tells his killer of a similar trap (possible, as it were, on
another timeline), this time not diamond-shaped but lin- “Nothing but Details”
ear, and the killer replies, “The next time I kill you, I
promise you the labyrinth made of the single straight line Jorge Luis Borges’s Ficciones, 1935-1944, is detailed
which is invisible and everlasting.” and exacting in focus yet “magical” in effect. He used
details to make meaning, as in the following example of
1944
The stories in Ficciones, then, were concerned with
infinities, enigmas, mazes and labyrinths, diamonds and Magical Realism that is realized through his protago-
nist’s imagination:
mirror images, and branchings—in short, with mathe-
matical and logical patterns and paradoxes. Their appar- To sleep is to be abstracted from the world; [local boy
ent realism was the device by which Borges contrived to Ireneo] Funes, on his back in his cot, in the shadows,
win a reader’s sympathetic attention, but it was the logi- imagined every crevice and every molding of the vari-
cally precise way in which the stories outflanked all real- ous houses which surrounded him. (I repeat, the least
istic logic that gave them their peculiar power. important of his recollections was more minutely pre-
Many of these tales condensed novel-length ideas into cise and more lively than our perception of a physical
short stories. Borges’s writing in the years that followed pleasure or a physical torment.) Toward the east, in a
would single-mindedly continue this process of com- section which was not yet cut into blocks of homes, there
were some new unknown houses. Funes imagined them
pression, generating ever shorter stories, essays, and po-
black, compact, made of a single obscurity; he would
ems—each one with a diamond paradox at its heart.
turn his face in this direction in order to sleep. He would
also imagine himself at the bottom of the river, being
Significance rocked and annihilated by the current.
Borges was at once an Argentinean writer and a member Without effort, he had learned English, French, Por-
of a global literary culture, and it was perhaps the su- tuguese, Latin. I suspect, nevertheless, that he was not
preme irony (or paradox) at the heart of his own life that very capable of thought. To think is to forget a differ-
he should also have been both blind and the national li- ence, to generalize, to abstract. In the overly replete
brarian of Argentina. God, Borges wrote in his “Poem of world of Funes there was nothing but details, almost
the Gifts,” “with such splendid irony/ granted me books contiguous details.
and blindness at one touch.” God and Borges, it would
331
Borges’s Ficciones Transcends Traditional Realism The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
With his characteristic, magically organized inter- Block de Behar, Lisa. Borges: The Passion of an Endless
penetration of history and fiction, Borges reconnected Quotation. Translated and with an introduction by
modern world fiction with the epic and visionary cur- William Egginton. Albany: State University of New
rents of Homer and John Milton; blind, as they were, York Press, 2003. A critical assessment of Borges’s
he restored to his readers’ sight the power of the dream. work, focusing on his propensity to incorporate other
This was an act of continuity, not rupture, a radical sources (both real and imagined) into his writing. Bib-
act in both senses of the term—meaning both “revolu- liographic references and index.
tionary” and, literally and etymologically, “returning Gracia, Jorge J. E., Carolyn Korsmeyer, and Rodolphe
to the roots.” It was in this act that he was followed, Gasché, eds. Literary Philosophers: Borges, Calvino,
not blindly and imitatively but as an exemplar, by so Eco. New York: Routledge, 2002. Compendium of
many writers, from Cortázar and Fuentes to Calvino essays comparing Borges with his Italian followers;
and Eco. treats them as philosophers who work out their philos-
Borges brought a characteristic clarity and precision ophy in fiction rather than (or in addition to) tradi-
to his worlds of fantasy, and in this he greatly resembled tional philosophical prose.
his contemporary, the Dutch graphic artist Maurits Cor- Rodriguez Monegal, Emir. Jorge Luis Borges. New York:
nelis Escher, who etched hands drawing hands drawing E. P. Dutton, 1978. Literary biography of Borges by
the hands that drew them, staircases that were subject to his friend of more than thirty years. Explores the dif-
a bewildering variety of contradictory gravities, birds ference between Borges the man and Borges the au-
whose wings and tails dovetailed—the word seems inev- thor of Ficciones—a distinction central to Borges’s
itable—with the wings and tails of other birds. His deep- own view of his work. With bibliography and index.
est affinity, though, was arguably with James Joyce, Shaw, D. L. Borges: “Ficciones.” Critical Guides to
who, like Borges, labored constantly to return the sacred Spanish Texts 14. London: Grant and Cutler, 1976.
logic of myth to secular fiction and so to breathe the infi- In-depth study of Borges’s Ficciones, written for the
nite once again into finite human lives. English-speaking lay reader. Includes a bibliography.
—Charles Cameron Williamson, Edwin. Borges: A Life. New York: Viking,
2004. Massive, exhaustive biography of the author.
Further Reading
Bibliographic references and index.
Bell-Villada, Gene H. Borges and His Fiction: A Guide
to His Mind and Art. Rev. ed. Austin: University of See also: 1951: Rise of the New Novel; 1955-1970:
Texas Press, 1999. Study of Borges that pays particu- Latin American Fiction “Boom”; Nov. 17, 1959:
lar attention to Ficciones, placing it as the turning Death of Villa-Lobos; May, 1967: García Márquez’s
point in his career. One Hundred Years of Solitude Is Published.
332
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Hodgkin Solves the Structure of Penicillin
1944-1949
Hodgkin Solves the Structure of Penicillin
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin used a computer to work method of structure determination by organic chemists at
out the X-ray data of penicillin, becoming the first to that time was to subject the compound to harsh treatment
use a computer in direct application to a biochemical and then study the degradation products. The analysis of
problem. these fragments would allow reconstruction of the origi-
nal molecule, a jigsaw puzzle approach.
Locale: Oxford, England Among the proposed structures for the penicillin mol-
Categories: Biology; science and technology; ecule, two were considered leading contenders by the
computers and computer science end of 1942. The favorite of Sir Robert Robinson, a well-
Key Figures known organic chemist of the University of Oxford,
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin (1910-1994), English was a combination of two rings known as oxazolone-
crystallographer, who won the 1964 Nobel Prize in thiazolidine. Nevertheless, the structure had a serious
Chemistry problem: The formula predicted that the molecule should
Barbara Wharton Low (b. 1920), English chemist, who contain a basic group that was never found by titration. A
assisted in the penicillin project second possible structure was suggested, a different as-
sembly of rings known as a beta-lactam-thiazolidine
Summary of Event structure. This was an unfamiliar structure that had never
The method Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin used to solve been found in natural products. No known reactions
the problem of the molecular structure of the antibiotic could explain how the observed degradation fragments
penicillin consisted of three scientific disciplines that could fit to give the beta-lactam structure. It seemed that
had, to that time, little common ground: synthetic or- the traditional organic method of structure determination
ganic chemistry, X-ray crystallography, and the new was incapable of resolving the problem. To settle the dis-
field of computer technology. Penicillin was discovered pute, a sample of penicillin was sent to Hodgkin at the
in 1928 by Alexander Fleming at St. Mary’s Hospital in end of 1944 for a single-crystal X-ray study of penicillin.
London. Fleming’s original paper on penicillin, published The discipline of X-ray crystallography, in which
in 1929, described potential uses of the antibiotic as well Hodgkin spent her scientific career, had its beginning in
1944
as toxicity tests performed on animals and on some sensi- Munich in 1912, when Max von Laue showed that X rays
tive human tissue. Ernst Boris Chain and Baron Florey at behaved as electromagnetic waves with short wave-
the University of Oxford began working with penicillin lengths and that X rays scattered by a row of atoms in a
in 1935, with Chain attempting to extract and purify suf- crystal could produce interference patterns. The intensity
ficient penicillin for Florey’s clinical testing. They pub- of the various spots in the pattern and their spacing de-
lished the results of a series of successful treatments in pended on the arrangement of the atoms in the crystal. Sir
1941. Time brought worldwide attention to the new won- Lawrence Bragg in England formulated a simple law by
der drug in 1941, but noted that because penicillin was which he was able to explain successfully all the spots
difficult to extract, it had limited usefulness until it could from Laue’s patterns. This development provided a new
be prepared with less expense or synthesized. tool for examining the internal arrangements of atoms in
Because of the potential antibiotic activity of penicil- crystals and provided solutions, almost immediately, for
lin and its low toxicity, it was invaluable on the battle- many inorganic structural questions.
fields of World War II. An enormous effort that involved The general method involved in crystallographic
scientists in academia, industry, and government was un- study is repeated comparison of experiments and calcu-
dertaken by the English and American governments in lation of reflections from various planes of the crystal. If
1942 to increase the supply of penicillin. The research ef- the structure of the crystal and the wavelength of the X
fort moved in two directions: improved means of produc- rays are known, it is easy to predict the diffraction pat-
ing natural penicillins and the synthesis of an artificial tern. It is much more difficult to deduce the crystal struc-
penicillin. ture from the observed pattern. For very simple struc-
The development of a synthetic route to penicillin re- tures, a trial-and-error method is appropriate, but as more
quired a knowledge not only of the chemical formula of complex structures are studied, the calculations involved
penicillin but also of its molecular structure. The usual become extremely tedious and time-consuming.
333
Hodgkin Solves the Structure of Penicillin The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
The object of a crystal-structure determination is to studying the shadows made by illuminating the model
ascertain the positions of all atoms in the basic unit of the with parallel light beams, they were able to record new
crystal. The process involves collection of data, solution atomic coordinates. Further calculations followed.
of the phase relations among the scattered X rays (deter- Hodgkin and Low frequently compared their results with
mination of a trial structure), and refinement of this those of C. W. Bunn and A. Turner-Jones, who were us-
structure. In the 1940’s and 1950’s, the time involved in ing an optical diffraction method in studying the sodium
the difficult task of collecting three-dimensional data salt of benzylpenicillin. Eventually, the two groups
(the first step) was short in comparison with the time re- agreed on the beta-lactam structure as the correct one for
quired to solve the phase problems (the second step). the penicillin molecule.
This depended on the complexity of the problem and on
the luck, perseverance, and intuition of the investigator. Significance
The third step required such a large number of calcula- X-ray crystallographic analysis of even the simplest mol-
tions that it was ignored, except for the simplest of struc- ecules requires many mathematical computations. When
tures. the work on penicillin began, the computing equipment
Hodgkin applied her particular qualities of precision, available was grossly inadequate. By the mid-1940’s,
astute mathematical analysis, and special imagination to Hodgkin was able to borrow an old IBM card-punch ma-
the penicillin problem as soon as crystals were prepared chine, without which the refinement of the penicillin
for photographing. Three crystals were prepared for structure would have been almost impossible.
study: sodium benzylpenicillin and the isomorphous po- Hodgkin continued to make use of computers of vary-
tassium and rubidium salts of benzylpenicillin. ing degrees of complexity to solve even larger mole-
The early electron density projections, based on the cules. It was becoming clear that understanding the
phase angles obtained from the isomorphous salts, indi- chemistry of life processes required a detailed stereo-
cated the presence of a heavy scattering center, identified chemical knowledge of the compounds involved. By
as sulfur, in the crystal structure. Armed with these few 1956, Hodgkin had shown by the penicillin work and by
clues and the tentative structures, Hodgkin and Barbara solving the structure of vitamin B12 that it was possible to
Wharton Low proceeded with a trial-and-error analysis. use X-ray crystallography alone to determine even very
They constructed scale models using heavy wire, and by complex structures. As the size and complexity of the
molecules to be analyzed increased, the need for more
advanced computers increased also. Fortunately, com-
puter technology kept pace with the demands of other
fields of science.
During the 1960’s, many organic chemists worried
about the gradual encroachment of X-ray crystallogra-
phy into what had been an important preserve of organic
chemistry: the elucidation of structure. It was becoming
evident by that time that natural product structures, espe-
cially those that contained new features, could be deter-
mined more quickly by X-ray analysis than by traditional
degradative methods. The chemists feared the loss of
new discoveries frequently brought about by the process
of classical structural analysis, particularly in the area of
chemical synthesis In fact, organic chemistry has sur-
vived its crisis rather well. Freed from the responsibil-
ity of structural determination, organic chemists have
turned, with great success, to other endeavors.
As interest among organic chemists in degradation
studies waned, their energy was channeled into other
areas, particularly synthetic and mechanistic studies.
Various types of bonds were studied during this period,
Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin. (The Nobel Foundation) especially those formed in organic molecules and their
334
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Hodgkin Solves the Structure of Penicillin
influence on geometry: angles, bonding and nonbonding work of Hodgkin and her importance to organic struc-
distances, and planarity of certain groups. The hydrogen tural analysis. Many of the latter are the reminis-
bond also received much attention after crystal X-ray cences of friends and colleagues.
analysis showed that some pairs of electronegative at- Ewald, P. P., ed. Fifty Years of X-Ray Diffraction.
oms (oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine), at least one of which Utrecht, the Netherlands: Oosthoek’s Uitgeversmij,
was bonded to a hydrogen, approached closer than ex- 1962. A detailed description of the development of
pected. The importance of the hydrogen bond was recog- X-ray crystallography written for the fiftieth anniver-
nized at this time, particularly its influence in determin- sary of the discovery of X-ray diffraction by crystals.
ing secondary structures of biological molecules. Ferry, Georgina. Dorothy Hodgkin: A Life. Cold Spring
The use of the computer in modeling chemical com- Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press,
pounds has gone far beyond the computational stage. 2000. An excellent, detailed biography of Dorothy
The development of graphics capability allows models Crowfoot Hodgkin.
of molecules to be viewed on screen and manipulated Lax, Eric. The Mold in Dr. Florey’s Coat: The Story of
in many ways. New drugs are frequently computer- the Penicillin Miracle. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.
designed to mimic natural molecules and to act as posi- Relates the story of the discovery of penicillin and its
tive or negative inhibitors of many body processes. The development into a useful drug. Sheds light on the
introduction of the computer truly has revolutionized personalities of the scientists involved in its dis-
chemistry. covery.
—Grace A. Banks Sheehan, John C. The Enchanted Ring: The Untold Story
of Penicillin. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1982. An
Further Reading
interesting and readable book on the history of the at-
Burke, John G. Origins of the Science of Crystals. Berke-
tempt to synthesize penicillin by the person who
ley: University of California Press, 1966. A short his-
eventually accomplished the feat. Discusses the many
tory of the science of crystallography. Burke clearly
conflicts that arose along the way, from the crediting
explains the terms used in crystallography, as well as
of the original discovery by Fleming to the disagree-
the basic theories.
ments over the structures proposed by organic chem-
Crowfoot, D., C. W. Bunn, B. W. Rogers-Low, and A.
ists before Hodgkin’s solution.
Turner-Jones. “The X-Ray Crystallographic Investi-
Straus, Eugene W., and Alex Straus. Medical Marvels:
gation of the Structure of Penicillin.” In The Chemis-
1944
The One Hundred Greatest Advances in Medicine.
try of Penicillin, edited by Hans T. Clarke, John R.
Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2006. A history of
Johnson, and Sir Robert Robinson. Princeton, N.J.:
medicine and medical discoveries with chapters on
Princeton University Press, 1949. A rather technical
penicillin and other antibiotics.
article by Hodgkin and colleagues that describes the
tedious process by which the structure of penicillin
was determined. For readers with an average back- See also: Sept., 1943-Mar., 1944: Waksman Discovers
ground in mathematics and general science. the Antibiotic Streptomycin; Summer, 1945: Duggar
Dodson, Guy, Jenny P. Glusker, and David Sayre, eds. Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic; Nov.,
Structural Studies on Molecules of Biological Inter- 1947: First Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discov-
est. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Con- ered; Oct. 5, 1953: Du Vigneaud Synthesizes the First
tains technical articles and articles about the early Peptide Hormone.
335
Sanger Determines the Structure of Insulin The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1944-1953
Sanger Determines the Structure of Insulin
Frederick Sanger pioneered the determination of the was well documented in 1944 when Sanger began his
amino acid sequence and the composition of protein, monumental task. Sanger had the necessary tools to
most notably the hormone insulin, critical to those with bring his dream to fruition. A technique referred to as
diabetes. Knowing the primary structure of a protein chromatography was the main tool employed. Chroma-
led to its chemical synthesis in the laboratory. This tography allows the separation and identification of com-
had, and still has, far-reaching scientific and medical pounds that are similar in chemical form. For example,
importance. even though the amino acids are similar in chemical
form, there is sufficient difference between them to be
Locale: Cambridge, England separated and identified by chromatography. For this en-
Categories: Chemistry; biology; health and deavor, paper was the support medium on which the
medicine; science and technology physical separation was achieved.
Key Figure Another tool available was a method of separating the
Frederick Sanger (b. 1918), English biochemist and amino acids chemically in a protein. When a protein is
geneticist synthesized, the amino acids are joined to one another by
a chemical bond—a carbon atom, common to all amino
Summary of Event acids. A carbon atom of one amino acid is joined to a ni-
The hormone insulin was the first protein molecule for trogen atom (again common to all amino acids) of the
which the complete structure was determined by chemi- next amino acid, until the protein is assembled. This
cal means. The primary structure of insulin (its amino bond is called the peptide bond. It had been discovered
acid composition and sequence) was the result of the that proteins could be digested (breaking the peptide
study of primarily one individual, Frederick Sanger. The bond and chemically separating the amino acids) if
results of Sanger’s ten years of study were so momentous treated with hydrochloric acid. The longer the exposure
that he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. to the acid, the more complete the digestion. The acid di-
Proteins, one of the four major compounds associated gestion was completely random in its beginning stages.
with living cells, serve a variety of functions in living Complete hydrolysis usually takes from 24 to 48 hours at
cells. They can serve as hormones, antibodies, transport- 110 degrees Celsius in an evacuated system. This period
ers, and the like. In living cells, proteins are being de- usually will break all peptide bonds. A shorter period of
graded and synthesized continuously. The ability to syn- time will yield free amino acids, as well as partially di-
thesize proteins at a rate faster than their degradation is gested products, of varying lengths (differing in the num-
usually an indication of the well-being of a cell, a tissue, ber of amino acids still in the peptide bond).
an organ, a life-form. Without some of these proteins or Acid hydrolysis of insulin revealed the presence of
their normal complement, a cell may cease to function. fifty-one amino acids. Of the twenty possible amino ac-
The building blocks of proteins are nitrogen-contain- ids found in proteins, seventeen were found in the pro-
ing compounds referred to as amino acids. For the most tein. One amino acid—cysteine—was especially impor-
part, only twenty amino acids are found in protein. A sin- tant, yet troublesome. Cysteine contains a sulfur atom
gle type of protein, insulin, does not need to contain all that can link up with a sulfur atom of a neighboring
twenty amino acids. The difference between one protein cysteine, forming a strong bond referred to as a disulfide
type and another, insulin from the oxygen transporter he- bond. This can lead to cross-links in a protein. Fortu-
moglobin, is primarily which amino acids the protein nately, this bond could be broken specifically with per-
contains and the order (sequence) they are in. The se- formic acid, which did not break the peptide bonds.
quence and composition are collectively referred to as Fifty-one amino acids were found in insulin (compo-
the primary structure. Therefore, the primary structure is sition), but the order in which they occurred (sequence)
the signature of an individual protein. had to be determined, for example, if the fifty-one amino
Insulin was chosen as the first protein whose primary acids were in one continuous chain or if they were in
structure was to be deciphered because insulin—bovine, more than one chain. The presence of cysteine with the
ovine, or porcine in source—was available in pure form possibility of cross-links suggested more than one chain,
and was abundant. The necessity of this protein for life but it was yet to be determined how many.
336
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Sanger Determines the Structure of Insulin
Another instrumental tool that aided in the sequenc-

ing was the chemical 1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene
(FDNB). This chemical reacts with nitrogen-containing
groups of amino acids that are not in peptide bonding.
Chemical analysis using FDNB found that insulin con-
sists of two chains. The two chains could be separated
from each other by chromatography. What remained was
the task of sequencing each chain separately and then de-
termining how the two chains were joined. In one type of
procedure, Sanger decided to hydrolyze a chain partially
and deduce the sequence of the chain by the fragments
produced. This is similar to putting together a jigsaw
puzzle in the dark while wearing gloves. Hundreds of
fragments had to be generated, separated, reacted with
FDNB, and then analyzed. The sequences of both chains
were attained by this procedure, but it took Sanger about
eight years of analysis.
A second procedure was used to try to determine how
the two chains were joined. When a protein containing
sulfurs of cysteines joined to one another is acid-hydro-
lyzed, these sulfurs can recombine in a variety of ways. Frederick Sanger. (The Nobel Foundation)
By complex analysis of these products and the use of en-
zymes, Sanger was able to inhibit some of these reactions
and then was able to determine the proper disulfide bond- used in humans in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Af-
ing involved in holding the chains together. With the set- ter prolonged administration, a person may develop an
ting of the disulfide cross-links, Sanger had succeeded in immunological reaction to the hormone. If this occurs,
putting it back together again; it took him another two the species of the administered insulin must be changed.
years. The knowledge of the primary structure of a protein
1944
also opened the door to the possibility of its now being
Significance synthesized chemically in the laboratory. This had, and
The scientific community was amazed by Sanger’s ten- still has, far-reaching importance, in both the scientific
year effort. For the first time, the primary structure of a and medical arenas. It was no longer a dream to be able to
protein was known. Soon after Sanger’s 1953 report, the synthesize a protein that could be administered clinically
primary structures of other proteins were forthcoming. in the human form and in pure form. Growth hormone,
From the point of technique, the pathway taken for in- interferon, factor VIII (missing in hemophiliacs), and
sulin by Sanger now was employed for hemoglobin, many more proteins now are used routinely in a clinical
myoglobin, lysozyme, and many other proteins. The setting in an attempt to save lives or to increase the qual-
technique of chromatography was refined by Sanger and ity of the lives of individuals for whom they are indi-
others to a point of its being employed for the purifica- cated. The synthesis of these proteins could be accom-
tion of other proteins, which is the first prerequisite for plished only if their primary structure were known.
sequence determination. Additionally, as an offshoot of As a further consequence, the studies of many protein
chromatography, the technique of electrophoresis was chemists gave impetus to the studies of DNA(deoxyribo-
employed in protein and nucleic acid research. This is a nucleic acid). In simple terms, DNA contains the mes-
cornerstone technique for modern-day nucleic acid se- sage for the primary structure of a protein. DNA mole-
quencing. cules are sequences of nitrogenous bases, which are
Differences in three amino acids in the A-chain of in- translated into the primary structure of a protein. The
sulin have been the basis for discriminating one species knowledge of the primary structure and the elucidation
source of insulin from another; more important, these of the genetic code offered the medical world a twofold
three amino acids have been found to be the reason for attack. If the primary structure were known, the gene (a
the decreased efficacy of bovine and porcine insulins sequence of bases in DNA) for the protein could be syn-
337
Sanger Determines the Structure of Insulin The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
thesized and inserted possibly into the DNA of a host hand. Discusses Sanger’s second Nobel Prize for his
cell, such as bacteria, which would then synthesize the pioneering efforts in the sequencing of nucleic acids.
protein for humankind. This idea is the foundation of Sanger, Frederick. Selected Papers of Frederick Sanger,
modern-day genetic engineering and of ambitious scien- with Commentaries, edited by Frederick Sanger and
tific projects such as the mapping of the humane genome. Margaret Dowding. River Edge, N.J.: World Scien-
Today, proteins used in the treatment of humans orig- tific, 1996. A comprehensive collection at 662 pages.
inated either from chemical synthesis or from genetic Includes Sanger’s writings on the sequencing of
engineering. Protein and nucleic acid chemistry comple- amino acids. Illustrations, bibliography.
ment each other. Sanger’s work was so momentous be- Sanger, Frederick, and E. O. P. Thompson. “The Amino-
cause he pioneered the field. Acid Sequence in the Glycyl Chain of Insulin.” Bio-
—Joseph M. Maturo III chemical Journal 15 (February, 1953): 353-374. This
article, although lengthy and technical, describes and
Further Reading
elaborates on the difficulties encountered by Sanger
American Diabetes Association. American Diabetes As-
in the sequence determination.
sociation Complete Guide to Diabetes. 4th ed. Alex-
Stein, William H., and Stanford Moore. “Chromatogra-
andria, Va.: Author, 2005. A554-page resource by the
phy.” In Biophysical Chemistry: Physical Chemistry
leading institution in diabetes-research advocacy and
in the Biological Sciences, Readings from “Scientific
diabetes education. Discusses the “ins and outs of in-
American,” edited by Victor A. Bloomfield and
sulin” and includes a CD-ROM.
Rodney E. Harrington. San Francisco: W. H. Free-
Bliss, Michael. The Discovery of Insulin. 3d pbk. ed. To-
man, 1975. Chromatography was one of the major
ronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press, 2000. An ex-
techniques that was employed by Sanger. This article
cellent examination of the history of insulin’s discov-
presents this technique in a nontechnical manner.
ery in 1921.
Thompson, E. O. P. “The Insulin Molecule.” In The
Branden, Carl, and John Tooze. Introduction to Protein
Chemical Basis of Life: An Introduction to Molecular
Structure. 2d ed. New York: Garland, 1999. Covers
and Cell Biology, Readings from “Scientific Ameri-
research into the structure and logic of proteins. In-
can,” edited by Philip C. Hanawalt. San Francisco:
cludes illustrations, mostly in color, a bibliography,
W. H. Freeman, 1973. This review article, written in
and an index.
1955, is a concise review of the time frame during
Chemistry, 1942-1962. River Edge, N.J.: World Scien-
which the structure of insulin was elucidated. Thomp-
tific, 1999. The Nobel lectures of laureates in chemis-
son was instrumental in some of Sanger’s findings.
try from 1942 to 1962, including Frederick Sanger,
Whitford, David. Proteins: Structure and Function.
who won the award in 1958. Includes laureate biogra-
Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2005. An excel-
phies.
lent introduction to the structure and function of pro-
Hunkapiller, M. W., J. E. Strickler, and K. J. Wilson.
teins for students in biochemistry and related disci-
“Contemporary Methodology for Protein Structure.”
plines.
Science 226 (1984): 304-311. The authors present
methods that were developed since 1959, which cur- See also: 1944-1949: Hodgkin Solves the Structure of
rently are involved in protein chemistry. Reveals how Penicillin; 1951: Lipmann Discovers Coenzyme A;
some later technology would have reduced Sanger’s May 15, 1953: Miller Reports the Synthesis of Amino
efforts drastically. Acids; Oct. 5, 1953: Du Vigneaud Synthesizes the
Lehninger, Albert L. “Proteins: Covalent Structure and First Peptide Hormone; Mid-1950’s: Li Isolates Hu-
Biological Functions.” In Lehninger Principles of man Growth Hormone; 1957: Isaacs and Lindenmann
Biochemistry, edited by David L. Nelson and Michael Discover Interferons; June, 1960: Oró Detects the
M. Cox. 4th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman, 2005. In Formation of Adenine from Cyanide Solution; Dec.
this chapter, the concept of sequence determination of 10, 1961: Calvin Wins the Nobel Prize for His Work
proteins as well as its importance is presented in a on Photosynthesis; Aug.-Sept., 1967: Kornberg and
clear and concise fashion. Colleagues Synthesize Biologically Active DNA;
Rawn, J. David. “DNA Replication.” In Biochemistry. Dec. 10, 1969: Barton and Hassel Share the Nobel
New York: Harper & Row, 1983. This chapter shows Prize for Determining the Three-Dimensional Shapes
how sequencing of DNA and proteins went hand-in- of Organic Compounds.
338
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Kelly Forges New Directions in Cinematic Dance
1944-1957
Kelly Forges New Directions in Cinematic Dance
During the heyday of the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cal elements contoured to fit the paradigm of the inte-
studio’s musical feature films, Gene Kelly developed grated musical. In that process, Kelly helped create a
an eclectic style of cinematic dance drawing on ballet, uniquely American form of dance with an emphasis on
tap, and folk elements to create a distinctive American music and American character types. It was a
choreographic style designed for the camera. form well suited to Kelly’s own brash personality and
athletic grace, as well as to his eclectic borrowings from
Locale: Hollywood, California the highbrow world of classical ballet, avant-grade mod-
Categories: Dance; motion pictures and video ern dance, the show business heritage of tap and soft
Key Figures shoe, and various vernacular and ethnic dance traditions.
Gene Kelly (1912-1996), American dancer, actor, It is also important to note that Kelly was fascinated
director, and choreographer with the film medium itself, its technology as well as its
Fred Astaire (1899-1987), American dancer, singer, capacity for telling stories through music and dance.
and actor Therefore, though Kelly is usually thought of as a dancer
Busby Berkeley (1895-1976), American director and who happened to be a star, he also should be regarded as a
choreographer serious filmmaker, a director and choreographer whose
Stanley Donen (b. 1924), American director comprehensive knowledge of and concern with the cine-
Arthur Freed (1894-1973), American producer matic world make him a far more complex and complete
Vincente Minnelli (1903-1986), American director cineast than his two worthy predecessors, Busby Berke-
ley and Fred Astaire.
Summary of Event When Kelly arrived in Hollywood in 1941, he had a
In the late 1940’s and early 1950’s, the American musi- list of impressive Broadway credits, including the Cole
cal film reached its apex of creative and popular success Porter musical Leave It to Me (1938), William Saroyan’s
in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) releases starring Pulitzer Prize-winning The Time of Your Life (1939), and
the exuberant Gene Kelly. Although best known to the the Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart musical hit Pal
public for his screen persona as a genial yet rugged indi- Joey (1940). Playing the demanding title role of Pal
1944
vidual whose characters’ romantic and artistic quests Joey, the caddish nightclub entertainer Joey Evans,
were expressed in muscular yet lyrical dances, Kelly also Kelly proved himself an able actor as well as a virtuoso
made significant contributions, as a choreographer and dancer. He also choreographed his dance numbers, an
director, to the development of the musical. opportunity he used to exploit his athletic dancing style
Kelly’s filmography is impressive. From his first film in order to help create and mold his character.
for MGM, For Me and My Gal (1942), to That’s Enter- Pal Joey, while making Kelly a star, also enabled him
tainment (1974) and That’s Entertainment, Part 2 to make important if tentative steps toward realizing his
(1976), Kelly’s credits for that studio include such glit- goal of the integrated musical. The role also allowed him
tering classics as Anchors Aweigh (1945), Ziegfeld to develop means for creating a more complex character
Follies (1946), The Pirate (1948), On the Town (1949), who could both outrage and charm audiences. “Joey was
An American in Paris (1951), Singin’ in the Rain (1952), a meaty character,” Kelly recalled in one interview. “Af-
Brigadoon (1954), It’s Always Fair Weather (1955), and ter some scenes I could feel the wave of hate coming
Invitation to the Dance (1957). from the audience. Then I’d smile at them and dance and
Kelly’s specific contributions fall into two broad it would relax them. It was interesting to be able to use
realms, conceptual and practical. First is the career-long the character to manipulate the audience.” Clearly, this
concern with working out a theoretical framework for was the voice of a director-to-be, as well as that of an ac-
cinematic dance; for Kelly, that framework started with tor, dancer, and choreographer.
the concept of the integrated musical, an ideal fusing of At first, MGM was unsure how best to use Kelly. Al-
story and dance into a seamlessly interconnected and though he debuted opposite Judy Garland under Busby
unified dramatic whole. Second is Kelly’s work, his mu- Berkeley in For Me and My Gal, the studio assigned him
sicals for MGM in which theory was transformed into straight acting roles for the 1943 war dramas Pilot No. 5
practice, with each film’s particular narrative and musi- and The Cross of Lorraine. MGM then loaned him to Co-
339
Kelly Forges New Directions in Cinematic Dance The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
of documentaries for the War Depart-

ment’s photographic section, an expe-
rience that furthered his interest and ex-
pertise in film technique. Back at MGM,
and with Arthur Freed’s backing and
the support of the studio’s talent-laden
musical production team, Kelly’s star
was poised to light up the postwar cine-
matic firmament with a string of ex-
traordinary musicals that stand as land-
marks of the American musical film.
To view image, please refer to print edition Significance

Kelly is in many ways a crowning fig-
ure in the history of the American musi-
cal. He brought the concept of the in-
tegrated musical to full realization by
recognizing that he not only had to
dance but also choreograph and direct.
Consequently, in works such as On
the Town, An American in Paris, and
Singin’ in the Rain—arguably his most
consistently satisfying and significant
films—dance, story, setting, and song
swirl together. Kelly’s synergetic meld-
ings evoke composer Richard Wagner’s
idealized notions of universal artwork,
in which the elements of the music
drama—music, lyrics, settings, and
mises en scène—work harmoniously
to serve the transcendent needs of the
Gene Kelly swings around a lamp post in a torrential downpour during the title overall drama.
dance sequence from Singin’ in the Rain. (Arkent Archive) As a dancer and director, Kelly was
aware of the challenges of transferring
the three-dimensional dance medium
lumbia Pictures for Cover Girl (1944), an impressive to the two-dimensional motion picture. In order to emu-
musical with Rita Hayworth. Kelly was given choreo- late the kind of kinetic energy that Kelly believed specta-
graphic carte blanche, which he used to great effect. The tors sensed when watching dance in a theater, he choreo-
public was impressed; so were Hollywood and MGM, graphed his camera and dancers so that the sensation of
which thereafter gave Kelly the freedom to experiment dancers moving toward the camera—and, therefore, psy-
and create under the aegis of producer Arthur Freed. chologically toward the film audience—was empha-
World War II was to intervene, but before joining the sized. Conversely, in order to ease transitions at the end
United States Naval Air Service in late 1944, Kelly of production numbers from dance back into dialogue,
filmed two classic routines, the innovative dance-fantasy Kelly often reversed the process, as in the title number
“The King Who Couldn’t Dance” with an animated Tom from Singin’ in the Rain, when Kelly’s Don Lockwood
and Jerry in Anchors Aweigh, and the pas de deux with walks away from the camera as it booms up and into a
Fred Astaire, “The Babbitt and the Bromide,” from fade-out. Kelly also heightened the sensation of move-
Ziegfeld Follies. ment by placing vertical props in the foreground or back-
When Kelly was discharged from the Navy in 1946, it ground of shots using a panning camera, a strategy that
was with two years of experience as a writer and director created its own vectors of momentum and speed.
340
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Kelly Forges New Directions in Cinematic Dance
Kelly also was adept at using cinema’s unique re- lows whom anyone would be pleased to call “friend.”
sources for manipulating space and time. The “New Kelly was a star in part because of his substantial yet of-
York, New York” routine from On the Town, for exam- ten underrated acting skills as well as his universally rec-
ple, is a “dance” that was created in the editing room with ognized talents as a great dancer and choreographer.
jump cuts that whisk three sailors (Kelly, Frank Sinatra, Although Kelly has deprecated his own singing skills,
and Jules Munshin) around Manhattan, thus compress- like Fred Astaire he helped put over many a song with his
ing what would have taken several hours into a three- raspy voice, sincerity, and winning smile. For example,
minute whirlwind tour. Whether shooting on location or when he intoned “You Were Meant for Me” to Debbie
in the studio, Kelly took full advantage of the spatial Reynolds’s Kathy Selden in Singin’ in the Rain, viewers
dimensions of his sets. Instead of confining the dance to believed him—and so did she.
an implied proscenium arch, as Astaire was mostly con- By the mid-1950’s, Kelly, like the film industry itself,
tent to do, Kelly moved his dancers through as much was increasingly buffeted by the competition for Amer-
space as his sets allowed. For “Good Morning,” from ica’s leisure time from the “free” programming of net-
Singin’ in the Rain, Kelly had himself, Debbie Reynolds, work television. Hollywood, provoked further by the Su-
and Donald O’Connor move from one room to the next, preme Court’s decision in the Paramount case mandating
a ploy that added another force field to those already that the major studios divest themselves of their theater
generated by the music, lyrics, dance, and camera move- chains, was in turmoil. Like the other studios, MGM un-
ments. der mogul Nicholas Schenck ordered downsizings in
Kelly’s stylistic eclecticism is another hallmark. In- production costs, salaries, and personnel.
stead of using one dominant approach to the dance, Kelly For Kelly and the Freed Unit, the most immediate im-
plotted each film’s choreography on the basis of the par- pact of this downsizing was MGM’s decision virtually to
ticular characters and dramatic situations. Thus in An eliminate all original musicals. In place of the innovative
American in Paris, Kelly called on the resources of bal- and written-for-the-screen On the Town, An American in
let to express his protagonist’s dreamlike reflections on Paris, or Singin’ in the Rain, MGM opted for glossy ad-
art and the quixotic nature of romance. Set to George aptations of Broadway blockbusters such as The Band
Gershwin’s classic 1928 tone poem, the seventeen- Wagon (1953), Brigadoon (1954), Guys and Dolls
minute “American in Paris” ballet is perhaps Kelly’s cul- (1955), and Silk Stockings (1957). There were also com-
minating achievement. It also is an example of Kelly’s paratively easy-to-make biographies such as Love Me or
1944
dedication to American music or, as he has said, the syn- Leave Me (1955), with Doris Day as Ruth Etting. The
thesis of old dance forms with new rhythms. postwar teen market was another factor, especially with
In contrast to the elegant, even aristocratic figure por- hits such as Elvis Presley’s Jailhouse Rock (1957). Cou-
trayed by Fred Astaire, Kelly’s persona was that of an pled with the box-office failure of Kelly’s most ambi-
earnest and hardworking though wisecracking and tious project, the experimental all-dance, no-dialogue In-
sometimes deceitful protagonist who comes clean in the vitation to the Dance, and the disappointing Les Girls
end. It’s a persona fleshed out through Kelly’s muscular (1957)—Kelly’s eighteenth and last MGM musical ap-
athletic abilities, an aspect of his raw physicality first dis- pearance until his hosting chores for the studio’s That’s
played in the gyms and playing fields of his native Pitts- Entertainment projects of 1974 and 1976—it was clear
burgh, Pennsylvania. It also is a persona carefully devel- that the heyday of the original musical had passed.
oped in a series of portrayals of “everyman” characters Kelly went on to direct The Tunnel of Love (1958), A
who were essentially just plain, regular guys—a sailor in Guide for the Married Man (1967), and Hello, Dolly!
On the Town and a former soldier and struggling painter (1969). There also were acting opportunities, such as the
in An American in Paris. role of newspaperman E. K. Hornbeck in Stanley
Even in Singin’ in the Rain, although Kelly plays a si- Kramer’s production of Inherit the Wind (1960), as well
lent film star, the character has an engagingly common as various television and theater projects. Although
touch, a sense of decency and fair play, and a resourceful Kelly acquitted himself with his usual professionalism,
practicality reinforced by the revelation of the charac- he never again reached the heights he had attained with
ter’s rough childhood and struggle to make it to the top. Freed’s MGM musical unit.
Audiences could identify and associate with Gabey (On Kelly’s legacy is nevertheless secure. His MGM mu-
the Town), Jerry Mulligan (An American in Paris), and sicals continue to shine. They also have continued to in-
Don Lockwood (Singin’ in the Rain), three likable fel- fluence dance talents as varied as Bob Fosse and music
341
Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic Voice to Existential Philosophy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
video superstar Michael Jackson. Among Kelly’s many Hirschhorn, Clive. Gene Kelly: A Biography. Chicago:
honors is a special Oscar he received in 1951 from the Henry Regnery, 1974. Hirschhorn’s lively book pro-
Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences “in appre- vides a well-drawn account of the evolution of
ciation of his versatility as actor, singer, director and Kelly’s dance style as well as useful information on
dancer, and especially for his brilliant achievements in the Freed Unit at MGM and each of Kelly’s films.
the art of choreography on film.” Thomas, Tony. The Films of Gene Kelly: Song and
—Charles Merrell Berg Dance Man. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1974. An
incisive account of each of Kelly’s films, with credits
Further Reading
and publicity stills. Thomas’s introductory chapter,
Altman, Rick. The American Film Musical. Blooming-
“The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Dancer,” is a
ton: Indiana University Press, 1987. An important
brief but especially good overview of Kelly’s back-
scholarly treatment of the musical, with emphasis on
ground, unique persona, and accomplishments. In-
genre theory and narratology as well as the musical’s
cludes Fred Astaire’s appreciative “Foreword.” Copi-
historical evolution. Frequent citations of Kelly and
ously illustrated.
his films. Illustrated.
Yudkoff, Alvin. Gene Kelly: A Life of Dance and
Delamater, Jerome. Dance in the Hollywood Musical.
Dreams. New York: Back Stage Books, 1999. This
Ann Arbor, Mich.: UMI Research Press, 1981. The
biography is best on Kelly’s early life and struggle to
most authoritative study of dance in the Hollywood
achieve success, but it also covers his Hollywood ca-
musical, with comprehensive chapters on the contri-
reer and contributions to cinematic choreography.
butions of Kelly, Busby Berkeley, Fred Astaire, and
Ginger Rogers, among others. Includes an informa-
tive interview with Kelly by Paddy Whannel plus a See also: Oct. 16, 1942: Agnes de Mille Choreographs
useful bibliography. Rodeo; July 21, 1943: Stormy Weather Offers New
Fordin, Hugh. The World of Entertainment! Hollywood’s Film Roles to African Americans; Apr. 18, 1944:
Greatest Musicals. New York: Doubleday, 1975. A Robbins’s Fancy Free Premieres; Sept. 26, 1957:
detailed chronicle of the two decades of films pro- Bernstein Joins Symphonic and Jazz Elements in
duced by MGM’s musical unit under Arthur Freed’s West Side Story; June 24, 1964: Cunningham Stages
supervision. Includes detailed filmography. Illus- His First Dance “Event”; Mar. 2, 1965: The Sound of
trated. Music Captivates Audiences.
1944-1960
Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic Voice to Existential
Philosophy
Existential philosophy gained a powerful voice Albert Camus (1913-1960), French philosopher of the
and became more prominent in twentieth century absurd, novelist, and dramatist
intellectual history once it was dramatized in the
plays of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus. Summary of Event
The philosophy, emphasizing the concrete over In the late 1940’s, the new philosophy of existentialism
the abstract, was better suited to dramatization captured the imagination of Europe and America.
than to conceptual discussion in philosophical Though the roots of existentialism had preceded this
texts. period, the movement became a self-conscious philoso-
phy in its own right only after World War II. Unlike both
earlier and later philosophies, however, existentialism
Locale: Paris, France; New York, New York
was not a coherent and dogmatic system but a mood—an
Categories: Literature; theater; philosophy
outlook that embraced a related set of themes from a vari-
Key Figures ety of perspectives. There were atheistic existentialists
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), French existentialist and religious ones, optimists and pessimists. Moreover,
philosopher, novelist, and dramatist there were many artists and writers who, though not
342
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic Voice to Existential Philosophy
existentialists per se, were influenced by existentialism. (wr. 1938-1939, pb. 1944, pr. 1945; English translation,
All shared a concern with problems of the human condi- 1948), was written when Camus was twenty-five. The
tion. play depicted the story of Caligula, a mad Roman em-
What gave the existentialists a common ground was a peror who, devastated by the death of his beloved sister,
similarity of outlook and a common approach to the deals with his discovery of absurdity by creating an ab-
problems of human existence. Despite the diversity of surd world, turning his kingdom upside down in an orgy
emphasis among existentialist writers and philosophers, of sex and violence. Caligula grasps for the impossible,
all shared a belief that, as Jean-Paul Sartre asserted in but he exceeds all limits, and he is assassinated by a few
1947, “existence precedes essence”—that is, the con- noble Romans. The play was produced in Paris in 1945
crete problems of human existence, as experienced by and later in the United States to great acclaim.
the unique individual thrown into a problematic world of In his eloquent short piece Le Mythe de Sisyphe
unique situations, take precedence over abstract, fixed (1942; The Myth of Sisyphus, 1955), Camus spelled out
views of life. Human beings were seen as conscious sub- his ideas on the absurd. People, he claimed, are strang-
jects in flux rather than as abstract essences or objects. ers—homeless, alienated, and condemned to futility—
Existentialists approached the whole person as a unity but Camus rejected suicide, aimless pleasure, and empty
of thought and action and asserted that humans must faith. Instead, he said, one must learn to live with the ab-
define their own nature. They emphasized that men and surd and to love life. In L’Homme révolté (1951; The
women must courageously define their existence and then Rebel, 1956), an essay on revolution, Camus asserted
take the responsibility for making their own choices. In that evil and absurdity must be fought, but not at the price
this view, humans are what they do. Despite the absence of of fanaticism and murder. The acceptance of reason and
a fixed view of human nature, the existentialists seemed limits and the struggle for individual freedom character-
to agree on the major problems that concerned human ized Camus’s outlook.
beings. These concerns centered on the uniqueness of in- Caligula was followed by Le Malentendu (pr., pb.
dividuals and their situations, on a preoccupation with 1944; The Misunderstanding, 1948). The Misunder-
anxiety, absurdity, crisis situations, value definition, and standing deals with a case of mistaken identity: A son,
choice-making. expecting to be recognized, fails to disclose his identity
It is no coincidence that Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert
Camus, the two greatest French existentialists, joined the
1944
French Resistance movement during the Nazi occupa- Existence Precedes Essence
tion of France in World War II. The unprecedented hor-
rors of the war heightened the emphasis on people in ex- In Existentialism (1947), Jean-Paul Sartre defined the
treme situations and raised vital questions about moral idea of existence preceding essence:
commitment to fighting radical evil. What is meant here by saying that existence precedes
Unlike other philosophies, existentialism lent itself essence? It means that, first of all, man exists, turns up,
perfectly to literary and dramatic expression. The appears on the scene, and only afterwards, defines him-
graphic and powerful imagery and dialogue of the novel self. If man, as the existentialist conceives him, is unde-
and the drama could portray the range of existential prob- finable, it is because at first he is nothing. Only afterward
lems more effectively than abstract philosophical dis- will he be something, and he himself will have made
course. Thus, Camus and Sartre became famous largely what he will be. Thus, there is no human nature, since
because of their plays. The dramatic voice they gave to there is no God to conceive it. Not only is man what he
conceives himself to be, but he is also only what he wills
the ideas of existentialism and the absurd disseminated
himself to be after this thrust toward existence.
those ideas far more effectively than could more straight-
Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself.
forward treatises. This is the first principle of existentialism. It is also what
Albert Camus became a towering moral philosopher is called subjectivity, the name we are labeled with when
and writer. Born in Algeria in 1913, he settled in Paris charges are brought against us. . . . Man is at the start a
and studied philosophy and literature. Before writing his plan which is aware of itself, rather than a patch of moss,
great philosophical works, he began to explore the nature a piece of garbage, or a cauliflower; nothing exists prior
of the absurd in the theater. In 1935, he helped found a to this plan; there is nothing in heaven; man will be what
theater company in which he acted, wrote, and produced. he will have planned to be. Not what he will want to be.
Camus’s most famous and greatest play, Caligula
343
Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic Voice to Existential Philosophy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
to his mother and sister, who proceed to rob and murder Significance
him. The absurd triumphs in the play, as the tragic recog- The impact of the existentialist plays of Sartre and
nition of the misunderstanding results in the death of Camus manifested itself in a variety of ways. What
Martha, the mother. It is important that sincere authentic- seemed to appeal to the large audiences in Europe and
ity (another existentialist value) could have saved the America, as well as to drama critics, were the simple
son. plots, the effectiveness of the dialogue and dramatic ef-
L’État du siège (pr., pb. 1948; State of Siege, 1958) fects, and the extreme situations, dilemmas, and painful
was an allegorical counterpart to Camus’s great novel La choices confronting the characters of the plays. The un-
Peste (1947; The Plague, 1948). As the plague threatens precedented horrors of World War II and the images of
to destroy a city, it assumes the face of a malevolent char- Auschwitz and Hiroshima had wounded much of the
acter. “The Plague” is assisted by a cynical bureaucrat, older faith in optimism, progress, and moral certainty.
Nada, symbolizing nihilism. Still, some heroic towns- The plays of Sartre and Camus were bound to appeal to a
people stand up to evil. Camus’s last original play, Les generation searching for moral bearings after the up-
Justes (pr. 1949, pb. 1950; The Just Assassins, 1958), set heavals of war.
in czarist Russia in 1905 and based on historical inci- Many of these plays were performed frequently in
dents, deals with one of Camus’s major themes, whether France and the United States. They became the ideal ve-
revolutionary ends justify violent means. Idealistic revo- hicles for the presentation of existential ideas; the depic-
lutionaries plot the assassination of the grand duke. tion of extreme dramatic situations and the expression of
Some of the plotters realize they have killed a husband the philosophies of the existentialists became insepara-
and father in assassinating a symbol of tyranny; Camus ble. Thus, the existentialist dramas of Sartre and Camus
lets the spectators decide how to respond to the issues, were able to reach a far wider and more varied audience
than their often difficult philosophical works.
rather than dictating the proper response.
Camus and Sartre directed their plays to their own
Jean-Paul Sartre was born in Paris. He began writing
time, the crisis-ridden twentieth century. Caligula was
plays as a prisoner of war in Germany in 1940. Sartre’s
meant and taken as an evocation of the bloody and fanati-
dramas differed somewhat in content and emphasis from
cal dictatorships of Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin. Sar-
those of Camus; rather than featuring eloquent charac-
tre’s play La Putain respectueuse (pr., pb. 1946; The Re-
ters, Sartre’s plays emphasized the depiction of average
spectful Prostitute, 1947) was set in the American South:
people in extreme situations and the ways in which those
The play dealt with the problems of racism, political cor-
people responded, either by facing up to or by evading
ruption, the exploitation of women, and, above all, the
their responsibility for making choices. Sartre also hypocrisy of American life. The play ran for 350 perfor-
turned to Marxism, with a resulting emphasis on social mances in New York but was banned in a number of
problems. For Sartre, the evocation of great truths was other American cities. The controversy aroused by the
the task of the theater. plays of Sartre and Camus, though, simply added to their
Beginning with Huis clos (pr. 1944, pb. 1945; In popularity.
Camera, 1946; better known as No Exit, 1947), Sartre ex- Thus, Sartre and Camus became two of the most pop-
plored the problems of responsibility, identity, and self- ular figures of the cultural avant-garde of Europe. The
esteem. No Exit depicts the mutual torture of three char- versatile Sartre continued his prolific creativity and his
acters who resist change and self-discovery. Many of political and social activism until his death in 1980.
Sartre’s plays were replete with unusual and violent epi- Camus received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957 at
sodes, portraying human behavior in extreme situations. the unprecedented age of forty-four. His death in an auto-
In Les Mouches (pr., pb. 1943; The Flies, 1946), based on mobile accident in 1960 seemed only to add to his stature.
a Greek myth of revenge, Orestes takes on the responsi- The plays of Sartre and Camus also influenced the
bility of killing his mother and her lover in defiance of mainstream drama of the 1950’s and 1960’s and set the
Zeus. Les Séquestrés d’Altona (pr. 1959, pb. 1960; The stage for the innovative works of the Theater of the Ab-
Condemned of Altona, 1960) probes the response to surd. Outstanding dramatists of the period such as the
atrocity in the twentieth century. The son of a Nazi indus- American playwright Arthur Miller were influenced by
trialist faces up to his father’s complicity in the Holo- the existentialists, particularly their emphasis on moral
caust. Always the committed existentialist writer, Sartre choice-making in extreme situations. The Theater of the
called attention to the evil of indifference. Absurd, which began in the 1950’s and lasted into the
344
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Sartre and Camus Give Dramatic Voice to Existential Philosophy
1970’s, featured such notable figures as Samuel Beckett, general work on the topic. Surveys the work of
Eugène Ionesco, Max Frisch, and Harold Pinter. The twenty-five dramatists in America and Europe, in-
Theater of the Absurd took as its point of departure the cluding Eastern Europe. Contains an intelligent eval-
problems posed by Camus and Sartre. Rather than posing uation of the influence of Sartre and Camus on the
human problems of meaninglessness and anxiety and new drama while maintaining that the Theater of the
presenting dramatic and often tragic responses to these Absurd departed from existentialism by emphasizing
issues, as Camus and Sartre did, the dramatists of the ab- the absurd for its own sake.
surd simply explored absurd situations for their own Guicharnaud, Jacques. Modern French Theatre: From
sake. Giraudoux to Genet. Rev. ed. New Haven, Conn.:
The dramas of the absurd tended to eliminate the co- Yale University Press, 1967. Excellent survey, with
herent cause-and-effect of incidents and situations, cre- fine chapters on Sartre and Camus and good bibliog-
ated passive characters, and sometimes used incoherent raphies. Maintains that Sartre and Camus were in the
language to heighten the atmosphere of meaninglessness traditions of the French moralists and both continued
and absurdity. For example, Samuel Beckett’s most fa- and departed from the traditions of classical tragedy.
mous play, En attendant Godot (pb. 1952, pr. 1953; Concludes that Camus and Sartre succeeded admira-
Waiting for Godot, 1954), concerns two characters wait- bly in fusing their dramatic talent with their ideas.
ing for salvation and providing no real existentialist re- Guignon, Charles, ed. The Existentialists: Critical Es-
sponses of choice and commitment. The waiting is terri- says on Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Sar-
fying and never ends. The Theater of the Absurd would tre. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. Col-
not have been possible without the work of Sartre and lection of essays by renowned scholars on the central
Camus. The existentialist dramas of Sartre and Camus figures of existentialism.
created and re-created tragic themes in a twentieth cen- Kaufmann, Walter A., ed. Existentialism from Dostoev-
tury context. In so doing, they created a theater of ideas sky to Sartre. Rev. ed. New York: New American Li-
that remains a permanently influential body of work. brary, 1975. One of the best comprehensive introduc-
—Leon Stein tions to the existentialists. Contains an excellent
introduction and well-chosen excerpts with fine pref-
Further Reading
aces.
Aronson, Ronald. Camus and Sartre: The Story of a
Sagi, Avi. Albert Camus and the Philosophy of the Ab-
Friendship and the Quarrel That Ended It. Chicago:
1944
surd. Translated by Batya Stein. Amsterdam: Rodopi,
University of Chicago Press, 2004. Charts the rela-
2002. Discusses the philosophy of the absurd, its rela-
tionship, both personal and philosophical, between
tionship to existentialism, and the role of Camus’s
the two most influential French existentialists.
drama in defining his philosophy.
Brosman, Catherine Savage. Jean-Paul Sartre. Boston:
Sartre, Jean-Paul. Sartre on Theater. Edited by Michel
Twayne, 1983. A well-balanced study with excellent
Contat and Michel Rybalka. Translated by Frank
chapters on Sartre’s drama. Shows how Sartre’s plays
Jellinek. New York: Pantheon Books, 1976. Invalu-
emphasize that a person’s position in the world de-
able collection of wide-ranging essays, interviews,
rives from a collision between the struggle for free-
and comments on his own plays by Sartre. Sartre
dom and the obstacles presented by fate. Character-
stresses the importance of theater as a way of distanc-
izes Sartre’s plays as dramas of extreme situations
ing the spectator and thus enabling the audience to
and judges Sartre as more pessimistic than Camus.
grasp the truth. Also explores the theater’s ability to
Cruickshank, John. Albert Camus and the Literature of
dramatize basic “myths” (for example, the Hell of No
Revolt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.
Exit) to this end. Sartre argues that theater serves a so-
Well-reasoned study showing how Camus evolved
cial function by evoking collective truths.
from a passive acceptance of the absurd in The Myth
of Sisyphus to a measured revolt against the absurd in
The Rebel. Views Camus as a major tragedian of the See also: 1941-Aug. 25, 1944: French Resistance;
twentieth century and the characters of his plays as el- June 25, 1943: Sartre’s Being and Nothingness Ex-
oquent spokesmen for his “theater of ideas.” presses Existential Philosophy; 1951: Rise of the New
Esslin, Martin. The Theatre of the Absurd. Rev. ed. Gar- Novel; 1960’s: Sixties Culture in the United States
den City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1969. The best single Rediscovers the Works of Hesse.
345
Kuiper Discovers That Titan Has an Atmosphere The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
January 29, 1944

Kuiper Discovers That Titan Has an Atmosphere
Gerard Peter Kuiper discovered evidence of a methane Kuiper’s doctoral dissertation was a study of the spec-
atmosphere in the spectrum of Titan, the largest tra of binary stars. His work with stellar spectra prepared
satellite of Saturn. him for studies involving galactic nebulas, from which
he moved to planetary spectra when he decided to settle
Locale: Fort Davis, Texas into the study of the solar system. Titan was a natural
Categories: Astronomy; science and technology subject for Kuiper to explore, for almost nothing was
Key Figures known about it, even though it was the largest satellite of
Gerard Peter Kuiper (1905-1973), Dutch American Saturn, and a close competitor with Ganymede, Jupiter’s
planetary astronomer largest, for status as the largest satellite in the solar
Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), Dutch astronomer system.
and physicist Titan was discovered in 1655 by Christiaan Huygens
Carl Sagan (1934-1996), American astronomer while testing a new lens he had configured and polished.
Four additional satellites of Saturn were discovered dur-
Summary of Event ing the 1600’s, but since Titan was the brightest, it was
Surprising progress occurred in observational astronomy assumed to be the largest, a position confirmed as obser-
during World War II, despite the calling of many astron- vations advanced and the system of defining magnitudes
omers for service in the war effort. In the midst of assign- of light sources developed. Since Titan was magnitude
ments from the military Office of Scientific Research 8.3 and the next brightest was magnitude 10 (the higher
and Development and consulting for the Eighth Air the magnitude, the dimmer the object), there seemed no
Force in England, Gerard Peter Kuiper found time for doubt that it was the largest satellite.
“pure” research. The January 29, 1944, Science News In the decades prior to Kuiper’s discovery, additional
Letter published a summary of the evidence that led him physical information was established with difficulty.
to believe that Titan had an atmosphere: methane (marsh However, astronomers found that Titan revolved around
gas) and possibly ammonia had been discovered in its Saturn in a little less than sixteen days, at a mean distance
spectrum. Thus, Titan became the first satellite demon- slightly more than 1.2 million kilometers from the center
strated to have an atmosphere, a primacy that lasted of the planet. Although Titan’s observable disk was too
thirty years, until space probes gave information about small to measure accurately, estimates of size and mass
the thin atmospheres of Ganymede, Callisto, and Io, Ju- were made on the basis of changes Saturn’s satellites
piter’s large satellites. caused in one another’s orbits. Estimates of a mass were
After brief stays at Lick Observatory and Harvard about twice that of the Moon, with a density approxi-
University, Kuiper was appointed to the faculty of the mately two thirds of the Moon. By the 1940’s, estimates
University of Chicago in 1935, becoming a full professor based on brightness and distance led to a value of 4,200
in 1943. The long-term relationship of Kuiper with the kilometers for the diameter of Titan, thus projecting Ti-
University of Chicago was fruitful for both, as Kuiper tan as a Mercury-sized object, much larger than Earth’s
became the leading solar system astronomer during the moon (3,476 kilometers in diameter).
1950’s and 1960’s. Kuiper served as the director of both By the early 1970’s, estimates of Titan’s size would
the Yerkes Observatory at Williams Bay, Wisconsin, grow to 4,880 kilometers. Voyager 2 in the early 1980’s
and the McDonald Observatory at Fort Davis, Texas. In would establish an upward revision to about 5,150 kilo-
1960, he moved to the University of Arizona where he meters in diameter, second only to Ganymede, which has
founded the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. Following a diameter of 5,262 kilometers. Voyager 2 would also
his discovery of Titan’s atmosphere, Kuiper conducted verify the moon’s mass by establishing that Titan is
extensive studies of the atmosphere of Mars with an eye about 52 percent rock and about 48 percent ice.
toward the popularly held hope that life existed there, Measurements of light prior to Kuiper’s discovery
discovered satellites of Uranus and Neptune, revitalized provided estimates of the albedo (reflectivity) of Titan.
a nebular hypothesis of planetary formation, studied Some astronomers suggested that it was an ice ball, pos-
Pluto extensively, and was one of the leading analysts of sibly ices of the same gases that had been found on the
the first Lunar surveys. surface of the mother planet. That suggestion was uncer-
346
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Kuiper Discovers That Titan Has an Atmosphere
tain because Titan was beyond the reach of the

spectroscopes available before the early 1940’s.
Despite the failure of spectroscopic evidence,
the suspicion existed still that Titan had an atmo-
sphere. As early as 1908, the Spanish astronomer
José Comas Sola of Barcelona observed a dark-
ening around the periphery of the disk of Titan,
an indication that it could have an atmosphere. In
1916, Sir James Jeans pointed out that the kinetic
theory of gases indicated that the lighter gases
moved more rapidly and thus would easily es-
cape the gravitational pull of small planetary
bodies. Thus, the lightest gases such as hydrogen
remained in an atmosphere only when combined
with heavier gases, as with oxygen on Earth to
form water. Since the Moon has only 16 percent
of Earth’s gravity, all its gases escaped into space.
In the beginning of the twentieth century, Ti-
tan was estimated to have only 14 percent the
gravity of Earth, but unlike the Moon, Titan re-
ceives only one hundredth of the light from the
Sun, and thus its temperature is much colder. The Titan, photographed by the Cassini spacecraft in April, 2005. (NASA)
gases move more slowly and are more easily re-
tained by the attenuated gravity. Jeans reasoned
that Jupiter’s satellites were too warm to retain atmo- sumed was the result of action of the atmosphere with
spheres, but Titan and Neptune’s large moon Triton were the surface. He reasoned analogously with speculations
candidates to have atmospheres. about Mars, whose reddish hue was presumed to result
Kuiper was able to gather superior equipment (the from oxidation. Dissociation of methane by the Sun
1944
208-centimeter telescope at McDonald Observatory and would leave hydrogen and an orange-colored organic
infrared spectroscopes that worked well with the cool precipitate, as laboratory experiments had shown; it was
gases), experience in the observation of dim spectra from presumed to be either in the atmosphere or on the surface
his studies of binary stars, and good observational tech- of the planet.
nique to obtain the first useful spectrum of a satellite. He
determined that methane (consisting of one atom of car- Significance
bon and four of hydrogen) was present and that ammonia Kuiper enjoyed the astronomical acclaim that went with
(consisting of one atom of nitrogen and three of hydro- establishing the first atmosphere on a planetary satellite.
gen) probably was present. This fit the expectations, for For nearly three decades, Titan remained the only satel-
if Jeans’s estimate of temperature was accurate, all but lite with an observed atmosphere; finally, Pioneer 10
methane would be frozen on the surface. found a thin atmosphere around Io, a moon of Jupiter, on
The presence of ammonia was uncertain, although it December 4, 1973, a clear indication of the quality of
was theoretically possible for droplets of ammonia to be Kuiper’s work. By the early 1970’s, observations of the
suspended in the methane. The possible lines of ammo- occultation of a star indicated that Ganymede probably
nia in the spectrum were mere traces of the element and at had a very thin atmosphere, because the light of the star
the very limits of the equipment. Kuiper thus verified was gradually extinguished as it passed behind the satel-
that at least one of the constituent elements of the atmo- lite. These discoveries verified the earlier calculations
sphere of Saturn itself was present on Titan, although the that had presumed that the other large satellites contained
methane bands for Titan were much weaker than for the too little mass to retain a dense atmosphere of the light
planet, indicating a more attenuated atmosphere. This gases at their temperatures, which were warmer than Ti-
finding supported the earlier expectations. Kuiper noted tan’s. It was clear that had Titan been significantly closer
also that the color of Titan was orange, which he pre- to the sun and its surface temperature higher, the meth-
347
Kuiper Discovers That Titan Has an Atmosphere The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ane would have long since been driven into space beyond Coustenis, Athena, and Fred Taylor. Titan: The Earth-
the reach of Titan’s limited gravity. Like Moon. River Edge, N.J.: World Scientific, 1999.
During the 1960’s, various measurements of Titan’s Extensive study of Titan, comparing it to Earth. Bib-
brightness at different wavelengths gave inconsistent liographic references.
measurements of the surface temperature, but all the the- Federer, Charles A., Jr. “Titan.” Science News 99 (Janu-
ories led to higher temperatures than expected. In 1973, ary 28, 1944): 10. A brief five-paragraph first an-
Carl Sagan, a former student of Kuiper, and Joseph nouncement of Kuiper’s discovery. The significance
Veverka of Cornell University proposed a greenhouse of Titan’s having the first verified atmosphere was
effect, which required the presence of more than meth- noted. The importance of the atmosphere’s resem-
ane in the atmosphere. After Voyager 2 passed near Ti- blance to that of Saturn for cosmological theory was
tan, it was confirmed that nitrogen was also present in the also prominent.
moon’s atmosphere. A cloud cover—an orange hydro- _______. “Titan’s Atmosphere.” Science News Letter 45
carbon (methane/ethane) smog—combined with a pre- (January 29, 1944): 67. A more extensive early sum-
dominantly molecular nitrogen atmosphere, was discov- mary of the significance of Kuiper’s discovery. Fo-
ered, which prevented sighting of the surface. cuses on the importance of verification of the first sat-
The length of time required before Kuiper’s work ellite atmosphere and the possible implications for
could be superseded—and that it was superseded only by cosmology.
spacecraft passing in relatively near proximity to the sat- Lorenz, Ralph, and Jacqueline Mitton. Lifting Titan’s
ellite—implies the care exercised in the research and the Veil: Exploring the Giant Moon of Saturn. New York:
quality of the equipment that was used in this particular Cambridge University Press, 2002. Detailed study of
astronomical effort. Kuiper’s first notable accomplish- the satellite, including sixteen pages of photographic
ment was an enduring one. plates. Bibliographic references and index.
—Ivan L. Zabilka
Further Reading See also: 1943: Von Weizsäcker Forms His Quantita-
Atreya, Sushil K. Atmospheres and Ionospheres of tive Theory of Planetary Formation; 1950: Oort Of-
the Outer Planets and Their Satellites. New York: fers a Theory of Comets; Early 1955: Franklin and
Springer-Verlag, 1986. Section 4 of chapter 7 relates Burke Discover Radio Emissions from Jupiter; July
to Titan and focuses exclusively on the atmosphere. 26, 1958: Van Allen Discovers the Earth’s Radiation
While technical, the opening and concluding para- Belts; Nov. 4, 1965: Doell and Dalrymple Discover
graphs are helpful. the Magnetic Reversals of Earth’s Poles.
348
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Hayek Opposes Centralized Economic Planning
March, 1944
Hayek Opposes Centralized Economic Planning
Austrian economist F. A. Hayek published The Road to felt these developments would lead logically to peace-
Serfdom, which argued that government programs to time management of economic life by government in the
plan and control economic life would undermine interest of full employment and social justice.
democracy and civil liberty. Hayek observed the similarities of these ideas, preva-
lent in Great Britain and the United States, to those he had
Also known as: The Road to Serfdom been exposed to as a youth growing up in the German in-
Locale: London, England tellectual environment. He believed that “the rise of fas-
Categories: Economics; publishing and journalism cism and Naziism was not a reaction against the socialist
Key Figures trends of the preceding period, but a necessary outcome
F. A. Hayek (1899-1992), Austrian economist of those tendencies.” Hayek stressed the underlying sim-
Herman Finer (1898-1969), Romanian-born political ilarities between the oppressive regimes of Adolf Hitler
scientist in Germany and Joseph Stalin in the Soviet Union.
John Jewkes (1902-1988), British economist A common goal of collectivists was to supplant eco-
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), British economist nomic competition with government control. To Hayek,
and government official however, competition was a source both of economic ef-
ficiency and of personal freedom, reducing the scope for
Summary of Event government to act coercively. He conceded that advo-
F. A. Hayek began his professional career developing a cates of planned economy had many laudable objectives
relatively original theory of the business cycle, substan- and that any one of those might readily be achieved. In a
tially influenced by his mentor, Ludwig von Mises. Many world of scarce resources, however, many of the con-
economists found Hayek’s work confusing and obscure. flicting goals would not be accomplished.
As the Great Depression developed following 1929, Individuals differ widely in their tastes and prefer-
Hayek’s theory led him to oppose government efforts to ences, and Hayek emphasized that many of these would
stimulate aggregate demand and relieve unemployment. necessarily be sacrificed by centralized economic con-
The Great Depression generated numerous proposals trol. Efforts to “persuade” people to work toward a com-
1944
and policies for government intervention in economic mon set of goals would lead to propaganda and suppres-
life. Hayek, who moved from Vienna to the London sion of free discussion and dissent. The regime might
School of Economics in 1931, became involved during seek an acceptable common goal through fanatical na-
the 1930’s in the spirited debate over proposals for so- tionalism or through making scapegoats of potentially
cialism and governmental economic planning. From his unpopular minorities. Hayek did not believe that the sat-
participation in this debate emerged his most creative isfaction of multiple individuals’ various tastes and pref-
work, for which he ultimately received the Nobel Prize in erences was itself a common goal imposed on a populace
Economic Sciences in 1974. Hayek argued that prices in by propaganda or ideology.
a free-market economy function as a vast network mea- Centralized economic control, Hayek pointed out, is
suring and acting on bits of information that exist only in likely to be delegated to autonomous public organiza-
the minds of millions of individuals. No central planner tions, remote from direct democratic control, and en-
could possibly possess enough of this information to dowed with wide discretion, guided by empty generali-
achieve efficiency. In addition, proposals that govern- ties such as “fair” and “reasonable.” Hayek had been
ment officials mimic the decision rules of a competitive impressed by the breakdown of democracy in Germany
economy would fail, because the officials would lack the after 1929, when parliamentary stalemates led succes-
incentives provided by private ownership of business. sive chancellors to rule by decree.
These convictions provided the starting point for The Hayek believed that comprehensive economic con-
Road to Serfdom, published first in the United Kingdom trol can determine winners and losers and thus place a
in March, 1944. By 1944, the Western world had been huge premium on gaining positions of power. Freedom
immersed in World War II for five years. The war had of occupational choice, moreover, is difficult to maintain
brought vast increases in government planning and con- under such conditions. The effort to improve one’s eco-
trol of the economy for war purposes. Many intellectuals nomic status would be redirected into political activity
349
Hayek Opposes Centralized Economic Planning The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
A Planned Society Can Lead to Totalitarianism more than 600,000 additional cop-
ies of this version were distributed
F. A. Hayek’s The Road to Serfdom (1944) was a call against a “planned” by the Book-of-the-Month Club. In
economy. He believed that government-imposed economic “justice” was a Britain, John Maynard Keynes, with
precursor to totalitarianism. whom Hayek had had sharp disagree-
ments in the past, praised Hayek’s
Once government has embarked upon planning for the sake of justice, it
cannot refuse responsibility for anybody’s fate or position. In a planned soci- book; Keynes had, after all, raised
ety, we shall all know that we are better or worse off than others, not because of similar issues in his The General
circumstances which nobody controls, and which it is impossible to foresee Theory of Employment, Interest, and
with certainty, but because some authority wills it. And all our efforts directed Money (1936), recognizing that de-
towards improving our position will have to aim, not at foreseeing and prepar- mand management policies could
ing as well as we can for the circumstances over which we have no control, but successfully alleviate depression
at influencing in our favour the authority which has all the power. The night- and unemployment without seri-
mare of English nineteenth-century political thinkers: the state in which “no ously impairing individual freedom
avenue to wealth and honour would exist save through the government” would and democracy.
be realised in a completeness which they never imagined—though familiar
Howls of outrage came, however,
enough in some countries which have since passed to totalitarianism.
from advocates of expanded govern-
mental economic intervention. Her-
man Finer’s Road to Reaction (1945)
called Hayek’s book “the most sinis-
rather than into productive economic enterprise. Hayek ter offensive against democracy to emerge from a demo-
feared that extensive government economic interven- cratic country.” Much of the book reiterated contempo-
tions would be difficult to reverse. rary notions about the evils of free market economic
Hayek accepted the desirability of providing every- organization. Finer’s central criticisms were well taken:
one in an advanced economy such as Britain with some He argued that Hayek’s Austrian background did not
minimum level of the necessities of life and of develop- prepare him for a real appreciation of American or Brit-
ing a comprehensive system of social insurance. He also ish democracy. Finer denied that fascist regimes evolved
thought that demand management policies could be de- out of socialist programs and people, and he felt that
veloped to tame the business cycle and avoid mass unem- Hayek had ignored that “planning” could be a matter of
ployment without the negative implications he assigned more or less.
to economic planning. However, he warned against mea- Contemporary developments put many of Hayek’s
sures to promote the security of specific producer groups ideas to the test. In Britain, the Labour Party gained polit-
by curbing competition and limiting entry into a given ical power in 1945 and undertook a program to national-
economic sector—measures that arguably worked to the ize some key industries; maintain temporary price con-
disadvantage of all outside the privileged insider group. trols, foreign-exchange controls, and rationing; and
In The Road to Serfdom’s most striking chapter, “Why develop noncoercive economic plans. As Hayek had an-
the Worst Get on Top,” Hayek asserted that leaders who ticipated, such measures proved disappointing. In 1948,
undertake to plan economic life will either develop dicta- economist John Jewkes extended Hayek’s major propo-
torial powers or abandon their plans. Once the govern- sitions in Ordeal by Planning. He supported much of
ment’s power is so extended, the opportunities it offers Hayek’s analysis by reference to (primarily British) poli-
become an enormous temptation to the unscrupulous or cies and pronouncements. However, civil liberty and
the corruptible. A potential dictator is most likely to find democratic processes were maintained in socialist Brit-
mass support among the low-paid and less educated. ain. Much of the Labour economic intervention was ulti-
Such a powerful government would find it easy to reward mately reversed (particularly under Prime Minister Mar-
its supporters and punish its opponents. garet Thatcher, an avowed fan of Hayek).
In Germany, postwar economic recovery was greatly
Significance accelerated by free market policies. The collectivist eco-
Hayek’s book received a lot of attention and aroused nomic policies of the Soviet Union and (after 1949)
strong emotions among readers. In the United States, mainland China were revealed to be severely inefficient
Reader’s Digest published an abridged version, and and incapable of sustaining the kind of vigorous eco-
350
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 France Grants Suffrage to Women
nomic growth experienced by Western countries. In the tive and accessible biography; chapter 16 deals with
United States, the Employment Act of 1946 committed The Road to Serfdom.
the federal government to employ monetary and fiscal Finer, Herman. Road to Reaction. Boston: Little, Brown,
measures to stabilize the macroeconomy in a manner 1945. Critiques The Road to Serfdom and reliance on
consistent with a free market economy. The avoidance of free markets generally.
another severe Depression seemed to some to answer the Hayek, Friedrich A. The Fatal Conceit. New York:
most potent anti-free-market arguments of the 1930’s. Routledge, 1988. Extends many of the themes pre-
Hayek continued to publish extensively on topics in- sented in The Road to Serfdom.
volving the interaction of economic, political, and social _______. Individualism and Economic Order. Chicago:
elements. His work continued to attract attention, aided University of Chicago Press, 1948. Here are Hayek’s
by the enthusiasm for (American-based) “Austrian” eco- path-breaking essays on information and the impossi-
nomics. Hayek’s book explained how centrally con- bility of achieving economic efficiency without a
trolled economies would be unable to achieve the spe- price system.
cific objectives set forth in so many pre-1944 Western Jewkes, John. Ordeal by Planning. London: Macmillan,
writings. However, his gloomy forecasts of a one-way 1948. Attempts to refute Finer’s anti-free-market ar-
path prejudicial to democracy and individual freedom gument; cites post-1944 British developments sup-
did not come to pass in the West. Perhaps his book helped porting Hayek’s points.
alert people to those dangers. Vane, Howard R., and Chris Mulhearn, eds. The Nobel
—Paul B. Trescott Memorial Laureates in Economics. Northampton,
Mass.: Edward Elgar, 2005. Puts The Road to Serf-
Further Reading
dom in the context of Hayek’s Nobel award.
Boettke, Peter J. “Hayek’s The Road to Serfdom Revis-
ited: Government Failure in the Argument Against
Socialism.” Eastern Economic Journal 21, no. 1 See also: Feb. 20, 1946: Employment Act; Oct. 1,
(Winter, 1995): 7-26. A good guide to the reception of 1949: Mao Zedong Proclaims a Communist People’s
Hayek’s book and the subsequent development of its Republic in China; 1959-1961: Famine Decimates
themes. China; Jan. 17, 1961: Eisenhower Warns of the Mili-
Ebenstein, Alan. Friedrich Hayek: A Biography. Chi- tary-Industrial Complex; Feb. 26, 1964: Kennedy-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. An informa- Johnson Tax Cuts Stimulate the U.S. Economy.
1944
March 15, 1944
France Grants Suffrage to Women
As part of a perceived need by the Free French Jacques Duclos (1896-1975), a Communist leader in
government to reform the society that had too easily the French National Assembly
fallen to the Nazis, French women achieved the right
to vote in 1944. Although not immediately a factor in Summary of Event
French elections, voting Frenchwomen eventually The emancipation of French women, symbolized by the
developed their own voices and influence in electoral extension of the voting franchise in 1944, was the result
politics. of the national struggle for survival in World War II.
Emancipation of French women was not, however, a new
Locale: France
idea. Suffrage for French women was delayed by the de-
Categories: Government and politics; women’s
termined opposition of the French Senate and by provin-
issues; civil rights and liberties; social issues and
cial and religious prejudice. These were the antifeminine
reform
suffrage arguments that dominated efforts to include
Key Figures women in the franchise throughout the years of the Third
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), head of the Republic (1875-1940). One extreme argument in the
provisional government of France, 1944-1946 Senate against the female vote was made by a senator
Lucie Aubrac (b. 1912), French Resistance leader who said, “The woman of the Latin race does not think,
351
France Grants Suffrage to Women The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
does not feel, does not develop like the woman of Anglo- public. Teacher-training colleges for women were estab-
Saxon or Germanic race. Her position in the home is not lished (1879), as was a regular system of secondary edu-
the same.” cation (1880). The Paris medical faculty excluded
Perhaps this sentiment was too extreme for most sena- women until 1868, however, and the Sorbonne excluded
tors, but they were ready enough to argue against woman them until 1880. The first French woman received a law
suffrage on other grounds. For example, some argued degree in 1884, but by 1913, men still outnumbered
that it would be indecent to give all women had the right women at French universities nine to one. Changes for
to vote, because that would include prostitutes. If women the better in the legal position of women were equally
had the vote, they would mix freely with men in the poll- slow in coming. A married woman could open a post-
ing booths, and that, too, would be seen as indecent. office savings account in her own name—and use it with-
Above all, it was assumed that women, being religious, out her husband’s consent—only after 1895.
would vote for the clerical parties and threaten the exis- A married working woman could not keep ownership
tence of the lay republic. As a result, it was ironically and use of her wages until 1907. Women could not be le-
France’s Radical Party, progressive on most issues but gal guardians of children until 1927, and it was 1920 be-
staunchly anticlerical, that was most adamantly opposed fore a woman could join a trade union without her hus-
to votes for women. band’s consent. Divorce remained illegal altogether in
Attempts to promote woman suffrage failed in 1901, France until 1884, and women could divorce their hus-
in 1910, and in 1919. This was the pattern of political ac- bands for cause only since the early 1900’s. Challenges
tion on votes for women during the years of the Third Re- to such slow progress were present, but they were few
public, the product of traditional attitudes and values that and ineffective in the nineteenth century. A handful of
sought women’s idealization on one hand and their re- protofeminist journals were published, backed by lumi-
pression on the other. Edmond About observed, “We naries such as Victor Hugo, and occasionally women,
want above all to keep women faithful to their husbands. notably the novelist George Sand, were able to live
So we hope that the girl will bring to the world an angelic emancipated lives.
provision of ignorance which will be immune to all In time, France experienced feminist and suffragist
temptations.” Feminine innocence, purity, and timidity movements that paralleled those in the United States and
were considered virtues; achievement was not. A female Great Britain, but without either the intensity or the suc-
journalist recalled her youth as one of constant repres- cess. Before and after World War I, suffragist leaders
sion, and a host of nineteenth century writers averred that were unable to put much pressure on French men to rec-
if there was to be education for girls (as there had been for tify the inferior status of women. French feminism ex-
at least some girls ironically even during the Middle panded in activity in the 1920’s and 1930’s but remained
Ages), it must differ from that provided for boys. largely philanthropic and reformist. It is reckoned that
In the modern period, the political liberation of the strong influence of the Roman Catholic Church over
French women was greatest in the period between the women was the reason. Repression of women remained
revolution of 1789 and the actual granting of votes to intact, virtually an article of faith for French men, until
women in 1944. In 1789, both male and female revolu- the outbreak of war in 1939.
tionaries wanted revolutionary principles applied to men World War II accomplished what neither idealism nor
and women equally. The marquis de Condorcet wrote revolution had been able to. The humiliating defeat and
that “anyone who votes against the rights of another, occupation of France by Germany led many French men
whatever their religion, their color, or their sex, has from and women to the conviction that sweeping social and
that moment abjured his own.” Olympe de Gouges, a political changes must be part of a reconstructed France.
pamphleteer and playwright, complained, “I put forward In 1943, from his base in Algiers, Free French leader
a hundred propositions; they are received; but I am a General Charles de Gaulle issued a call for a dramatically
woman; no one pays any attention.” These appeals were reformed France to be raised out of the ashes of the Third
ignored, and one-half century later French women still Republic once France had been liberated. Regarding
were paid half the wages of men and denied the rights to women, he said, “The women of France must more than
sit on juries, hold public office, vote, or be educated. ever in the past assume a larger share in the affairs of the
Their legal status was oppressively restrictive, and mar- state. They must have the vote and be eligible to election
ried women had almost no legal rights at all. in various posts. France needs them.” The pronounce-
Slight improvement was made during the Third Re- ment was endorsed by the French Resistance, whose
352
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 France Grants Suffrage to Women
manifesto of March, 1944, called for universal suffrage Significance

as part of the France to come. The immediate effect of votes for French women was of
The law giving women the vote was passed March 15, small significance. The two chief fears of those who op-
1944, by the Committee of National Liberation. The law posed female suffrage, that French women would either
read, “The women will be electors and eligible in equal bring communists to power or vote Catholic, were not re-
right to men, and will take part in every election that takes alized. Subsequent research indicated that in the elec-
place after the liberation of the country.” The Commu- tions of 1945, 85 percent of women voted in the manner
nist Party, as well as de Gaulle’s Movement Républicain of their husbands, the other 15 percent being largely
Populaire (MRP; Popular Republican Movement), composed of widows and unmarried women. All politi-
which was heavily Catholic, favored the change and cal candidates in 1945 sought the “female vote,” but it
worked to effect it in the months after liberation. Each clearly did not yet exist.
department drew up new polling lists that included Gaining the vote in and of itself did not immediately
women, and women took an active role in the work. It alter the position of women in French society. With the
took time, since there had been no elections in France vote gained, however, French women had opened the
since 1936. The elections were spread over the spring door to change for the future. By 1949, thirty-nine female
months of 1945, beginning in February, and by the end of deputies sat in the National Assembly, and two had
the year a new National Assembly was in place, elected served as vice presidents of the Assembly. Each of the
in part by women and including thirty-three women major political parties had women in positions of leader-
members. ship, including Geneviève de Gaulle, niece of the gen-
The emancipation of French women paralleled the eral, in the MRP. Two women were appointed judges in
liberation of France in 1944. Indeed, the efforts of French the national courts. Moreover, women had won impor-
women in resisting the German occupiers, opposing the tant social benefits. The promise of equal wages, hours,
collaborationist Vichy regime, and aiding the Allies in and benefits made in 1944 had been kept, and social in-
the liberation were largely the reason for emancipation. surance was extended to include pregnant women, who
The Allied armies landed in Normandy on June 6, 1944, received an allowance adjusted to the cost of living for
and liberated Paris in August. Along the way, women every month of pregnancy, an extra ration card, and at the
took on roles that they had not had in recent memory, if in birth of their children, the cost of delivery.
some cases ever. By October, one hundred women from In time, legislation in the Assembly responded to
1944
the ranks of nurses, factory workers, and shopgirls, women’s issues. Abortion was legalized, and the phrase
among others, had been appointed municipal councillors “head of the family”—meaning the man—was deleted
in Paris. A woman doctor was appointed to the post of ex- from the law on parental authority. The number of
ecutive secretary in the Ministry of Public Health, and women in higher education increased dramatically, as
other women were given jobs in the foreign office and did the number in the workforce. Thus, while votes for
Ministry of Colonies. Women were appointed as aides to women in France were no more dramatic in immediate
the mayors of two arrondissements, and a committee of impact than they were in the United States or England, in
housewives controlled food prices and distribution in the long run suffrage helped lead to a positive alteration
Les Halles, the central Paris food market. Juries trying in the relationship of French women to the society of
collaborators included women, and the promise was which they were a part.
made, soon to become law, that women’s salaries would —Robert Cole
attain parity with men’s.
Women had fought courageously for France as part of Further Reading
the Resistance and often had been imprisoned, tortured, Duchen, Claire. Feminism in France: From May ’68 to
or killed for their efforts. They had hidden fugitives, car- Mitterrand. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.
ried arms and messages, spied, and occasionally fought Includes an introduction to suffragists before World
with arms, in the Maquis and other organizations. It was War II and to the mentality of French women in the
the consensus of journalists from around the world, writ- context of both gaining the vote and applying its po-
ing on the events of 1944-1945 in France, that the women tential political power in subsequent years. Useful in-
of France had earned their own liberation, symbolized by dex and bibliography.
the granting of the vote, fully as much as had the people McMillan, James. Housewife or Harlot: The Place of
of France generally. Women in French Society, 1870-1940. New York: St.
353
African American Disenfranchisement Ruled Unconstitutional The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Martin’s Press, 1987. This work is largely about the French society and culture. Useful index and bibliog-
evolution of suffrage in the years of the Third Repub- raphy.
lic and is extremely useful for background to the Zeldin, Theodore. France, 1848-1945. Vol. 2 in The Ox-
events of 1944-1946. Index and bibliography. ford History of Modern Europe. Oxford, England:
Smith, Paul. Feminism and the Third Republic: Wom- Clarendon Press, 1973. This volume explores in care-
en’s Political and Civil Rights in France, 1918-1945. ful detail the social, political, and cultural develop-
New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Details ment of France over the period indicated and includes
the development in France of women’s movements an in-depth analysis of the role of women in French
and women’s rights, including suffrage, from the end society. Extensive index and no bibliography.
of World War I to the end of World War II. Biblio- See also: Sept., 1943: Australians Elect First Women
graphic references and index. to Parliament; Mar. 17, 1946: France Launches the
Thomson, David. Democracy in France Since 1870. Monnet Plan; May 3, 1947: Japanese Constitution
London: Oxford University Press, 1964. A standard Grants New Rights to Women; 1949: Beauvoir’s The
history of the period, this volume is useful for its in- Second Sex Anticipates the Women’s Movement;
clusion of texts from the Resistance Manifesto of Dec. 20, 1952: United Nations Convention on the Po-
1944 and the constitution of 1962. The index is ade- litical Rights of Women Is Approved; 1955-1956: In-
quate, and the bibliography is extensive, if slightly dian Parliament Approves Women’s Rights Legisla-
dated. tion; Aug. 4, 1960: Canadian Bill of Rights Prohibits
Wright, Gordon. France in Modern Times: From the En- Sex Discrimination; Oct. 29-30, 1966: National Or-
lightenment to the Present. 4th ed. New York: W. W. ganization for Women Forms to Protect Women’s
Norton, 1987. A standard text in modern French his- Rights; Nov. 7, 1967: United Nations Issues a Decla-
tory, this volume provides details for all aspects of ration on Equality for Women.
April 3, 1944
Supreme Court Rules African American
Disenfranchisement Unconstitutional
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that disenfranchisement Lawrence Aaron Nixon (1884-1966), El Paso doctor,
of African Americans in state primary elections was NAACP member, and litigant in two tests of the
unconstitutional. Although a significant victory for 1970 Texas white primary
civil rights, the decision did not end attempts by Richard Randolph Grovey (1889-1960), complainant
Texans to disenfranchise African American voters, in the 1935 case testing the constitutionality of the
especially in county elections. Texas white primary
Also known as: Smith v. Allwright
Summary of Event
In 1923, the Texas legislature sought to disenfranchise
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history; civil
African American voters in the state by passing a resolu-
rights and liberties; social issues and reform
tion that “in no event shall a Negro be eligible to partici-
Key Figures pate in a Democratic primary. . . .” Since the 1890’s, in
Stanley Reed (1884-1980), associate justice of the Texas as in all other Southern states, nomination in the
United States, 1938-1957 Democratic primary was tantamount to election; there-
Lonnie E. Smith (1901-1971), Houston dentist, fore, while African Americans would be permitted to
NAACP member, and complainant vote in the general election, they would have no mean-
Thurgood Marshall (1908-1993), NAACP legal ingful role in the political process.
counsel and later associate justice of the United Almost immediately after the Texas legislature
States, 1967-1991 barred African Americans from participating in the
William Henry Hastie (1904-1976), dean of the Democratic primary, the National Association for the
Howard Law School and co-counsel in the case Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) secured a
354
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 African American Disenfranchisement Ruled Unconstitutional
plaintiff, Dr. Lawrence Aaron Nixon, to test the constitu- the Texas white primary. In 1941, however, in United
tionality of the law. In Nixon v. Herndon (1927), the States v. Classic, a case that ostensibly had nothing to do
United States Supreme Court, in an opinion written by with African Americans or the white primary, the Su-
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., held that the Texas preme Court held for the first time that the right to vote
statute violated the equal protection clause of the Four- was protected in a primary as well as in the general elec-
teenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution by discrimi- tion, “where the state law has made the primary an inte-
nating against African Americans on the basis of race. gral part of the process of choice or where in fact the pri-
He also ruled, however, that it was unnecessary to strike mary effectively controls the choice.”
down the white primary as a denial of suffrage “on ac- United States v. Classic dealt with a Louisiana pri-
count of race [or] color” repugnant to the Fifteenth mary in which there had been fraudulent returns, but oth-
Amendment. erwise there was no way to distinguish the Texas primary
The Texas legislature reacted defiantly to the Su- from the one held in the neighboring Southern state. In
preme Court decision. On June 7, 1927, the legislature Texas, as in Louisiana, in 1941 as in 1923, Democratic
passed a new resolution granting to the state executive Party nomination was a virtual guarantee of election, and
committees of every political party the authority to estab- the general election was a mere formality. The NAACP
lish the qualifications of their members and to determine took immediate advantage of the ruling: Lonnie E.
who was qualified to vote or otherwise participate in the Smith, a Houston dentist and NAACP member, sued a
party. In turn, the Democratic Party State Executive Texas election official for five thousand dollars for refus-
Committee limited participation in its primary to white ing to give him a ballot to vote in the 1940 Democratic
voters in Texas. congressional primaries. The NAACP’s legal counsel,
Once again Nixon filed suit, this time against James Thurgood Marshall, and William Henry Hastie, dean of
Condon, the election officer who refused to give him a the Howard Law School, brought Smith v. Allwright to
ballot in the 1928 Democratic primary. In Nixon v. Con- the U.S. Supreme Court.
don (1932), the Supreme Court struck down this new In April, 1944, mindful of Southern sensibilities but
Texas statute as a violation of the equal protection clause. intent upon overruling the nine-year-old precedent in
The vote was 5 to 4. Grovey, the Court chose Stanley Reed, a Democrat from
The Democratic Party State Executive Committee Kentucky, to write its opinion. Justice Reed’s opinion
immediately rescinded its resolution prohibiting African made it clear that the Court, except for Justice Roberts
1944
Americans from voting in its primary, but the state party (the author of the Grovey decision), had concluded that
convention voted to limit participation in its delibera- the primary was an integral part of a general election,
tions to whites, and Nixon and the NAACP, after two Su- particularly in the Southern states. The Classic decision,
preme Court cases and an expenditure of six thousand
dollars, were once more back at the beginning. In July,
1934, Richard Randolph Grovey in Houston, Texas, was SMITH V. ALLWRIGHT
refused a ballot to vote in the Democratic primary. On
April 1, 1935, in Grovey v. Townsend, Justice Owen J. The U.S. Supreme Court, in its majority opinion in Smith
Roberts ruled that the Democratic Party was a private or- v. Allwright, ruled that excluding African Americans
ganization, and that its primary, although held under from participation in the Democratic Party primary in
state law, was a party matter paid for by the Democrats. Texas violated the Fifteenth Amendment.
Since Roberts could find no state action in the process by If the state requires a certain election procedure, pre-
which Democrats nominated their candidates, there was, scribing a general election ballot made up of party nomi-
he said, no violation of the Fourteenth Amendment. nees so chosen, and limits the choice of the electorate in
There the matter rested. The primary was held not to general elections for state officers . . . to those whose
be part of the general election, so there was presumably names appear on such a ballot, it endorses, adopts, and
no relationship to the Fifteenth Amendment’s protection enforces the discrimination against Negroes practiced
of suffrage. Because the Democratic Party was a private by a party entrusted by Texas law with the determina-
organization, it was free to establish membership qualifi- tion of the qualifications of participants in the primary.
cations, and there was not sufficient state involvement to This is state action within the meaning of the Fifteenth
Amendment.
invoke the guarantees of the Fourteenth Amendment.
It seemed there was no way to contest the validity of
355
African American Disenfranchisement Ruled Unconstitutional The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
wrote Justice Reed, raised the issue of whether excluding Press, 1979. An examination of the background of the
African Americans from participation in the Democratic white primary and the struggle to bring about its de-
Party primary in Texas violated the Fifteenth Amend- mise.
ment. The answer was in the affirmative, and Grovey v. Kluger, Richard. Simple Justice: The History of “Brown
Townsend was expressly overruled. v. Board of Education” and Black America’s Struggle
for Equality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976. An
Significance
eminently readable analysis of another landmark Su-
The long litigative battle against the Texas white primary
preme Court case in African American history.
seemed to be over—but it was not. In Fort Bend County,
Lawson, Steven F. Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the
Texas, the Jaybird Democratic Party, organized after the
South, 1944-1969. New York: Columbia University
Civil War, held primaries closed to African American
Press, 1976. Traces the development of African
voters; its candidates consistently won county offices. In
American enfranchisement from Smith v. Allwright to
spite of Smith v. Allwright, the Jaybirds refused to open
the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and its aftermath. In-
their primary to African Americans, arguing that they did
cludes a chapter on the white primary.
not operate under state law or use state officers or funds.
Powledge, Fred. Free at Last: The Civil Rights Move-
Nevertheless, in Terry v. Adams (1953), the Supreme
ment and the People Who Made It. Boston: Little,
Court held that the Jaybird primary violated the Fifteenth
Brown, 1991. A popular account of the struggle for
Amendment, because it controlled the electoral process
equality during the 1960’s, with numerous human in-
in Fort Bend County.
terest stories.
It took twenty-one years for the United States Su-
Zelden, Charles L. The Battle for the Black Ballot:
preme Court to rule that the Texas white primary violated
“Smith v. Allwright” and the Defeat of the Texas All-
the right to vote guaranteed by the Fifteenth Amend-
White Primary. Lawrence: University Press of Kan-
ment. It would take another twenty-one years before the
sas, 2004. Book-length study of the case, its intrica-
Voting Rights Act of 1965 finally secured the ballot for
cies, and its consequences. Bibliographic references
African Americans in the South. In the interim, the fall of
and index.
the white primary had the practical effect of increasing
African American registrants in the Southern states from
See also: Spring, 1942: Congress of Racial Equality
approximately 250,000 in 1940 to 775,000 seven years
Forms; Apr. 9-23, 1947: Congress of Racial Equality
later. African Americans were still intimidated and de-
Holds Its Journey of Reconciliation; July 26, 1948:
frauded of their suffrage rights, but Smith v. Allwright
Truman Orders Desegregation of U.S. Armed Forces;
was an important landmark on the road to uninhibited en-
May 17, 1954: Supreme Court Ends Public School
franchisement. It also was a symbol that the Supreme
Segregation; Jan. 10, 1957: SCLC Forms to Link
Court would examine the reality behind the subterfuge
Civil Rights Groups; May 6, 1960: Civil Rights Act of
engaged in by anti-suffrage lawmakers and act to protect
1960; 1962-1965: Council of Federated Organiza-
African Americans in the enjoyment of their civil rights.
tions Registers African Americans to Vote; Jan. 23,
—David L. Sterling
1964: Poll Taxes Are Outlawed; July 2, 1964: Con-
Further Reading gress Passes the Civil Rights Act of 1964; Dec. 14,
Fassett, John D. New Deal Justice: The Life of Stanley 1964: Supreme Court Prohibits Racial Discrimina-
Reed of Kentucky. New York: Vantage Press, 1994. A tion in Public Accommodations; Aug. 6, 1965: Con-
biography of the conservative Democratic justice gress Passes the Voting Rights Act; Oct. 2, 1967:
who wrote the majority opinion in Smith v. Allwright. Marshall Becomes the First African American Su-
Hine, Darlene Clark. Black Victory: The Rise and Fall of preme Court Justice; Apr. 11, 1968: Fair Housing Act
the White Primary in Texas. Millwood, N.Y.: KTO Outlaws Discrimination in Housing.
356
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Robbins’s Fancy Free Premieres
April 18, 1944

Robbins’s FANCY FREE Premieres
Jerome Robbins’s first full-length ballet, Fancy Free, short notice. Perhaps on the strength of Bernstein’s in-
set to the music of Leonard Bernstein, launched a long stant celebrity, the impresario Sol Hurok bought the bal-
and illustrious career for Robbins as a choreographer let and offered to produce it for the Ballet Theatre. Fancy
both of ballet and of Broadway musicals. Free premiered on April 18, 1944, at the old Metropoli-
tan Opera House, with a group of dancers for whom the
Locale: New York, New York roles were tailor-made: Harold Lang, John Kriza, and
Categories: Dance; music; theater Robbins himself danced the parts of three sailors; Muriel
Key Figures Bentley, Janet Reed, and Shirley Eckl were the three girls
Jerome Robbins (1918-1998), American dancer and in their lives; and Rex Cooper danced the part of the bar-
choreographer tender. The ballet was an instant success and was danced
Leonard Bernstein (1918-1990), American composer more than 160 times in the first year following its pre-
and conductor miere.
Oliver Smith (1918-1994), American stage designer Fancy Free takes place in a small neighborhood bar
on a hot summer night in New York during wartime. The
Summary of Event music begins informally, not with an overture or even
Late in World War II, the New York dance scene was with music from the pit but with an onstage phonograph
jolted into unexpected recognition of its potential for recording. “Big Stuff” was written partly in homage to
snappy contemporary commentary and youthful vitality the blues singer Billie Holiday, and it helps set the tone of
by a new ballet created by a group of remarkable novices. loneliness and yearning on a hot summer night; it is
Fancy Free (1944) was the result of a fruitful collabora- rudely interrupted by four brisk big-band drum taps.
tion among a youthful group consisting of dancer- Three sailors on leave arrive in search of a good time.
turned-choreographer Jerome Robbins, composer Leon- They are desperate to have some fun during their mo-
ard Bernstein—who had recently made the front page of ment of liberty, and their dancing reveals both their soli-
The New York Times for his dazzling debut conducting darity as a trio and their sense of fun. The first two sailors
the New York Philharmonic—and Oliver Smith, a gifted trick their companion into paying for their drinks, then
1944
set designer. The ballet marked the beginning of Rob- each vies for the attention of the first girl who walks by.
bins’s long and distinguished career as a choreographer They preen and scuffle for her attention, with two sailors
of Broadway shows and ballets and also marked the knocking down the third and chasing after the girl.
emergence of Bernstein as a composer of serious music The odd sailor out meets a pretty girl back at the bar,
who maintained clear links to popular music. and rather than woo her overtly, he begins to mime his
Robbins, who was at that time a dancer with the Ballet experiences in the war. They conclude a gentle pas de
Theatre, sought out Bernstein at the suggestion of two of deux with a shy kiss. The first two sailors return with
the composers with whom he had shared his ideas for a their girl, creating the problem of an unequal ratio of sail-
new ballet. The composers, Morton Gould and Vincent ors to girls. In a kind of latter-day judgment of Paris, the
Persichetti, thought Bernstein’s musical sensibilities girls are to judge among the sailors according to their
would mesh with Robbins’s developing choreographic dancing skills. The first offers a show-off routine of as
style. Robbins therefore approached Bernstein in Octo- many classic steps as he can muster. The second (now of-
ber, 1943, while Bernstein was an assistant to Arthur ten danced by the sailor of the blues duet) offers a sub-
Rodzinski, the director of the New York Philharmonic. dued, insinuating number. The remaining sailor provides
Bernstein recalled that he “played a few bars” of music his audience with a slightly satirical, Latin-inflected
he had been “fooling around with,” and Robbins “went number.
wild. ‘That’s it! That’s it!’ he screamed. And we were When it seems that the girls are undecided or possibly
off.” indifferent, the dance contest deteriorates into a barroom
A month later, Bernstein made his spectacular con- brawl, from which the sailors emerge to discover that the
ducting debut with the New York Philharmonic, garner- girls have fled. After reconciling, the sailors sensibly
ing a front-page rave review from The New York Times, have a second drink, and they begin the whole process
when he filled in for the indisposed Bruno Walter on again as another beautiful girl walks by. Neither closure
357
Robbins’s Fancy Free Premieres The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
nor fulfillment but instead a renewal of the cycle of de- he withdrew from Broadway for a quarter of a century.
sire will be the fate of the sailors. As a Broadway director, Robbins staged The Pajama
Fancy Free was remarkable for the confluence of new Game (1954), Bells Are Ringing (1956), for Judy Hol-
talents that fortuitously collaborated in its creation. The liday, and Peter Pan (1954), which was a hit vehicle for
score was Bernstein’s first big hit, and it confirmed the Mary Martin on both stage and television in the 1950’s,
instant celebrity he had enjoyed the previous fall for his when Martin’s spectacular “flying” had to be performed
conducting debut. It remains one of his most persuasive live. As a Broadway choreographer, Robbins devised the
scores, written in the 1940’s idiom that remained the dances for such diverse shows as The King and I (1951),
hallmark of his best work. Robbins, with a young danc- Call Me Madam (1950), for Ethel Merman, High Button
er’s enthusiasm, threw every step he knew into the work Shoes (1947), and Fiddler on the Roof.
(most conspicuously in the first sailor’s display dance),
and he asserted his place in the line of great American Significance
choreographers with the ballet. Although American dance had already claimed a place in
Like Bernstein, Robbins went on to maintain a dual the world’s dance tradition through the work of such no-
life, working both on Broadway and in the classical table choreographers and dancers as Isadora Duncan,
dance theater, although after Fiddler on the Roof (1964) Martha Graham, and Agnes de Mille and through the vi-
From left: Shirley Edd, Jerome Robbins, Michael Kidd, and John Kriza dance Fancy Free at Covent Garden in 1946. (Hulton Ar-
chive/Getty Images)
358
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Robbins’s Fancy Free Premieres
tality of dancing on the Broadway stage, it was barely ography of Robbins that details and celebrates his
prepared for the combination of urban-oriented, jazz- contributions to dance and to musical theater. Biblio-
flavored, streetwise dancing of Fancy Free in 1944. graphic references and index.
Bernstein’s biographer, Joan Peyser, claimed to find it Long, Robert Emmet. Broadway, the Golden Years:
odd that audiences would respond in wartime to a light- Jerome Robbins and the Great Choreographer-
hearted ballet about sailors on leave, but the image of Directors, 1940 to the Present. New York: Contin-
playful, happy sailors in temporary respite from the rig- uum, 2001. Study of Robbins’s career, including dis-
ors of war would seem exactly suited to the public mood cussion of his predecessor, Agnes de Mille, and his
in 1944. The eminent American dance critic Walter successors: Bob Fosse, Gower Champion, Michael
Terry was more succinct in explaining Fancy Free’s di- Bennett, and Tommy Tune. Bibliographic references
rect appeal: “The ballet has remained popular because and index.
the theme was projected in movement terms which were Peyser, Joan. Bernstein: A Biography. New York: Wil-
fresh, witty, and energetically American.” liam Morrow, 1987. Designed to shock, this biogra-
In a fortuitous pairing of new talents, Robbins found phy of America’s most esteemed musician confirmed
an ideal collaborator in Bernstein, whose sparkling score long-standing suspicions about Bernstein’s personal
for the ballet helped propel him into his long career as a life that were needlessly revealed at the end of the
successful Broadway composer. The collaboration of composer’s auspicious career. The new details,
Bernstein, Robbins, and Smith bore further fruit in the though, are less disheartening than is the mean-spirit-
successful Broadway musical On the Town (1944), edness of the author’s approach.
which took an alternative view of a day in the life of three Schlundt, Christena L., Alexander Ramirez, et al. Dance
sailors on shore leave, and a decade later in the trio’s in the Musical Theatre: Jerome Robbins and His
masterpiece, West Side Story (1957). The energy of Rob- Peers, 1934-1965: A Guide. New York: Garland,
bins’s choreography and the inventiveness of Bern- 1989. Surveys the careers of Robbins and his peers,
stein’s score set the standard for the American musical in those choreographers who commuted between
the late 1950’s. Robbins continued his successful collab- Broadway and the formal dance stage.
oration with Bernstein in such further ballet scores as Terry, Walter. Ballet Guide. New York: Dodd, Mead,
Facsimile (1946) and The Dybbuk (1974). They may 1975. Provides an extremely helpful overview of
well be best remembered by most of their admirers for America’s serious dance repertory. By the dean of an
1944
West Side Story. older generation of dance critics.
—Byron Nelson
Further Reading See also: Oct. 16, 1942: Agnes de Mille Choreographs
Jowitt, Deborah. Jerome Robbins: His Life, His Theater, Rodeo; Sept. 26, 1957: Bernstein Joins Symphonic
His Dance. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004. Bi- and Jazz Elements in West Side Story.
359
U.S. Highball Premieres in New York The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
April 22, 1944

U.S. HIGHBALL Premieres in New York
Iconoclastic American composer Harry Partch’s U.S. currents of the twentieth century.
Highball and other works received their New York Harry Partch, born in Oakland, California, in 1901,
premiere, launching the avant-garde career of an had grown up along the Mexican border to parents who
innovative composer who invented his own notation had been missionaries in China. He claimed Christian
and instruments tuned to a distinctive, forty-three-pitch hymns, Chinese lullabies, and Yaqui Indian music
scale. among his formative influences. Brief stays in the music
school at the University of Southern California in 1920
Also known as: The Wayward and 1922 alienated Partch from both the concert system
Locale: New York, New York and the musical scales and intonation of European art
Category: Music music. As a result, he was almost entirely self-taught in
Key Figure his discipline. After his father’s death in 1919 and his
Harry Partch (1901-1974), American composer mother’s death the following year, Partch supported
himself in a variety of occupations. He worked mainly as
Summary of Event a proofreader but also as a sailor and agricultural laborer;
U.S. Highball (wr. 1943, rev. 1955), by composer Harry for a time, he was even a hobo.
Partch, premiered at the Carnegie Chamber Music Hall Partch’s discovery of the work of Hermann von
on April 22, 1944. This premiere, accompanied by some Helmholtz, a nineteenth century German scientist who
of Partch’s other works of the 1940’s, represented the had studied acoustics, revealed to him that the tempered
culmination of work performed under the auspices of a scale (the division of the octave into twelve equal semi-
Guggenheim Fellowship. It provided him with the chance tones) was a relatively recent invention. Partch also
to expound his musical theories to a wide audience. learned that a much purer intonation could be produced
The program at the premiere also included Barstow using scales based on ratios of a vibrating string that were
(1941, rev. 1954, 1967; a set of musical settings of graf- discovered in the sixth century b.c.e. by Pythagoras.
fiti left in a desert town by hitchhikers), The Letter (1943; Partch set about inventing musical instruments that
a setting for voice and adapted guitar of a letter from one would reproduce this pure intonation; in later life, he
of his hobo friends), and San Francisco (1943; settings claimed that he was a “philosophic music-man seduced
of the cries of two newsboys in the fog). A musical ac- into carpentry.”
count of a 1941 hobo trip from San Francisco to Chicago, Partch’s system depended upon the ratios of a vibrat-
U.S. Highball was the longest work on the program ing string. From the string, he obtained the pitches to
(“highball” is railroad slang for going somewhere in a which he tuned a special reed organ he had built that he
hurry). All the works performed that night were scored called the “chromelodeon.” He tuned the chromelodeon
for a reciting voice (Partch’s) and for a set of instruments not to the tempered chromatic scale of twelve pitches but
that he had invented. Collectively, the four pieces are to his own scale of forty-three pitches. From the
known as The Wayward. chromelodeon, he tuned the other instruments he had de-
The performance met with mixed reviews: The New vised, chiefly plucked-string instruments or tuned per-
York Times opined that the works’ value was mostly liter- cussion instruments.
ary, with the instruments merely adding atmosphere. Partch’s basic plucked-string instrument, the “ki-
Composer Lou Harrison, writing in Modern Music, ar- thara,” was based on an instrument depicted on ancient
gued that the sounds were often interesting but the man- Greek vases and was built of redwood and fir, with
ner in which the instruments were used was too repetitive seventy-two strings. His “harmonic canon” was a twin
and the actual music was negligible. An unsigned review instrument that resembled the inside of a piano but with
in The New Yorker—printed in the magazine’s “Talk of movable bridges. Both instruments were played by
the Town” column rather than its “Musical Events” sec- plucking their strings with a pick.
tion and written in a somewhat tongue-in-cheek style— Partch’s tuned percussion instruments were mostly
was quite laudatory. The concert served to launch Partch marimbas of various shapes and pitches made from bam-
on a career as an innovative avant-garde composer who boo, oak, or Brazil wood. Some were made from such
was completely isolated from the mainstream musical odd materials as light bulbs and liquor bottles. Quite cu-
360
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 U.S. Highball Premieres in New York
rious, visually as well as aurally, were the “cloud cham- Partch was writing a formal statement of his musical the-
ber bowls,” which were constructed from Pyrex glass ory. As the work grew, it developed into a statement of
bottles suspended by ropes from a rack; the centers of the both theory and practice, a guide for any musicians who
bottles had been cut out for cloud-chamber radiation wished to emulate him. He completed it near the end of
experiments. Also visually intriguing were the “gourd the decade, and it was published as Genesis of a Music by
tree,” a large eucalyptus branch festooned with Indian the University of Wisconsin Press in 1949.
dharma bells with gourd resonators, and the “spoils of Partch’s Guggenheim Fellowship was renewed twice.
war,” a mixture of instruments that included seven brass Afterward, he was able to secure a number of temporary
casings of artillery shells. Partch also constructed adapted university appointments, not as a faculty member but as a
guitars and an adapted viola, which he modified by research associate. He could thus work on developing
lengthening the necks of the instruments to accommo- new instruments and improving old ones, and the univer-
date his forty-three-note scale. sity environment provided him with student actors, sing-
Partch’s final tasks were to devise a musical notation ers, dancers, and musicians willing to try something new
for his new scales, for which he used ratios and colors, and to work for little or no money. Over time, he changed
and then to teach people to play these new instruments. his compositional orientation: He stopped writing bardic
The premiere version of U.S. Highball utilized the ki- works such as U.S. Highball or The Letter and began
thara (played by Partch while he declaimed the text), the writing dramatic works.
chromelodeon, and his modified guitar. In 1955, he As early as 1934, Partch had discussed a musical set-
added additional voices and instruments, including ting of Sophocles’ Oidipous Tyrannos (c. 429 b.c.e.;
cloud chamber bowls, marimbas, harmonic canons, and Oedipus Tyrannus, 1715) with one of its translators, the
the spoils of war. poet William Butler Yeats. Yeats, however, died in 1939,
Partch later referred to the structure of U.S. Highball long before Partch had completed his setting. The first
as a “hobo allegro form” (an allusion to “sonata-allegro version of Partch’s Oedipus was given its premiere in
form”). He explained that the piece was meant to evoke 1952 at Mills College in Oakland, California, and re-
several stages of a train trip. It begins with a fast trip from ceived nationwide reviews. Partch had to rewrite the text,
San Francisco to Rock Springs, Wyoming, followed by a however, since the agent for Yeats’s estate forbade the
slow movement of dishwashing while his imagined pro- use of the poet’s work in the recording of the production.
tagonist is stuck in Green River, Wyoming, and another As a release from composing this tragedy, Partch
1944
rapid trip—punctuated by reprises of the first section— wrote Plectra and Percussion Dances (1952) for an imag-
from Rock Springs to Chicago. The spoken text consists inary “satyr-play,” after the ancient Greek custom of
of meditations by the protagonist, Mac, as well as the producing a bawdy theatrical romp after an intensely
narrator’s rendering of graffiti, official signs, humor- cathartic tragedy. Included in these dances were a satire
ously distorted state names, and snatches of overheard on concerts (“Ring Around the Moon”) and musical
conversations of hobos and railroad police. settings of portions of Arthur Rimbaud’s Une Saison
Several other composers had previously experi- en enfer (1873; A Season in Hell, 1932) that included
mented with the production of unusual sounds. In the “Happy Birthday to You” arranged as an Afro-Chinese
early twentieth century, the Italian Futurists, headed by Minuet.
Luigi Russolo, developed a battery of noisemaking in- Continuing to modernize ancient Greek theatrical
struments to create a new music for the machine age, but concepts, Partch developed an idea of a total theater that
the Futurists’ instruments were merely used to accom- would include dance, mime, declaimed text, and music
pany otherwise conventional music. The American as equal components. This idea received its best fruition
Henry Cowell had developed unusual ways of playing in The Bewitched, commissioned by the University of Il-
the piano, such as using his fist or forearm on the piano linois for its contemporary arts festival in 1957; the piece
keys to produce “tone clusters” or directly plucking the was filmed for television and performed in New York
strings inside the piano, and the French American two years later. A few traditional instruments, especially
Edgard Varèse included such noisemakers as fire sirens clarinet, cello, and the Japanese plucked-string koto,
and lion roars in some of his compositions. Harry Partch, were used in addition to Partch’s gallery of invented in-
though, outdid them all in developing his new instru- struments; the traditional instruments were given a col-
ments, tunings, and musical notation. ored notation to indicate special lowering or raising of in-
At the same time he was working on The Wayward, dividual pitches.
361
U.S. Highball Premieres in New York The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
In securing a satisfactory production, Partch was at Dunn, David, ed. Harry Partch: An Anthology of Criti-
odds with choreographers and stage directors who cal Perspectives. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic,
thought that his music ought to be subordinated to the 2000. Collects scholarly essays on all aspects of
theatrical productions. Partch wanted his instruments on Partch’s work, from analyses of pieces to essays on
the stage and their performers to be part of the action. His specific instruments of his invention. Bibliographic
concept of music-as-theater, rather than music supple- references and index.
menting theater, was one of Partch’s most consistent and Ewen, David. “Harry Partch.” In Composers of Tomor-
important contributions to the evolution of avante-garde row. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1971. Partch is the last
musical performance. composer in this gallery of composers, written for a
lay audience, that begins with Charles Ives and Ar-
Significance
nold Schoenberg and includes Milton Babbitt and
Partch’s work attracted a cult following, striking chords
Yannis Xenakis.
with segments of the populace not generally attracted to
“Kitharist.” The New Yorker 20 (May 27, 1944): 21-22.
classical music. Moreover, his works had a tendency to
The most sympathetic and encouraging of the nation-
foreshadow trends in American counterculture gener-
ally circulated reviews of the New York premiere of
ally. U.S. Highball and the other hobo-inspired pieces of
U.S. Highball.
The Wayward—all written in the early 1940’s—would
McGeary, Thomas. The Music of Harry Partch: A De-
find strong echoes in the Beat poetry of the 1950’s. The
scriptive Catalog. Brooklyn: Institute for Studies in
Bewitched—written in the midst of the 1950’s—in-
American Music, 1991. More than a catalog of
cluded individual sections with such titles as “Visions
Partch’s works, this book contains a detailed chronol-
Fill the Eyes of a Defeated Basketball Team in the
ogy of his life, facsimiles of his manuscripts, and an
Shower Room” and “The Lost Musicians Mix Magic”
extensive bibliography about the composer from
that were to resound a decade later among the Age of
1930 to 1974.
Aquarius writers of the 1960’s. The static quality of
Partch, Harry. Bitter Music: Collected Journals, Essays,
some of Partch’s later work, moreover, prefigured both
Introductions, and Librettos. Edited by Thomas
minimalist music and New Age music. Thus, Partch was
McGeary. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991.
consistently ahead of his time textually as well as musi-
An extensive collection of Partch’s writings, mostly
cally.
unpublished, including his hobo journal from June,
After the 1968 New York premiere of The Bewitched,
1935, to February, 1936, with musical notations of
Winthrop Sergeant, music critic for The New Yorker,
speech and the texts of U.S. Highball.
wrote a perceptive review in which he commented on the
_______. Genesis of a Music. Rev. ed. New York: Da
difficulty of transporting Partch’s fragile instruments
Capo Press, 1974. Partch’s account of the development
and ended with the comment that “his art is absolutely
of his musical scales and instruments, with the back-
unique . . . it will probably die with its creator, never to be
ground of six of his major works and a selective bibli-
heard again.” Transfer of the recordings of the 1950’s to
ography. The photographs of the instruments are sup-
compact discs, however, has brought out the sound of
plemented by detailed accounts of their construction.
Partch’s instruments to the full. Some musicians, more-
Schafer, Murray. “U.S. Highball.” Canadian Music
over, have continued to learn how to play Partch’s instru-
Journal 3 (Winter, 1955): 55-58. Because of the rarity
ments in order to perform his works. Thus, the legacy of
of performances, Partch’s music became known
one of America’s most original and innovative compos-
chiefly through recordings. This article by one of
ers can still be said to continue. His audience, as he
Canada’s leading composers gives a highly sympa-
would have preferred, includes substantial numbers of
thetic account of Partch’s subsequent musical devel-
listeners without formal training (or prejudices) in art
opment.
music but open to new musical sonorities and effects.
—R. M. Longyear
See also: Oct. 30, 1944: Graham Debuts Appalachian
Further Reading Spring with Copland Score; June 7, 1945: Britten
Bowen, Meirion. “Harry Partch.” Music and Musicians Completes Peter Grimes; Sept. 11, 1951: Stravin-
17 (May, 1968): 20-25. A highly sympathetic depic- sky’s The Rake’s Progress Premieres in Venice; Sept.
tion of Partch’s life and music for a British audience, 26, 1957: Bernstein Joins Symphonic and Jazz Ele-
with a fine capsule account of Genesis of a Music. ments in West Side Story.
362
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Invasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe
June 6, 1944
Invasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe
In one of the most famous operations of World War II, had strengthened his fortified positions in early 1944.
the Allies conducted an amphibious invasion, the Beach and tide characteristics also made Normandy a
largest such invasion in military history, of northern likely choice. The original plan for “Overlord,” the oper-
France, marking the start of the liberation of Western ation’s code name, designated three army divisions for
Europe from Nazi control. the initial invasion. Eisenhower and Montgomery ex-
panded the size of the target area and increased the divi-
Also known as: D day; Operation Overlord sions to five for the coastal attack: two U.S. divisions,
Locale: Normandy, France two British, and one Canadian.
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil Allied deception played an important role before the
unrest attack. Adolf Hitler and most German military leaders
Key Figures predicted an invasion would occur in the Pas de Calais
Omar N. Bradley (1893-1981), commander of the U.S. region to the northeast. Significant German forces there-
First Army fore were positioned there and did not play a role when
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), commander in the actual invasion began. Allied schemes increased Hit-
chief of Allied Forces in Western Europe ler’s belief that the Pas de Calais was the intended target.
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- Phantom armies were “located” in eastern England and
1945 fake radio transmissions misled the Germans. Eisen-
Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), commander of hower also ordered widespread air attacks on railroad
Allied ground forces in northern France centers, bridges, and other transportation targets within
Erwin Rommel (1891-1944), second in command of France to hinder German reinforcements from reaching
German forces in Western Europe the coast when the invasion eventually began. The Nor-
Gerd von Rundstedt (1875-1953), German commander mandy attack was therefore nearly a complete surprise.
in chief in Western Europe The plan required the landings to begin at dawn, so
troops would have a full day to establish a beachhead and
Summary of Event begin to move inland. Other requirements included a full
1944
The Allied invasion of German-occupied France in June, moon the night before, so parachute forces could be
1944, remains one of the best-known events in World dropped in predawn hours behind enemy lines to cut com-
War II. Crossing the English Channel from England to munication lines and control key bridges and road junc-
the French coast of Normandy, the forces waging the at- tions; a low tide at dawn, so beach obstacles could be
tack constituted the largest amphibious operation under- cleared; and a fairly calm sea, as soldiers had to land from
taken in military history. small assault craft. Early June would meet these require-
To command this challenging effort, Western Allied ments, assuming favorable weather. General Eisenhower
leaders appointed General Dwight D. Eisenhower as selected June 5 as D day for the attack. The right combina-
commander in chief of Allied Forces in Western Europe. tion of tide and moon would not occur again for several
Arriving in England in January, 1944, to oversee the weeks, and planners did not wish to postpone the invasion.
complicated project, he spent many months directing the In early June, soldiers boarded ships in English em-
planning for the cross-channel invasion. Excellent co- barkation ports, but bad weather on June 3 and June 4
operation between the Western Allies was essential for made the scheduled June 5 invasion impossible. An up-
successfully planning and implementing the attack. The dated weather forecast indicated a break in the storm
second highest military appointment was, therefore, as- might occur the night of June 5-6. Eisenhower decided
signed to a prominent British general, Bernard Law on June 5 to take the risk. The weather improved, and
Montgomery. more than 5,000 ships, carrying more than 100,000
Defining the attack’s size, scope, and location re- troops, headed for the continent. Paratroopers dropped
quired careful consideration. Normandy was selected be- inland during the night, the first Allied soldiers to land in
cause of its proximity to Great Britain. German defenses occupied France. By daylight on June 6, bombers and
in Normandy were weaker than elsewhere on France’s fighter planes were flying overhead, as ground forces
northern coast, although Field Marshal Erwin Rommel moved toward the beaches. Warships pounded German
363
Invasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
fortifications with heavy artillery from the sea. Each of tabulation. Descriptions of the Normandy campaign of-
the five army divisions had an assigned coastal sector ten cover the weeks between June 6 and the Allied break-
(identified by a code name) to attack and secure: “Utah” out into the French interior by the end of July. Some fig-
and “Omaha” were assigned to the United States, “Gold” ures include the liberation of Paris in late August.
and “Sword” to the British, and “Juno” to the Canadians. Casualties on D day (June 6) alone are estimated to be be-
The landings succeeded in the face of heavy German re- tween 10,000 and 10,500 for the Allies and 6,500 for the
sistance, although the United States troops at “Omaha Germans. Eisenhower referred to 60,000 casualties in
Beach” had the greatest difficulty and highest casualties. three weeks. Another source placed casualties from June
By the end of the first day, approximately 150,000 sol- 6 to the end of August at approximately 84,000 British
diers had landed in Normandy. and Canadian, 126,000 U.S., and 200,000 German.
The invasion forces gradually consolidated and ex- Relations between Eisenhower and Montgomery
panded their positions. By the end of June, more than eroded during the campaign. Eisenhower believed the
850,000 Allied troops were in France. The Germans, be- British commander was overly cautious in advancing
cause of the disruption of their transportation systems toward Caen. Montgomery favored holding German
from air attacks, could not bring sufficient units to launch forces there while urging Bradley to break out to the
effective and sustained counterattacks. Rommel’s pre- west. Eisenhower was displeased when Montgomery did
ferred strategy favored using all available German forces not push his British forces toward Falaise, where, if they
to drive the Allies into the sea. However, Hitler in Berlin had linked with U.S. forces advancing from the west,
and Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt adopted a policy they would have cut off an entire German army. In both
of using their forces on a more selective basis. Thus, the cases, Montgomery believed he had acted correctly and
German defense was not well coordinated at the highest resented Eisenhower’s assessment.
levels.
German forces occasionally succeeded in blocking Significance
Allied advances from the beachhead. British and Cana- Western scholars emphasize the significance of the Nor-
dian troops on Montgomery’s left flank were unable to mandy invasion in the overall history of World War II.
capture the city of Caen, a D-day objective, until mid- Veterans and the general public correctly interpret Oper-
July. On the right flank, General Omar N. Bradley’s U.S. ation Overlord as a major step toward the ultimate defeat
First Army finally succeeded in cap-
turing the port of Cherbourg on June
27 but was unable to break out of the Invasion of Normandy, 1944
Cotentin Peninsula quickly.
Greater Allied firepower, both on = landing sectors
the ground and in the air, finally
broke the impasse. By August 1, Cherbourg
Bradley’s troops were in open coun- English Channel
try, and General George S. Patton’s
Cotentin
U.S. Third Army headed to the south Peninsula
and east. The German Seventh Army, Utah
Omaha Gold
nearly cut off in the so-called Fa- Juno
laise pocket, sustained major losses Sword
of troops and equipment by mid-
August. U.S. and French forces lib-
erated Paris on August 25. St. Lo
Casualty figures for Operation Caen
Overlord vary, in part because of in-
complete data. Considering the large
numbers of troops in the operation, N o r m a n d y Falaise
contradictory totals seem inevitable.
Tallies of battle losses also differ ac-
cording to the period included in any
364
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Invasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe
of Nazi Germany. Furthermore, as the

largest amphibious invasion in the
history of warfare, the Normandy op-
eration will be remembered for its tac-
tical success as well.
—Stephen E. Ambrose
and Taylor Stults
Further Reading
Ambrose, Stephen E. D-Day, June
6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of
World War II. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1995. Comprehensive ac-
count by a leading U.S. historian.
Bowman, Martin W. Remembering
D-day: Personal Histories of Ev-
eryday Heroes. New York: Harper-
Collins, 2005. The stories of the
troops who landed on the beaches
of Normandy, in their own words.
This oral history is especially sig- American soldiers land at Normandy under heavy German machine-gun fire during
nificant because most of the survi- Operation Overlord. (National Archives)
vors of the invasion have since died.
Eisenhower, Dwight D. Crusade in
Europe. 1948. New ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971. Rommel’s chief of staff provides a Ger-
University Press, 1997. Eisenhower’s memoirs pro- man interpretation.
vide his account of Operation Overlord. Van der Vat, Dan. D-day: The Greatest Invasion—A
_______. Eisenhower at War, 1943-1945. New York: People’s History. New York: Bloomsbury, 2003. An
1944
Random House, 1986. Detailed and scholarly assess- introduction by John S. D. Eisenhower, General Ei-
ment from Operation Overlord’s commander. senhower’s son and a World War II veteran himself,
Hallion, Richard P. The U.S. Army Air Forces in World sets the stage for this excellent history of the Nor-
War II: D-Day 1944, Air Power over the Normandy mandy invasion by a respected historian of the war.
Beaches and Beyond. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Air Includes many illustrations and photographs. Highly
Force, 1994. A brief illustrated account of an essential recommended.
element of the Allied invasion. Weinberg, Gerhard L. Hitler’s Foreign Policy: The Road
Keegan, John. Six Armies in Normandy: From D-Day to to World War II, 1933-1939. New York: Enigma
the Liberation of Paris, June 6-August 25, 1944. New Books, 2005. Considered by many the definitive
York: Viking, 1982. A British scholar explains the study of Hitler’s Germany before World War II.
military operations. Traces Germany’s transformation from an “unequal”
Ryan, Cornelius. The Longest Day: June 6, 1944. New entity in Europe to the center of diplomatic domi-
York: Simon & Schuster, 1959. First-rate account of nance and power on the world stage.
D day from the viewpoint of individual participants.
The Second World War. 9 vols. Naples, Fla.: Trident See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
Press International, 2000. Illustrated with more than European Theater; July 25, 1944: Allied Forces Break
twenty thousand photographs, this nine-volume German Front in France; Aug. 15, 1944: Operation
chronicle is unsurpassed as a visual record of World Dragoon; Sept. 12, 1944: Allied Forces Begin the
War II in both major theaters. Battle for Germany; Dec. 16, 1944-Jan., 1945: Battle
Speidel, Hans. Invasion 1944: Rommel and the Nor- of the Bulge; May 8, 1945: V-E Day Marks the End of
mandy Campaign. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood World War II in Europe.
365
Battle of the Philippine Sea The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
June 12-20, 1944

Battle of the Philippine Sea
Accompanying the U.S. landings on Saipan, the Battle on the Marianas, persuading Admiral Soemu Toyoda,
of the Philippine Sea was one of the greatest carrier commander of the Japanese combined fleet, that the
battles of World War II. An American naval victory, the United States was preparing to land ground forces. The
battle cost the Imperial Japanese Navy more than six Japanese had expected the next American assault to oc-
hundred aircraft and three carriers. U.S. submarines cur farther south and so had left the Marianas with an in-
played an important, though often forgotten, role in adequate force of fifty aircraft. On June 15, U.S. forces
providing American commanders with intelligence on began their invasion of Saipan and Toyoda gave the or-
enemy locations. After the battle, the Imperial der to attack. American submarines sighted the Japanese
Japanese Navy’s carrier force was no longer militarily forces. Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, commander of
effective. the Fifth Fleet, prepared for battle. By June 18, Task
Force 58, commanded by Admiral Marc A. Mitscher,
Also known as: Great Marianas Turkey Shoot was formed to meet the approaching Japanese assault.
Locale: Central Pacific Ocean, off the Mariana Organized into five groups, Task Force 58 was a formi-
Islands dable assemblage. The task force was made up of fifteen
Categories: World War II; military history carriers, seven battleships, eight heavy cruisers, thirteen
Key Figures light cruisers, fifty-eight destroyers, and twenty-eight
Jisaburf Ozawa (1886-1966), vice admiral and overall submarines.
Japanese commander Before dawn on June 18, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
Soemu Toyoda (1885-1957), admiral and commander radioed Spruance to inform him that the Japanese flag-
of Japanese combined fleet ship was less than 400 miles (640 kilometers) from Task
Raymond A. Spruance (1886-1969), admiral and Force 58. Mitscher sought to move into a launch position
American commander of the Fifth Fleet for an attack at dawn; Spruance, however, refused. He
Marc A. Mitscher (1887-1947), admiral and American was concerned that the Japanese were attempting to draw
commander, Task Force 58 his fleet away from the landing area, allowing an attack
Chester W. Nimitz (1885-1966), fleet admiral and on the invasion ships. Spruance placed Task Force 58 on
American commander of all sea and air forces in the the defensive.
Pacific At 5:50 a.m. on June 19, one of the Mitsubishi Zeros
from the fifty Japanese aircraft assigned to Guam located
Summary of Event Task Force 58. Over the next hour, the remaining aircraft
By late 1943, World War II was at its height in the Pacific formed for an attack. Having spotted the Japanese air-
theater. The Japanese had replaced many of the carriers craft by radar, the Americans dispatched a force of
lost during the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway. The Grumman Hellcats from the Belleau Wood to intercept
Japanese believed shortages in airplanes could be ad- the flight. They arrived over Orote Field while Japanese
dressed with the use of land-based aircraft. In response to planes continued to take off. The resulting battle cost the
the American “island-hopping campaign,” the Imperial Japanese thirty-five planes. An hour later the Hellcats
Japanese Navy developed Operation A-Go. The Japa- were recalled to the carriers.
nese planned to attack the U.S. Pacific fleet as it launched Around 10:00, additional contacts were picked up by
its next offensive. In early May, orders were sent to start Task Force 58 radar operators. The first wave of some
Operation A-Go, and the Japanese waited for the Ameri- sixty-eight Japanese aircraft was approaching. The
cans to make their next move. The Japanese fleet, under Americans began launching every fighter available. The
Vice Admiral Jisaburf Ozawa, consisted of six heavy first group of Hellcats met the approaching enemy some
carriers, the Taiho, Shokaku, Zuikaku, Junyo, Ryuho, and seventy miles out. Within minutes they had downed
Hiyo; three light carriers, the Chitose, Chivoda, and twenty-five Japanese planes, losing only one of their
Zuiho; and the battle ships Yamoto, Musashi, Kongo, own. Encountering additional U.S. forces, sixteen more
Haruna, and Nagato. Various cruisers, destroyers, and Japanese aircraft were lost.
oilers supported the fleet. At 11:07 another, much larger attack was spotted on
On June 11, 1944, U.S. forces began a series of attacks radar. The second wave of Japanese aircraft included 109
366
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of the Philippine Sea
aircraft. American fighters, some sixty miles out, inter- Hiyo was sunk. The Americans lost only twenty aircraft
cepted them. Seventy Japanese planes were shot down during the engagement.
before reaching the American ships. Before the raid was The American planes began to return to Task Force 58
finished, ninety-seven of the attacking Japanese aircraft around 8:45. Despite the risk from submarines and Japa-
were lost. nese aircraft, Mitscher ordered the carriers illuminated to
Around 1:00 p.m. the third wave of Japanese attack- aid the returning planes. Despite their best efforts, eighty
ers, consisting of forty-seven aircraft, was intercepted. aircraft were lost, crashing either into the carrier decks or
Seven of the attacking aircraft were shot down within into the sea. Many of the downed pilots were rescued the
minutes. Many of the remaining planes failed to push the next day. Darkness brought some relief for Ozawa and
attack. Because of the failure to engage the American his heavily damaged ships. He received orders during the
ships, forty of the Japanese aircraft managed to return to night to withdraw from the Philippine Sea.
their carriers.
The fourth raid was launched between 10:00 and Significance
11:30; however, the Japanese could not locate the fleet. The decisive American victory at the Battle of the Philip-
They turned toward Guam to refuel. Stumbling upon pine Sea helped spur the recapture of the Philippines and
American ships in the area, many were destroyed in the increase the pressure on the Japanese home islands. The
air. Over Orote Field, American pilots intercepted forty- heavy damage inflicted to the Imperial Japanese Navy
nine Japanese planes. Thirty were shot down, the rest during the battle would leave Japanese ground forces iso-
damaged beyond repair. lated and undersupplied throughout the various islands
In a separate action on June 19, the United States sub- in the Pacific. The battle cost the Japanese more than 600
marine Albacore made contact with Ozawa’s carrier aircraft and 3 carriers. U.S. losses for the battle were
group and immediately began its attack on the Taiho, around 125 planes, of which 80 were lost during night
Ozawa’s flagship. Around 8:15 a.m., a torpedo struck the landings. Losses by the Japanese would prove irreplace-
Taiho. Fires would burn throughout the ship until it ex- able. Japanese naval air power ceased to exist. The loss of
ploded and sank at 4:32 p.m. The U.S. submarine Cavalla experienced pilots would prove costliest of all. Through-
moved into position and attacked the Shokaku around out the remainder of the war, the Japanese would never
noon. Several hours later, fires aboard ship reached the recover from the losses at the “Great Marianas Turkey
munitions magazine, and the ship was blown apart. Shoot.” Despite the losses suffered by the Japanese,
1944
During the night, Task Force 58
moved west in order to attack the Japa-
nese. Ozawa transferred his command
to the Zuikaku after the Taiho had been
damaged. He discovered that only one
hundred aircraft remained in his com-
mand following the devastating fail-
ures earlier in the day.
At dawn on June 20, American
search planes took to the sky in an at-
tempt to locate the Japanese fleet. The
pilots finally located the enemy shortly
after 4:00 p.m. Mitscher launched his
attack at 6:30 with only a little more
than one hour of daylight left. With
more than two hundred aircraft, the
Americans attacked Ozawa’s fleet. The
Japanese were able to launch only about
thirty planes to intercept the incoming
enemy. The raid damaged the carriers U.S. troops march across a coral reef to reach land during the invasion of Saipan.
Zuikaku, Junyo, and Chiyoda, as well The land attack was coordinated with the naval Battle of the Philippine Sea. (Na-
as the battleship Haruna. The carrier tional Archives)
367
Battle of the Philippine Sea The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Mitscher expressed disappointment that the enemy had preface by Admiral William F. Halsey. Bibliography,
escaped. maps, and illustrations.
—Jason T. Harris Spector, Ronald H. Eagle Against the Sun. New York:
Free Press, 1985. One of the best works and most
Further Reading
readily cited sources on American military forces in
Belote, James H., and William M. Belote. Titans of the
the Pacific theater. Maps, plates, illustrations, index,
Seas: The Development and Operations of Japanese
and extensive bibliography.
and American Carrier Task Forces During World
Van der Vat, Dan. The Pacific Campaign: World War II,
War II. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. Covers
the U.S.-Japanese Naval War, 1941-1945. New
American and Japanese naval operations from 1939
York: Simon & Schuster, 1991. Covers American na-
through 1945, with heavy emphasis on carrier group
val operations and campaigns in the Pacific theater.
activity and the air war. Maps, bibliography.
Places the Battle of the Philippine Sea in context with
Grove, Eric. Big Fleet Actions: Tsushima-Jutland-Phil-
the Pacific campaign as a whole. Includes illustra-
ippine Sea. Reprint. London: Arms & Armor, 1995.
tions, maps, bibliographical references, and index.
Looks at the development of naval arts and sciences
Y’Blood, William T. Red Sun Setting: The Battle of the
during the twentieth century with naval battle histo-
Philippine Sea. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute
ries. Includes bibliographical references, maps, and
Press, 1981. Examines naval operations during the
index.
Battle of the Philippine Sea. Makes extensive use of
Lindley, John M. Carrier Victory: The Air War in the Pa-
primary military sources and official histories. Maps,
cific. New York: Dutton, 1978. Considered one of the
illustrations, index, and bibliography.
best works on American naval and air operations
against the Japanese during World War II. Includes See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
index, maps, illustrations, and bibliography. cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Canada Declares War on
Lockwood, Charles A., and Hans C. Adamson. Battles of Japan; Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on South-
the Philippine Sea. New York: Crowell, 1967. Covers east Asia; Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan Invades
all aspects of the American naval operations in the the Philippines; Feb. 19, 1942-1945: United States
Philippine Sea campaign during World War II. Illus- Interns Japanese Americans; Oct. 25, 1943: Thai-
trations, maps, and bibliography. Burma Railway Is Completed with Forced Labor;
Miller, Nathan. War at Sea: A Naval History of World Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pacific Offen-
War II. New York: Oxford, 1995. A comprehensive sive; June 15, 1944: Superfortress Bombing of Japan;
and authoritative history of the war’s naval battles. Oct. 20, 1944: Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks; Apr.
Notes, extensive bibliography. 1-July 2, 1945: Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japa-
Sherman, Fredrick C. Combat Command: The American nese Resistance; Oct. 29, 1945-Feb. 23, 1946: Japa-
Aircraft Carriers in the Pacific War. New York: nese General Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes;
Dutton, 1950. Addresses American air and naval op- May 3, 1947: Japan Becomes a Constitutional De-
erations in the Pacific during World War II, with a mocracy.
368
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 German V-1 and V-2 Weapons Are Deployed
June 13 and September 8, 1944

German V-1 and V-2 Weapons Are Deployed
Germany invented the cruise missile and the ballistic which culminated in the Argus AS 109-014. The V-1 proj-
missile, deploying them against the Allies relatively ect, code named Kirschkern (Cherry Stone), had begun.
late in World War II. While the weapons were a On April 30, 1941, the motor was used to assist power
significant morale boost for the German military and on a biplane trainer. On June 10, 1942, Field Marshall
were terrifying to their European targets, they were Erhard Milch foresaw the future for the flying bomb,
invented and deployed too late to prevent Germany’s when he chaired a review of the development. The devel-
defeat in the war. opmental team was headed by Ing Fritz Gosslau; the air-
craft was designed by Robert Lusser. On December 24,
Also known as: Fiesler Fi 103; Vergeltungswaffe 1; 1942, the first powered missile launch took place. It was
Aggregat 4; A-4; Vergeltungswaffe 2 planned that by December 15, 1943, sixty-four main
Locale: Peenemünde, Germany launch sites and thirty-two secondary sites would be in
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil place, and operations could begin. As a result of many
unrest; engineering; space and aviation factors, however, including the rivalry between the V-2
Key Figures and V-1 development teams and the competition for
Wernher von Braun (1912-1977), chief German rocket manufacturing labor and materials, the V-1 bombing
engineer campaign began on June 13, 1944.
Walter Robert Dornberger (1895-1980), German The V-1 was a pulse-jet powered aircraft, which was
rocket engineer and commander of the Peenemünde capable of delivering a 1-ton payload. It was launched,
Rocket Research Institute under Adolf Hitler’s orders, while still in a late develop-
Ing Fritz Gosslau (1898-1965), German head of the V-1 mental stage, to terrorize inhabited areas of London for
developmental team the damage that had been wreaked in Germany during
Paul Schmidt (1898-1976), German designer of the the war. An average of 102 V-1’s was launched daily be-
impulse jet motor tween June 13 and early September, 1944. On June 11,
1944, Allied sources predicted the first bombing raid
Summary of Event within forty-eight hours, judging by the photographs of
1944
On May 26, 1943, key German military officials were the 45.7-meter railed ramps. Early launch sites included
briefed by two teams of scientists, one representing the as many as twelve support buildings that took weeks to
air force, and the other representing the army. Each team build. Later sites, built during the latter part of 1944,
had launched two experimental war craft. The German were constructed in a day. Allied bombing did signifi-
air force experiment, the Fiesler Fi 103, failed on both cant damage to the supply lines, no matter how fast the
trials. The German Army’s Aggregat 4 (Assembly 4, or sites were built, thus making restocking of supplies and
A-4) worked beautifully. The military chiefs, who were hardware difficult and slowing down the rate of firings.
to decide which project merited further funding and de- Two innovative systems made the V-l unique: the
velopment to suit the war needs, decided to pursue both drive operation and the guidance system. In the motor,
projects. Each experimental craft had both advantages oxygen entered the grid valves through many small flaps.
and disadvantages, which counterbalanced the pros and Fuel oil was introduced and the mixture ignited. After ig-
cons of the other. Therefore, both the Fiesler Fi 103 and nition, the expanded gases produced the reaction propul-
the Army’s A-4 were developed. They were to become sion. When the expanded gases had vacated, the reduced
the V-1 and the V-2 aircraft. internal pressure allowed the valve flaps to reopen, ad-
The concept of the V-1 motor existed in the late 1800’s. mitting more air for the next cycle.
In 1907, a French patent was taken on the concept, and in The guidance system included a small propeller with
1919, René Lorin published a description of this type of a capability to preset a revolution counter. The number of
motor that was inexpensive and expendable. Develop- revolutions accomplished at a set speed and height was
ment of the impulse jet motor continued after World calculated. By setting the counter to cover the desired
War I. After the work of Munich engineer Paul Schmidt distance to target, the propeller would activate the eleva-
drew the attention of the German Luftwaffe (air force), the tors on the aircraft, causing it to dive at the chosen target.
Argus Motorenwerk was authorized to begin production, Understandably, accuracy was not at the desired level.
369
German V-1 and V-2 Weapons Are Deployed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1932, hired Wernher von Braun, and moved the research

to the Kummersdorf Artillery Range, also called Experi-
mental Station West, an old artillery field 27 kilometers
south of Berlin. At Kummersdorf, the research grew to
such an extent that an entirely new area, from which
long-range test flights could be run, was needed.
Peenemünde Rocket Research Institute was estab-
lished in 1939. Eventually, the research area was split.
Peenemünde West was run by the German Luftwaffe,
which was responsible for development of the V-1.
Peenemünde East was under the control of Dornberger
and the German army, who had developed the V-2.
The V-2 had a lift-off thrust of 11,550.6 newtons and
was propelled by a combustion of liquid oxygen and al-
cohol. The propellants were pumped into the combustion
chamber by a steam-powered turboprop. The steam was
generated by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide,
using sodium permanganate as catalyst. An innovation,
still in use in modern technology, was regenerative cool-
ing, with alcohol used to cool the double-walled combus-
tion chamber.
The guidance system included two phases: powered
and ballistic. Four seconds after launch, a preprogrammed
A captured V-2 rocket at White Sands Proving Grounds, in New tilt to 17 degrees was begun, then acceleration was con-
Mexico. (Library of Congress) tinued to achieve the desired trajectory. At the desired
velocity, the engine power was cut off via one of two sys-
tems. In the automatic system, a device shut off the en-
The V-1 had a wing span of slightly more than 7.6 me- gine at the velocity desired; under this method, accuracy
ters. Because it used low-grade fuel oil and oxygen from was not optimal. The second system entailed a radio sig-
the atmosphere, it was inexpensive to operate. It was re- nal to the rocket’s receiver, which cut off the power. This
stricted, however, to one speed only, about 590.4 kilome- was a far more accurate method, but because of the extra
ters per hour, and depended upon a certain air density to equipment required at the launch site, Allied bombers
get the oxygen needed during flight. Therefore, it could were much more likely to strike. This system was more
not fly at a high altitude. Because it also flew in a straight often employed toward the end of the war. Engine cutoff
line and at a constant speed, Allied aircraft could more involved a two-stage process. The first stage shut down
easily intercept this “buzz-bomb” than it could the V-2. the 11,235.9-newton nozzle, leaving open the 3,595.5-
The development of the V-2 can be traced to an organi- newton nozzle. The second stage shut down all power.
zation called the Verein für Raumschiffahrt, or VfR (soci- Even the 907-kilogram warhead of the V-2 was a
ety for space travel), founded in 1927. In 1930, the group carefully researched and tested device. During liftoff and
leased an area on the outskirts of Berlin for experimental reentry, detonators had to be able to withstand six g’s of
rocketry development. The civilian research accom- force (that is, a force equal to six times that of Earth’s
plished at the Raketenflugplatz (rocket flying place) in- gravitational pull), as well as the vibrations inherent in a
terested the military authorities. According to the Treaty rocket flight. They also had to be sensitive enough to det-
of Versailles (1919), world military forces were restricted onate upon impact before the explosive became buried in
to 100,000 men and a certain level of weaponry. The Ger- the target and lost power through diffusion of force.
man military powers realized very early, however, that the The V-2 was a much more complex craft, having thou-
treaty had neglected to restrict rocket-powered weaponry, sands of parts and flying at more than twice the speed of
not even dreaming of its possibility at the end of World sound. Its first successful test was in October of 1942, but
War I. Captain Walter Robert Dornberger (later a major it continued under development until August of 1944.
general) visited the scientists at the Raketenflugplatz in During the next eight months, more than three thousand
370
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 German V-1 and V-2 Weapons Are Deployed
were launched against England and the Continent, caus- Spitfire missions designed to neutralize the rockets
ing immense devastation and fulfilling its purpose of be- before they could be launched. Bibliographic refer-
coming the Vergeltungswaffe 2 (Vengeance Weapon 2). ences and index.
However, the weapon that took fourteen years of research Cooksley, Peter G. Flying Bomb: The Story of Hitler’s
and testing entered the war too late to affect its outcome. V-Weapons in World War II. New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1979. This history of the Nazis’ se-
Significance
cret weapons is told more from the viewpoint of the
The V-1 and V-2, although acquiring strong negative
British facing those weapons than from the viewpoint
associations through the destruction and terror they
of the Germans developing them.
wrought during World War II, made a tremendous im-
Dornberger, Walter R. V-2. Translated by James Cleugh
pact upon the history and development of space technol-
and Geoffrey Halliday. New York: Viking Press, 1954.
ogy. Even during the war, captured V-2’s were studied
Fascinating, eyewitness account of the development of
by Allied scientists. American rocket scientists were es-
the V-2, including the political and financial maneu-
pecially interested in the technology, as they were work-
vering Dornberger had to handle during the project.
ing in the same direction, with liquid-fueled rockets. Af-
Haining, Peter. The Flying Bomb War: Contemporary
ter the war, military personnel were sent to the United
Eyewitness Accounts of the German V1 and V2 Raids
States, where they signed contracts to work with the U.S.
on Britain. London: Robson, 2002. First-person nar-
Army. This program was known as Operation Paperclip.
ratives of English soldiers and citizens faced with the
Testing of the captured V-2’s was undertaken at White
V-1 and V-2 weapons late in the war.
Sands Proving Grounds (now White Sands Missile
Kennedy, Gregory P. Vengeance Weapon 2: The V-2
Range) near Alamogordo, New Mexico. The JB-2 Loon
Guided Missile. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian In-
Navy jet-propelled bomb was developed following the
stitution Press, 1983. Combination of history and
study of the captured German craft.
technology. Some passages discussing the actual me-
The Soviet Union also benefited from captured V-2’s
chanics of the V-2 are technical. Includes beautiful
and from the German factories dismantled following the
black-and-white archival photographs.
war. With these resources, the Soviet Union also had a
Ley, Willy. Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel. Rev. ed.
boost toward development of its own rocket technology,
New York: Viking Press, 1961. Willy Ley is known
culminating in the launch of Sputnik 1, the world’s first
as probably the most prolific writer of space history.
human-made satellite, on October 4, 1957. The United
1944
His style is on a college level, yet dense with informa-
States was not far behind, however, when it launched its
tion. This volume details history from early concep-
first satellite, Explorer 1, on January 31, 1958.
tions through the V-2. Contains a technical table.
Although the same technology has allowed for the de-
Ordway, Frederick J., III, and Mitchell R. Sharpe. The
velopment of bigger and more lethal weapons, the liquid-
Rocket Team. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1979.
fuel technology has allowed for the development of
Detailed history of the V-2, with many references to
research rockets. These sounding rockets tested the atmo-
the V-1. It is college-level reading, with fascinating
sphere and led the way for the launching of satellite pay-
black-and-white photographs. Excellent resource.
loads, literally opening the doors to the sky. The vast array
Young, Richard Anthony. The Flying Bomb. London: I.
of satellites includes communications, meteorological, or-
Allan, 1978. Richly laden with photographs, dia-
biting observatories, radiation and energy measuring de-
grams, and the complete story of the V-1 development
vices, remote sensing, and biosatellites. Satellite technol-
and deployment. Includes appendixes, with all the
ogy assists humankind in managing the effects of weather
launch sites and procedures. Easily understood tech-
and climate, in researching the solar system, and in test-
nology for the college-level reader.
ing the effects of space travel upon the human body.
—Ellen F. Mitchum
See also: May 15, 1941: Turbojet Engine Is Used in the
Further Reading First Jet Plane; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs
Cabell, Craig, and Graham A. Thomas. Operation Big Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Feb. 24, 1949:
Ben: The Anti-V2 Spitfire Missions, 1944-1945. HERMES Builds the First Multistage Rocket; Sept. 9,
Staplehurst, Kent, England: Spellmount, 2004. Re- 1955-Sept. 18, 1959: United States Launches Van-
veals in great detail the previously unknown story of guard Satellite Program; Oct. 4, 1957: Soviet Union
the covert British response to the V-2: dive-bombing Launches the First Artificial Satellite.
371
Superfortress Bombing of Japan The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
June 15, 1944

Superfortress Bombing of Japan
A raid on Yawata marked the beginning of the could cruise at the plane’s service ceiling of 31,800 feet
American strategic bombing campaign against the without needing oxygen masks. The aircraft was armed
Japanese home islands. The raid was not particularly with twelve .50-caliber machine guns, or ten machine
successful, but it demonstrated the feasibility of using guns and a 20-millimeter cannon, all mounted in power-
B-29’s against Japanese targets. driven turrets. Under ideal conditions, it could carry a
bomb load of ten tons.
Also known as: Operation Matterhorn Plans by the Army Air Forces (AAF) for the plane’s
Locale: Yawata, Japan use had taken various forms, including its commitment
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil in Europe. By the time significant numbers of the planes
unrest could be ready, however, British and U.S. bombers fly-
Key Figures ing from England had made the B-29 less than essential
H. H. Arnold (1886-1950), commander of the U.S. for the war against Germany. By the end of 1943, Army
Army Air Forces, 1941-1946 Air Forces chief General H. H. Arnold was committed to
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the its use against Japan. United States air bases in the Aleu-
United States, 1933-1945 tian Islands, however, were too far from Japan. The is-
LaVerne Saunders (1903-1998), U.S. commander of lands in the Mariana group that could provide bases
the Fifty-eighth Bombardment Wing (Saipan, Tinian, and Guam) were not projected to be in
Kenneth B. Wolfe (1896-1971), U.S. commander of the U.S. hands until the winter of 1944. Thus, Army Air
Twentieth Bomber Command Forces planners, wanting to get the new Superfortresses
into operation as soon as possible, looked to China.
Summary of Event On Arnold’s orders, Brigadier General Kenneth B.
The Doolittle raid against Tokyo on April 18, 1942, was Wolfe drew up a plan. Submitted to the Army Air Forces
the first air raid by United States bombers on the Japanese chief on October 11, 1943, Wolfe’s plan called for basing
home islands and the only one for the next two years. The the new B-29’s in India and staging them through fields
rapid Japanese advance in the Pacific and the Japanese in China. Approved by Arnold, the plan then went to
hold on the Asian mainland drove U.S. forces from any President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Desiring to do some-
bases close enough to carry out air raids on Japan. The thing for China and fearing that China’s leader, Chiang
available heavy bombers, the B-17 Flying Fortress and the Kai-shek, might quit the war if he did not receive some
B-24 Liberator, did not have adequate range. The B-29 tangible help against the Japanese, Roosevelt proved a
Superfortress, however, brought to bear new technology receptive audience and approved the plan, known as Op-
that made possible a devastating strategic bombing cam- eration Matterhorn, in November, 1943.
paign against the Japanese home islands. The idea of an independent, powerful, strategic
The Army had shown interest in the new long-range, bombing force had long been a dream of U.S. flyers. Sup-
high-altitude bomber that the Boeing Company had plying itself with all the necessities of war, this command
begun to develop in 1938. Although the prototype, the could, it was believed, bludgeon any enemy into surren-
XB-29, was not test-flown until September 21, 1942, the der by strategic bombing without the necessity of inva-
U.S. Army Air Corps (then the combat branch of the U.S. sion. Perhaps the Superfortress was the weapon.
Army Air Forces) had already ordered 250 planes from Having committed itself to a strategic bombing cam-
Boeing, which built an entire new plant to produce the paign against the Japanese home islands, in April, 1944,
new bomber exclusively. Far larger than the B-17, the the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff established a special orga-
Superfortress measured 99 feet in length, with a wing nization, the Twentieth Air Force, to direct all B-29 oper-
span of 141 feet. It weighed more than sixty tons fully ations. General Arnold, acting as executive agent of the
loaded and had a top speed of up to 375 miles per hour. Joint Chiefs of Staff, was selected to command this new
Powered by four twenty-two-hundred-horsepower force and given control over the employment of the
Wright Duplex Cyclone engines, it had a combat radius Superfortresses. Neither the British commander in the
of sixteen hundred miles fully loaded. Three separate area, Lord Louis Mountbatten, nor United States Army
pressurized compartments meant that its crew of eleven commander Lieutenant General Joseph W. Stilwell ex-
372
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Superfortress Bombing of Japan
A group of B-29 Superfortresses drops its bombs over Yokohama, Japan. (National Archives)
eighth Wing could not supply itself for raids of one hun-
1944
ercised any authority over the deployment and use of the
B-29’s in the China-Burma-India theater of operations, dred planes or more, the hoped-for number, more than a
except in an emergency. However, they would see a sig- few times each month. This, combined with the high rate
nificant amount of the very limited tonnage that was of engine failure, the loss of planes because of inexperi-
flown over the Hump into China diverted to the B-29 enced crews, and the other faults to be expected in a new
bases at Chengtu. weapon meant that the first raid on Japan could not be
Implementation of Operation Matterhorn was en- launched until June 15, 1944.
trusted to Wolfe’s Twentieth Bomber Command, which The Army Air Forces’ Committee of Operations Ana-
originally was made up of the Fifty-eighth and the lysts had suggested that an appropriate strategic target
Seventy-third Bombardment Wings. The Seventy-third for B-29’s would be the coke ovens that supplied Japan’s
was detached in April, 1944, to go to the Mariana Islands, steel mills. Consequently, the first strike was directed
whose date of capture had been advanced to June, 1944. A against the coke ovens of the Imperial Iron and Steel
wing contained 112 bombers plus replacement ships, and Works at Yawata. Located on the island of Kynshn, at the
slightly more than three thousand officers and eight thou- edge of the bomber’s combat range, the Yawata plant
sand enlisted men. Support, service, and engineer person- produced 24 percent of Japan’s rolled steel and was con-
nel brought the total strength of the Twentieth Bomber sidered the most important target in the Japanese steel in-
Command to approximately twenty thousand troops. dustry.
Because all supplies for Chinese bases had to be Beginning on June 13, ninety-two planes left the Ben-
flown in, stockpiling was difficult. B-29’s from India had gal fields in India, seventy-nine of which reached the
to fly seven round trips to bring enough gasoline and Chengtu bases. Each came loaded with two tons of five-
other necessities to make possible one mission over Ja- hundred-pound bombs and needed only to refuel in
pan. With the loss of the Seventy-third Wing, the Fifty- China. Commanders in Washington, D.C., who had
373
Superfortress Bombing of Japan The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
picked the target, ordered a night mission with bombs to Larrabee, Eric. “LeMay.” In Commander in Chief:
be dropped from between eight thousand and eighteen Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and
thousand feet. On June 15, the same day that Marines Their War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987. A
went ashore on Saipan, sixty-eight planes, led by wing concise account of the role of General Curtis LeMay,
commander Brigadier General LaVerne “Blondie” Saun- the man who assumed leadership of the Twentieth
ders, left the fields. Four were forced back by engine Bomber Command in August, 1944, in the strategic
trouble, and one crashed immediately after take-off. bombing offensive against Japan. Discusses both the
Forty-seven Superfortresses bombed Yawata that night, Yawata raid and subsequent assaults from China.
thirty-two using radar because of an effective blackout of Morrison, Wilbur H. Point of No Return: The Story of the
the city compounded by haze and smoke. The other Twentieth Air Force. New York: Times Books, 1979.
planes did not make it over Yawata for a variety of rea- Chapters 1 through 13 of this narrative history cover
sons, most of them mechanical. Six planes were lost, one in detail the development of the B-29, the debates
to enemy fighters on the return trip. Fighter opposition about its employment, and Operation Matterhorn.
over the target and antiaircraft fire had been light. Pimlott, John. B-29 Superfortress. Englewood Cliffs,
N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1993. Provides detailed informa-
Significance tion about the Superfortress itself. Excellent drawings
Photo reconnaissance of Yawata showed little damage, and illustrations.
the only significant hit being on a power station thirty- United States. Strategic Bombing Survey. The Strategic
seven hundred feet from the coke ovens. This was not a Air Operations of Very Heavy Bombardment in the
massive fire-bomb raid of the type that would begin in War Against Japan (Twentieth Air Force). Washing-
March, 1945, from the Mariana islands. The AAF was ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1946. The re-
still concentrating on high-altitude, precision bombing. ports that make up this survey contain extensive sta-
The Fifty-eighth Wing averaged two raids a month until tistical material about the impact of strategic bombing
March, 1945, when it was moved to Saipan. Operating on Japan.
under a very difficult logistical situation, Operation Mat- Werrell, Kenneth P. Blankets of Fire: U.S. Bombers over
terhorn had been a stimulant for Chinese morale and had Japan During World War II. Washington, D.C.:
provided a necessary shakedown for the new bombers Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996. This detailed
and crews. Matterhorn was not a success, nor was the look at U.S. Japanese bombing campaigns includes a
first raid on Japan, but both presaged a more destructive chapter on the Superfortress, which it calls the “best
future for the Superfortress. bomber of the war.”
— Charles W. Johnson and Bruce J. DeHart
See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
Further Reading cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
Craven, Wesley F., and James L. Cate. The Pacific: Apr. 18, 1942: Doolittle Mission Bombs Tokyo; May
Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945. 7-8, 1942: Battle of the Coral Sea; Nov. 20, 1943-
Vol. 5 in The Army Air Forces in World War II. Chi- Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pacific Offensive; Oct. 20,
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1953. This volume 1944: Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks; Apr. 1-July 2,
in the U.S. Army Air Forces’ official history provides 1945: Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Re-
a wealth of information about the people, machines, sistance; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs Destroy
and events that were part of Operation Matterhorn. Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
374
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill
June 22, 1944

Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill
The G.I. Bill provided veterans with readjustment Veterans could apply for loan guarantees up to a max-
benefits such as unemployment compensation, loan imum of 50 percent of a $4,000 loan, payable in full
guarantees for purchases of homes, farms, and within twenty years, to purchase a home, farm, or busi-
businesses, and tuition and subsistence for education ness. Loans would be administered through the Veterans
and training. Administration (VA), which would work with private
banks, lending agencies, and businesses. Educational
Also known as: Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of opportunities involved tuition payments up to $500 per
1944; Public Law 346, 78th Congress; U.S. Code year and subsistence allowances of $50 per month for
Title 38, sections 694 et seq. single veterans and $75 per month for married veterans
Locale: Washington, D.C. or those with dependents, for a maximum of four years.
Categories: World War II; laws, acts, and legal Through the educational program, veterans could earn
history; economics high school diplomas, attend trade and business schools,
Key Figures or receive college or graduate school educations.
Frederic Delano (1863-1953), head of the National The G.I. Bill enabled veterans of World War II to be-
Resources Planning Board come one of the best educated, most prosperous, most
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the successful middle-class generations in U.S. history. Dur-
United States, 1933-1945 ing previous wars, the government had made few plans
Warren Atherton (1891-1976), commander of the for veterans. From the 1780’s to the 1930’s, land grants
American Legion for Revolutionary War veterans, pensions for Union
Joel Bennett Clark (1890-1954), U.S. senator from troops of the Civil War, and controversial cash bonuses
Missouri, 1933-1945 for World War I doughboys had been the extent of fed-
John Rankin (1882-1960), U.S. congressman from eral assistance. Remembering controversial bonus bills
Mississippi, 1921-1952 in the interwar years, veterans’ lobbying power, and high
unemployment during the Depression, the administra-
Summary of Event tion of Franklin D. Roosevelt haltingly began postwar
1944
The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, com- planning in 1942, when the American war effort was still
monly known as the G.I. Bill, provided economic and ed- barely underway.
ucational benefits for World War II veterans. It enabled Frederic Delano, head of the National Resources
individuals who had served ninety or more days in the Planning Board (NRPB), made the first overture. In July,
U.S. armed forces after September 16, 1940, to take ad- 1942, Delano sought the president’s support for postwar
vantage of readjustment benefits to ease their transition planning. Roosevelt denied approval for any public ef-
into the civilian economy. The federal government fort but reluctantly assented to the creation of a small in-
sought to provide temporary help in finding postwar em- teragency group. Between July, 1942, and April, 1943,
ployment, assistance in obtaining educational creden- the NRPB’s Conference on the Post-War Readjustment
tials, and loan guarantees for purchases of homes, farms, of Civilian and Military Personnel conducted its work,
and businesses. submitting its final report four days after Congress abol-
Between July, 1942, and June, 1944, government ished the NRPB. Recommendations included a postwar
agencies, the president, veterans’ groups, and Congress full-employment policy and specific educational and
worked out the provisions of the G.I. Bill in a compli- reemployment benefits for veterans and war workers.
cated policy-making process. Discussion of readjust- Roosevelt created the Armed Forces Committee on
ment benefits centered on unemployment, federal loan Postwar Educational Opportunities for Service Person-
guarantees, and education. Temporary benefits included nel (the Osborn Committee), knowing that benefits for
counseling for return to prewar jobs, job placement— military veterans would receive a friendly hearing in
coordinated by a new Veterans’ Placement Service Board Congress. Although the president never endorsed any
working with the U.S. Employment Service and veter- specific group’s proposals, he called publicly for a range
ans’ centers—and unemployment compensation of $20 of veterans’ benefits in national fireside radio chats on
per week for a maximum of fifty-two weeks. July 28 and October 27, 1943. On the latter date, he sub-
375
Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
mitted the NRPB/Osborn Committee recommendations hensive veterans’ benefits bill to be presented to Con-
to Congress, following up with a strong message to Con- gress. The bill the committee produced included both
gress on November 23, 1943. previous ideas and new provisions for loan guarantees
Warren Atherton, national commander of the Ameri- for purchasing homes, farms, and businesses. Promoted
can Legion, a veterans’ organization founded in 1919, as the G.I. Bill of Rights, the American Legion bill re-
received instructions at the group’s convention in Sep- stricted unemployment compensation benefits, especially
tember, 1943, to appoint a committee to draft a compre- for striking workers, more than had previous federal
proposals. Legion officials released
the bill on January 8, 1944, and in-
Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill troduced it into Congress two days
later.
U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Congressional hearings and ne-
Act, known as the G.I. Bill, in 1944. The act provided benefits for veterans re- gotiation over an amended Legion
turning from service in World War II. Roosevelt outlined these benefits in the bill proceeded with dispatch. Con-
following public statement made the same day he signed the bill into law: servative Mississippi Democrat John
1. It [the G.I. Bill] gives servicemen and women the opportunity of resuming Rankin, a longtime veterans advocate
their education or technical training after discharge, or of taking a re- with close links to the Legion, spon-
fresher or retrainer course, not only without tuition charge up to $500 per sored the House bill, while maverick
school year, but with the right to receive a monthly living allowance while Senator Joel Bennett Clark (a Demo-
pursuing their studies. crat from Missouri) and nine other
2. It makes provision for the guarantee by the Federal Government of not to senators introduced the Senate ver-
exceed 50 percent of certain loans made to veterans for the purchase or sion.
construction of homes, farms, and business properties. Between January 10 and March
3. It provides for reasonable unemployment allowances payable each week 10, 1944, Clark’s Senate Subcom-
up to a maximum period of one year, to those veterans who are unable to mittee on Veterans’ Legislation (a
find a job. subcommittee of the Finance Com-
4. It establishes improved machinery for effective job counseling for veter- mittee) held nine hearings sessions.
ans and for finding jobs for returning soldiers and sailors. Key veterans’ groups, including the
5. It authorizes the construction of all necessary additional hospital facilities. Veterans of Foreign Wars, the Mili-
6. It strengthens the authority of the Veterans Administration to enable it to tary Order of the Purple Heart, the
discharge its existing and added responsibilities with promptness and effi- Disabled American Veterans, and the
ciency. Regular Veterans Association, ini-
With the signing of this bill a well-rounded program of special veterans’ tially opposed passage, arguing that
benefits is nearly completed. It gives emphatic notice to the men and women in the bill would overlook disabled vet-
our armed forces that the American people do not intend to let them down. erans in favor of able-bodied ones. A
By prior legislation, the Federal Government has already provided for the compromise bill incorporating edu-
armed forces of this war: adequate dependency allowances; mustering-out cational provisions of a bill spon-
pay; generous hospitalization, medical care, and vocational rehabilitation and sored by Senator Elbert Thomas (a
training; liberal pensions in case of death or disability in military service; sub- Democrat from Utah) passed the full
stantial war risk life insurance, and guaranty of premiums on commercial poli- Senate on March 24, 1944, by a vote
cies during service; protection of civil rights and suspension of enforcement of of 50 to 0.
certain civil liabilities during service; emergency maternal care for wives of
Between January and May, 1944,
enlisted men; and reemployment rights for returning veterans.
This bill therefore and the former legislation provide the special benefits
Congressman Rankin’s Committee
which are due to the members of our armed forces—for they “have been com- on World War Legislation held six-
pelled to make greater economic sacrifice and every other kind of sacrifice than teen public and nineteen executive
the rest of us, and are entitled to definite action to help take care of their special sessions. Rankin insisted on changes
problems.” While further study and experience may suggest some changes and restricting unemployment benefits
improvements, the Congress is to be congratulated on the prompt action it has for striking workers, so the bill was
taken. amended. On May 18, 1944, the full
House approved the amended bill by
376
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill
a unanimous vote of 388 to 0. House support included the themselves by overstating the prospects of businesses
votes of 149 representatives who were Legion members. they wanted to sell. Legally, a veteran could use a loan
Because the bill passed by the House differed from the guarantee only to buy into a partnership or to set up a new
Senate version, it was necessary to reconcile the two bills business. No VA loan money could be used as working
in conference. At first, this proved difficult, but a grass- capital to pay operating expenses or inventory costs in
roots letter campaign mounted by the American Legion any business. Small business leaders viewed the idea as
broke the deadlock in the conference committee. One an opportunity to regain ground lost to the large indus-
week after the Allied invasion of France across the En- trial manufacturing firms that had dominated wartime
glish Channel (D day), both houses of Congress unani- defense contracting.
mously approved the amended compromise bill. Presi- In 1945, more than 12 million Americans served in the
dent Roosevelt used ten pens to sign the bill into law on armed forces. By 1946, slightly more than 3 million peo-
June 22, 1944. The final version of the bill provided for ple remained in the services. That fall, more than 1 million
VA hospital construction, as well as unemployment com- veterans enrolled in colleges and universities. Of 15.6 mil-
pensation, loan guarantees, and educational benefits. lion eligible veterans, 7.8 million obtained education or
Between 1944 and 1956, millions of veterans used training under the generous educational provisions of the
their readjustment benefits to great advantage. In the G.I. Bill. Although only 30 percent of World War II vet-
short term, veterans received help in obtaining work, erans went on to earn college degrees, their numbers in-
loans to buy homes, farms, or businesses, and financing cluded 2,232,000 who were educated under the G.I. Bill.
for education. In the long term, G.I. Bill expenditures Although perhaps 80 percent of those probably would
helped promote growth of the postwar mixed economy, have gone to college even without the G.I. Bill, some esti-
improved the educational level of an entire generation, mates suggest that 20 percent of those graduates could not
and generated advantages that made World War II veter- have afforded a higher education without the G.I. Bill.
ans part of an expanding middle class. G.I. Bill students were the most talented, highly
Unemployment compensation in 1946 and 1947 as- achieving, and oldest college students in U.S. history.
sisted about one million veterans each year. The readjust- Older and married veterans paved the way for later gen-
ment allowances of $20 per week for up to fifty-two weeks erations in becoming part of the undergraduate and grad-
led to the permanent reemployment of veterans moving uate student populations. According to the Veterans
into a postwar economy that many Americans feared Administration, the G.I. Bill helped educate 450,000
1944
would see the return of high unemployment. In limiting engineers, 360,000 teachers, 243,000 accountants,
the amount and length of compensation, the act marked a 180,000 physicians, dentists, and nurses, 150,000 scien-
retreat from original recommendations, while still estab- tists, 107,000 lawyers, and 36,000 members of the
lishing the principle that veterans should join the “52-20 clergy. Vocational training at private business schools
Club” while looking for permanent employment. proved more problematic, as millions of dollars were lost
In 1945 and 1946, the United States suffered a severe through waste, fraud, and early student withdrawals.
housing shortage. Between 1945 and 1955, lending agen- Some veterans used their benefits to finish interrupted
cies approved 4.3 million home loans totaling $33 billion. high school programs or received credit for General Edu-
About 20 percent of those loans were made possible by cational Development (GED) tests begun during the war.
the Veterans Administration. Some veterans combined
New Deal-era federal mortgage insurance with a VA loan Significance
to purchase houses worth as much as $10,000. The post- The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 proved to
war baby boom generation, including survivors of the be among the most successful pieces of economic and so-
Depression and World War II, saw VA-financed housing cial legislation in U.S. history, rivaling the Social Secu-
as a valuable commodity in the postwar United States. rity Act (1935), the National Labor Relations Act (1935),
Guarantees for loans to purchase farms and busi- the Fair Labor Standards Act (1938), the 1964 tax cut, the
nesses were among the more controversial of the G.I. Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Medicare and Medicaid
Bill’s programs. During the original debate, some argued health care programs (1965), and the Americans with
that small-scale farm ownership through a VA loan made Disabilities Act (1990). The complicated policy process
little sense in urban-industrial America. Others feared leading to the passage and implementation of the G.I.
that unscrupulous business owners would take advan- Bill brought together veterans, federal agencies, the
tage of veterans interested in going into business for president, Congress, veterans’ organizations, and private
377
Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
businesspeople to promote the principles of federal as- Mosch, Theodore R. The G.I. Bill: A Breakthrough in
sistance for military veterans and sustained economic Educational and Social Policy in the United States.
growth and prosperity. The bill led to a range of precedent- Hicksville, N.Y.: Exposition Press, 1975. Overview
setting programs in postwar America. More limited ver- of educational sections of G.I. bills of 1944, 1952, and
sions of the original G.I. Bill would assist veterans of 1966. Valuable tables. Mosch discusses state as well
later wars. The Employment Act of 1958 and the social as national programs and includes comparison of U.S.
welfare programs of the 1960’s built on the successful veterans’ benefits with those in other countries.
precedent of the G.I. Bill. Olson, Keith W. The G.I. Bill, the Veterans, and the
Over the long term, the G.I. Bill represented the emer- Colleges. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky,
gence of the postwar mixed economy of increased coop- 1974. The best study of educational aspects of the G.I.
eration between the public and private sectors. By 1956, Bill, with topical chapters including excellent sum-
the federal government had paid out $14.5 billion in G.I. maries of the origins of the G.I. Bill, a case study of
Bill educational benefits, including $5.5 billion in col- the University of Wisconsin, and a conclusion com-
lege loans. This investment in the nation’s human capital paring the World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam
was on the scale and of the same importance as the Mar- War-era G.I. bills.
shall Plan, which rebuilt Western European economies, Pencak, William. For God and Country: The American
and the 1964 tax cut, which helped spur economic Legion, 1919-1941. Boston: Northeastern University
growth. By 1955, the total cost of G.I. Bill programs was Press, 1989. The first scholarly history of the Ameri-
at least $20 billion. By 1968, total expenditures had can Legion in its formative years of the 1920’s and
reached $120 billion. In return, the U.S. economy ob- 1930’s. Chapter 7, “Veterans Benefits and Adjusted
tained the best-trained workforce in its history. Compensation,” gives background on the bonus for
—Patrick D. Reagan World War I veterans and how it affected the provi-
sions of the Legion’s omnibus bill, which in amended
Further Reading form became the G.I. Bill.
Ballard, Jack Stokes. The Shock of Peace: Military and Perrett, Geoffrey. Days of Sadness, Years of Triumph:
Economic Demobilization After World War II. Wash- The American People, 1939-1945. New York: Cow-
ington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1983. Su- ard, McCann & Geoghegan, 1973. Reprint. Madison:
perbly researched narration of U.S. demobilization University of Wisconsin Press, 1986. The most com-
efforts during and after World War II. Places the G.I. prehensive history of the American home front.
Bill in context with other readjustment measures. Written in a lively style, packed with information, and
Blum, John Morton. V Was for Victory: Politics and persuasive in showing the period as “the last great col-
American Culture During World War II. New York: lective social experience” in American history. One
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976. The most sophis- of the few histories to show the significance of the G.I.
ticated account of mobilization on the home front. Bill in both the short and long terms.
Discusses the G.I. Bill in the light of congressional Ross, Davis R. B. Preparing for Ulysses: Politics and
politics, weakening of New Deal reforms, and Roose- Veterans During World War II. New York: Columbia
velt’s 1944 “Economic Bill of Rights.” The epilogue University Press, 1969. The most comprehensive
gives a moving picture of returning veterans. analysis of veterans’ benefits, including mustering
Greenberg, Milton. The G.I. Bill: The Law That Changed out pay, the G.I. Bill, demobilization, reconversion,
America. Foreword by Bob Dole. New York: Lickle, and housing. Ross’s view of the complicated policy-
1997. Companion volume to a documentary aired on making process makes this work the single best ac-
public television; explains the broad effects of the count of the G.I. Bill. The concluding chapter is the
law—both intended and unintended—on the course best summary of the ways in which World War II vet-
of American history. Index. erans were treated better than those of other wars.
Mettler, Suzanne. Soldiers to Citizens: The G.I. Bill and Severo, Richard, and Lewis Milford. The Wages of War:
the Making of the Greatest Generation. New York: When America’s Soldiers Came Home—from Valley
Oxford University Press, 2005. Focuses on the role of Forge to Vietnam. New York: Simon & Schuster,
the G.I. Bill in shaping the economy, culture, and 1989. Severo, a reporter for The New York Times
identity of Americans in the decades following World nominated several times for the Pulitzer Prize, and
War II. Bibliographic references and index. Milford, a onetime lawyer for the National Veterans
378
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Bretton Woods Agreement Encourages Free Trade
Law Center in Washington, D.C., provide a compre- See also: Nov. 7, 1944: Franklin D. Roosevelt Wins a
hensive review of the postwar treatment of military Fourth Presidential Term; Dec. 28, 1945: War Brides
veterans over the sweep of U.S. history, helping to Act; May 7, 1947: Construction of Levittown Is An-
place the exceptional positive case of World War II nounced; Sept., 1950: First Home Owner’s Insurance
veterans in proper historical perspective. Policies Are Offered.
July 1-22, 1944

Bretton Woods Agreement Encourages Free Trade
The delegates of forty-four nations reached an time as they had in war. He expressed his confidence in
agreement at Bretton Woods as to the parameters of their ability to work out their differences. He indicated
the international postwar economy. The agreement further that the conference marked the beginning of a
provided the basis for the postwar fixed exchange-rate broad effort to bring about international cooperation with
system and the establishment of the International the aim of developing a sound, dynamic, expanding
Monetary Fund and the World Bank. world economy, with rising living standards for all in the
postwar period.
Also known as: United Nations Monetary and Fi- The conference ran from July 1 to July 22, 1944. The
nancial Conference immediate purpose of the conference was the develop-
Locale: Bretton Woods, New Hampshire ment of a stabilization fund and a vehicle to finance post-
Categories: Economics; diplomacy and war reconstruction. The agreements made were not bind-
international relations ing on any of the nations at the conference. They were
Key Figures instead to be referred to the participants’ various national
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the governments, which could either accept or reject them.
United States, 1933-1945 Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr.,
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), British economist headed the United States delegation and was elected
and delegate to the Bretton Woods conference president of the conference. Harry Dexter White acted as
his monetary adviser and developed the American pro-
1944
Henry Morgenthau, Jr. (1891-1967), American
diplomat and delegate to the Bretton Woods posals. The British team was headed by John Maynard
conference Keynes, an adviser to the British treasury who developed
Harry Dexter White (1892-1948), American adviser to a proposal that was far more visionary and radical than
Morgenthau and later U.S. executive director of the the American proposal.
International Monetary Fund, 1946-1947 The Bretton Woods conference produced the basis for
Herbert Hoover (1874-1964), president of the United the two major post-World War II international financial
States, 1929-1933 institutions, the International Monetary Fund and the In-
ternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
Summary of Event more commonly known as the World Bank. Both of these
In July of 1944, about seven hundred delegates, repre- institutions were formally established on December 27,
senting forty-four countries, met at the first United Na- 1945, when the representatives of thirty nations met in
tions Monetary and Financial Conference, held at the Washington, D.C., for a signing ceremony. By the end of
Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New 1946, their membership had reached thirty-five nations.
Hampshire. The purpose of the conference was to de- The function of the International Monetary Fund was
velop an agreement to deal with the organization of the to promote stability in the exchange rates of currencies
post-World War II international economy, specifically and to assist nations suffering from short-term balance of
the promotion of exchange rate stability and the restora- payments problems, or imbalances in their imports and
tion of international trade. exports or in their financial transactions with the rest of
In a message read in the conference’s keynote speech, the world. The function of the World Bank was to finance
President Franklin D. Roosevelt warned the delegates of postwar reconstruction and economic development in
the importance and necessity of cooperating in peace- less developed nations.
379
Bretton Woods Agreement Encourages Free Trade The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
The basic goals of the International Monetary Fund— justable foreign exchange parities. Essentially, it was a
the promotion of exchange rate stability and assistance compromise between the fixed exchange rates of the
with balance of payments deficits—were aimed at recti- nineteenth century gold standard and floating exchange
fying problems created by common practices that re- rates. The system was often characterized as an “adjust-
stricted trade during the 1930’s. Many nations during able peg.” Day-to-day fluctuations in the prices of cur-
that period used deficits in their balance of payments as a rencies, measured in terms of other currencies of gold,
rationale for restricting trade. The manipulation of cur- were to be limited to a band of 1 percent above or below
rency values was a common practice. the agreed-upon price, or par value.
The underlying purpose of both institutions was to Each nation was responsible for limiting the fluctua-
foster international cooperation in the restoration of in- tions of the value of its currency. The narrow band of
ternational trade and the development of a healthy world fluctuations around the par value was similar to that
economy. The level of cooperation of the Allied nations which prevailed under the nineteenth century gold stan-
during World War II was unprecedented, and the spirit of dard, with the important exception that the Bretton Woods
international cooperation prevailing at the end of World system specifically provided for periodic changes in ex-
War II was different from the economic nationalism and change rates. The Bretton Woods system was a compro-
political chaos that prevailed during the 1930’s. The les- mise in another important sense. It was an attempt to cap-
son had been learned: Extreme economic nationalism ture the automatic adjustment process under the gold
and political chaos in the prewar period were major standard while removing some of the harshness of this
causal factors in the war. process by allowing a discretionary change in exchange
Every large nation had been responsible for trade bar- rates in the face of a “fundamental disequilibrium” in a
riers in the 1930’s. Attempts to pursue a trade and tariff nation’s balance of payments.
policy that sought to take as much wealth from neighbor- The Bretton Woods system provided two basic mech-
ing nations as possible were widespread. It was com- anisms of adjustment: inflating (deflating) the domestic
monly believed that if a country could close off its do- economy for nations with surpluses (deficits) in their bal-
mestic market with prohibitive tariffs and import quotas ance of payments, or altering the par value of a nation’s
while maintaining export markets, it could “export” its currency. The latter course of action, changing a cur-
unemployment. This proved to be a naïve idea, as other rency par value, was only to be used when the nation suf-
nations retaliated in kind. Nations found that they could fered from a “fundamental disequilibrium” in its balance
reduce imports, but only at the cost of reducing exports. of payments. Deficits and surpluses continuing over
Trade restrictions in the forms of high tariffs, import some period of time were supposed to be equally unde-
quotas, export subsidies, bilateral trade arrangements, sirable. In practice, however, more pressure for adjust-
forced barter, competitive currency depreciations, and ment was placed on the deficit nations, the result of
blocked currencies had all been common at the time. Al- mercantilistic bias, which looked down upon net import-
though these practices were widespread among the ma- ers of goods.
jor industrial nations, the totalitarian governments went Essentially, adjustment under the Bretton Woods sys-
to the greatest lengths to restrict trade. On June 17, 1930, tem was a zero-sum game. Any devaluation was matched
when President Herbert Hoover signed the Smoot- by a revaluation. The existence of persistent surpluses
Hawley Tariff Act, he instituted the most restrictive tariff made it more difficult for deficit nations to adjust. Even
act ever signed into law by an American president. Eco- though nations’ tolerance for unemployment and infla-
nomic historians have concluded that the tariff act, which tion vary over time and from nation to nation, at any point
effectively closed off the United States market to the rest in time, it is probably more difficult from the perspective
of the world, was a major contributing factor in the global of domestic politics for a deficit nation to deflate its
Depression of the 1930’s. The Bretton Woods Agree- economy than it is for a surplus nation to inflate its econ-
ment was designed to prevent such policies from recur- omy. Deflating a nation’s economy usually means more
ring in the future. unemployment, slower growth, and reduced profits, each
The international economy of the immediate post- of which represents a political disaster for a modern de-
World War II period was governed by the Bretton Woods mocracy. Consequently, deflation of the domestic econ-
Agreement of 1944. The exchange-rate system envi- omy by nations with deficits in their balance of payments
sioned by this agreement, known as the Bretton Woods was rarely accomplished.
system, was an exchange-rate regime of stable but ad- The alternative mechanism of adjustment was a
380
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Bretton Woods Agreement Encourages Free Trade
change in the par value of the currency of a nation facing 1973. A growing number of economists attribute this
a “fundamental disequilibrium” in its balance of pay- slower growth to the increased volatility of exchange
ments. More pressure to adjust was placed, once again, rates that prevailed after the collapse of the Bretton
on the deficit nations. Consequently, this mechanism be- Woods system. The stable, fixed foreign exchange rates
came currency devaluations for those nations suffering of the Bretton Woods system acted to reduce both the
from persistent deficits in their balance of payments. risks and the costs of international trade and investment,
Many nations could not or would not embrace this policy encouraging more of these activities.
for either domestic or international political reasons. The — Daniel C. Falkowski
“adjustable peg” seemed to move only in one direction, if
it moved at all, and that direction was downward, with Further Reading
devaluations of currencies. Best, Jacqueline. The Limits of Transparency: Ambiguity
In practice, the compromise between fixed and ad- and the History of International Finance. Ithaca,
justable exchange rates did not work. There was a ten- N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2005. This analysis of
dency to delay adjustment. When the inevitable adjust- international finance revolves around the Bretton
ment came, it was large and disruptive. A fundamental Woods Agreements, which are the subject of three of
shortcoming of the Bretton Woods system was the fail- the study’s seven chapters. Bibliographic references
ure to provide for an orderly addition to international li- and index.
quidity—a central source for borrowing—needed to sup- Bilson, John F. O. “Macroeconomic Stability and Flexi-
port growth in world trade. ble Exchange Rates.” American Economic Review 75
The United States took on the role of supplying addi- (May, 1985): 62-67. Bilson reviews various macro-
tional liquidity to the world by running balance of pay- economic models constructed to explain the instabil-
ment deficits on a continuous basis. The U.S. dollar rap- ity in international financial markets.
idly became the world’s major vehicle for payment and Murphy, J. Carter. “Reflections on the Exchange Rate
reserve currency, or currency used to support the value of System.” American Economic Review 75 (May,
the domestic currency. Through these continuous bal- 1985): 68-73. Murphy examines whether an institu-
ance of payments deficits, U.S. dollars sent abroad to buy tional framework can eliminate the exportation of bad
goods and services and for investment purposes did not effects of monetary and fiscal policy to innocent na-
return. The rest of the world used additional U.S. dollar tions. He concludes that a regime of floating ex-
1944
holdings for monetary reserves and to supplement world change rates will not accomplish the task.
liquidity. Scammell, W. M. International Monetary Policy: Bret-
Deficits in the United States balance of payments be- ton Woods and After. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
came chronic and persistent, leading to a weakening of 1975. Well written and easy to understand. Examines
the U.S. dollar. Monetary crises followed, and confi- the development of the system, the changes in the en-
dence in the dollar waned. The ability of the U.S. Trea- vironment, and the role the International Monetary
sury to convert U.S. dollars into gold became question- Fund played up to 1973. Contains a good discussion
able as these balance of payments deficits grew, and of the merits and shortcomings of both the Bretton
eventually the Bretton Woods system collapsed. Woods system and the International Monetary Fund.
Solomon, Robert. The International Monetary System,
Significance 1945-1981. New York: Harper & Row, 1982. This
The Bretton Woods era encompassed not only the most book is excellent, well written, and easy to under-
rapid and widely distributed period of world economic stand. Solomon had a long career with the U.S. Fed-
growth in history but also a period of notable economic eral Reserve System and can offer an insider’s per-
stability, including price stability. Conventional wisdom spective.
among economists at one time seems to have been that Williamson, John. “On the System in Bretton Woods.”
the rules and strictures of the Bretton Woods system American Economic Review 75 (May, 1985): 74-79.
played little or no role in the impressive world economic Williamson examines the rules and strictures of the
growth of the period. Economists are beginning to ques- Bretton Woods system and concludes that fixed ex-
tion this conventional wisdom as they reexamine the change rates made a significant contribution to the
Bretton Woods era. The growth of both gross domestic stability and longevity of the post-World War II eco-
product and international trade slowed significantly after nomic boom.
381
Allied Forces Break German Front in France The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Yeager, Leland B. International Monetary Relations: Coal and Steel Community Is Established; Mar. 25,
Theory, History, and Policy. 2d ed. New York: Harper 1957: European Common Market Is Established; Jan.
& Row, 1976. Excellent for readers interested in in- 4, 1960: European Free Trade Association Is Estab-
ternational finance, containing a wealth of informa- lished; July 1, 1967: European Economic Community
tion. Adopts the Common Agricultural Policy; Aug. 8,
See also: Oct. 30, 1947: General Agreement on Tariffs 1967: Association of Southeast Asian Nations Is
and Trade Is Signed; Jan. 1, 1948: Benelux Customs Formed; Jan. 1, 1968: Johnson Restricts Direct For-
Union Enters into Force; Apr. 3, 1948: Marshall Plan eign Investment; Dec., 1969: Birth of the European
Provides Aid to Europe; Apr. 18, 1951: European Monetary Union Project.
July 25, 1944

Allied Forces Break German Front in France
After the D-day invasion at the Battle of Normandy in German military was its need to defend its air space from
the summer of 1944, the Allies forced the Germans continual Allied raids. These attacks almost wiped out
from France, gradually liberating first Paris and then the German air force in France, where the Allies enjoyed
all of France. The operation also led ultimately to the complete domination of the sky over the German ground
collapse of the German war machine. forces.
For nearly two months following the so-called D-day
Also known as: Operation Cobra; Battle of Falaise invasion in Normandy, the Allied forces and the German
Gap troops, commanded by Erwin Rommel, were fighting a
Locale: France largely static war. D-day objectives and those for the
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and days that followed went unrealized. The capture of Caen,
civil unrest; military history France, was planned for D day, but after numerous failed
Key Figures attempts by the Allies, the city remained in German
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), U.S. Army hands. Careful planning for a new massive operation oc-
general and supreme commander of Allied curred in the weeks following D day, leading up to the
Forces July 25, 1944, movements that would surround the Ger-
Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), British man forces and cause their surrender.
army general and commander of Allied ground Intentionally deceptive operations by the Allies be-
forces fore D day led the German commanders to spread their
Omar N. Bradley (1893-1981), U.S. Army general forces, albeit thinly, throughout the coastal areas of
who planned the operation France. German commanders thought the Allies would
Erwin Rommel (1891-1944), commander of German invade other points in western Europe, but they reacted
ground forces in France to their faulty intelligence by refusing to compromise
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), chancellor of Germany, any of their areas or forces. However, as the Germans
1933-1945 came to realize the magnitude of the Allied campaign to
retake France, they began slowly to reinforce their forces
Summary of Event in the area, creating just enough resistance to keep the
After securing the Normandy beachhead in France in front static. During this period, the German Luftwaffe, or
the weeks following the beginning of Operation Over- air force, was nearly nonexistent in France, because it
lord on June 6, 1944, Allied forces began to move to the was busy protecting Germany from incessant Allied air
interior of France to battle German forces and to liberate raids.
France. The Russians were moving against German German forces in France were forced to dig in and
forces from the east and the Allied forces from the west, camouflage during the day in order to elude the Allied air
which forced Germany to fight a two-front war. This forces, which had a free hand in the area, but the Allied
caused a division of troops and material and weakened troops were faced with a static front. (German offensive
the German defenses on both sides. Further straining the operations were minimal, because they were limited to
382
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Allied Forces Break German Front in France
nighttime actions.) German troops, however, could alter- ground forces, changed plans and sent Allied forces in
nate their fire on the Allied troops while moving during pursuit of the Germans.
the day from different positions. The area’s towns and Operation Dragoon, the invasion of southern France,
cities had been fortified by mine fields, barbed-wire en- commenced on August 15. This invasion, made by three
tanglements, and tank traps, which provided German U.S. divisions and one Free French division, was ex-
forces more of an advantage. The boscage, fields sur- tremely successful, as the Allies took 20 miles in the first
rounded by earthen mounds covered with hedgerows and twenty-four hours of the operation. The troops, along
permeated with sunken lanes, which surrounded Nor- with several other divisions and supply lines, eventually
mandy, proved to be another formidable obstacle to the made contact with the Allied forces that had invaded
Allied forces. The German forces found the boscage easy Normandy. Paris was surrendered by the Germans on
to hide in and to defend. August 25, even though German chancellor Adolf Hitler
Operation Cobra, planned by U.S. Army general had ordered it held to the last round and then destroyed.
Omar N. Bradley, was launched on July 25 against the The German troops were forced into an area known as
Germans near Normandy in an attempt to end this stale- the Falaise pocket, and were surrounded. Though some
mate. In order to cut off German supply lines, the opera- of the commanders, troops, and equipment eventually
tion included tactical air strikes against railroads and escaped to the east, some fifty thousand Germans were
roads to the rear of the German forces. Also, the nearly captured. In addition, nearly ten thousand Germans were
two months of static warfare had permitted the Allies to killed and many vehicles, including five hundred tanks,
land more troops and materials in the Normandy area. In were lost.
contrast, the Germans could not bring in nearly as many
reinforcements from areas to their rear. Significance
Prior to the battle, Operation Pluto laid seventy miles German losses in the invasion of France, including dur-
of underwater oil and fuel pipelines from Great Britain ing its withdrawal from France, exceeded 400,000
to France to supply the Allied forces. Pluto would ex- troops, 1,500 tanks, and thousands of weapons. The cam-
tend along with the advancement of the Allies, all the paign was one of the costliest defeats for the Germans
way to the Rhine, ensuring a constant fuel supply for the during the war. Germany was defeated so soundly be-
invasion force. Other operations, such as the British Op- cause, first, it failed to reinforce and supply its own
eration Goodwood, weakened Ger-
1944
man defenses just before the launch
of Operation Cobra. On the morn-
ing of July 25, the Royal Air Force
began dropping nearly thirty-four
hundred tons of high explosives on
German positions. Devastated by the
bombardment, the Germans lost four
thousand yards on the front that day.
The following day, the Allies gained
another eight thousand yards as the
German front crumbled.
By July 27, three full Allied divi-
sions were committed to the opera-
tion, and by the next day the Ger-
mans had been pushed back 12 miles.
Many key objectives were accom-
plished by this time, and the general
direction of the war had taken on a
mechanized and faster pace. Because
the Germans were now running east,
British general Bernard Law Mont-
gomery, commander of the Allied An American soldier guards captured Germans, c. 1944. (National Archives)
383
Allied Forces Break German Front in France The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
forces. Also, it was fighting a war on two fronts. The Ger- British army and commander of the Allied ground
mans had nowhere to retreat but west, to the wall of Ger- forces during the European campaign.
many, but the fortifications there had been stripped ear- Hastings, Max. Warriors: Portraits from the Battlefield.
lier of their heavy guns. New York: Knopf, 2006. An extensive account of the
Allied forces, meanwhile, had to stop their advances German invasion from British historian Max Has-
as well by the end of August because they had overrun tings, focusing on individuals involved in the war.
their supply lines. The end of August, however, found Stewart, Richard W., ed. The United States Army in a
the German forces out of France, badly wounded, and on Global Era: 1917-2003. Vol. 2 in American Military
the run. Most of the German high command favored ne- History. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military His-
gotiations with the Allied forces and some sort of surren- tory, U.S. Army, 2005. Originally written and pub-
der once they had witnessed Allied power during the lished in 1956 as a textbook for Army officers in train-
campaign for France. Hitler, however, steadfastly maining, this updated work provides a detailed history of
tained his stubborn “to the last man and the last bullet” the role of the Army in times of international strife. In-
ideology, which led to the total collapse of Germany. cludes many illustrations, maps, and photographs.
—Glenn S. Hamilton Available at http://www.army.mil/cmh/. Click on
Further Reading
Zaloga, Steven J. Operation Cobra, 1944: Breakout
Carafano, James Jay. After D-day: Operation Cobra and
from Normandy. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004.
the Normandy Breakout. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne
Part of the Praeger Illustrated Military History series,
Rienner, 2000. Provides a detailed history of Opera-
this work examines Operation Cobra in all its details.
tion Cobra, with chapters that treat in depth the plan-
Includes maps and other illustrations.
ning stages, the operation itself, and its aftermath.
Carell, Paul. Invasion: They’re Coming! New York: See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
E. P. Dutton, 1963. Written by a German soldier, this European Theater; 1941-Aug. 25, 1944: French Re-
work is a great read that offers the German perspec- sistance; July 9-Aug. 17, 1943: Allied Forces Invade
tive on the invasion of France. Richly illustrated with Sicily; Sept. 3-18, 1943: Western Allies Invade Italy;
drawings and photographs. June 6, 1944: Invasion of Normandy Begins the Lib-
Hamilton, Nigel. “Montgomery, Bernard Law.” In Ox- eration of Europe; Aug. 15, 1944: Operation Dra-
ford Dictionary of National Biography, edited by goon; Sept. 12, 1944: Allied Forces Begin the Battle
H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison. New York: Ox- for Germany; Dec. 16, 1944-Jan., 1945: Battle of the
ford University Press, 2004. A compelling account of Bulge; May 8, 1945: V-E Day Marks the End of
the life of Bernard Law Montgomery, general of the World War II in Europe.
384
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Operation Dragoon
August 15, 1944

Operation Dragoon
Operation Dragoon was an Allied invasion of southern the operation diverted resources from the Italian Cam-
France that led to the drive up the Rhone River Valley. paign and Allied advances in the Mediterranean, as well
Originally intended to support the D day invasion and as the eventual Allied drive into Austria and Hungary.
Operation Overlord, Dragoon was carried out more Because the United States would provide the bulk of the
than two months later because of a lack of supplies troops and material for the landing and operation, how-
and equipment. Within days, the Allies secured more ever, the U.S. military prevailed and planning for Dra-
than 40 miles of coastline and captured the vital goon proceeded.
French ports of Toulon and Marseille, providing The foundation of the operation would be the United
critical support to the Normandy-based Allied forces States VI Corps under the command of Major General
moving to the German border. Lucian K. Truscott, Jr. A lack of landing craft led to the
postponement of the operation until mid-August, far too
Also known as: Operation Anvil; Operation Anvil- late to divert enemy forces for Operation Overlord,
Dragoon; Champagne Campaign which began in early June. General Alexander Patch,
Locale: southern France commander of Seventh Army, had three primary objec-
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil tives for the operation: establish a suitable beachhead,
unrest; military history capture the ports of Toulon and Marseille, and drive
Key Figures north up the Rhone River Valley to join Eisenhower’s
Lucian K. Truscott, Jr. (1895-1965), U.S. major forces. Beginning in July, preparations for the operation
general and commander of VI Corps intensified. Troops and material were gathered for the
Jean de Lattre de Tassigny (1889-1952), French operation. The massive D day convoys comprised 885
commander of the French First Army ships and landing craft, 1,375 smaller landing craft, some
Johannes Blaskowitz (1883-1948), German 150,000 troops, and 21,400 trucks, tanks, and other as-
commander of Army Group G sorted vehicles. The convoy was to rendezvous off the
Alexander Patch (1889-1945), U.S. commander of the coast of Corsica during the night of August 14-15. Allied
Seventh Army during the invasion of southern air strikes against southern France began on August 5,
1944
France and targets all along the coast were attacked to prevent
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), supreme the Germans from locating the landing site.
commander of Allied Forces in Europe, 1943-1945, After rejecting a direct assault on the major ports be-
and president of the United States, 1953-1961 cause of their heavy fortifications, the landings in south-
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), British prime minister, ern France began at about 8:00 a.m. on August 15.
1940-1945, 1951-1955 Truscott’s men went ashore at Saint-Tropez, some thirty
miles east of Toulon. Gunfire from Allied ships sup-
Summary of Event ported the landing while seven escort carriers provided
U.S. military command had long argued that the Allied Allied air cover. The troops advanced swiftly against
invasion of Normandy be supported by a second opera- weak opposition from the German Nineteenth Army
tion, launched simultaneously and carried out in south- and Army Group G. Overestimating the resistance near
ern France. General Dwight D. Eisenhower and his sub- the landing zones, the rapid advance of Allied forces
ordinates contended that such an operation would divert created shortages of vehicle fuel and proved to be a
German troops from defending against the Allied inva- greater obstruction to the advance than was the Ger-
sion at Normandy and allow the capture of the ports of man resistance.
Toulon and Marseille. The Allied invasion came as no surprise to the Ger-
Operation Dragoon developed as Operation Anvil, mans. Luftwaffe reconnaissance planes watched as the
the supporting offensive to Operation Overlord and the Allied buildup developed. Unable to determine where
Allied invasion at Normandy. It is believed that British the Allies would land, General Johannes Blaskowitz,
prime minister Winston Churchill chose the name “Dra- commander of Army Group G, was forced to spread his
goon” because he had opposed the plan and had claimed troops thin. He ordered his subordinates to prepare for
to have been “dragooned” into it. Churchill argued that the coming assault, so the areas around Marseille and
385
Operation Dragoon The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Toulon were heavily fortified. At Adolf Hitler’s order, thousands as prisoners of war. Allied casualties included
these vital ports were to be defended at all costs. 4,500 Americans and a slightly higher French loss.
The French First Army under General Jean de Lattre —Jason T. Harris
de Tassigny landed soon after the U.S. forces. The rapid
deployment of the French troops allowed Lattre to move Further Reading
against Toulon and Marseille without delay. German re- Breuer, William B. Operation Dragoon: The Allied In-
sistance at Toulon ended on August 28, with the French vasion of the South of France. Novato, Calif.: Pre-
claiming seventeen thousand prisoners of war. That sidio Press, 1987. This work focuses on Operation
same day, eleven thousand German troops surrendered at Dragoon and its strategies in moving through south-
Marseille. Marseille and Toulon, though badly damaged, ern France.
were now in Allied hands, and the two cities began han- Clark, Jeffery J., and Robert R. Smith. Riviera to the
dling supplies and equipment. More than one-third of all Rhine. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History,
Allied tonnage that arrived in Europe in 1944 would pass U.S. Army, 1993. An Army account of the operation
through these two critical ports. based on German and French records as well as Army
The German high command began to reevaluate its archives. Includes maps, bibliography, and notes.
position along the western front. With many of their divi- From the series United States Army in World War II:
sions in danger of extermination, German leaders finally The European Theater of Operations.
choose to withdraw from France. A general order was Gaujac, Paul. Dragoon: The Other Invasion of France,
given for all forces to move east. German forces with- August 15, 1944. Paris: Histoire & Collections, 2004.
drew along the Rhone River Valley as Allied troops fol- Provides unit-by-unit information on the often-for-
lowed close behind. Lack of fuel for the Allied vehicles gotten operation in southern France. Packed with il-
proved problematic, as many of the withdrawing Ger- lustrations and photographs.
man forces were able to escape. Allied troops progressed Kennedy, David M. Freedom From Fear: The American
so rapidly that they made contact with elements of Gen- People in Depression and War, 1929-1945. New
eral George S. Patton’s U.S. Third Army moving east York: Oxford University Press, 1999. A narrative his-
from Normandy on September 11. tory of the United States in World War II, beginning
with its role in the conflict through Allied victory.
Significance Biographical essays, maps, extensive index.
Few World War II operations have received more criti- Lattre de Tassigny, Jean de. History of the French First
cism than Operation Dragoon. The British maintained Army. Translated by Malcolm Barnes. London: Allen
that it was unnecessary and that it removed troops from & Unwin, 1952. An account of the Allied invasion
the Italian Campaign. Furthermore, the Allied campaign from the perspective of the French leader. Includes
in southern France is often overlooked in the history maps.
books, mostly because it followed Operation Overlord Lyons, Michael J. World War II: A Short History. 4th ed.
by more than two months and because it was carried out Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2004. Pro-
before the more famous Battle of the Bulge. However, vides a brief but thorough history of World War II. In-
Dragoon was a success. It led to the German surrender of cludes an extensive further reading section.
the vital ports of Toulon and Marseille, and it was fol- Maddox, Robert J. The United States and World War II.
lowed by the Allied drive up the Rhone River Valley. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992. A one-volume
The railways in southern France were liberated and re- history of the causes, conduct, and consequences of
stored, which allowed for supplies to reach the Allied ar- World War II, including the impact of the war on U.S.
mies in Europe. Railways were the primary means of society. Bibliography.
supply until the capture of Antwerp in Belgium and the Stewart, Richard W., ed. The United States Army in a
arrival of the first supply ships there in late November, Global Era: 1917-2003. Vol. 2 in American Military
1944. Also, the Allied success provided General Eisen- History. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military His-
hower with a strong force on his southern flank, which tory, U.S. Army, 2005. Originally written and pub-
prevented the buildup of a hostile German front. This al- lished in 1956 as a textbook for Army officers in train-
lowed him to push his troops east rapidly. ing, this updated work provides a detailed history of
In all, Blaskowitz may have lost more than 125,000 the Army’s role in times of international strife. In-
German troops during the Allied offensive, including cludes many illustrations, maps, and photographs.
386
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Borlaug Begins Work on High-Yield Wheat
Available at http://www.army.mil/cmh/. Click on 1944. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press,

image-link for the book. For a history of the cam- 1981. Analyzes the 1944 Allied invasion of southern
paigns in southern France specifically, see http://www France and its impact.
.army.mil/cmh-pg/brochures/sfrance/sfrance.htm. See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
Truscott, Lucian K., Jr. Command and Missions: A Per- European Theater; May 20-June 1, 1941: Germany
sonal Story. 1954. New ed. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Invades Crete; Dec. 11, 1941: Germany and Italy De-
Press, 1990. A personal account of the operation by its clare War on the United States; July 9-Aug. 17, 1943:
commanding officer. Allied Forces Invade Sicily; Sept. 3-18, 1943: West-
Weigley, Russell F. Eisenhower’s Lieutenants: The Cam- ern Allies Invade Italy; June 6, 1944: Invasion of Nor-
paign of France and Germany, 1944-1945. Bloom- mandy Begins the Liberation of Europe; July 25,
ington: Indiana University Press, 1981. Explores the 1944: Allied Forces Break German Front in France;
French and German campaigns of the war and the Sept. 12, 1944: Allied Forces Begin the Battle for
generals that led them. Germany; Dec. 16, 1944-Jan., 1945: Battle of the
Wilt, Alan F. The French Riviera Campaign of August, Bulge.
September, 1944
Borlaug Begins Work on High-Yield Wheat
Norman Borlaug developed the first high-yield wheat had adopted policies of giving land to farmers and coop-
crops, which increased food production dramatically. eratives and of improving traditional farming practices.
Borlaug’s work changed the structure of agriculture Avila Camacho, on the other hand, was interested in agri-
worldwide by the 1960’s and helped alleviate hunger culture that would aid industrial growth in the cities.
in impoverished nations. This entailed abandoning traditional methods in favor of
capital-intensive technologies. Improved seeds were the
Locale: Mexico key to this effort.
Categories: Agriculture; science and technology The land redistribution of the previous administration
and the nationalization of certain sectors of industry, in-
1944
Key Figures
Norman Borlaug (b. 1914), American plant pathologist cluding an oil subsidiary owned by the Rockefeller fam-
Manuel Avila Camacho (1897-1955), president of ily, had so alarmed Washington that U.S. investment in
Mexico, 1940-1946 Mexico had dropped 40 percent. The U.S. government,
Jacob George Harrar (1906-1982), American plant however, supported Avila Camacho. When he asked the
pathologist United States for help in developing a comprehensive
agricultural plan, President Franklin D. Roosevelt, then
Summary of Event preoccupied with preparations for entering World War II,
In September, 1944, Norman Borlaug, a young plant pa- sought help from the Rockefeller Foundation. The foun-
thologist from Iowa, arrived in Mexico City to join a dation chose Harrar, previously the head of plant pathol-
team of American agricultural scientists invited by the ogy at Washington State University, to write up a report,
Mexican government to improve crop yields there. Jacob on the basis of which a joint agricultural program was es-
George Harrar, who headed the team, initially assigned tablished by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexi-
Borlaug to work on corn, but when Harrar’s administra- can Ministry of Agriculture.
tive duties increased, he assigned Borlaug the research Borlaug was a plant pathologist heading a Du Pont
on wheat as well. It was through the work on wheat that biochemical lab when he was drafted for the program.
Borlaug revolutionized agriculture in Mexico and even- When he arrived in Mexico, Borlaug was shocked at the
tually throughout much of the developing world. poverty and hunger he observed. Although it planted ten
The invitation issued to the American scientists signi- million acres with corn and one million acres with wheat,
fied a change in the agricultural policy of the Mexican Mexico imported 100 million pesos (30 million dollars)
government. Manuel Avila Camacho had just been worth of wheat alone every year. Borlaug was convinced
elected to the presidency. The previous administration that higher-yield crops were the answer.
387
Borlaug Begins Work on High-Yield Wheat The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
One of the chief obstacles he faced was rust, a disease protein in the edible portion of the plant. When Borlaug
prevalent in the Mexican wheat fields. To increase heard of this discovery, he turned his attention to increas-
yields, Borlaug had to breed resistant seeds. He worked ing the protein content of other grains. This led him to
in experimental plots at Chapingo, near Mexico City, persuade a Canadian, Frank Zillinsky, to work for him on
cross-pollinating plants with the best yields with those triticale, a cross between wheat and rye that had the po-
with the best disease resistance, a painstaking procedure tential to be a good high-protein crop if it could be bred to
that had to be performed by hand. Initially, he worked be fertile. Zillinsky achieved that goal in 1967.
with Mexican and U.S. wheat varieties, but within two Borlaug recruited a corps of students from Mexican
years, as his work became known, thirty-eight varieties agricultural colleges to help him with his work. These
from around the world were available to him. young people were better able to communicate with local
Impatient with the time necessary for each test batch farmers than was Borlaug, and they were of tremendous
to mature, Borlaug went against conventional practice assistance in the rapid spread of the new hybrids and the
to set up a second test site in Puebla. He carried his just- farming techniques that went with them.
harvested crop from the lowland location to the highland By 1953, as a direct result of Borlaug’s work, Mexico
to grow two generations of wheat each year. Because of had doubled its wheat production. By 1956, it stopped
the differences in environment and length of day be- importing grain. The costs of production (machinery,
tween his two sites, the seeds became highly adaptable to tools, fuel, and fertilizer) had doubled in six years, but
a wide range of growing conditions. yields had tripled and Mexicans were eating 40 percent
Borlaug’s methods met some resistance from his own more food on average. By 1963, 95 percent of Mexico’s
U.S. team and even more from the Mexican farmers he wheat crop was in Borlaug’s semidwarf varieties.
was trying to influence, particularly on the issue of fertil- Hunger still had not been eradicated in Mexico. In
izer. Unless large doses of fertilizer were used, the new part this was a result of the social changes brought about
seeds performed less well than the old, and Mexican by the new seeds. Smaller farmers given subsidized in-
farmers were not accustomed to using fertilizer. The hy- puts initially were more responsive to Borlaug’s ideas.
brids also needed a constant water supply, making irriga- When large landowners saw what his seeds could do,
tion necessary on an unprecedented scale. In addition, for however, they were converted, and they were in a better
high yields to be achieved, the traditional small fields position to buy the necessary fertilizer, pesticides, water,
containing a mix of many different food crops had to be machinery, and fuel. Specialized knowledge necessary
replaced with dense stands of the high-yield variety. Ma- to understand the new techniques and equipment was
chinery became necessary for plowing and harvesting, more available to the better-educated and wealthy Mexi-
and the majority of farmers were unable to afford these can landowners.
innovations. Initially, Borlaug’s program was authorized Small farmers could not keep up. As they lost their
to dispense subsidized seed and fertilizer, thus overcom- land, large landholders bought it. Their holdings in-
ing some of the resistance to the techniques he espoused. creased rapidly during this period. By 1978, the average
Within two years, Borlaug had bred crops with im- size of a farm in Hermosillo, where the “miracle” seeds
proved yields and had persuaded a number of Mexican had taken hold, was two thousand irrigated acres. The
farmers to try them, but neither task was complete. One landless farmers fled to the cities or became laborers for
stumbling block was that when fertilizer doses were in- hire in the countryside, in either case with little cash
creased, the stems of most wheats grew so tall that they available for food. Therefore, although Mexicans ate 40
broke easily. This problem was solved in 1953, when percent more food on average, the Mexicans who needed
Borlaug was sent a hybrid bred from a Japanese variety food most did not always get it.
with a short stem, or straw. This dwarf plant could direct Another reason that hunger continued was that Bor-
all its energy into increased grain production. The dis- laug had only secondarily turned his attention to the con-
covery of the Japanese wheat was a breakthrough. Bor- tent of the yield he had set himself to increase. Protein in
laug’s work on the problem of rust, however, was on- the new crops often failed to match that in the old crops.
going, because new strains of the disease broke out Furthermore, Mexicans historically ate corn rather than
continually. wheat. This corn had been eaten in conjunction with
In 1964, scientists at Purdue University discovered a beans, which were planted in the same fields, and to-
mutation in corn that had double the normal amount of gether provided an exceptionally balanced protein. The
lysine. Lysine was the key to increasing the amount of new wheat monoculture replaced these mixed patches,
388
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Borlaug Begins Work on High-Yield Wheat
with the result that the diet of the average Mexican be- tion. In 1970, Borlaug received the Nobel Peace Prize in
came less nutritious. recognition of his life’s work.
Mexican farmers soon discovered that the new farm- — Maya Muir
ing methods could be applied to nonfood crops such as
cotton, feedgrain for livestock, and wine grapes. Some Further Reading
land that had been used to produce food for Mexicans Bickel, Lennard. Facing Starvation: Norman Borlaug
was no longer used for that purpose, and a 25 percent and the Fight Against Hunger. New York: Reader’s
drop in food production occurred between 1968 and Digest Press, 1974. An uncritical study of Borlaug,
1978. The Mexican government responded by increas- about whom surprisingly little has been written.
ing price guarantees by 112 percent between 1970 and Brown, Lester. Seeds of Change: The Green Revolution
1975 to try to keep growers producing food staples, but and Development in the 1970’s. New York: Praeger,
even then the acreage of land used for those products de- 1970. A readable introduction to the Green Revolu-
clined. tion from the former head of the U.S. Department of
The hybrids continued to be vulnerable to pests and Agriculture’s International Development Unit, who
diseases. Borlaug and his teams of Mexican scientists helped develop the policies that fostered the Green
bred their new seeds with local, disease-resistant speci- Revolution.
mens, but the diseases and pests continued to breed and Chandrasekhar, S. Norman Borlaug’s Green Revolution
change, and when they struck, they devastated entire and India’s Population Problem. La Jolla, Calif.:
crops of the genetically identical seeds. As a result of this Population Review Books, 1997. Text of a lecture de-
combination of factors, as well as of continued popula- livered in San Diego in 1996 on the effects of Bor-
tion growth, Mexico again became an importer of food laug’s work upon the population of India and the
staples. Between 1973 and 1976, early childhood death ongoing global effects of his Green Revolution. Bib-
from malnutrition rose 10 percent. liographic references.
Significance Doyle, Jack. “Green Revolution II.” In Altered Harvest:
Despite these drawbacks, Borlaug’s work was consid- Agriculture, Genetics, and the Fate of the World’s
ered so successful that in 1959 Harrar and other scientists Food Supply. New York: Penguin Books, 1985. A
established an institute in the Philippines where work book of broad scope that examines the promise,
would be modeled on Borlaug’s work in Mexico. The prices, and risks in the genetic altering of plants and
1944
goal was to develop a high-yield variety of rice, the staple animals.
food in Asia. The International Rice Research Institute, George, Susan. “The Green Revolution.” In How the
as it came to be known, was also funded by the Rocke- Other Half Dies: The Real Reasons for World Hunger.
fellers as well as by the Ford Foundation. Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1977. Scath-
In 1960, Borlaug attended a meeting in Rome on the ingly critical of the Green Revolution. Scholarly and
status of wheat and barley hybrids in the Middle East, the well documented. Hard to find.
Far East, and India. Afterward, he traveled through those Lappé, Frances Moore, and Joseph Collins. “Modern-
regions. As a result, Borlaug proposed creating teams of izing Hunger.” In Food First: Beyond the Myth of
young local agriculturalists as he had in Mexico, and Scarcity. New York: Ballantine, 1977. A best seller
the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and an influential book, it argues that an equitable dis-
(FAO) adopted his idea as part of its international wheat tribution of land and resources is more important for
program. Rockefeller funding was obtained to execute the eradication of hunger than are high-yield crops.
the plan. Written in a lively question-and-answer format.
By 1971, in addition to the Rice Institute in the Philip-
pines, organizations modeled on Borlaug’s work in Mex- See also: Nov. 7, 1952: Rockefeller Founds the Popu-
ico had been founded in Colombia, Nigeria, Peru, India, lation Council; Feb., 1962: United Nations World
Liberia, and Lebanon. The accomplishments of these or- Food Programme Is Established; 1964: Green Revo-
ganizations are known collectively as the Green Revolu- lution; 1968-1973: Drought Extends the Reach of the
tion, in which traditional agricultural ecosystems around Sahara Desert; Dec. 13, 1968: Hardin Argues for Pop-
the world were replaced by ones modeled on U.S. indus- ulation Control; Dec. 10, 1970: Borlaug Receives the
trial agriculture, accompanied by vast social reorganiza- Nobel Prize for His Work on World Hunger.
389
Allied Forces Begin the Battle for Germany The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
September 12, 1944

Allied Forces Begin the Battle for Germany
Three months after the Allied forces stormed the lessly tracked down and executed all who dared to plot
beaches of Normandy and drove the Germans from his demise.
France and Belgium, the Allies began their invasion The Allied troops, encouraged by their victories in
of Germany, forcing its surrender in the spring of France and building strength, were rapidly advancing.
1945 to mark the final phase of World War II in Allied supply lines were at first slow to catch up, but they
Europe. finally reached the borders of Germany early in Septem-
ber, 1944. The troops were once again ready to move. Af-
Also known as: Rhineland Campaign ter chasing the Germans out of France by the end of
Locale: Netherlands; Belgium; Germany August, the first Allied troops entered Germany on Sep-
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil tember 11 to mark the early days of what is known as the
unrest; military history Battle of Hürtgen Forest (September 19, 1944-February
Key Figures 10, 1945), the first battle of the larger battle for Germany.
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), supreme The larger battle for Germany comprised a number of
commander of Allied Forces specific Allied operations that included not only battles
Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), commander of but also the liberation of concentration and death camps
British ground forces and cities and towns. In addition to the critical battles in
George S. Patton (1885-1945), U.S. commander of the the Hürtgen Forest, the operations included Operation
Third Armored Division Market Garden (September 17-25); the Battle of Aachen
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), chancellor of Germany, (October 1-22); the Battle of the Bulge (December 16,
1933-1945 1944-January 25, 1945); the liberation of Auschwitz
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; (January, 1945); Operation Plunder, or the Crossing of the
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central Rhine (March 23); Operation Varsity (March 24); and
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet the taking of Berlin (April 21). Aachen was the first ma-
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 jor German city to be attacked by the Allied forces. Most
of the civilian population, numbering about 160,000, had
Summary of Event been evacuated, with only 20,000 or so remaining in the
After being driven from France by Allied forces in the city. Urban warfare slowed the battle considerably, but at
previous few months, the German military took up de- great cost to both sides. German and Allied casualties to-
fensive positions along the nearly 400-mile-long Sieg- taled nearly 10,000, and the Allies took almost 5,700
fried line along the western German border from Swit- Germans prisoner following the battle.
zerland to the northern Netherlands. Although the line General George S. Patton, the U.S. commander of
was heavily defended and fortified, the German troops the Third Armored Division, played a key role in the in-
lacked the big guns that had once defended the line. The vasion of Germany. He moved his armored division
heavy weaponry had earlier been moved to the French through countless German defensive positions. Patton’s
coast and Russian fronts when Germany’s conquests ex- troops would take more than one million prisoners, more
panded. Mine fields, tank traps, barbed-wire entangle- than any other division, during the invasion of Germany.
ments, towers, and bunkers dotted the western front, and, During the Palatinate Campaign (March 14-24, 1945),
once again, Adolf Hitler had ordered it held at all costs. Patton’s troops took more than ninety thousand German
Although some of the German troops along the line troops as prisoners of war and claimed nearly 6,500
were by this time battle-hardened, the reinforcements square miles that contained thousands of towns and vil-
consisted mainly of older men or the very young, and lages.
morale was poor following the constant defeats on both Political considerations between the Russians and the
the Western and Eastern fronts. Many in the German mil- Allied forces played a large role in deciding the logistics
itary felt that the only option was surrender. Opposition of the final invasion of Germany in the spring of 1945.
to Hitler’s determined stance was so intense that some While at the Yalta Conference (February, 1945), the ma-
members of his inner circle attempted to murder him. Ev- jor parties had already decided the fate of postwar Ger-
ery plot to assassinate him failed, but Hitler still ruth- many: It would be divided into occupation zones. What
390
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Allied Forces Begin the Battle for Germany
Soviet soldiers raise the flag of their nation over the ruins of the Reichstag in Berlin in April, 1945. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
1944
was not discussed at the conference was the question of were physically closer to Berlin than were the Allied
which nation would do what during the invasion itself. forces, and they had fought most of their war with Berlin
Still debated is the decision made by General Dwight D. as their main objective. Finally, Eisenhower knew that
Eisenhower on whether or not to take Berlin. While at the Russian leader, Joseph Stalin, was suspicious of the
different times during the invasion various Allied com- Allied commanders because the invasion of western Eu-
manders communicated to Eisenhower that their troops rope had been delayed, so he wanted to generate as much
could easily take Berlin, he always held them back. Ei- good will as possible before the end of the war.
senhower eventually decided to allow the Russian forces The final push to take Berlin, and subdue Germany,
to conquer the city, and he sent U.S. troops to the south- began on April 15 from the Oder River on the Eastern
east to mop up German forces there. front. Russian general Vasily Chuikov ordered generals
It was believed that the Germans were planning a last Georgy Zhukov and Ivan Konev to lead separate armies
stand—called a national redoubt or an alpine fortress— during this final offensive, encouraging a race for Berlin.
in an alpine region of south Germany, Austria, or north- Zhukov’s forces reached Berlin on April 21 and began
ern Italy. The redoubt was supposed to occur, more a siege to force the German surrender. The German
specifically, in the area of Berchtesgaden, to which Ei- defenders in Berlin consisted of mainly elderly men
senhower sent U.S. troops. Eisenhower’s decision was and youth who had been quickly taught how to use a
likely based on several factors. First, the Russians had Panzerfaust, a hand-fired German antitank weapon. Hit-
suffered horribly at the hands of the German forces dur- ler once again ordered fighting at all costs, and he hoped
ing the German invasion of Russia. Second, the Russians for a disagreement between the Allies and the Rus-
391
Allied Forces Begin the Battle for Germany The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
sians, which would leave Germany

intact. On April 30, after marrying
Eva Braun, Hitler and Braun com-
mitted suicide in their Berlin bunker
beneath the Reich Chancellery. Be-
fore the official German surrender,
125,000 Berliners would die, and
more than eight million German ref-
ugees would fill the city. The Ger-
man forces in Berlin officially sur-
rendered the city to the Russians on
May 2, and Germany officially sur-
rendered to the Allies on May 7. Hos-
tilities between nations had come to
an end, at least in the European the-
ater of World War II.
Significance
The invasion of Germany during
World War II involved the concerted
Allied troops advance across the Siegfried line into Germany. (National Archives)
efforts of Allied forces, namely Rus-
sia, Britain, the United States, Can-
ada, and France; many other nations
joined the Allies as well. These forces, especially the Rus- ______. Warriors: Portraits from the Battlefield. New
sian, French, and British, had directly experienced the York: Knopf, 2006. An extensive account of the Ger-
ruthlessness of Hitler’s army. While many of Hitler’s ad- man invasion from British historian Hastings that fo-
visers and even troops in the field felt that an honorable cuses on some of the individuals involved in the war.
surrender should have occurred long before Germany was Stewart, Richard W., ed. The United States Army in a
invaded, it was Hitler’s “last-man last-bullet” philosophy Global Era: 1917-2003. Vol. 2 in American Military
of war that led to the invasion of Germany. World War II History. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military His-
and its consequences proved to many that total defeat tory, U.S. Army, 2005. Originally written and pub-
was the only way to conclude this “war to end all wars.” lished in 1956 as a textbook for Army officers in train-
—Glenn S. Hamilton ing, this updated work provides a detailed history of
the Army’s role in times of international strife. In-
Further Reading
cludes many illustrations, maps, and photographs.
Astor, Gerald. “The Battle of Hürtgen Forest.” World
Available at http://www.army.mil/cmh/. Click on
War II, November, 2004. A critical account of Allied
operations during this first battle that led to the defeat
Wilmot, Chester. The Struggle for Europe. London:
of Nazi Germany. Available at http://www.history
Wordsworth, 1997. A well-written account of the ma-
net.com/magazines/world_war_2. To access article,
jor actions in Europe following the June, 1944, D day
click on “View all World War II magazine articles”
invasion.
link.
Dear, Ian C. B. The Oxford Companion to World War II. See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
New ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. A European Theater; Dec. 11, 1941: Germany and Italy
thorough encyclopedic work with more than seven- Declare War on the United States; June 6, 1944: Inva-
teen hundred alphabetized entries on all aspects of sion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe;
World War II. July 25, 1944: Allied Forces Break German Front
Hastings, Max. Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, in France; Aug. 15, 1944: Operation Dragoon; Dec.
1944-1945. New York: Vintage Books, 2005. An in- 16, 1944-Jan., 1945: Battle of the Bulge; May 8,
depth account of the battle for Germany during the fi- 1945: V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in Eu-
nal year of World War II. Richly illustrated. rope; July 17-Aug. 2, 1945: Potsdam Conference.
392
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks
October 20, 1944

Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks
Faced with dwindling military resources and an mately two dozen naval pilots, stationed on the Philip-
overwhelming Allied advantage in manpower and pine island of Cebu, volunteered on October 20, 1944, to
material, Japan turned to suicide tactics—principally be part of bnishi’s newly named shinpn tokubetsu kfgeki
kamikaze planes—in an attempt to regain momentum tai, or “divine wind special attack unit.” This was the
in World War II. Kamikazes did not reverse Japan’s term that was to be applied to air corps tokkftai.
fortunes in the war, but suicide missions were Many Japanese characters have two different pronun-
demonstrated to be an effective weapon against a ciations, the On-reading and the Kun-reading. The latter
superior foe. is used most often for stand-alone words, while the for-
mer is more frequently used when the character is com-
Also known as: Shinpn tokubetsu kfgeki tai; tokkftai bined with other characters to form a compound word.
Locale: Philippines; Japan “Kamikaze” is the Kun-reading of the character whose
Categories: Military history; World War II; wars, On-reading is “shinpn.” It is the Japanese word for “di-
uprisings, and civil unrest vine wind” and referred initially to a typhoon that de-
Key Figures stroyed a planned Mongol invasion of Japan in 1281. The
Masafumi Arima (1895-1944), Japanese rear admiral word “kamikaze” was incorporated into other languages,
Chester W. Nimitz (1885-1966), U.S. commander in in which it came to refer to all of Japan’s World War II
chief of the Pacific Fleet, 1941-1945 suicide attacks, whether airborne or not. The Japanese
Takijirf bnishi (1891-1945), Japanese vice admiral themselves prefer tokkftai.
Matome Ugaki (1890-1945), Japanese vice admiral Vice Admiral bnishi launched the first organized ka-
mikaze attack on October 25, 1944, in support of the Jap-
Summary of Event anese naval offensive during the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
In mid-July, 1944, the Japanese military was reeling Jibakutai (suicide pilots) damaged several Allied ships
from two recent major defeats. Hundreds of planes were that day, and the St. Lô became the first aircraft carrier
lost during the Battle of the Philippine Sea (June 19-20, sunk by kamikazes. Within a week, subsequent kami-
1944), crippling Japan’s ability to counter Allied naval kaze attacks had damaged several Allied carriers and
1944
and air power. The fall of Saipan (July 9, 1944) gave the dozens of other ships.
Allies an airbase from which B-29 Superfortress bomb- Before the base of kamikaze operations was moved
ers could reach Japan and devastate the Japanese home- from the Philippines to Formosa (Taiwan) in mid-January,
land. A vast Allied advantage in resources, coupled with 1945, nearly one hundred Allied ships were damaged by
Japanese shortages in material, fuel, and experienced pi- kamikazes, including sixteen that were sunk. In the three
lots, forced Japanese military strategists to adopt desper- months of operations in the Philippines campaign, kami-
ate tactics to check the Allies’ advance: They ordered or- kaze planes sank or damaged more American ships than
ganized suicide attacks. in all previous Pacific theater battles combined, includ-
On October 13 or 15 (accounts vary), Rear Admiral ing the attack on Pearl Harbor.
Masafumi Arima (posthumously promoted to vice admi- The initial Allied response to the kamikaze attacks
ral)—an early advocate for suicide attacks—purportedly during the Philippines campaign was shock, followed by
crash-dived his plane into the aircraft carrier USS Frank- concern. A U.S. report on the Philippines operation esti-
lin. Arima’s act, extensively propagandized by the Japa- mated that approximately 27 percent of kamikazes hit
nese media, stimulated the Japanese High Command to ships, and nearly 3 percent of those ships struck by kami-
approve the formation of the first military units dedicated kazes sank. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz ordered the com-
to suicide attacks, which the Japanese termed “special at- plete censorship of news about the kamikazes. The news
tack units” (tokubetsu kfgeki tai; usually abbreviated to blackout was not lifted until April 12, 1945, the day that
tokkftai). This term applied to any type of suicide attack President Franklin D. Roosevelt died. Because of the
unit, on land, air, or sea. president’s death, scant media attention was given to
Vice Admiral Takijirf bnishi, a strong proponent of news of the kamikaze attacks.
suicide weapons, organized the first special attack unit in The Allies devised a threefold strategy for combating
the Philippines a week after Arima’s attack. Approxi- the kamikaze threat. First, Allied aircraft attacked poten-
393
Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
tial kamikaze planes before they could reach their targets, ing “fool”). Ironically, the first successful Ohka attack—
bombing Japanese airfields and forming intercepting the sinking of the USS Manert L. Abele—occurred on the
screens of fighters (combat air patrols). Second, Allied day the news blackout on the kamikaze attacks was
ships increased their antiaircraft effectiveness by adding lifted. Kamikaze planes were also used to attack high-
more and better antiaircraft guns and by shooting projec- flying B-29 bombers, whose missions over the Japanese
tiles into the water in order to create water spouts that homeland were flown at altitudes beyond the range of
would blind and swamp low-flying kamikazes. Third, Japanese antiaircraft guns and fighter planes. However,
screens of radar picket ships (primarily destroyers) were the heavily armed B-29s, being smaller and faster than
set off from the main body of ships in a fleet. Their task warships, proved to be much more difficult targets for
was both to provide early warning to the fleet proper of kamikaze pilots to hit.
kamikaze attacks and to siphon off kamikazes from the The kamikaze program expanded beyond airplanes.
more valuable and vulnerable targets in the main fleet. The maritime kamikaze campaign included fukuryu
The destroyers proved to be tempting targets for kami- (frogmen), kaiten (human guided torpedoes), kairyu and
kaze pilots. koryu (two and three person midget submarines, respec-
The destruction of most of the Japanese fleet during tively), and navy shinyo and army maru-ni (small speed-
the Philippines campaign, combined with the success of boats). All were designed to deliver explosive payloads
the suicide-attack strategy, compelled the Japanese sig- to Allied ships.
nificantly to expand the kamikaze program in early 1945. Japan launched several kamikaze attacks during the
For the air campaign, they constructed simply built one- Battle for Iwo Jima (February-March, 1945), but the
way planes called Tsurugi and piloted rocket-propelled largest kamikaze assault was reserved for the Battle of
bombs called Ohka (the Allies termed them Baka, mean- Okinawa (April-July, 1945). Vice Admiral Matome
A group of Japanese pilots poses for a photograph before a kamikaze sortie to the Philippines in November, 1944. (Reuters/Landov)
394
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks
Ugaki, directing kamikaze operations from Kynshn in war to a swifter conclusion: the atomic bomb. Thus,
the Japanese homeland, ordered ten kikusi—“floating World War II ended with the world learning about the
chrysanthemums,” or massed kamikaze assaults—inter- power of weapons of mass destruction, as well as the
spersed with smaller sorties during the Okinawa cam- power of suicide tactics against a superior foe.
paign. The first kikusi, launched on April 6, 1945, was — Paul J. Chara, Jr.
the largest kamikaze onslaught in history, consisting of
approximately 355 planes. The attack resulted in the Further Reading
sinking of ten American ships and damage to many oth- Billingsley, Edward B. The Emmons Saga: A History of
ers. By the time the last kikusi was completed on June 22, the USS Emmons (DD457-SMS22). Lincoln, Nebr.:
1945, 36 American ships were sunk and 368 were dam- iUniverse, 2005. The former captain of the Emmons
aged, primarily by kamikazes. This destruction consti- retells the story of his ship, which was sunk by five ka-
tuted the worst American naval losses in history for one mikaze planes during the battle for Okinawa. Original
campaign. Nearly 2,000 kamikazes were destroyed dur- version updated with commentary and photos about
ing the campaign. the rediscovery of the Emmons by divers in 2001.
On August 15, 1945, Japanese emperor Hirohito an- Photographs from 1940 to 2006, military records.
nounced the surrender of Japan to the Allies, officially Chara, Paul J., and Kathleen A. Chara. “Posttraumatic
ending the kamikaze program. However, there are re- Stress Disorder Among Survivors of a Kamikaze At-
ports of suicide attacks against the British and Soviets tack.” Psychological Reports 89 (2001): 577-582. Ar-
later that month. The two main proponents of kamikaze ticle examines the psychological effects manifested
missions ended their lives on the day of the emperor’s ad- by the survivors of the USS Emmons more than a half
dress: Vice Admiral Ugaki perished leading the last ka- century after the ship was sunk by kamikazes.
mikaze attack; Vice Admiral bnishi committed ritual Lamont-Brown, Raymond. Kamikaze: Japan’s Suicide
suicide. Samurai. London: Rigel, 1997. Good introductory
Significance overview of the kamikaze program. Black-and-white
It is estimated that the Japanese launched nearly three photographs, glossary of pertinent Japanese terms.
thousand kamikaze sorties from October, 1944, until the Leckie, Robert. Okinawa: The Last Battle of World
end of the war. Those air raids exacted a frightening toll War II. New York: Viking, 1995. Former World War II
on Allied navies: an estimated five hundred ships were Marine veteran examines the Okinawa campaign,
1944
damaged and another sixty ships were sunk. The cost in emphasizing the perspective of the average combat-
Allied lives was in the neighborhood of ten thousand ant. Includes several chapters on kamikazes. Black-
killed and about the same number wounded. Kamikazes and-white photographs.
proved to be Japan’s most effective weapon against the Sheftall, Mordecai G. Blossoms in the Wind: Human
Allied navies. Legacies of the Kamikaze. New York: NAL Caliber,
The Okinawa kamikaze offensive convinced Allied 2005. Surviving kamikaze pilots provide insight into
leaders that an invasion of the Japanese homeland would the mind-set and experiences of being a suicide
be met with suicide attacks on a scale that would dwarf weapon. Black-and-white photographs.
the Okinawa campaign. In fact, the Japanese had re-
served tens of thousands of suicide weapons of diverse See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
kinds to meet an expected Allied invasion of the Japa- cific Theater; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central
nese islands. Japanese military officials hoped that the Pacific Offensive; June 12-20, 1944: Battle of the
frightening cost exacted by suicide tactics would dis- Philippine Sea; June 15, 1944: Superfortress Bomb-
suade the Allies from invading Japan and lead to more ing of Japan; Oct. 23-26, 1944: Battle for Leyte Gulf;
generous offers of peace. Instead, the prospects of facing Feb. 23, 1945: American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima;
a Japanese nation mobilized in the kamikaze spirit Apr. 1-July 2, 1945: Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff
played a role in the American decision to unleash an even Japanese Resistance; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic
more frightening weapon on Japan, one that brought the Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
395
Battle for Leyte Gulf The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
October 23-26, 1944

Battle for Leyte Gulf
The largest naval engagement of World War II secured tween Japan and its important resources base of the East
control of the seas surrounding the Philippine Islands Indies. Leyte is in the middle of the Philippine archi-
and broke Japanese naval power, leaving the way open pelago.
for the United States to advance on the Japanese home The Japanese anticipated a U.S. offensive and had
islands. plans to combat it; Shf Ichi Go (Operation Victory One)
covered defense of the Philippines, to which the Japa-
Locale: Leyte Gulf, Surigao Strait, San Bernardino nese decided to commit the entire Combined Fleet. The
Strait, and Cape Engaño, Philippines Combined Fleet commander, Admiral Soemu Toyoda,
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil knew the operation would be a gamble. He said after the
unrest war, “If things went well, we might obtain unexpectedly
Key Figures good results; but if the worst should happen, there was a
William F. Halsey (1882-1959), commander of the chance that we would lose the entire fleet. But I felt that
U.S. Third Fleet chance had to be taken.” Toyoda knew that should the
Thomas C. Kinkaid (1888-1972), commander of the Americans retake the Philippines, even with the fleet left,
U.S. Seventh Fleet and Allied naval forces in the the shipping lane to the south would be completely cut
Southwest Pacific off, so that if the fleet came back to Japanese waters, it
Takeo Kurita (1889-1977), commander of the Japanese could not obtain fuel. If the fleet remained in southern
Central Force waters, it could not receive supplies of ammunition and
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), supreme commander arms. In Toyoda’s opinion, there would be no reason to
of Allied Forces in the Southwest Pacific, 1942- save the fleet at the expense of the Philippines.
1945 The Allied armada that advanced toward Leyte in
Chester W. Nimitz (1885-1966), commander in chief of mid-October comprised more than seven hundred ships.
the U.S. Pacific Fleet, 1941-1945 The U.S. Third Fleet also was available for strategic sup-
Jesse B. Oldendorf (1887-1974), commander of the port of the operation. Under the command of Admiral
Seventh Fleet’s Fire Support Force William F. Halsey, the Third Fleet was given two tasks:
Jisaburf Ozawa (1886-1966), commander of the to cover the Leyte landings and, if the opportunity arose,
Japanese decoy Northern Force to destroy the Japanese fleet.
Clifton A. F. Sprague (1896-1955), commander of the Opposing the Allied forces were four Japanese naval
Seventh Fleet’s Taffy 3 escort carrier group forces. The Northern Force, commanded by Vice Admi-
ral Jisabuto Ozawa, consisted of one heavy carrier, three
Summary of Event light carriers, two hybrid battleship-carriers, three cruis-
The Battle for Leyte Gulf, October 23-26, 1944, was his- ers, and eight destroyers. It was to serve as a decoy, draw-
tory’s largest naval engagement. Its 282 vessels (including Halsey’s Third Fleet toward the north and away from
ing 216 American, 2 Australian, and 64 Japanese ships) the beaches. The most powerful of the Japanese units
outnumbered the ships of the 1916 Battle of Jutland. The was Central Force (First Division Attack Force), com-
battle in Leyte Gulf involved almost 200,000 men and manded by Admiral Takeo Kurita. It included the two
encompassed an area of more than 100,000 square miles. super battleships, Musashi and Yamato. With their 18.1-
It saw all aspects of naval warfare—air, surface, subma- inch guns, these 862-foot long, 70,000-ton behemoths
rine, and amphibious—as well as the use of the largest were, at the time, the largest warships ever built. Kurita
guns ever at sea, the last clash of the dreadnoughts, and also had three older battleships, twelve cruisers, and fif-
the introduction of kamikazes. The battle was also distin- teen destroyers.
guished by fine planning and leadership, brilliant decep- Kurita’s ships were to slip through San Bernardino
tion, failed intelligence, and great controversies. Strait. Meanwhile, Southern Force (C Force)—compris-
The invasion of Leyte Island, beginning on October ing two battleships, one heavy cruiser, and four destroy-
20, 1944, was the first phase of an Allied campaign to lib- ers, commanded by Vice Admiral Shoji Nishimura—
erate the Philippine Islands from the Japanese. The Phil- would strike eastward through the Sulu Sea in an effort to
ippines occupied a strategically important position be- force its way through Surigao Strait between the islands
396
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle for Leyte Gulf
of Leyte and Mindanao. It was trailed by the Second Chester W. Nimitz at Pearl Harbor. Leyte was the first
Division Attack Force, commanded by Vice Admiral landing to involve two entire U.S. fleets and the first
Kiyohide Shima, which had one light and two heavy landing without unified command. Divided command
cruisers and four destroyers. These two prongs would had unfortunate consequences.
then converge simultaneously on the landing area in the Seventh Fleet was divided into three task groups. The
Leyte Gulf and destroy Allied shipping there. At the first consisted of Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf’s six
same time, Japanese shore-based aircraft were to inflict old battleships, sixteen escort carriers, four heavy cruis-
maximum damage on U.S. forces assisting the landings. ers, four light cruisers, thirty destroyers, and ten de-
The main strength of the Japanese fleet lay in its naval stroyer escorts. The other two elements were amphibious
gunnery, because its carrier- and land-based aircraft had task groups carrying out the actual invasion. Seventh
largely been destroyed in earlier battles and by U.S. Fleet had escorted the invasion force to Leyte and now
Army and Navy air raids during September and early Oc- provided broad protection for the entire landing area. As
tober. Any chance the Japanese had for success lay in us- most of Halsey’s amphibious assets had been loaned to
ing their huge battleships to shell the Leyte beaches. Shf Kinkaid, Third Fleet consisted almost entirely of Admi-
Ichi Go was, at best, a long shot. ral Marc A. Mitscher’s Task Force 38: fourteen fast car-
Opposing the Japanese were two U.S. fleets: the Sev- riers (with more than one thousand aircraft) organized
enth Fleet, commanded by Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid into four task groups containing six battleships, eight
and operating under General Douglas MacArthur’s heavy cruisers, thirteen light cruisers, and fifty-seven de-
Southwest Pacific Command, and Admiral William F. stroyers. Third Fleet’s orders called for it to secure air su-
Halsey’s Third Fleet, under the command of Admiral periority over the Philippines, protect the landings, and
1944
General Douglas MacArthur (center) leads the troops ashore at Leyte. (Digital Stock)
397
Battle for Leyte Gulf The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
maintain pressure on the Japanese. If the opportunity to stroyers, and four destroyer escorts. This was precisely
destroy a major part of the Japanese fleet presented itself what the Japanese had intended; for the U.S. forces, it
or could be created, that destruction was to be Third was a grave tactical error, because it enabled the Japa-
Fleet’s primary task. nese Central Force to sail undisturbed through the San
First contact between the rival forces was made on Bernardino Strait toward the landing area.
October 23. In the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea, U.S. subma- Late on the evening of October 24, battleships and
rines sighted the Central Force and sank two Japanese cruisers of the Seventh Fleet engaged the Southern
heavy cruisers, one of which was Kurita’s flagship, Force. The October 24-25 Battle of Surigao Strait was a
Atago. When reports of Nishimura’s Southern Force classic example of “crossing the T” in naval warfare. The
reached Admiral Halsey, he issued a preliminary order PT boats discovered the Japanese moving in line-ahead
detailing a battle line of battleships known as Task Force formation, but Nishimura’s force easily forced the PT
34, to be commanded by Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee. boats back. While the battleships often get the credit for
Admiral Kinkaid was aware of that signal and assumed the Surigao Strait victory, it was U.S. destroyers that in-
TF 34 had been established. Kinkaid ordered the fire- flicted most of the damage. Two converging torpedo at-
support portion of Seventh Fleet, commanded by Ol- tacks sank a battleship and three destroyers. The Japa-
dendorf, to assume a blocking position at the lower end nese then ran into the line of Oldendorf’s battleships. The
of Leyte Gulf to halt any Japanese attempt to force Allies won a great victory at little cost to themselves;
Surigao Strait; Seventh Fleet escort carriers guarded the when it was over, the sole survivors of the Southern
eastern entrance to Leyte Gulf. Force and Second Division Attack Force were five de-
Halsey, meanwhile, ordered his own fleet carriers to stroyers and a heavy cruiser.
launch air strikes against enemy units then steaming The U.S. escort carriers operating north of Leyte were
through San Bernardino Strait. These planes concen-
not as fortunate. Early on October 25, the Central Force
trated on the Musashi. The ship took nineteen torpedoes
emerged from San Bernardino Strait, headed for Leyte
and nearly as many bombs before finally succumbing.
Gulf, and surprised the U.S. ships. Crew members of the
Half of its nearly twenty-two-hundred-man crew per-
U.S. destroyers and pilots of escort carriers of Taffy 3,
ished with her. Several other Japanese ships were dam-
brilliantly commanded by Admiral Sprague, fought a
aged. On the afternoon of October 25, U.S. pilots re-
courageous but apparently hopeless battle. The Japanese
ported that Kurita had reversed course and was heading
sank the Gambier Bay, the only U.S. carrier ever lost to
west; Halsey incorrectly assumed that this part of the bat-
gunfire, and also sank the destroyers Hoel and Johnston,
tle was over.
Meanwhile, Japanese land-based planes from the as well as destroyer escort Samuel B. Roberts. Although
Second Air Fleet attacked U.S. ships supporting the land Japanese guns were registering repeated hits and Kurita
invasion. Most were shot down, but they sank the light was in position to secure a crushing victory, he abruptly
carrier Princeton and damaged the cruiser Birmingham. broke all contact and retired north toward the San
Unknown to Halsey, after nightfall Kurita’s force changed Bernardino Strait. This puzzling action allowed the
course and resumed heading for San Bernardino Strait. transports and troops at the beachhead to escape certain
Halsey broke off the engagement in order to pursue destruction.
what appeared to be a more tempting target. U.S. scout Kurita believed he was under attack by aircraft from
planes had sighted the Northern Force, and Halsey, be- Halsey’s fleet carriers. Kurita’s decision was strength-
lieving it to be the most powerful Japanese threat, turned ened by the fact that the southern attacking force had
his carrier task forces northward. Several of Halsey’s been destroyed. After the war, Kurita said, “The conclu-
subordinates registered reservations about his decision, sion from our gunfire and antiaircraft fire during the day
but the admiral would not be deterred. Compounding the had led me to believe in my uselessness, my ineffectual
error, Halsey failed to inform Admiral Kinkaid, who still position, if I proceeded into Leyte Gulf where I would
assumed that Task Force 34 was protecting the strait. come under even heavier air attack.” Several days of
Halsey’s decision left the landing beaches guarded only nearly incessant attacks may also have frayed Kurita’s
by Seventh Fleet’s Taffy 3 escort carrier group com- nerves. Kurita hoped to join Ozawa’s force to the north
manded by Rear Admiral Clifton A. F. Sprague. Taffy 3 but changed his mind and exited through San Bernardino
was one of three such support groups operating off Strait. Sprague later noted that the failure of Kurita’s
Samar. Sprague had six light escort carriers, three de- force
398
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle for Leyte Gulf
. . . to completely wipe out all vessels of this Task Unit Field, James A., Jr. The Japanese at Leyte Gulf: The Shf
can be attributed to our successful smoke screen, our tor- Operation. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
pedo counterattack, continuous harassment of the en- Press, 1947. Useful for its presentation of the Japa-
emy by bomb, torpedo, and strafing air attacks, timely nese perspective.
maneuvers, and the definite partiality of Almighty God.
Halsey, William F. Admiral Halsey’s Story. New York:
Whittlesey House, 1947. A helpful memoir by one of
The four ships lost by Taffy 3 were the only U.S. war-
the chief participants in the Leyte operation, although
ships sunk by Japanese surface ships in the Battle for
Halsey never admitted responsibility for errors in the
Leyte Gulf.
battle.
Meanwhile, Admiral Sprague’s escort carriers and
Morison, Samuel Eliot. Leyte: June, 1944-January,
Oldendorf’s force returning from the Battle of Surigao
1945. Vol. 12 in The History of United States Naval
Strait came under attack from land-based kamikaze air-
Operations in World War II. Boston: Little, Brown,
craft, the first such attacks of the war. These sank the es-
1963. The classic U.S. Navy official history, stressing
cort carrier St. Lô and damaged several other ships.
description of events.
After the major issues of the battle had been decided,
Potter, E. B. Bull Halsey. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Insti-
Halsey’s Third Fleet caught the Japanese Northern Force
tute Press, 1985. Excellent biography of the contro-
off Cape Engaño. By nightfall, U.S. aircraft, a subma-
versial admiral.
rine, and surface ships had sunk all four Japanese carriers
Thomas, Evan. Sea of Thunder: Four Commanders and
of Ozawa’s force as well as five other ships. This blow
the Last Great Naval Campaign, 1941-1945. New
ended Japanese carrier aviation. Ironically, the entire
York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. Follows the actions of
Northern Force would have been destroyed if Halsey had
three admirals who shaped the Pacific war, as well as
not yielded to urgent appeals to turn back to intercept the
those of the commander of the Johnston and his role in
Central Force. The Third Fleet failed to catch up with
the Battle for Leyte Gulf. Bibliographic references
Kurita, and the remainder of Northern Force was able to
and index.
get away.
U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey. United States Strategic
Significance Bombing Survey: Compaigns of the Pacific War. New
Including retiring vessels sunk on October 26 and 27, York: Greenwood Press, 1969. Contains interviews
Japanese losses in the battle were twenty-nine warships with Japanese commanders in the battle.
1944
(four carriers, three battleships, six heavy and four light Vego, Milan. The Battle for Leyte, 1944: Allied and Jap-
cruisers, eleven destroyers, and a submarine) and more anese Plans, Preparations, and Execution. Annapo-
than five hundred aircraft. Japanese personnel losses lis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 2006. Comprehensive
amounted to some 10,500 seamen and aviators dead. The examination of the background, events, and effects of
U.S. Navy lost only six ships (one light carrier, two es- the Battle for Leyte Gulf. Bibliographic references,
cort carriers, two destroyers, and a destroyer escort) and index, maps, and eighteen appendixes.
more than two hundred aircraft. About twenty-eight hun- Woodward, C. Vann. The Battle for Leyte Gulf. New
dred Americans were killed and another one thousand York: Macmillan, 1947. Competent survey of the
wounded. The Battle for Leyte Gulf ended the Japanese complex action, placing the battle in the context of the
fleet as an organized fighting force. war in the Pacific.
—Spencer C. Tucker and Theodore A. Wilson
See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
Further Reading cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
Cannon, M. Hamlin. Leyte: The Return to the Philip- Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan Invades the Philip-
pines. Washington, D.C.: United States Army, Center pines; Aug. 7, 1942-Feb. 9, 1943: Battle of Guadalca-
of Military History, 1993. The Army’s official history nal; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944: Central Pacific Of-
provides good coverage of the Leyte battle. fensive; June 12-20, 1944: Battle of the Philippine
Cutler, Thomas J. The Battle of Leyte Gulf, 23-26 Octo- Sea; Oct. 20, 1944: Japan Orders Kamikaze Attacks;
ber 1944. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. Well bal- Feb. 23, 1945: American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima;
anced between Japanese and U.S. accounts of the bat- Apr. 1-July 2, 1945: Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff
tle, placing it in its proper context. Japanese Resistance.
399
Graham Debuts Appalachian Spring with Copland Score The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
October 30, 1944

Graham Debuts APPALACHIAN SPRING with Copland Score
Martha Graham’s choreography for Aaron Copland’s the sculptor Isamu Noguchi; he was a particularly inno-
Appalachian Spring represented the climax of her vative choice as designer, since at the time most designs
exploration of American themes and solidified her for dance depended upon the artistry of painters, not
stature as a dance artist; the score garnered a Pulitzer sculptors.
Prize for Copland. American Document was based on events in Ameri-
can history, with recitations of historical texts incorpo-
Locale: Washington, D.C. rated into the work. The content illustrated Graham’s
Categories: Dance; music preoccupation with the Puritan sensibility in conflict
Key Figures with sensuality. Erick Hawkins, the first male dancer in
Martha Graham (1894-1991), American the company, made his debut in this piece. The poet Em-
choreographer and dancer ily Dickinson was the subject of Letter to the World.
Aaron Copland (1900-1990), American composer Once more, Graham explored the American past, in par-
Isamu Noguchi (1904-1988), Japanese American ticular the talent and passions of a woman confined
sculptor and designer within a repressive New England household.
Louis Horst (1884-1964), American composer and These pieces, which combined Graham’s interest in
conductor American themes with her sensitivity to female psychol-
Erick Hawkins (1909-1994), first male dancer in ogy, were in a sense preparation for the explosion of cre-
Graham’s company, and later Graham’s husband ativity that would infuse Appalachian Spring (1944). The
Merce Cunningham (b. 1919), second male dancer in latter piece was inspired by a section of Hart Crane’s 1930
Graham’s company poem The Bridge that tells of an Indian maiden, her lover,
May O’Donnell (1909-2004), American dancer and their love of the land. Graham transferred the passions
of Crane’s characters to nineteenth century settlers in the
Summary of Event mountains of Pennsylvania. In the dance, it is spring;
When Martha Graham received a commission from the there is a sense of new life and rebirth, and it is a magical
Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge Foundation in 1944 to create time. A young bride, originally danced radiantly by Gra-
three dances for the Library of Congress, she was already ham herself, and the husbandman, originally danced
a force in the modern-dance world. Fifteen years previ- with confidence and strength by Hawkins, take posses-
ously, she had opened her studio, selected a company, and sion of their new house and lands. The bride’s movements
begun to give annual performances in New York. She was reveal the variety of emotions within her: She investi-
on the staff of the Bennington School of the Dance from gates her new situation tentatively; she presses herself
1934 to 1942 and was an artist in residence at its presti- passionately upon the ground in an expression of love for
gious summer season until 1944. She had received atten- the land; she sits on a bench, tiny fluttering gestures re-
tion for Heretic (1929), which had introduced her radical vealing a joy that she is almost afraid to admit.
dance movements of the contraction and release, and fur- The husbandman runs his hand over the surface of the
ther acclaim for Primitive Mysteries (1931), which had house, communicates with his neighbors with decorum,
revealed her powerful individual dance skills. Still, her and places a gentle hand protectively on his wife’s shoul-
work was not always understood or appreciated. der. They join in a warm, lyrical duet, expressing their
With her solo Frontier (1935), followed by American hopes for their wedded life. A community surrounds
Document (1938) and Letter to the World (1940), Gra- them; nearby, a stern revivalist, originally danced in
ham began to explore American themes in her work. A soaring phrases by Merce Cunningham, reminds them
Pennsylvania-born Presbyterian, she was transplanted to fervently of religious obligations and the discipline to
California as an adolescent, and the westward movement which they must submit. His four adoring followers cup
of the early settlers, as well as their Puritan sensibility, their hands to applaud and then pray with him.
fascinated her. Frontier presented Graham as a pioneer A pioneer woman (originally May O’Donnell) con-
woman, taming a portion of an infinite land, delighting veys support and wisdom in large, muscular gestures, as
in the challenge and unafraid of the future. The work one who has faced and overcome the obstacles that lie
marked the first of many successful collaborations with ahead for the newlyweds. At the end, the young couple
400
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Graham Debuts Appalachian Spring with Copland Score
artists and served the art by educat-

ing the public through intelligent
analysis, praise, and enthusiasm. Ed-
win Denby spoke of “the mysterious
coolness and freshness” of the piece
as well as of Graham’s “genius”; Ap-
palachian Spring, declared Denby,
was “a truly beautiful work.” For
once, the public agreed.
The work was remarkable, be-
cause it was easily accessible to the
To view image, please refer to print edition audience’s perceptions. The move-
ments were organic and recogniz-
able. Who could fail to understand the
love of the bride and the husband-
man, or the warnings of the revival-
ist? Who could not feel the couple’s
excitement in their home or their
hopes for the future? Who did not
identify with a rush of affection with
this universal human experience?
With the enthusiastic reception of
the premiere, Appalachian Spring be-
came one of the staples of Graham’s
In early 1944, two of Martha Graham’s primary dancers, Erick Hawkins and Merce 1944 season, which included the ear-
Cunningham, perform a battle scene in dance. (AP/Wide World Photos) lier works Letter to the World, Salem
Shore (1943), Deaths and Entrances
(1943), and Herodiade (1944), which
1944
are welcomed into the community and accept the chal- was the second work on the program at the Library of
lenge of the land and their union. Appalachian Spring is a Congress performance. As the years passed, Appala-
celebration not only of wedded life but also of a young chian Spring became one of the most beloved works in
country and the spirit that developed it. the Graham repertoire and was successfully performed
Modern dance had conceded little to audience expec- all over the world.
tations or tastes during its early years. Audiences had The 1944-1945 season was the most successful to
struggled to find meaning in the new radical movements, date for Martha Graham, not only because the New York
to understand on some level what the dancers were trying public was supportive and appreciative but also, and
to communicate. Meanwhile, the artists themselves had most important, because the impresario Sol Hurok of-
spent much time and energy trying to discredit ballet, as fered to represent the Graham company on a national
they fought to achieve recognition on their own terms, to tour the following year.
establish modern dance as not secondary to the music but The Hurok organization was a commercial producing
as a separate art form. They committed themselves to a company; Sol Hurok was highly regarded as a shrewd
more honest vocabulary of movement that evolved from businessman. To book a tour nationally with a modern-
natural body rhythms. These movements were not al- dance company was a daring move on his part, as well as
ways graceful or aesthetically pleasing, and audiences a marvelous opportunity for the Graham works to travel
were often puzzled. The dancers persisted, however, de- beyond the college and university audiences into the
liberately eschewing commercial success in preference commercial theater. Most important, a tour represented a
to artistic integrity. major step toward the acceptance of modern dance. Pub-
As the years had progressed, however, dance criti- lic resistance and antagonism persisted; the tour the fol-
cism had evolved alongside modern dance. By 1944, lowing year was not an unqualified success. Critical
several dance critics sympathized with the goals of the comment, though, was far more positive than it had ever
401
Graham Debuts Appalachian Spring with Copland Score The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
been outside New York City, and the way was paved for wrote to Aaron Copland, “Appalachian Spring has been
other artists to follow. one of the pleasures of my life—a kind of keystone and I
Those who had collaborated with Graham on Appala- treasure every note of it and the experience I had to be
chian Spring were equally inspired by the simple tale and able to choreograph it.”
the ideas expressed in it. Aaron Copland’s score, espe- Copland for his part was delighted to receive the Pu-
cially commissioned by Graham, went beyond appropri- litzer Prize in music for his score and very pleased and
ate complement to become an independent work of art in surprised to receive also an award for dramatic composi-
itself. Originally scored for thirteen instruments of a tion from the Music Critics Circle of New York. Both
chamber orchestra, it was later arranged by the composer awards brought him increased public recognition. He
as a concert suite for full symphony orchestra. It was noted, however, that it was “Martha’s admiration for the
fresh, lively, and melodious, with suggestions of Ameri- music that held the most meaning for me.”
can fiddle tunes and country dances, and it concluded ef- Appalachian Spring influenced the careers and the
fectively with five variations on the Shaker hymn “’Tis styles of everyone in the original cast. Merce Cunning-
the Gift to Be Simple,” heard against a background of si- ham, Erick Hawkins, May O’Donnell, and Pearl Lang
lence and space. The work was awarded the Pulitzer later formed companies of their own and choreographed
Prize for music in 1944. and performed independently. The other three, Nina
Isamu Noguchi designed a spare and economical set Fonaroff, Marjorie Mazia, and Yuriko, disseminated the
with a sculptor’s knowledge of three-dimensional form. Graham technique to the next generation of students in
The frame of a house with a peaked roof, a bench, a six- classes at the Graham Studio and at other schools. Be-
foot section of fence, a tree stump as a pulpit for the re- yond these direct connections, dancers and choreogra-
vivalist, and a thin sculpted rocking chair were the few phers who attended performances of the piece recog-
pieces on the stage. Others contributed their special nized its combination of authentic modern dance with
skills. Jean Rosenthal, Graham’s trusted lighting de- audience accessibility, and the power of that combina-
signer for several decades, provided brilliant lighting to tion influenced the course of dance for decades.
enhance the dance movements. Edythe Gilfond created — Joyce E. Henry
the simple costumes, and Louis Horst conducted the or-
chestra. Further Reading
Appalachian Spring was the final offering on the eve- Copland, Aaron, and Vivian Perlis. Copland: Since
ning of October 30, 1944, at the Library of Congress, and 1943. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989. A fine au-
the piece was immediately accepted and enjoyed. The tobiography beginning during World War II, with in-
audience, it is reported, left the theater in a state of eu- terviews from friends, family, and colleagues from
phoria. John Martin commented in The New York Times the music and dance world interspersed. Contains an
that “nothing Miss Graham has done before has had such engrossing chapter devoted to the creation and re-
deep joyousness about it.” sponse to Appalachian Spring, with anecdotal re-
marks from Martha Graham, Erick Hawkins, Pearl
Significance Lang, and May O’Donnell. Photographs, notes, and
Appalachian Spring has been termed “the greatest na- index.
tional hymn of American dance,” a phrase that pays Denby, Edwin. Dance Writings. Edited by Robert Corn-
homage to the cultural origin of the work as well as to its field and William MacKay. New York: Alfred A.
celebratory nature. Premiering during the final year of Knopf, 1986. A voluminous collection of Denby’s
World War II, Appalachian Spring was a lyrical re- critical reviews and essays compiled from the New
minder to a war-weary audience of the enduring value of York Herald Tribune, Dance Magazine, Modern Mu-
family and community and of the pioneering spirit that sic, and other writings. Comments relating to Gra-
developed America. ham’s work occur throughout; of interest is Denby’s
For Martha Graham, then fifty years old, in the prime changing perspective and increasing admiration
of her creative powers and a legend in the modern-dance through the decades. Index and sketchy notes.
world, the work represented a culmination and a tran- Jowitt, Deborah. “Group Spirits” and “The Heroines
scendence of her individual, sometimes painful, inquiry Within.” In Time and the Dancing Image. New York:
into the past and its shadows. It was a turning point, an William Morrow, 1987. A readable, scholarly history,
affirmation of a joyous present. Many years later, she by a dancer and dance critic, of nearly two hundred
402
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Reber Publishes the First Radio Maps of the Galaxy
years of dance, with perceptive discussions of the 1965. Copland continues essential American themes
evolution of modern dance and of the significance of initiated by Charles Ives. The chapter discusses the
the Graham works. Photographs, notes, bibliography, technical composition of Appalachian Spring and
and index. other Copland works. Several appendixes and a valu-
McDonagh, Don. Martha Graham. New York: Praeger, able discography are included.
1973. A detailed, thorough biography of Martha Gra- Roseman, Janet Lynn. Dance Was Her Religion: The Sa-
ham, slightly dated. Paints the goddess as tempera- cred Choreography of Isadora Duncan, Ruth St.
mental and volatile but human. Also includes a valu- Denis, and Martha Graham. Prescott, Ariz.: Hohm
able “Choreochronicle” of 155 of Graham’s dances, Press, 2004. Scholarly study of three of the most in-
with locations, dates, designers, and cast members. fluential women in modern dance; analyzes the role of
Photographs, index, and bibliography. religion in the work of all three choreographers. Bib-
Mazo, Joseph H. “Martha Graham: Casta Diva.” In Prime liographic references and index.
Movers: The Makers of Modern Dance in America. Stodelle, Ernestine. Deep Song: The Dance Story of
New York: William Morrow, 1977. An analysis of the Martha Graham. New York: Schirmer Books, 1984.
work of nine modern dancers from Loie Fuller to An elegantly written biography, sensitive and percep-
Twyla Tharp, with the longest chapter devoted to tive in description, with excellent word pictures of the
Martha Graham’s works, her technique, and her style. major works and extensive photographs of Graham in
Biographical material is secondary. Photographs, bib- performance and in private life. A thorough bibliogra-
phy, index, and chronology of 179 works are in-
liography, and index.
cluded; missing is a cast list.
Mellers, Wilfrid. “Skyscraper and Prairie: Aaron Cop-
land and the American Isolation.” In Music in a New See also: Oct. 16, 1942: Agnes de Mille Choreographs
Found Land: Themes and Developments in the His- Rodeo; Apr. 18, 1944: Robbins’s Fancy Free Pre-
tory of American Music. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, mieres.
November, 1944-October, 1948

Reber Publishes the First Radio Maps of the Galaxy
1944
Grote Reber built the first intentional radio telescope omy. The discovery of radio waves by Heinrich Hertz
and used it to record the first radio contour maps of only fifty years before Reber built his radio telescope in
the Milky Way in two complete sky surveys, 1937 had confirmed James Clerk Maxwell’s electromag-
establishing the foundations of radio astronomy. netic theory of light and demonstrated that electromag-
netic waves consist of many different wavelengths.
Locale: Wheaton, Illinois These wavelengths extend from the longer waves, such
Categories: Astronomy; science and technology as radio and infrared, down to shorter waves that include
Key Figures visible light, ultraviolet, and X rays. As wavelength de-
Grote Reber (1911-2002), American radio engineer creases, frequency generally increases, but all electro-
and amateur astronomer magnetic waves travel at the speed of light. Reber began
Karl G. Jansky (1905-1950), American radio engineer the process of converting these varying wavelengths of
William Herschel (1738-1822), German-English energy reaching Earth from outer space into a window
musician and astronomer that could be used to observe astronomical phenomena.
Harlow Shapley (1885-1972), American astronomer William Herschel was one of the first astronomers to
Edwin Powell Hubble (1889-1953), American recognize the true nature of the dense band of stars across
astronomer the sky called the Milky Way. By counting stars in vari-
ous directions in the Milky Way, he concluded in 1785
Summary of Event that the vast majority of stars were contained within a
Grote Reber’s work to record the first radio contour maps flattened disk, forming a sort of island in space. Her-
of the galaxy represented a new and unexpected applica- schel’s work reduced the solar system to a tiny speck in
tion of the technology of radio to the science of astron- the vast universe of stars. Early in the twentieth century,
403
Reber Publishes the First Radio Maps of the Galaxy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Harlow Shapley was able to use the 2.5-meter Mount

Wilson telescope to study star clusters and estimate their
distances from Earth. He demonstrated that the Milky
Way galaxy was far larger than any previous estimate
and that the Sun was far away from the galactic center,
which he located in the direction of the constellation Sag-
ittarius.
Much of the modern understanding of the Milky Way
and other galaxies comes from the work of Edwin Powell
Hubble. (Coincidentally, Reber graduated from the same
high school as did Hubble in Wheaton, Illinois, and Hub-
ble’s seventh and eighth grade teacher was Reber’s
mother, Harriet Grote, who interested her son in astron-
omy by giving him a book by the famous astronomer.)
Hubble used the Mount Wilson telescope to discover
variable stars in the Andromeda nebula (a fuzzy patch of
light in the night sky) that made it possible to calculate its
distance and size. In 1924, he showed that the “nebula”
was actually an independent galaxy far outside the Milky
Way. By 1929, he had identified several galaxies and
measured their velocities based on the shift in their spec-
tral lines, most of which were toward the red end of the Grote Reber. (Courtesy, National Radio Astronomy Obser-
spectrum. These measurements indicated that the galax- vatory)
ies were traveling away from the Milky Way and that
their recession speeds were proportional to the galaxies’
distances from the Milky Way. Hubble’s measurements would result from the earth’s rotation. He placed a dipole
thus led to the concept of an expanding universe. antenna at the focus and designed a receiver sensitive to
In 1932, Karl G. Jansky reported his accidental dis- the shortest wavelengths possible at the time. For ten
covery of radio waves from space. Using a rotating array years, he operated this radio telescope in Wheaton as the
of dipole antennae sensitive to 15-meter radio waves, he only active radio astronomer in the world.
detected a steady hiss that appeared four minutes earlier After trying unsuccessfully to detect radiation at
each day. This disparity corresponded to the daily mo- wavelengths of 9 centimeters and 33 centimeters, Reber
tion of the stars, so he concluded that he was receiving finally changed his receiver to a new operating wave-
cosmic radio waves from beyond the solar system. Jan- length of 1.87 meters and began to get positive results by
sky was able to identify the source of the most intense ra- the spring of 1939. He did most of his work from mid-
diation in the direction of Sagittarius, suggesting that it night to dawn to avoid interference from automobile ig-
came from the center of the Milky Way galaxy. He also nitions. As the Milky Way crossed the meridian late at
showed that weaker radio waves came from all directions night, Reber measured the increasing intensity of the
in the Milky Way and suggested that their source was ei- cosmic radio waves by reading a microammeter at one-
ther the stars or the interstellar matter between the stars. minute intervals. He published his initial results in the
Jansky’s work was so unrelated to traditional astron- February, 1940, Proceedings of the Institute of Radio En-
omy that no professional astronomer followed up on it. gineers, where he noted an intensity too low to be caused
As a young radio engineer at the Stewart-Warner Com- by thermal emission, but suggested the possibility of
pany in Chicago, however, Reber read Jansky’s papers “free-free” radiation from electrons interacting with pos-
and began to plan how he could measure the detailed dis- itive ions (charged atoms) in interstellar gases.
tribution of the radiation intensity throughout the sky at In 1941, Reber began a complete sky survey with an
different wavelengths. In 1937, he built a 9.5-meter para- automatic chart recorder and more sensitive receiving
bolic reflecting dish in his side yard, mounted so that its equipment. At 1.87 meters, his operating frequency was
elevation could be changed in a north-south direction 160 megahertz (million vibrations per second), and his ra-
(declination); scanning east and west (right ascension) dio telescope had a beamwidth of about 12 Kelvins, mak-
404
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Reber Publishes the First Radio Maps of the Galaxy
ing it possible to resolve some structure in the radio emis- tion with Australian radio astronomers to map the spiral
sions from the Milky Way. The pen would slowly rise arms of the Milky Way galaxy, using the fact that 21-
and fall as the reflecting dish rotated with the earth under centimeter radiation could penetrate the interstellar dust
the Milky Way. After collecting approximately two hun- that absorbed visible light.
dred chart recordings at increasing angles of elevation, In 1960, two radio sources were identified with what
he plotted the resulting radio contours as lines of constant appeared to be stars, but each emitted much more radio
intensity on the two hemispheres of the sky. energy than the Sun or any other known star. Four of
The resulting radio maps were published in the Astro- these so-called quasars (quasi-stellar radio sources) had
physical Journal in November, 1944. They revealed in- been discovered by 1963, when Maarten Schmidt at
teresting details: The peak intensity was at the center of Mount Palomar Observatory recognized that their un-
the galaxy in Sagittarius, with secondary maxima clearly usual spectral lines were caused by large redshifts that
evident in Cygnus and Cassiopeia. More important was could be interpreted as rapid recession velocities and that
his recognition that radio waves could penetrate the in- they were thus likely to be extremely far away. At dis-
terstellar dust that obscures much visible light in the tances of billions of light years, these objects would have
Milky Way. to be more than one hundred times brighter than entire
Reber’s last observations in Wheaton were made galaxies to be observable from Earth. It was theorized
from 1945 to 1947 at a wavelength of 62.5 centimeters that they constituted some kind of highly energetic stage
and a frequency of 480 megahertz, giving a beamwidth in the early formation of a galaxy.
of about 4 Kelvins, resulting in an improvement in reso- Another dramatic event in radio astronomy occurred
lution of nearly three times over his first radio maps. This in 1967, when Jocelyn Bell discovered pulsars. She
second set of maps, published in the Proceedings of the found rapidly recurring signals on recording charts from
Institute of Radio Engineers in October, 1948, revealed a huge array of 2,048 dipole antennae spread over four
two noise peaks in the Cygnus region, later identified as a acres at the University of Cambridge. After she dis-
radio galaxy (Cygnus A) and a source associated with a cussed this with the project leader Antony Hewish, they
spiral arm in the Milky Way (Cygnus X). An intensity installed high-speed recorders and found sharp pulses at
peak in Taurus was later identified with a remnant of an precise intervals of just over a second. More of these ob-
eleventh century supernova in the Crab nebula, and an- jects were soon found, some having even more rapid pul-
other in Cassiopeia matched the position of a seventeenth sations. They were believed to be fast-spinning neutron
1944
century supernova. These results were the beginning of stars with high magnetic fields that produced a rotating
many important discoveries in the field of radio astron- beam of radio emission. A pulsar in the Crab nebula was
omy. Indeed, they were the beginning of the field itself. later identified with the collapsed core of the supernova
remnant that had appeared on Reber’s radio maps.
Significance Perhaps the most important discovery in radio astron-
Reber’s pioneering work and resulting radio maps led to omy was the 1965 detection of microwave background
growing interest in radio astronomy and many unex- radiation by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson.
pected discoveries with radio telescopes of increasing Using a 6-meter horn antenna tuned to 7-centimeter
sophistication and size. After Reber’s 1944 radio maps waves at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel,
were published, the Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort New Jersey, they found an unexpected excess of steady
asked a graduate student at the University of Leiden, radiation with no directional variation, corresponding to
Hendrik van de Hulst, to study the theory of interstellar about 3 Kelvins of thermal noise. This matched the pre-
radiation. In 1945, van de Hulst predicted that neutral hy- dicted temperature of cosmic radiation from a primeval
drogen should emit 21-centimeter radio waves when its fireball in the “big bang” theory. Thus, radio astronomy
electron spin reverses in relation to its proton spin. By provided evidence tending to confirm that theory of the
1949, the Harvard physicist Edward Mills Purcell began creation and expansion of the universe.
a search for such 21-centimeter radio waves with Harold —Joseph L. Spradley
Irving Ewen, a graduate student who was sent to confer
with Reber on techniques in radio astronomy. Ewen and Further Reading
Purcell developed special equipment and by 1951 suc- Burke, Bernard F., and Francis Graham-Smith. An Intro-
ceeded in detecting the predicted 21-centimeter radio duction to Radio Astronomy. 2d ed. New York: Cam-
waves. Oort’s group then began a seven-year collabora- bridge University Press, 2002. Survey of the history,
405
Reber Publishes the First Radio Maps of the Galaxy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
methodology, and discoveries of radio astronomy. on its early development. A 1958 article by Grote
Bibliographic references and index. Reber entitled “Early Radio Astronomy at Wheaton,
Hey, J. S. The Evolution of Radio Astronomy. New York: Illinois” includes about a dozen early photographs
Science History, 1973. A good history of radio astron- not in the original article. Other chapters describe the
omy by one of the pioneers in its development. The influence of radio astronomy on science and cos-
first chapter describes the work of Jansky and Reber, mology.
followed by chapters on the growth of radio astron- Verschuur, Gerrit L. The Invisible Universe Revealed.
omy after World War II. A good discussion of radio New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987. This book, subti-
mapping of the Milky Way, radio galaxies, quasars, tled “The Story of Radio Astronomy,” gives a good
and microwave background radiation is included with description of the results of radio astronomy with
many good diagrams, photographs, and radio contour more than one hundred photographs and radio con-
maps. tour maps. Concluding chapters give a brief history of
Lang, Kenneth R., and Owen Gingerich, eds. A Source radio astronomy.
Book in Astronomy and Astrophysics, 1900-1975. Zeilik, Michael, and John Gaustad. Astronomy: The Cos-
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979. mic Perspective. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
Reproductions are given of many of the most impor- 1990. A standard college textbook on astronomy with
tant journal articles on radio astronomy, including the a good section on radio telescopes and results ob-
early papers of Jansky and Reber, and later papers on tained with them. One of Reber’s radio contour maps
quasars, pulsars, and microwave background radia- is shown, and the meaning of such maps is discussed
tion. Introductory essays help explain the context and with good diagrams.
importance of these articles. See also: 1948-1951: Ryle’s Radio Telescope Locates
Spradley, Joseph L. “The First True Radio Telescope.” the First Known Radio Galaxy; Oct. 30, 1948: Gamow
Sky and Telescope 76 (July, 1988): 28-30. An intro- Develops the Big Bang Theory; Early 1950’s: De
ductory article in a popular astronomy magazine on Vaucouleurs Identifies the Local Supercluster of Gal-
Reber’s background and work. Photographs of the axies; Early 1955: Franklin and Burke Discover Ra-
first reflecting radio telescope and the original model dio Emissions from Jupiter; Aug. 2, 1957: Jodrell
used in its design are given, and Reber’s early results Bank Radio Telescope Is Completed; Early 1959:
are discussed with reproductions of the radio contour Radio Astronomers Transmit Radar Signals to and
maps he obtained. from the Sun; 1963: Schmidt Identifies Quasars; 1963-
Sullivan, W. T., III, ed. The Early Years of Radio Astron- 1965: Penzias and Wilson Discover Cosmic Micro-
omy. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984. wave Background Radiation; Feb. 24, 1968: Bell
A series of articles by the pioneers of radio astronomy Discovers Pulsars.
406
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Franklin D. Roosevelt Wins a Fourth Presidential Term
November 7, 1944
Franklin D. Roosevelt Wins a Fourth Presidential Term
Franklin D. Roosevelt won an unprecedented fourth race, or creed—access to jobs, to decent housing, to ade-
term as president, defeating Thomas E. Dewey in an quate medical care, to a good education, and to protec-
election held during World War II. Roosevelt’s choice tion against the economic fears of old age.
to replace Henry A. Wallace with Harry S. Truman as Republicans settled on Thomas E. Dewey as their
his vice presidential candidate proved significant when candidate to challenge Roosevelt. Challenges to Dewey
Roosevelt died just a few months into his fourth term. by Wendell Willkie, the 1940 nominee, and other would-
be contenders evaporated during the primary elections,
Locale: United States and Dewey won the nomination on the national conven-
Categories: Government and politics; World War II tion’s first ballot on June 27. Dewey had come to public
Key Figures attention by successfully prosecuting New York City
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the gangsters and had achieved national prominence by win-
United States, 1933-1945 ning the governorship of New York, a position domi-
Thomas E. Dewey (1902-1971), governor of New nated for the previous two decades by outstanding Dem-
York, 1943-1955, and Republican candidate for ocrats, including Roosevelt (1928-1933).
president, 1944 and 1948 Republicans claimed the New Deal had prolonged the
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), U.S. senator from Depression and that Roosevelt had failed to prepare the
Missouri, 1935-1945, vice president, 1945, and country for war and mismanaged the conflict, deliber-
president, 1945-1953 ately providing insufficient support for the Pacific the-
Henry A. Wallace (1888-1965), vice president of the ater. Dewey’s youth posed a realistic threat to Roosevelt;
United States, 1941-1945 Republicans contrasted their energetic forty-two-year-
old challenger to a sixty-two-year-old president depicted
Summary of Event as decrepit, tired, and no longer up to the demands of his
The election of 1944 had several unusual features. It oc- office.
curred in the middle of a war (World War II); the only Roosevelt faced serious health problems in 1944,
previous presidential election during wartime had been which he and his doctors deliberately kept from the
1944
that of Abraham Lincoln in 1864, during the Civil War. American people. Secrecy about health was an old habit
As he had in 1940, incumbent Franklin D. Roosevelt re- of the president. Although everyone knew that Roosevelt
jected the custom established in the early republic limit- had suffered an attack of infantile paralysis (poliomyeli-
ing the tenure of presidents to two four-year terms. tis) in 1921, he tried not to be seen in a wheelchair and
Unlike twenty-first century presidential elections, avoided photographs that might raise doubts about his
which appear to start the day after mid-term congressional ability to fulfill the duties of his office.
elections and run for two years, the 1944 campaign did not False rumors that Roosevelt had cancer circulated in
get under way until that January with Roosevelt’s state of 1944, spurred by the unexplained disappearance of a
the union address. Although Roosevelt claimed he had growth over his left eye and his visible loss of weight
not decided to run (he waited to declare his candidacy un- as he failed to rally from stomach and pulmonary dis-
til July, shortly before the Democratic convention), the comforts. A March 28 examination at Bethesda Naval
January address anticipated his campaign platform. Af- Hospital revealed the true cause of his problem when a
ter sending its text to Congress on January 11, Roosevelt cardiologist diagnosed hypertension, hypertensive heart
read the address to the American public over the radio disease, and partial cardiac failure.
that evening in one of his customary “fireside chats.” Since drugs to control blood pressure were not devel-
The president rejected conservative criticism of his oped until the 1950’s, doctors had no resources to treat
economic policies: Strengthening controls and raising Roosevelt that had not been available in ancient Rome.
taxes would ensure victory in the war by providing a se- They put him on a low-salt diet and prescribed digitalis, a
cure supply of matériel for the armed forces. Roosevelt foxglove extract that steadied the action of his heart and
then held out his vision of better times after the peace, re- reduced the severity of the president’s symptoms. Roo-
questing Congress to enact an “economic bill of rights” sevelt knew he was being treated by a heart doctor, but he
guaranteeing the American people—regardless of status, never asked and was never told how serious his problem
407
Franklin D. Roosevelt Wins a Fourth Presidential Term The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
was. The president’s personal physician, Admiral Ross Republican newspapers with a spectacular campaign
McIntire, discouraged speculation and publicly insisted performance. On October 21, he toured New York City
the president was basically healthy. He believed it almost for four hours in an open car in pouring rain; nearly half
treasonable to reveal the state of the president’s health the city’s population, some three million people, lined
during wartime; hearing that rumors were circulating at the streets to see him. On October 27, he made a similar
the National Naval Medical Center at Bethesda, Mary- tour of Philadelphia, and Boston hosted him on Novem-
land, McIntire used the Federal Bureau of Investigation ber 4. Roosevelt won decisively on November 7, albeit
to squelch them. with the closest margin of his four elections, 25.6 million
When the Democratic national convention opened votes to 22 million for Dewey; thus, he won with 53.8 of
July 19 in Chicago, Roosevelt’s renomination was as- the vote to Dewey’s 46 percent.
sured; the only suspense was over the vice presidential
nomination, a post that questions about the president’s Significance
health made particularly desirable. Most party leaders Roosevelt’s success infuriated Republicans, who made
considered the current vice president, Henry A. Wallace, enacting a constitutional amendment limiting presidents
a utopian visionary who detracted from the ticket. Roo- to two four-year terms a major objective. Joined by Dem-
sevelt encouraged Wallace to run and refused to tell ocrats and independents who also rejected the possibil-
Wallace personally when he and the leaders decided on ity of presidents-for-life, they successfully ratified the
July 11 to back Harry S. Truman, senator from Missouri. Twenty-second Amendment in 1951, guaranteeing that
Truman had earned a national reputation through ef- Roosevelt’s achievement would remain unique. Ironi-
fective chairmanship of a committee investigating war- cally, in the years since, one of the few presidents who
time government expenditures. He was acceptable to all arguably would have had a real chance of winning a third
wings of the party and seemed the candidate least likely to term were it not for the amendment was Republican Ron-
cost Roosevelt votes. After Roosevelt’s renomination on ald Reagan.
July 20, Wallace supporters started a vigorous rally trying The sudden death of Roosevelt three months into his
to stampede the convention into immediately choosing new term of office shocked Americans. Many Ameri-
Wallace, but party leaders hastily adjourned the conven- cans—albeit none of voting age—had known no other
tion, and Truman won overwhelmingly the next day. president during their lifetimes. When it became known
Stressing his role as wartime leader rather than politi- how much critical information on the president’s health
cian, Roosevelt did not address the convention in person, had been withheld during the election, the public reacted
but radioed his acceptance speech from the San Diego strongly. The public outrage forced future presidents
Marine Corps base while preparing to leave for a Hawai- and presidential candidates to reveal their medical data,
ian conference with his commanders on U.S. strategy in which became regularly reported and analyzed in the
the Pacific. A string of Allied victories aided his cam- media.
paign, undermining criticism of Roosevelt’s military The most significant decision Roosevelt made during
leadership. On June 4, Rome was liberated. On June 6, the 1944 election was his choice of a vice president. Al-
the Allies landed on Normandy beaches, and they liber- though made casually to meet internal political criteria,
ated Paris in August. When General Douglas MacArthur the decision had a major effect on world history. Roose-
returned to the Philippines on October 20 and the Navy velt expected to guide American policy in the postwar
decisively defeated the Japanese fleet at the Battle of era and never treated Truman as a probable successor. To
Leyte Gulf, accusations of inadequate prosecution of the the surprise of many, Truman turned out to be a strong
war in the Pacific became hard to believe. president, vigorously leading the United States in de-
Congress never passed Roosevelt’s “economic bill of fense of Western Europe against the Soviet Union. Wal-
rights” for the American people, but in June it did enact a lace’s criticism of Truman demonstrated how markedly
significant portion in the G.I. Bill, providing postwar different American policy would have been if he had be-
help for veterans in finding jobs, housing, and education, come president.
regardless of race. College aid transformed American Perhaps the most important fact about the election of
higher education and markedly upgraded the skills of the 1944 was that it was held as scheduled. Parliamentary
population. democracies normally postponed elections during war-
In the final two weeks of the campaign, Roosevelt an- time, as Great Britain did during both world wars. De-
swered questions about his health and stamina raised by spite fighting on two fronts in the greatest war of all time,
408
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Canada Implements Conscription After Months of Crisis
United States citizens listened as the opposition vigor- _______. The Dying President: Franklin D. Roosevelt,
ously criticized their current leadership, peacefully went 1944-1945. Columbia: University of Missouri Press,
to the polls, and decided who should lead the future. 1998. Informed discussion of what Roosevelt knew,
Nothing could have more powerfully demonstrated the and what he could have known, about his health.
strength and vibrancy of American democracy. Freidel, Frank. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous
— Milton Berman with Destiny. Boston: Little, Brown, 1990. The best
one-volume biography, with good detail on 1944 pol-
Further Reading
itics.
Black, Conrad. Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion
of Freedom. New York: Public Affairs, 2003. See also: June 25, 1941: Roosevelt Bans Discrimina-
Lengthy anecdotal biography, better on personal af- tion in Defense-Industry Employment; Jan. 30, 1942:
fairs than on politics. Roosevelt Signs the Emergency Price Control Act;
Ferrell, Robert H. Choosing Truman: The Democratic Feb. 19, 1942-1945: United States Interns Japanese
Convention of 1944. Columbia: University of Mis- Americans; Sept. 3-18, 1943: Western Allies Invade
souri Press, 1994. Detailed examination of maneuver- Italy; June 6, 1944: Invasion of Normandy Begins the
ing by Roosevelt and party leaders that led to Tru- Liberation of Europe; June 22, 1944: Roosevelt Signs
man’s nomination. the G.I. Bill; Oct. 23-26, 1944: Battle for Leyte Gulf.
November 22, 1944

Canada Implements Conscription After Months of Crisis
Canadian lawmakers avoided introducing feated on the Plains of Abraham in Quebec City by the
conscription, or the draft, until the final year of World forces of the British Empire in 1759, a large segment of
War II. The political struggle was intense, and when the population began to feel like a conquered people.
the measure was finally enacted, it resulted in Flexible rule by the British, followed by a spirit of com-
significant social unrest. promise and consensus-building developed by Canadian
leaders after confederation in 1867, enabled the country
Also known as: Conscription Crisis of 1944 to thrive. Periodic crises continue to arise, however,
1944
Locale: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada when English and French Canadians come to see events
Categories: Government and politics; military in very different ways. A good example is the conscrip-
history; World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil tion crisis that erupted in the final months of World
unrest War II.
Key Figures Conscription, also known as the draft, had been intro-
William Lyon Mackenzie King (1874-1950), prime duced during World War I and led to four deaths during
minister of Canada, 1921-1926, 1926-1930, and the Easter riots of 1917 in Quebec City. The draft also ru-
1935-1948 ined the Conservative Party, which had been the domi-
James Layton Ralston (1881-1948), colonel and nant force in Canadian politics. The Conservatives
Canadian minister of national defense, 1940-1944 would lose that power in 1921 and fall into eclipse, con-
Andrew McNaughton (1887-1966), commander of trolling the government in Ottawa for only five of the
Canadian forces in Europe, 1939-1943, who next thirty-six years. One astute observer of the first con-
succeeded Ralston as Canadian minister of national scription crisis and the effect it had on the Quebec elec-
defense, 1944-1945 torate was William Lyon Mackenzie King, who became
André Laurendeau (1912-1968), leader of the League the leader of the Liberal Party of Canada in 1919 and
for the Defence of Canada, which campaigned took over as prime minister in 1921.
against conscription in a 1942 national referendum After two brief periods in opposition, King was again
prime minister in the years preceding World War II. In
Summary of Event the spring of 1939, as war drums were building to a fever-
The bicultural nature of Canada may be seen both as a ish pitch, he observed that the prospect of Canadian in-
great strength and as a threat. When New France was de- volvement in another European war seemed to many a
409
Canada Implements Conscription After Months of Crisis The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
nightmare and sheer madness. In addition to the massive cuss the use of home-defense forces against any attack in
destruction and loss of life, King also was concerned the Western Hemisphere, not just against Canada. En-
about the threat such an involvement could have on Ca- glish Canada became bitter, and home-defense con-
nadian unity. When the war started in September of that scripts were derisively called “zombies” because they
year, King repeated the pledge he had made the previous were believed to lack a full commitment to the life of
spring: that his administration would never introduce Canada. Within the armed forces, conscripts were under
conscription for overseas service. Most Quebecers did increasing informal pressure to volunteer for overseas
not want to fight and die for the British Empire, and so re- duty.
warded King’s sensitivity with a massive Liberal vote in King walked a fine political line, declaring that his
the election of the spring of 1940, returning him to the policy was “not necessarily conscription, but conscrip-
prime minister’s office. tion if necessary.” As long as the number of volunteers
Conscription for home defense, however, was a dif- met the perceived requirements for duty overseas, con-
ferent question. After the fall of Belgium and France in scription could be avoided. The Allied invasion of Eu-
May of 1940, Canada established a national service sys- rope at Normandy on June 6, 1944, was successful, and
tem through the National Resources Mobilization Act the war seemed practically won during the summer of
(June, 1940). Women were also required to register. Ex- that year, but a final German counteroffensive brought
emptions were granted for judges, clergymen, police of- the conscription crisis to a climax in Canada. In October,
ficers, firefighters, some farmers, prison and mental- Colonel Ralston returned from a fact-finding mission to
institution workers, and conscientious objectors such as Europe with a report that shocked the prime minister.
the Doukhobors and the Mennonites. King did indeed The report stated that the required Canadian reinforce-
keep his pledge, though, by reserving overseas combat ments could not be found without using conscripts.
duties strictly to volunteers. Conscripts were held in This change was supported enthusiastically by the
reserve in Canada in case of foreign invasion, which Conservatives and the third party in Canada, the Cooper-
seemed very possible early in the war. ative Commonwealth Federation, but King still hesi-
English Canada was more and more in favor of full tated. Rather than resort to full conscription, he accepted
conscription as the war continued. They demanded eq- the resignation of Ralston as minister of defense (who
uity of sacrifice, and the Conservative Party came out in had submitted his resignation earlier). General Andrew
favor of it in November, 1941. The defense minister, McNaughton, who was opposed to the draft, was ap-
Colonel James Layton Ralston, was also quietly in favor pointed in his place. McNaughton believed that he could
of this change. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor find the necessary forces for overseas duty without re-
in Hawaii less than one month later, King found himself sorting to compulsion.
under intense political pressure. His solution was to call a Unfortunately, McNaughton was wrong. Only three
plebiscite (national referendum) on the issue in April, weeks later, he was forced to report his failure back to
1942. King. King had no choice but to authorize sixteen thou-
André Laurendeau organized the forces against con- sand home-defense forces for immediate service over-
scription for overseas service by founding La ligue pour seas. One thousand home-defense forces rioted in Ver-
la défense du Canada (League for the Defence of Can- non, British Columbia. At Terrace, British Columbia,
ada). This umbrella organization included the St. Jean soldiers of Les Fusiliers du St. Laurent, with some men
Baptiste Society, the Montreal Catholic Labour Coun- from the Prince Edward Island Highlanders and Prince
cil, the Voyageurs of Commerce, and several youth and Albert Volunteers, took control of the camp in protest
farm groups. Its media mouthpiece was the Montreal- and held it for several days. Sporadic sit-down strikes
based French-language newspaper Le Devoir. The plebi- and rioting erupted throughout Canada. One soldier was
scite carried across Canada by more than 64 percent of reported to have thrown his kit bags and rifle into the sea
the vote, but 80 percent of French Canadians voted while boarding the troop ship to head overseas. He be-
against it. came a symbol of the resistance.
King now considered that he had a clear popular man-
date releasing him from his “no conscription” pledge, but Significance
he still hesitated to use this power. He feared that it might Close to thirteen thousand conscripts were shipped over-
rip the country apart. For the next two and a half years his seas, and nearly twenty-five hundred joined the First Ca-
only concession to the proconscription lobby was to dis- nadian Army in northwestern Europe. Sixty-nine were
410
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Canada Implements Conscription After Months of Crisis
killed and more than two hundred were wounded. Their Oxford University Press, 1977. An overview of the
performance on the battlefield was considered compara- draft issue throughout the history of Canada; focuses
ble to that of the volunteers. on the two world wars.
The German army finally collapsed in the spring of Keshen, Jeffrey A. Saints, Sinners, and Soldiers: Can-
1945, making it likely that the Canadian conscripts had ada’s Second World War. Vancouver: University of
not been needed after all. In the ecstatic glow of Allied British Columbia Press, 2004. Investigates the less
victory in Europe, the crisis subsided quickly. King and glamorous side of Canada’s involvement in World
the Liberals won yet another majority government in the War II.
election of June, 1945. King, William Lyon Mackenzie. The Diaries of William
During the first years of the Cold War through the Lyon Mackenzie King. Library and Archives of Can-
early 1950’s and the United Nations’ action in Korea, ada. http://king.collectionscanada.ca/. The diaries of
there was again some agitation in Canada for conscrip- King relevant to the conscription crisis have not been
tion. These efforts, mostly from members of the Conser- published in book form, but the complete set has been
vative Party, did not get very far. Louis St. Laurent, a made available on this Web site, provided by the li-
gifted politician from Quebec, appeared as if he was to brary and archives of the Canadian government.
take the reigns of power from King when he stepped Stevenson, Michael D. Canada’s Greatest Wartime
down in 1948. Under the Liberal leadership of Prime Muddle: National Selective Service and the Mobiliza-
Minister St. Laurent, as well as prime ministers Lester B. tion of Human Resources During World War II. Mon-
Pearson and Pierre Trudeau later, Canada moved into a treal, Que.: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001.
long era of demilitarization. The possibility that con- A study of the effects of World War II-era national
scription could again be implemented was nearly un- service on particular populations, including Native
imaginable for the remainder of the twentieth century. Canadians, university students, war-industry work-
— Steven Lehman ers, coal miners, longshoremen, meatpackers, nurses,
and textile workers.
Further Reading
Goodal, Lian. William Lyon Mackenzie King: Dreams See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
and Shadows. Montreal, Que.: XYZ, 2003. A general European Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Canada Declares
biography especially suitable for younger readers. War on Japan; Dec. 29-31, 1941: Churchill Visits
Granatstein, J. L. Conscription in the Second World War: Canada as World War II Ally; Nov. 15, 1948: St.
1944
A Study in Political Management. Toronto, Ont.: Laurent Becomes Canadian Prime Minister; May 12,
Ryerson Press, 1969. An in-depth analysis of those in 1958: Canada and the United States Create NORAD;
favor of the draft and those opposed. May 4, 1970: Kent State Massacre; Oct. 16, 1970-
Granatstein, J. L., and J. M. Hitsman. Broken Promises: Apr. 30, 1971: Canada Invokes War Measures Act
A History of Conscription in Canada. Toronto, Ont.: Against Quebec Separatists.
411
Blalock and Taussig Perform the First “Blue Baby” Surgery The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
November 29, 1944

Blalock and Taussig Perform the First
“Blue Baby” Surgery
Alfred Blalock and Helen Taussig developed the first dence of congenital heart disease is about seven in one
surgical method of correcting cyanosis, or “blue thousand live births.
baby” syndrome, which is caused by congenital Alfred Blalock was a skillful surgeon with a keen in-
abnormalities in the heart. terest in the physiology of the circulatory system. His re-
search on hemorrhagic shock led to the development of
Also known as: Blalock-Taussig Shunt
volume replacement therapy, which saved numerous
Locale: Baltimore, Maryland
lives during World War II. His outstanding contributions
Category: Health and medicine
to the fields of circulatory physiology and surgery at
Key Figures Johns Hopkins University Hospital led to his election to
Alfred Blalock (1899-1964), American surgeon and the National Academy of Sciences in 1945, his presi-
physiologist who pioneered the surgical treatment dency of the American College of Surgeons in 1954, and
of congenital heart disease his receiving the Passano Award jointly with Helen
Helen Brooke Taussig (1898-1986), American Brooke Taussig in 1948, the American Medical Associa-
physician, recognized as the founder of pediatric tion Distinguished Service Award in 1953, and the Al-
cardiology, who studied and corrected heart disease bert Lasker Medical Research Award in 1954.
in children While at Vanderbilt University, Blalock, his labora-
Sanford Edgar Levy (Sanford Edgar Leeds; b. 1909), tory assistant Vivien Thomas, and Sanford Edgar Levy
American physician who collaborated with Blalock (who later changed his last name to Leeds) conducted ex-
to develop the surgical bypass procedure later used periments on dogs to determine the effects of high blood
to treat “blue babies” pressure on the lungs. To increase pressure in the lungs
Vivien Thomas (1910-1985), surgical laboratory experimentally, they linked (anastomosed) the left
technician who worked closely with Blalock to subclavian artery, a major tributary of the aorta, to the
develop surgical procedures left pulmonary artery. This was the first time that the
Summary of Event course of the large artery was diverted to change its func-
The “blue baby” syndrome, or cyanosis, is most often tion. They found that the blood pressure in the lungs was
caused by congenital malformations of the heart and as- not increased appreciably by this operation and that the
sociated vessels such that circulation to the lungs and diversion did no harm to the dogs. This operation would
other parts of the body is less than normal. One such be the prototype of the one Blalock would perform five
condition, known as tetralogy of Fallot, is characterized years later to correct “blue baby” disease.
by four major abnormalities: the pulmonary artery is Blalock continued vascular surgery experiments on
stenosed (narrowed), a channel exists between the right dogs at Johns Hopkins, bypassing an artificial gap in the
and left ventricles (ventricular septal defect), the aorta aorta by connection to the left subclavian artery. Al-
is misplaced so that blood from both the right and left though this operation, designed to treat coarctation
ventricles flows into it, and the right ventricle is en- (blockage or constriction) of the aorta, was successful,
larged. Blalock was hesitant to attempt it on humans, because
These abnormalities result in poor oxygenation of clamping the vessels during the operation would cut off
blood (anoxemia), which is manifested by various symp- circulation to the brain and other organs of the body for
toms, including blue lips and fingertips, episodes of too long. His fears were somewhat allayed when the
shortness of breath that cause the child to squat, occa- Swedish surgeon Clarence Crafoord reported in 1942
sional loss of consciousness, stunting of growth, erup- that clamping the aorta for twenty-eight minutes during a
tions on the skin, and drumstick or clubbing deformities patent ductus operation resulted in no ill effects. Unfor-
in the fingers and toes. Before the advent of modern car- tunately, the application of his work to this problem was
diovascular surgery in the 1940’s, children born with conceived by another physician.
these deformities either died at an early age or lived very During a pediatric conference at Johns Hopkins,
limited lives with extensive pain and suffering. The inci- Taussig, head of the Children’s Heart Clinic, reviewed
412
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Blalock and Taussig Perform the First “Blue Baby” Surgery
Blalock’s report on blood vessel bypasses for correction the lungs. With the help of Thomas, they conducted nu-
of coarctation and inquired if a surgical procedure could merous experiments on dogs to prove Taussig’s theory
be developed to improve pulmonary circulation in chil- and to perfect the corrective procedure.
dren with congenital heart abnormalities. She had spent On November 29, 1944, Blalock performed the first
several years studying cardiac abnormalities in children “blue baby” operation on a fifteen-month-old girl suffer-
and was a pioneer in the use of X-ray techniques to diag- ing from tetralogy of Fallot. Blalock was assisted by resi-
nose and describe these abnormalities. She developed dent surgeon William P. Longmire, anesthesiologist
the theory that narrowing of the pulmonary valve and ar- Merel Harmel, Taussig, and Thomas. During the three-
tery in children suffering from tetralogy of Fallot re- hour operation, Blalock clamped the left subclavian ar-
sulted in poor pulmonary circulation and consequent ox- tery, cut through it several centimeters away from where
ygen deprivation. When Blalock agreed to consider the it emerged from the aorta, and tied off the useless upper
problem, Taussig began working with him to devise a end. He then pulled the lower end down toward the left
method for joining the left subclavian artery to the pul- pulmonary artery, which had also been clamped. He at-
monary artery in children to increase the flow of blood to tached the free end of the subclavian to an opening he
had made in the wall of the pul-
monary artery and stitched it into
Taussig’s Right Touch place. On releasing the clamps, blood
flowed out of the aorta through the
Born in 1898 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to Harvard economist Frank
left subclavian and into the left pul-
W. Taussig and Edith Guild, Helen Taussig would become one of the greatest
monary artery. The net result was in-
physicians of her generation. Her mother died when she was only eleven, and
Helen struggled to conquer dyslexia in order to follow in her mother’s foot- creased blood flow to the lungs. The
steps and become a Radcliffe student. child’s condition improved greatly
In 1917, she moved to the University of California, Berkeley, earning her after she surmounted a few postop-
bachelor’s degree there in 1921. She next studied at Boston University and erative complications, but she died
then—denied entry to Harvard because she was a woman—enrolled at Johns nine months later. Within nine weeks,
Hopkins University School of Medicine, from which she graduated in 1927. Blalock and Taussig performed two
By now, hearing impairment had joined dyslexia as the disabilities she would more operations and reported their
overcome to pursue a medical career; discrimination would next deny her an results in the May 19, 1945, issue of
internship in medicine, so she pursued pediatrics. However, she turned these
1944
the Journal of the American Medical
obstacles into advantages: In the absence of hearing, her heightened sense of
Association.
touch allowed her to sense abnormal heart rhythms, and her work with infants
By December, 1945, Blalock had
would lead to her greatest medical achievements. By 1930, Taussig was head
of the Children’s Heart Clinic at the Harriet Lane Home, Johns Hopkins Hospi- performed sixty-five such operations
tal’s pediatric unit. She would remain there until 1963. with an 80 percent success rate. Dur-
The first to question why some “blue babies” died quickly while others ing this time, he was acclaimed as
lived months and sometimes years, Taussig identified the condition causing a hero in the press with many re-
the problem and developed the idea for the operation to correct it. After the ports about how he had saved the
brilliant surgical technician Vivien Thomas helped develop the procedure, sur- children brought to him from all over
geon Alfred Blalock, under Taussig’s guidance, performed the new operation the country by hopeful parents. Phy-
on November 29, 1944. Their technique soon spread around the world, saving sicians, too, came from all around
thousands of lives. Taussig initially received little credit, however, and later re- the world to learn how to perform the
called that “Over the years I’ve gotten recognition for what I did, but I didn’t at
new surgery. In the years following,
the time. It hurt for a while.”
Blalock traveled to London, Paris,
Nevertheless, Taussig continued making valuable contributions: In 1947,
she published Congenital Malformations of the Heart; in 1954, she received and Stockholm to teach others how
the prestigious Lasker Award; in 1959, she finally was advanced to full profes- to perform the operation.
sor at Johns Hopkins; in 1962, she testified before the Food and Drug Adminis-
tration on birth defects caused by the sleeping pill thalidomide, thus helping Significance
to stop its use in the United States; in 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson The Blalock-Taussig Shunt, as the
awarded her the Medal of Freedom; and in 1965, she became the first woman operation is now called, has saved
elected president of the American Heart Association. thousands of lives and allowed nu-
merous children to lead normal lives.
413
Blalock and Taussig Perform the First “Blue Baby” Surgery The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
That the operation is still in use is testimony to its impact lating the events leading up to and following the work
on medical science. Marc R. de Lavel states in the book of Blalock and Taussig.
Surgery for Congenital Heart Defects (1983) that “the Blalock, Alfred. The Papers of Alfred Blalock, edited by
Blalock-Taussig operation continues to be the shunt of Mark M. Ravitch. 2 vols. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
choice.” Although open heart procedures are now com- University Press, 1966. A comprehensive compila-
monly used to correct tetralogy of Fallot and other heart tion of Blalock’s published works divided into three
deformities, the Blalock-Taussig Shunt continues to be phases. Ravitch’s biography of Blalock is complete
used as a palliative measure in small children as an initial and includes many photographs and personal anec-
step in a series of corrective operations. dotes.
The only operation performed to correct a congenital Blalock, Alfred, and Helen B. Taussig. “The Surgical
cardiovascular disorder prior to the Blalock-Taussig Treatment of Malformations of the Heart in Which
Shunt was closure of a persistent (patent) ductus arte- There Is Pulmonary Stenosis or Pulmonary Atresia.”
riosus by Robert Gross of Boston in 1939. The ductus Journal of the American Medical Association 128
arteriosus, a short vessel between the aorta and the pul- (May, 1945): 189-202. The original article where
monary artery in the fetus, normally closes soon after Blalock and Taussig discuss their operation and de-
birth. If it fails to close, the result is an overworked heart, scribe three case histories. The article is technical in
ultimately leading to cardiac failure and early death. nature but is filled with interesting details about the
The Blalock-Taussig Shunt remains widely used be- surgeries and attendant complications and outcomes.
cause it can be performed on very young children, too Illustrations, bibliography of related medical reports.
small for open-heart surgery. It provides a bridge of life Meade, Richard. An Introduction to the History of Gen-
for these patients until they are old enough to receive eral Surgery. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1968. An
intracardiac repair. Until 1952, repair of internal heart easy-to-read college text that provides an organized
abnormalities had to be done blindly because there was and comprehensive history of all types of surgery.
no way to stop the heart and oxygenate the blood during Chapter 14, “Thoracic Surgery,” discusses the history
the operation. Among the methods used to try to over- of heart surgery up to and including Blalock’s opera-
come this problem was body cooling (hypothermia). tion but lacks information on events that follow. Illus-
These events ushered in the modern era of open-heart trations, bibliography.
surgery and the possibility of correcting most congenital Richardson, Robert G. The Story of Surgery: An Histori-
heart abnormalities. Blalock and Taussig played a piv- cal Commentary. 1958. Rev. and expanded ed.
otal role in this attack on congenital heart disease be- Shrewsbury, England: Quiller, 2004. A popular his-
cause they had the vision and courage to attempt a radical tory of surgery originally published as The Surgeon’s
treatment for a disease affecting young children. Bla- Tale in 1958. Chapter 16 describes cardiovascular
lock’s brilliant yet practical experiments and Taussig’s surgery from the early nineteenth century to the first
keen insight and devoted concern for ailing children led heart transplant by Christiaan Barnard in 1967.
to a fortuitous relationship that ultimately triumphed
over a pitiful disease that had long plagued humankind.
See also: 1949: X Rays from a Synchrotron Are First
—Rodney C. Mowbray
Used in Medical Diagnosis and Treatment; Feb. 23,
Further Reading 1952: Bevis Describes Amniocentesis as a Method to
Baldry, Peter E. The Battle Against Heart Disease. New Check Fetal Genetic Traits; 1958: Donald Uses Ultra-
York: Cambridge University Press, 1971. A dated but sound to Examine Human Fetuses; Feb. 4, 1962: St.
useful history of heart medicine designed for general Jude Children’s Hospital Opens; Oct. 10, 1962: Tha-
readers. Chapter 17 describes the various types of lidomide Tragedy Prompts Passage of the Kefauver-
congenital heart abnormalities and gives an excellent Harris Amendment; 1967: Favaloro Develops the Ar-
historical account of how each was discovered. Chap- tery Bypass Surgery; Dec. 2, 1967: Barnard Performs
ter 18 describes the evolution of surgical treatment of the First Human Heart Transplant; 1969: German
heart disease. This chapter does an excellent job of re- Measles Vaccine Is Developed.
414
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of the Bulge
December 16, 1944-January, 1945

Battle of the Bulge
Along an eight-mile front in the Ardennes region of 1940 campaign that led to the fall of France, Hitler aimed
France, the Germans launched a desperate surprise at splitting the Allied forces—U.S. troops to the south
attack against the advancing Allied army. The and the British and Canadians to the north. The German
counterattack—one of the bloodiest campaigns in thrust first would obtain the Meuse River and then ad-
history—slowed but could not stop the Allies’ advance. vance on the strategically important city of Antwerp.
Speed and the ability of the advancing German forces to
Also known as: Battle of the Ardennes; Ardennes capture key road junctions in the Ardennes were critical
Offensive ingredients for success. Once this was achieved, the
Locale: Ardennes, France, Belgium, and Luxembourg Allied forces (chiefly British and Canadian), north of a
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil line running from Antwerp to the Ardennes, would be
unrest destroyed. Hitler hoped that, if the plan worked, the
Key Figures Allied coalition would fall apart, leading to a negotiated
Omar N. Bradley (1893-1981), commander of the U.S. peace. It might at least be possible to transfer troops to
Twelfth Army the eastern front to meet the Russian threat.
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), supreme Hitler’s generals were less confident of success. They
commander of Allied forces in Europe, 1944-1945, argued that Germany did not have sufficient resources in
and later president of the United States, 1953-1961 troops and matériel to carry out such an attack. Neverthe-
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- less, by tremendous exertion, two new Panzer armies, the
1945 Sixth SS Panzer and Fifth Panzer, were assembled. More
Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), commander of than twenty-five German divisions were gathered for the
the British Twenty-first Army attack along a fifty-mile front opposite five U.S. divi-
George S. Patton (1885-1945), commander of the U.S. sions. Two largely infantry armies, the Fifteenth and
Third Army Seventh, were to provide support on the right and left
Gerd von Rundstedt (1875-1953), commander in chief flanks, respectively, of advancing Panzer armies. Two
of German forces hundred thousand troops were mustered, along with six
1944
hundred tanks and nineteen hundred guns. Opposite, the
Summary of Event U.S. front was held by eighty thousand troops, supported
In December, 1944, six months after the successful land- by four hundred tanks and four hundred guns. Special
ing at Normandy, Allied forces were closing in on Ger- commando units composed of English-speaking Ger-
many’s western frontier. The advance across France was mans dressed in U.S. uniforms were assembled to spread
so rapid as to overstretch the Allied supply lines that ran chaos behind the U.S. lines.
five hundred miles back to Normandy and the English As the Germans marshaled their forces for the attack,
Channel. Faced with growing fuel shortages, the su- strict secrecy was imposed on all involved. Poor weather
preme Allied commander, General of the Army Dwight and the rugged territory of the Eifel region opposite the
D. Eisenhower, gave fuel supply priority to the advanc- U.S. sector covered German preparations. Radio traffic
ing British forces under Field Marshal Sir Bernard Law directly mentioning the impending counteroffensive was
Montgomery as they drove toward the Low Countries banned. Although the Allies had various clues that some-
and the port city of Antwerp. The U.S. advance farther thing was being planned, underestimation of German
south ground to a halt as a result of the lack of fuel. As the potential led Allied intelligence to disregard the accumu-
Allied assault on Germany stalled, Adolf Hitler saw a lating evidence of a possible enemy winter offensive.
chance to alter the course of the war by launching a great Allied intelligence considered the broken terrain of the
counteroffensive against the Western Allies. He an- Ardennes region unsuitable and therefore unlikely to be
nounced his intentions on September 16 at a conference attacked. Intercepted German radio traffic that men-
held at his East Prussian headquarters, the Wolf’s Lair. tioned fuel shortages was interpreted as a positive indi-
Hitler’s plan was bold and desperate. It called for an cator that the Germans were incapable of launching an
attack against the rugged Ardennes sector, thinly held by attack. In reality, fuel was being prioritized for the as-
U.S. forces. Hoping for a repeat of the highly successful sembled German forces in the Eifel.
415
Battle of the Bulge The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
On the morning of December 16, advancing out of the had stopped the German momentum more than five miles
winter gloom, the German forces under General Gerd short of the Meuse River, the first objective of Hitler’s bat-
von Rundstedt obtained complete tactical surprise as the tle plan, and one hundred miles from the primary objective
great offensive began. Two U.S. divisions, depleted by of Antwerp. A long but narrow bulge had been created in
earlier fighting, were shattered by the initial blow. Rapid the Allied lines that was forty miles at the base and nearly
gains were made by the attacking Germans, as they drove sixty miles in depth. The clearing of the skies over the bat-
on the key road junctions at St. Vith and Bastogne. The tlefield opened the way for massive Allied air attacks on
German advance, however, immediately ran into diffi- the German forces. More than five thousand planes moved
culty. Even cut-off and surrounded U.S. units continued to cut off the German supply line and support the hard-
to fight with a ferocity unanticipated by the Germans. If pressed Allied ground forces. Not until late January,
the Allies underestimated the German ability to launch a 1945, did the Allies manage to retake the lost ground.
great counteroffensive, Hitler also seriously erred by un-
derestimating the fighting abilities of the U.S. troops. Significance
For six days, U.S. troops at St. Vith held the critical The Battle of the Bulge, perhaps the greatest battle in the
road junction against German attacks. The 101st Airborne history of the U.S. Army, took staggering tolls: The Ger-
Division encircled at Bastogne held on in the face of tre- mans lost 120,000 men either killed, wounded, or miss-
mendous pressure from the Fifth Panzer Army. The coming, along with six hundred tanks and assault guns. Air
mander of the division responded to a surrender demand strikes to cover the retreating German forces had cost the
from the Germans with the famous reply, “Nuts!” To the Luftwaffe (the German air force) more than fifteen hun-
north, the Eighty-second Airborne Division held on to dred aircraft. Allied casualties, chiefly from the United
the shoulder of the bulge. The Germans were unable to States, totaled 8,000 killed and 48,000 wounded, many
widen their initial breach in the Allied line. In the most of whom suffered from a new battlefield scourge in the
infamous moment of the battle, on December 17, ele- form of frostbite, which sometimes necessitated amputa-
ments of the First SS Panzer Division participated in the tion and almost always required lengthy convalescence.
murder of eighty-six U.S. prisoners at Malmedy. A num- In addition, 21,000 Allied soldiers were captured or
ber of the German officers and men involved were later missing. Nearly 740 tanks and tank destroyers were lost.
charged with war crimes. The Ger-
man attack was canalized and proved
unable to widen the initial break-
through that had managed to create
only a bulge in the Allied line, from
which the famous battle receives its
name.
The Allied response to the Ger-
man attack was swift. Eisenhower
halted all offensive operations along
the front and concentrated all avail-
able Allied forces to stop the Ger-
man advance. With communications
sliced, Lieutenant General Omar N.
Bradley’s troops north of the salient
were put under the command of Field
Marshal Montgomery. In a remark-
able feat, Lieutenant General George
S. Patton’s Third Army halted the
Germans’ advance into the Saar and,
after a ninety-degree turn north,
moved to relieve Bastogne.
By Christmas Day, staunch U.S. U.S. soldiers from the 289th Infantry march through the Belgian portion of the
resistance and critical fuel shortages Ardennes in January, 1945. (National Archives)
416
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Battle of the Bulge
Battle of the Bulge, 1944-1945 strategic and tactical assessment of the conduct of
the war.
Liddell Hart, B. H. History of the Second World War.
Under German control,
December 15 Germany New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1971. An interpreta-
Under German control, tive study that includes a chapter on the battle by one
December 24
Sixth Panzer of the great military historians.
Army MacDonald, Charles B. A Time for Trumpets: The Un-
Belgium
U.S. First told Story of the Battle of the Bulge. New York: Wil-
Meuse R.
Army
liam Morrow, 1984. Account of the battle written
St. Vith from the perspective of the front-line infantry soldier,
Celles Fifth Panzer
e s U.S. 101st Army written by a rifle company commander. Black-and-
nn
de Airborne white illustrations, maps, order of battle.
Ar
Seventh Panzer
Mitcham, Samuel W., Jr. Panzers in Winter: Hitler’s
Bastogne
Army Army and the Battle of the Bulge. Westport, Conn.:
Praeger Security International, 2006. Book-length
study of the Battle of the Bulge from the point of view
U.S. Third
Army of the German Panzer divisions at its center. Biblio-
Luxembourg graphic references and index.
Schrijvers, Peter. The Unknown Dead: Civilians in the
Battle of the Bulge. Lexington: University Press of
Kentucky, 2005. Unearths the narratives of the civil-
Among the soldiers, forty-five hundred African Ameri- ians living in the Ardennes who were caught in the
cans saw action. middle of the massive campaign. Bibliographic refer-
Hitler’s great gamble had failed without achieving any ences and index.
of its objectives. The Germans, using up their strategic Stokesbury, James L. A Short History of World War II.
reserves, lost irreplaceable men and equipment that has- New York: William Morrow, 1980. Excellent general
tened the end of the war. At most, the Germans had merely history that places the battle within the wider context
slowed the Allied advance by weeks. With the destruction of the war.
1944
of Germany’s reserves, little was left to stop the Russian Weinberg, Gerhard L. A World at Arms: A Global His-
New Year offensive on the eastern front and the Allied tory of World War II. New York: Cambridge Univer-
advance across the Rhine into the heart of Germany. sity Press, 1994. Provides valuable insights on Hitler
—Van M. Leslie and Germany during the period leading up to and after
the battle.
Further Reading
Cole, Hugh M. The Ardennes: Battle of the Bulge. Wash- See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
ington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, European Theater; Apr. 6-30, 1941: Germany
Department of the Army, 1965. Detailed official U.S. Mounts the Balkan Offensive; June 22, 1941-Jan. 8,
Army history, essential for any study of the battle. 1942: Germany Invades Russia; Dec. 11, 1941: Ger-
Black-and-white illustrations, maps. many and Italy Declare War on the United States;
Eisenhower, Dwight D. Crusade in Europe. Garden City, Aug. 19, 1942-Feb. 2, 1943: Battle of Stalingrad; June
N.Y.: Doubleday, 1948. An account of the battle from 6, 1944: Invasion of Normandy Begins the Liberation
the commander of Allied forces in Western Europe. of Europe; Sept. 12, 1944: Allied Forces Begin the
Fuller, J. F. C. The Second World War, 1939-1945. 1948. Battle for Germany; May 8, 1945: V-E Day Marks the
Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, 1993. A critical End of World War II in Europe.
417
First Modern Herbicide Is Introduced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Mid-1940’s
First Modern Herbicide Is Introduced
The herbicide 2,4-D was developed to kill broad-leafed herbicide per one thousand parts of water. Furthermore,
plants but not grass and related grain crops, making it 2,4-D in the 1940’s cost only three to eight dollars per
an important weed killer and making efficient, targeted acre, compared with fifty dollars or more per acre for any
weed killing possible on a large scale. of the other herbicides. Thus, 2,4-D was consequently
viewed as being both inexpensive and safe.
Also known as: 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid; Unlike the other types of herbicides, 2,4-D, the most
2,4-D widely used of the weed-killing substances known as the
Locale: United States chlorophenoxy herbicides, is a growth regulator that re-
Categories: Agriculture; science and technology; quires only tiny quantities to turn weeds into plants no
inventions longer suited to living in their environment. One pound
Key Figures of 2,4-D can replace tens or even hundreds of pounds of
E. J. Kraus (fl. mid-twentieth century), professor at the most other herbicides. The herbicide is, moreover, sim-
University of Chicago who helped develop 2,4-D ple and inexpensive to produce.
John F. Lontz (fl. mid-twentieth century), Du Pont In its pure form, 2,4-D is a white, odorless, and
Corporation scientist noncorrosive powder that is relatively easy to handle and
Harold B. Tukey (fl. mid-twentieth century), research apply. Because the pure form will not dissolve in water,
scientist at Michigan State University who made its application to plants generally requires mixing with
important contributions to the study of 2,4-D oils. Alternatively, 2,4-D can be applied as a water spray,
in which case it is first converted into water-soluble
Summary of Event forms called esters and amines.
Humans have been at war with weeds since humankind Such water-based forms of 2,4-D are frequently used,
ceased living as hunter-gatherers and became agricultur- although they are usually somewhat more expensive
alists thousands of years ago. Weeds may be defined as than the pure, unaltered substance. One advantage of the
plants growing in places where humans do not want them “oil forms” of 2,4-D is that they are not easily washed off
to be. This may be in the middle of an ornamental flower the weeds by rain. Rainfall twenty-four hours after the
garden or in farm fields with food crops. The first case is application of the water-soluble forms of 2,4-D very
an annoyance to individuals; the second may bring about markedly decreases their herbicidal effectiveness. Be-
crop failure and lower the chances of human survival, for cause there are advantages to 2,4-D preparations both as
weeds not only decrease crop yields but also lower crop oils and as water sprays, many different preparations of
quality. this herbicide are commercially available.
Weed killing in agriculture involved laborious tilling The discovery of 2,4-D was a product of the extensive
by hand until the development of herbicides, substances search for selective herbicides that arose from discovery
that kill weeds. As any home gardener knows, tilling is of the first such chemicals, the industrially produced
laborious, expensive, and time-consuming. Before 2,4- nitrophenols and chlorophenols, and the plant hormone
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) became widely used indoleacetic acid. The chemical structure of 2,4-D com-
in the late 1940’s, it was estimated that weeds diminished bines features of both of these types of herbicides, mak-
agricultural revenues of the United States by more than ing it a widely used weed killer with many applications.
$3 billion per year. At that time, weed removal by tillage The herbicidal value of 2,4-D was first observed dur-
made up 20 to 35 percent of the entire cost of most suc- ing a systematic study of insecticides carried out by U.S.
cessful agricultural endeavors. Department of Agriculture experts from universities
At the time 2,4-D was introduced in the mid-1940’s, across the country. On the basis of their research, the Du
herbicides such as sulfuric acid, sodium chloride, so- Pont Corporation and other companies obtained patents
dium chlorate, and arsenic compounds had been used for for different forms of 2,4-D. John F. Lontz of Du Pont
about fifty years. The biggest advantage of 2,4-D in com- was the lead scientist in developing a patentable form of
parison with the other known herbicides was that it could the herbicide for that company.
be used in tiny amounts and with relative safety. For Low concentrations of the herbicide were shown to
example, one water spray form of 2,4-D used one part cause rapid and distorted plant growth, followed soon
418
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First Modern Herbicide Is Introduced
thereafter by death, when applied to many of the broad- very close relative, trichlorinated phenoxyacetic acid
leafed plants that are costly agricultural pests, including (2,4,5-T), which is a very potent defoliant and killer of
wild mustard, Canada thistle, and black bindweed. In woody plants such as underbrush and trees. When it was
contrast, 2,4-D at low concentrations does not affect found that a mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T produced vari-
grasses and thus does not harm grain crops. This is ous compound herbicides useful for clearing land, the
not true of higher doses, which can harm crop plants, so U.S. military purchased huge quantities of one combina-
2,4-D must be applied carefully to crops. tion that was shipped in bright orange drums and very
Among the other useful properties of 2,4-D is its rela- soon named Agent Orange. This chemical was used dur-
tively quick disappearance from the soil, within sixty to ing the Vietnam War to defoliate the Vietnamese jungle
ninety days after its spray application. Several research- and thus to help locate Viet Cong troops. The defoliant
ers on the original 2,4-D development panel reported that worked, but Agent Orange was found to contain an ex-
2,4-D ingestion by cattle, and by the researchers them- tremely toxic chemical called dioxin, a product of the
selves, caused no ill effects—but, of course, any chemi- manufacture of 2,4,5-T. Dioxin was subsequently identi-
cal that kills living things has the potential to be toxic to fied as causing many severe health problems to U.S. ser-
humans. The Merck Index (1976) points out that human vice personnel who delivered Agent Orange or otherwise
contact with large amounts of 2,4-D can cause eye irrita- came in contact with it during the war. Many studies link
tion and gastrointestinal disturbances, and that high con- dioxin to cancer.
centrations are lethal to rodents. Although toxic doses Because 2,4-D is an organic chlorine compound,
are much higher than those used herbicidally, weed kill- many of which are carcinogens, and because human can-
ers and insecticides should always be used cautiously. cers may take twenty or thirty years to develop, the herbi-
cide must continue to be handled sparingly and with the
Significance utmost caution.
One tremendously important consequence of 2,4-D use —Sanford S. Singer
was the rapid burgeoning of agricultural crops, which led
to huge increases of annual production and billions of Further Reading
dollars of profit, kept U.S. food prices down (contrary to Ashton, Floyd M., and Alden S. Crafts. Mode of Action of
expectation), and increased America’s power as an agri- Herbicides. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1973. A
cultural nation. At the same time, U.S. citizens were en- solid scientific treatise with information on the chem-
sured adequate nutritional intake, and the probability of a istry, use, and problems associated with herbicides.
U.S. famine was greatly lowered. Similar consequences Also includes a section on 2,4-D and other chloro-
have been seen in other industrialized nations that use phenoxy insecticides.
2,4-D. Bender, David L., and Bruno Leone. The Environmen-
Still unresolved, however, is the question of whether tal Crisis: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, Calif.:
2,4-D and its breakdown products will cause environ- Greenhaven Press, 1991. A thoughtful, provocative
mental problems and health problems to those who eat book with essays on environmental topics from dif-
foods that contain traces of these substances. It is clear, fering viewpoints. Includes discussions of pesticides
however, that unlike the persistent insecticide dichloro- and thoughtful commentaries on the roles of govern-
1945
diphenyl-dichloroethane (DDT), 2,4-D lingers in the ment, the public, and activists in seeking solutions for
environment only briefly, which should make negative environmental problems.
consequences from the herbicide’s use much less exten- Hildebrand, E. M. “War on Weeds.” Science 103 (April
sive. 19, 1946): 465-468, 492. An effective article that
Another important effect of 2,4-D has been its great gives a brief but solid overview of herbicides, touch-
ability to kill poison ivy, ragweed, and many of the other ing on their significance, history, types, and uses.
plants that cause hay fever and associated respiratory Also contains a valuable section on 2,4-D.
allergies. The herbicide has been sprayed widely on Inderjit, ed. Weed Biology and Management. Boston:
roadsides and in empty lots, which has reputedly had Kluwer Academic, 2004. Extensive text on the biol-
beneficial results. It has yet to be shown that 2,4-D ogy of weeds and the science behind their control and
causes health problems when sprayed for this purpose or elimination. Bibliographic references and index.
when sprayed on golf courses and lawns. Muzik, Thomas J. Weed Biology and Control. New
A major negative effect of 2,4-D was caused by its York: McGraw-Hill, 1970. A solid approach to weed
419
Africans Return Home After World War II The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
control that covers many alternatives. Includes a clear which it was sold in 1946, the methods of 2,4-D ac-
explanation of 2,4-D chemistry and biology. tion, and some of its viable uses.
Singh, Harminder Pal, Daizy Rani Batish, and Ravinder Winholz, Martha, Susan Budavari, Lorraine Y. Stroum-
Kumar Kohli, eds. Handbook of Sustainable Weed tsos, and Margaret N. Fertig. The Merck Index. 9th
Management. New York: Food Products Press, 2006. ed. Rahway, N.J.: Merck, 1970. Gives physical and
Handbook devoted to methods for controlling weeds chemical data, synthetic references, toxicities, and
without disturbing environmental ecosystems or oth- uses for thousands of industrial chemicals, including
erwise harming the planet. Bibliographic references 2,4-D. Very useful source.
and index. See also: 1941: Portable Aerosol Containers Are Intro-
Tukey, Harold B. “2,4-D, a Potent Growth Regulator of duced; June 27, 1956: Congress Amends the Water
Plants.” Scientific Monthly 64 (February, 1947): 93- Pollution Control Act; 1957: Dioxin Causes Chloracne
97. Provides detailed information on 2,4-D, including in West German Chemical Workers; Jan. 12, 1962-
aspects of 2,4-D manufacture and a list of researchers 1971: United States Sprays Agent Orange in Vietnam;
involved in its development and testing. Also dis- Sept. 27, 1962: Carson Publishes Silent Spring; 1964:
cusses methods of application for specific uses and its Green Revolution; Dec., 1966: Jensen Finds PCBs in
relative safety under different conditions. Animal Tissues; Sept., 1967: Environmental Defense
“2,4-D and Weed Control.” Consumer’s Research Bulle- Fund Is Founded; June 18-26, 1969: Pesticide Poisons
tin 18 (August, 1946): 22-24. Presents the early his- the Rhine River; Nov. 20, 1969-Dec. 31, 1972: DDT
tory of 2,4-D and mentions many of the forms in Ban Signals New Environmental Awareness.
1945
Africans Return Home After World War II
Thousands of Africans returned home after serving on Ivory Coast, Dahomey (now Benin), Niger, and Maurita-
various fronts during World War II. Skilled and nia; their federal capital was Dakar. French Equatorial
educated, many joined the ranks of the independence Africa, with its capital in Brazzaville, included the colo-
movements in Africa, strengthening the postwar nies of the Middle Congo (now Republic of Congo),
pressure on European colonial powers to grant Chad, Ubangui-Chari (now the Central African Repub-
independence. lic), and Gabon. The two mandated territories were Cam-
eroon and Togo; these possessions were taken from Ger-
Locale: Africa many at the end of World War I under the mandate of the
Category: Independence movements League of Nations.
Summary of Event France had a long tradition of using African troops as
To evaluate the impact of Africans’ homecoming after part of its policy of assimilation. Beginning in 1905,
World War II, it is necessary to determine the basic prin- France sent troops recruited from its African colonies to
ciples under which European authorities recruited and every part of its empire; these troops were called the
used Africans for the war. A clear assessment of the fac- Tirailleurs Sénégalais, a name use to describe all black
tors that impinged on the attitudes and actions of the co- soldiers in the French possessions. During World War I,
lonial authorities reveals some insights into how Afri- more than 200,000 African soldiers fought alongside
cans were recruited into the colonial fighting force, French citizens on every front. During World War II, as
which in turn exposes the extent to which African fight- many as 80,000 were sent to France between 1939 and
ing men had access to the knowledge and skills that even- 1940, and as many as 100,000 were engaged to fight in It-
tually helped them assume leadership roles in the post- aly and beyond.
war colonial struggles. Great Britain controlled sixteen territories during the
French possessions in Africa can be grouped into two period 1935-1945. Britain devised a variety of adminis-
federations and two mandated territories. French West trative systems for the government of its African depen-
Africa included Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), dencies, with the result that generalization became quite
French Guinea, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), the problematic. These ranged from Southern Rhodesia
420
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Africans Return Home After World War II
(now Zimbabwe), where the white-settler population The loss of its major source of tin, rubber, and palm
had controlled its internal affairs since 1923, to the products redirected Belgian trade strategies into greater
neighboring Beuchuanaland Protectorate (Botswana), collaboration with other Allies. The reorientation of
where dikgosi, or chiefs in colonial parlance, had consid- trade of the Congo resulted in 85 percent of its exports
erable control over the day-to-day government of their going to Britain, the United States, Rhodesia, and South
people. As the British Empire suffered loses during Africa in 1941—up from 5 percent in 1939. Given the
World War II, it became more dependent on troops and importance of the Allied cause, the wartime administra-
carriers for its army and agricultural products and miner- tion of Belgian Congo managed to safeguard its auton-
als for its factories. The situation became even more seri- omy and preserve its economic independence by insist-
ous as large areas of the colonial empires in Southeast ing on keeping open commercial relations with those
Asia fell to the Japanese. By World War II, all British ter- clients who paid best. Consequently, the demands of
ritories were tapped for both troops and laborers as the Allies on the Belgian Congo for commodities previously
pressures of the war increased. In Bechuanaland Protec- obtained from Southeast Asia was dramatic: Tin produc-
torate, for example, as many as 10,000 men were re- tion rose from 2,750 metric tons in 1939 to 17,300 in
cruited for the African Pioneer Corps out of a total popu- 1945; rubber, from 1,142 metric tons in 1939 to 11,337 in
lation estimated at less than 250,000. 1944; palm oil, from 89,947 metric tons to 144,271.
Through its policy of “indirect rule,” the British sought There were corresponding increases in exports of other
and secured the assistance of local chiefs, or local admin- essential products, such as zinc, cassiterite, coal, copper,
istrators, to encourage theoretically voluntary enlistment. and timber. African mineral exports were indispensable
Africans were encouraged by the media—from posters for the ultimate Allied victory. Notably, the manufacture
to radio to mobile cinema shows and information bu- of the atom bomb, which brought the war against Japan
reaus—to become partners with their colonial masters in to an abrupt end, was dependent on uranium supplies
the fight for democracy and a brave new postwar world. from the Belgian Congo.
In London, within the Colonial Office and in the British The Belgian Congo contributed relatively few men to
cabinet itself, debate had begun about the political future Allied armies; a Congolese unit joined the expeditionary
of the colonies, though it was not until after the war that a force that liberated Ethiopia from the Italians, and some
definite program of “decolonization” was determined. Congolese men were incorporated in South Africa and
During the war, there was uncertainty concerning who Rhodesian units. The civilian population, however, was
should be the eventual inheritors of power: the native au- mobilized in an almost military fashion to increase pro-
thorities, the educated elite, or a mixture of both. duction. Peasants were pressed into forced labor on the
Generally, the war is believed to have heightened the roads or detailed to collect wild rubber. Crops were req-
expectations of the educated elite, many of whom were in- uisitioned. Long before the war, it had been a cardinal
corporated into the colonial administrative and business point of Belgian policy in the Congo that male Africans
structure, as British officials and mangers left for the front. living in “customary society” should perform 60 days of
They were particularly inspired by the Atlantic Charter, obligatory labor, paid or unpaid, for their local communi-
signed in 1941 by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt ties. This included the construction and maintenance of
and British prime minister Winston Churchill, with its roads and the production of subsistence and cash crops.
1945
affirmation of “the right of all people to choose the form This policy—which had been formalized in the decree of
of government in which they live” and the expressed de- December, 1933, and used to combat the effects of the
sire to see “sovereign rights of self-government restored Great Depression—was now employed even more vig-
to those who have been forcibly deprived of them.” orously to prosecute the war. If Belgium could not fight,
As Belgium was overrun by Germany in May of 1940, at least it could provide the wherewithal for the Allies to
the Congo colony became the locus of Belgium’s inde- do so. By 1944 the maximum number of days devoted to
pendent existence. Belgian Congo operated as an effec- obligatory labor had increased to 120. Those who failed
tively independent colony-state with the Belgian govern- to perform this work were brought before tribunals de
ment-in-exile in London able to exert relatively little police (police tribunals); in other words, the judicial arm
control over its administration or economic policies. of the state was employed to assist the administration to
Some analysts believe the Belgian government-in-exile enforce its policy of increased production. The main
depended on the Congo for as much as 85 percent of its agents of this policy were the chiefs, whose unpopularity
funding. was thereby increased.
421
Africans Return Home After World War II The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Significance from their sizable European populations than in the west-

The homecoming of Africans after World War II is con- ern and eastern regions of the continent.
sidered significant for a number of reasons. First, it had a —Austin Ogunsuyi
tremendous impact on the individuals who were engaged
Further Reading
in the war; it also influenced the perspective of a genera-
Meredith, Martin. The Fate of Africa: From the Hopes of
tion of future leaders, shaping their sense of their place in
Freedom to the Heart of Despair. New York: Public
Africa and the global community. Furthermore, it set in
Affairs, 2005. The author presents a historical review
motion a series of events that culminated in the achieve-
of modern Africa. The book spans the entire continent
ment of independence of several African nations and the
and covers the major upheavals, from the promising
end of colonial rule on the continent, which reached its
era of independence to the spate of infamies that
peak in the early 1960’s.
plagued Rwanda, Darfur, Zimbabwe, Liberia, and Si-
At the personal level, Africans who participated di-
erra Leone in the late twentieth and early twenty-first
rectly in the war learned about the strengths and weak-
centuries.
nesses of Western European and North American so-
Mwakikagile, Godfrey. Africa After Independence: Re-
cieties. Many observers have argued that the European
alities of Nationhood with Photos. Grand Rapids,
colonial authorities’ sense of invincibility was destroyed
Mich.: Continental Press, Pan-African Books, 2006.
during the war, making possible the rise of a bolder and
The author focuses on the early years of independence
more spirited opposition to colonial rule in many parts of
and the problems African countries faced soon after
the African continent. Consequently, the African elite
the end of colonial rule.
who emerged were able to articulate a vision of freedom
Nugent, Paul. Africa Since Independence: A Compara-
and self-governance that would spur the entire continent
tive History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
for decades to come.
This comparative study of the different trajectories
At the societal level, the homecoming created the op-
and experiences of independent African states ad-
portunity—although unintended by the colonial authori-
dresses the legacies of British, French, Portuguese,
ties—for the establishment for the first time of an elite
Belgian, and Spanish colonialism as well as the
drawn from across tribal and ethnic lines. This new group
unique qualities of imperial Ethiopia and Liberia.
could identify with a common objective as fellow citi-
Reader, John. Africa. Washington, D.C.: National Geo-
zens with common interests and a common shared des-
graphic, 2001. The author uses the power of photo-
tiny, further fueling their collaboration in opposing the
graphs to chronicle the African landscape and the
European powers. Many scholars argue that African
challenges posed by a history of slavery, colonialism,
homecoming after the war reminded Africans of their
and tribal warfare.
pan-African identity. For the first time they began to re-
Wallerstein, Immanuel. Africa: The Politics of Indepen-
fer to themselves as Ivorians, Nigerians, Kenyans, and so
dence and Unity. 2d rev. ed. Lincoln: University of
forth.
Nebraska Press, 2005. Combines into one edition for
Along with these shared experiences and sensibilities
the first time Africa: The Politics of Independence and
were some differences: Returning to Africa had different
Africa: The Politics of Unity. This edition provides
meanings and impacts according to the varying experi-
some of the earliest and most valuable analysis of Af-
ences of the individuals, their societies, and their duties
rican politics during the period when the colonial sys-
and location of service during the war. Most important,
tem began to disintegrate.
the policies of various colonial authorities tended to in-
fluence greatly the extent to which the African soldier See also: May 8, 1945: Algerian Nationalists Riot at
could gain the necessary skills for future leadership. Sétif; Feb., 1948: Paton Explores South Africa’s Ra-
Furthermore, the sheer number of those who served cial Divide in Cry, the Beloved Country; June 21,
from a given African country, their level of interaction 1951: South Africa Begins Separate Development
among themselves during their service, and the degree of System; Oct. 20, 1952-1957: Mau Mau Uprising Cre-
resistance to independence mounted by the resident Eu- ates Havoc in Kenya; Aug. 1, 1953-Dec. 31, 1963:
ropean population also became critical factors in various Formation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasa-
nations’ struggle for independence. In general, a major- land; July 7, 1954: Julius Nyerere Emerges as Leader
ity of African countries in the southern continent experi- in Tanganyika; Aug. 18-Sept. 6, 1955: First Sudanese
enced a greater degree of resistance to independence Civil War Erupts; June 5, 1956: Oil Is Discovered in
422
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Billy Graham Becomes a Traveling Evangelist
Nigeria; Mar. 6, 1957: Ghana Gains Independence and Riots Ensue; July, 1960: United Nations Inter-
from the United Kingdom; 1958: Things Fall Apart venes in the Congolese Civil War; Sept. 1, 1961:
Depicts the Destruction of Ibo Culture; Oct. 2, 1958: Eritrea Begins Its War for Independence; July 5,
Guinea Gains Independence from France; Mar. 3, 1962: Algeria Gains Independence from France; Oct.
1959: Nyasaland Independence Leader Banda Is Ar- 9, 1962: Uganda Gains Independence; May 25, 1963:
rested by British Colonials; Nov., 1959: Rwandan Organization of African Unity Is Founded; Apr. 26,
Hutus Overthrow Tutsi Monarchy; 1960: Africa’s 1964: Zanzibar and Tanganyika Unite to Form Tanza-
Year of Independence; Mar. 21, 1960: Sharpeville nia; Apr. 28, 1966: Southern Rhodesian Freedom
Massacre Focuses Global Awareness on Apartheid; Fighters Begin Toppling White Supremacist Govern-
July, 1960: Katanga Province Secedes from Congo ment.
1945
Billy Graham Becomes a Traveling Evangelist
After organizing groups throughout the United States George Beverly Shea, an influential Christian singer and
for the Youth for Christ movement, Billy Graham radio personality, the program began airing in early
decided to become a full-time traveling evangelist, 1944. The Sunday evening program was forty-five min-
eventually acquiring fame for his crusades and winning utes in length and featured both live singing and preach-
the admiration of millions throughout the world. ing. Billy Graham and Songs in the Night were quickly
successful, and area youth soon began going to the studio
Locale: United States to hear Shea sing and Graham preach.
Category: Religion, theology, and ethics The success of this radio program led Torrey Johnson
Key Figures to offer Graham an even better ministry. After attending
Billy Graham (b. 1918), American evangelist George M. Wilson’s successful Youth for Christ rally at
Torrey Johnson (1909-2002), American pastor and the First Baptist Church in Minneapolis, Minnesota,
professor of New Testament Greek Johnson was inspired to organize another rally in Chi-
George Beverly Shea (b. 1909), American Christian cago. He asked Graham to be the featured preacher at the
singer and radio personality “Chicagoland Youth for Christ” rally. He reserved Chi-
Cliff Barrows (b. 1923), master of ceremonies for cago’s Orchestra Hall for twenty-one Saturday nights
Graham’s rallies beginning in late May of 1944. Aiming his sermons at
teenagers and servicemen, Graham preached to a nearly
Summary of Event full house and saw more than forty people respond to the
In the early 1940’s, a young college student named Billy invitation for converts to come forward at the end of his
Graham began what would become a worldwide minis- first message. The remainder of the series of rallies was
try when he preached at a series of youth crusades in also attended by record numbers of young people.
1945
Florida. By the mid-1940’s, Graham was a new Wheaton That fall, Graham was supposed to become a second
College graduate who had just accepted a pastorate at a lieutenant in the United States Army, where he was set to
small Baptist church in Western Springs, a suburb of train as a chaplain. However, the twenty-six-year-old
Chicago, Illinois. He planned to preach at what would Graham came down with a serious case of the mumps,
later become known as the Village Church and attend and he changed his plans to become an army chaplain.
graduate school. Soon after he began his new ministry in During Graham’s convalescence in Florida, Torrey
Western Springs, he was given the opportunity to take asked him to join him as the first full-time employee of
over preaching on a Sunday evening radio program fea- his Youth for Christ ministry by serving as its organizer
tured on one of Chicago’s best-known radio stations. and evangelist. Both men had a vision to spread the Gos-
In October, 1943, Graham had been asked by Torrey pel throughout the world and saw this as an opportunity
Johnson, a successful pastor and professor of New Tes- to make a difference in Christian evangelism.
tament Greek, to take over the helm of one of his radio Beginning in 1945, Graham began traveling the
programs, Songs in the Night. With the cooperation of United States, preaching at the Saturday evening youth
423
Billy Graham Becomes a Traveling Evangelist The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the first time, abroad in England. Af-

ter World War II had ended, John-
son and Graham decided it was time
to expand their ministry to include
Great Britain and the rest of Europe.
In 1946, they were able to fly to the
British Isles, where Graham even-
tually made a positive impression
in England, Scotland, and Ireland.
However, Graham found it diffi-
cult at first to win British support,
and some negative reports about the
rallies led to cancellations and low
attendance. Graham persevered,
To view image, please refer to print edition though, and soon, with good word of
mouth and the help of a few British
ministers, more people began to at-
tend the rallies. He eventually made
a good impression on many British
religious leaders and thus achieved a
measure of success during the first
Youth for Christ British campaign.
Graham’s contacts at Youth for
Christ and Wheaton College were
instrumental in spreading the word
about his growing ministry. Soon, he
was introduced to church leaders who
were impressed with his message and
ministry and who began asking him
to preach and teach in their towns
and at their churches. More and more,
Graham began to accept solo engage-
ments at evangelistic meetings and
Bible studies as his reputation grew.
Billy Graham preaches before a crowd of forty thousand people at New York City’s Along with George Beverly Shea,
Polo Grounds in 1957. (AP/Wide World Photos) who served as soloist and choir di-
rector, and Cliff Barrows, who served
as master of ceremonies, Graham be-
rallies. In addition to preaching at the rallies, he also gan to hold successful evangelical rallies on his own. In
helped organize new chapters of Youth for Christ in the addition to these rallies, he also fulfilled a promise to Dr.
United States and Canada and eventually in Europe. Gra- William Bell Riley and became president of Northwest-
ham’s preaching style and personality made him the per- ern Schools in Minneapolis after Riley’s death. His term
fect preacher for this organization, whose motto was as president lasted until 1952, when Graham turned his
“Geared to the Times, Anchored to the Rock.” Their ral- full attention to his ministry and evangelistic rallies.
lies soon attracted thousands and then tens of thousands By the end of the 1940’s, Billy Graham had become a
of teenagers and servicemen to a variety of venues, in- full-time traveling evangelist, first with Youth for Christ
cluding Chicago’s Soldier Field football stadium. and then with his own successful evangelistic ministry.
By 1946 and 1947, Graham had embarked on a full Graham’s early successes with Songs in the Night and
speaking schedule to spread Youth for Christ’s message, Youth for Christ paved the way for one of the most suc-
first traveling throughout the United States and then, for cessful Christian ministries of the twentieth century.
424
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Arts and Architecture Magazine Initiates the Case Study Program
Significance nings of his ministry as well as his relationships with

Following his beginnings as a youth rally preacher, Billy world leaders and dignitaries.
Graham quickly became one of America’s most influen- Lowe, Janet, comp. Billy Graham Speaks: Insight from
tial men and a much respected preacher. The success of the World’s Greatest Preacher. New York: John Wiley
his crusades led to the founding of the Billy Graham & Sons, 1999. A collection of quotations from Billy
Evangelistic Association and the Billy Graham Cru- Graham interspersed with short anecdotes from his
sades. Through these ministries, Graham was able to life and ministry. Material in this book is organized by
preach his Christian message across denominational topic. A valuable resource for those who want to bet-
lines throughout the United States and the world. In the ter understand Graham’s views and philosophy pre-
years immediately after he became a traveling evange- sented in his own words.
list, Graham traveled throughout the world with his cru- Pollock, John. Billy Graham: The Authorized Biography.
sades and preached his message to large crowds. Begin- New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966. The first authorized
ning in 1957, he added a new dimension to his ministry biography of Billy Graham. A thorough and honest
by taking his message to an even larger audience when he account of Graham’s life and ministry. Presents de-
began broadcasting his hour-long crusades on national tails of Graham’s life through 1960. Uses author’s in-
television. The immediate response to these broadcasts terviews and other documents for accuracy of details.
was unprecedented, and he soon gained enormous popu- _______. To All the Nations: The Billy Graham Story.
larity as a preacher and as a spiritual adviser to prominent San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985. A follow-up to
world leaders and politicians. Pollock’s biography of Graham. Details the events of
—Kimberley M. Holloway the middle years of the evangelist’s ministry and adds
fresh perspective to the previous biography.
Further Reading
Graham, Billy. Just as I Am: The Autobiography of Billy
Graham. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1997. See also: 1948: Roberts Starts the Healing Waters
The story of Billy Graham’s life and ministry in his Ministry; Feb. 12, 1952-1957, and 1961-1968: Sheen
own words. Discusses his early life and the begin- Entertains and Instructs on American Television.
January, 1945
ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE Magazine Initiates the Case
Study Program
The Case Study Program was an effort to revolutionize Summary of Event
postwar American housing by commissioning John Entenza joined the staff of California Arts and Ar-
exemplary architectural designs for low-cost, modern chitecture in 1938. The magazine had begun publication
homes. Although not as influential as it hoped to be, in 1911 as a trade journal, The Pacific Builder, and had
the program did help bring about a wider acceptance evolved into a regional coffee-table publication, review-
1945
of modernism in everyday architecture. ing gardens, houses, and theater performances. During
Entenza’s tenure as editor and then publisher, the maga-
zine began to focus on modern architecture and culture,
Locale: Los Angeles, California
and by 1943, as Arts and Architecture, it had changed its
Categories: Publishing and journalism; architecture
format and focus.
Key Figures Entenza’s interest in the practice of modern architec-
John Entenza (1903-1984), editor and publisher of Arts ture led him to speculate about the nature of postwar
and Architecture, 1939-1962 housing in the early 1940’s. In 1943, the magazine orga-
Charles Eames (1907-1978), American architect and nized “Designs for Modern Living,” a competition of de-
designer signs for modest, modern, family housing cosponsored
Pierre Koenig (1925-2004), American architect by twenty-two manufacturers. After publishing the de-
Richard Neutra (1892-1970), Austrian-born American signs of three winners, the magazine highlighted other
architect promising submissions in later issues. In July, 1944,
425
Arts and Architecture Magazine Initiates the Case Study Program The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Entenza published a lively and extensive discussion of Entenza saw the postwar years as a fantastic opportunity
prefabricated housing by Buckminster Fuller, Eero to refine and redefine American life by exploiting the
Saarinen, Charles Eames, and Herbert Mather. The mag- artistic, social, and technological changes that World
azine began to build a national and international reputa- War II had generated.
tion as a showcase for new talent, and was the first to The Case Study Program was based on projections of
show the work of such architects as Paul Rudolph and postwar population growth and housing needs. Demo-
Harry Seidler. graphically, the emerging middle class was younger,
In January of 1945, in an editorial move that cemented better educated, and more experienced than were its pre-
the influence and prestige of Arts and Architecture, decessors, yet the traditional trappings of middle-class
Entenza announced the inauguration of the Case Study domestic life were, at first, unavailable to them because
Program. His original plan called for the magazine to of the need to retool the wartime economy. In some im-
commission the construction of a group of houses on spe- portant ways, the Case Study houses were to be living re-
cific sites on fixed budgets. Architects were chosen to search laboratories: They were both pragmatic, experi-
begin to study, plan, design, and construct houses that mental redefinitions of the meaning of home and shelter
would answer the special needs of life in Southern Cali- for “typical” American families as well as illustrations of
fornia. the ways in which the latest sociological thinking and
The architects Entenza commissioned represented a newly available war technologies might be put to domes-
cross section of the spectrum of architects working in a tic use.
modern idiom in Los Angeles. Richard Neutra and J. R. The Case Study Program was motivated by a central
Davidson were European emigrants whose work repre- democratic ideal shared, to a greater or lesser extent, by
sented the ideals of international modernism. A middle Entenza, the architects, participating manufacturers, and
generation of modernists included Raphael Soriano and clients—a belief that all Americans should be able to live
Charles Eames, both of whom had degrees from Ameri- in an affordable, well-designed environment. Ideally,
can schools of architecture and had been in private prac- Case Study houses would reflect both the realities and
tice. A younger generation of designers was led by Craig the promise, physical and psychological, of life in the
Ellwood, who was twenty-six when he was invited to de- United States after World War II.
sign for the program, and Pierre Koenig, whose works A second, central Case Study Program goal was to ex-
evidenced a fully developed sense of a style of glass and periment with techniques and materials that had been
steel. used in the war effort. Entenza expected that the building
Three of the commissioned buildings were erected on process of program houses would take advantage of the
five acres Entenza purchased for this purpose in Pacific sort of rationalization of labor that had enabled the gov-
Palisades. One of the houses was designed for Entenza ernment quickly and efficiently to provide temporary
by Eero Saarinen and Charles Eames; Charles and Ray housing for large military and civilian populations. A
Eames built a Case Study house and studio for them- number of the architects Entenza commissioned for the
selves on the same parcel. A third Case Study house on program, including Charles Eames, had spent the war
the acreage was designed by Richard Neutra. Over time, years experimenting with military applications for mate-
however, the program’s success came to depend on rials such as plastics, metal alloys, and molded ply-
Entenza’s matchmaking abilities in finding enlightened woods, and with new processes, such as cycle-welding,
clients for the architects he had engaged. By the pro- that might now be converted to domestic production and
gram’s official end in 1966, the series of commissions consumption. For example, between 1949 and 1960, the
that had resulted included the construction of twenty- Case Study architects tested the limits of structural steel,
three houses, the presentation of eight experimental proj- a material unavailable for private use during and imme-
ects, and the planning of clustered housing units, two of diately after the war.
which were realized. Between 1946 and 1966, twenty-four Case Study proj-
The Case Study Program was a direct outgrowth of ects were built in Los Angeles, La Jolla, the San Fran-
Entenza’s progressive agenda. From the start, Arts and cisco Bay Area, and Phoenix, Arizona. While the first
Architecture published unusually long and informative group of houses did not exactly follow Entenza’s man-
articles for the interested reader on both basic issues and date calling for the use of industrial materials, by the time
innovations in a variety of modern art forms including the Eames and Entenza houses were completed in 1949,
music, film, painting, and design, as well as architecture. a consistent and distinctive style had emerged. Case
426
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Arts and Architecture Magazine Initiates the Case Study Program
Study houses were characterized by concrete-slab foun- interest was also high. The first six houses, designed,
dations; rectilinear, modular facades and silhouettes; and constructed, completed, furnished, and landscaped dur-
flat roofs. Case Study buildings made use of standard- ing the first three years of the program, drew more than
ized, industrial-grade materials such as aluminum sid- 368,000 visitors.
ing, stock sheet glass, plywood panels, and concrete While the forms and facades of the new houses were
blocks. The traditional street facade disappeared, and the startlingly untraditional, Americans were quick to
house turned inward and toward the privacy of the back- clamor for the sorts of amenities that Case Study houses
yard. Walls of sliding glass doors allowed for the inter- offered: Kitchens were light, efficient, well planned, and
pretation of the multipurpose interior and outdoor living equipped with the latest in labor-saving appliances; two
spaces. bathrooms were the norm; the formal, separate dining
The Case Study Program did not fulfill Entenza’s room disappeared; and the public and private areas of the
dream of revolutionizing the average American’s taste, house were buffered by patios and transitional spaces.
nor did it have a truly significant impact on the house- The Case Study Program did have an influence on
building industry. Despite criticism that it perpetuated mainstream building of the 1950’s and early 1960’s. The
elitist concerns for aesthetics and the single-family de- rigor and discipline required of both home builder and
tached dwelling, the Case Study Program did have a homeowner in the high style of a Case Study design were
trickle-down effect on tract housing in the West. The pro- gentled and softened into a popularized version that
gram also provided the prototypes for much of the com- came to be known as California Modern. This style was a
mercial and industrial building of the 1960’s, 1970’s, and fantasy version of the wonders of life in Hollywood—
1980’s, some of it designed by original Case Study Pro- informal living, ideal weather, and a particular sort of so-
gram architects. phistication and glamour—and was not restricted to the
geography of the West Coast. Tract homes in this style
Significance usually exploited some version of the Case Study archi-
While the Case Study Program did not transform Ameri- tectural vocabulary of overhangs, picture windows, slid-
can architectural taste or building practice to the extent ing glass doors, and light woods.
that Entenza might have hoped, it did encourage a more Mainstream and tract housing developments of the
widespread acceptance of the compatibility of modern postwar period did not, however, make use of the signa-
architecture and interiors with the requirements of con- ture element of the Case Study Program, structural steel,
temporary American life. Although modernism, as an and so avoided the mass-production component of En-
aesthetic construct and a worldview, dated from the turn tenza’s agenda. This was probably for two reasons, each
of the century, the postwar world was seen as somehow of which offers a hint as to why the program failed to de-
significantly changed, different from prewar society in velop widespread appeal. First, Americans were highly
attitude, ideals, and abilities. Whether all, some, or none resistant to steel as a housing element. Perhaps because
of this was actually the case is less important than the re- of its associations with war production, or perhaps as a
sulting sound and fury over the perceived need for result of American architectural history and tradition,
change in the smallest details of American life. steel was unable to overcome industrial connotations
Entenza was not the only person interested in future- that most Americans found offensive in domestic archi-
1945
oriented postwar housing. For example, in 1942, Archi- tecture. Second, steel was not as flexible as wood, either
tectural Forum published a group of designs for thirty- physically or aesthetically, particularly for the sort of
three prefabricated projects as part of a piece entitled small, individual units that Americans continued to be-
“The New House of 194X.” As the war began to draw to lieve signified “home.” It is clear that the Case Study
a close, interior design and women’s magazines, includ- houses did not express the collective American sense of
ing Woman’s Day, House and Garden, and American how life should be organized. Both explicitly and implic-
Home, began to speculate about coming trends and inno- itly, the needs of “average” American families were be-
vations in American domestic design. The Case Study ing adequately served by tract housing.
Program itself provoked widespread media coverage Despite the seeming failure of Entenza’s manifesto,
that was not confined to the pages of Arts and Architec- the Case Study Program is a significant chapter in mod-
ture. Other publications, both trade journals and con- ern architecture. The importance of the Case Study Pro-
sumer magazines, including House and Home, Sunset, gram derived from the houses’ iconic qualities, whether
and the Los Angeles Times, publicized the houses. Public their designs were realized or not. They were intended as
427
Arts and Architecture Magazine Initiates the Case Study Program The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
icons of the new American middle class; their meaning tectural style. Eccentric and entertaining. Black-and-
stemmed from the images of their intentions, the em- white illustrations, bibliography, index.
bodiment of a union of social utopian mythology and the Goldstein, Barbara, ed. “Arts and Architecture”: The
realities of mass production. For those affiliated with the Entenza Years. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990.
Case Study Program, architecture was both a social and a An anthology of important articles appearing in Arts
functional art, concerned as much with human problems and Architecture between 1943 and 1959. Also in-
as with the peculiarities of site and structure. cludes an essay on Entenza by Esther McCoy. Black-
John Entenza was among the vanguard of Americans and-white photographs.
interested in affecting the ways the postwar world looked McCoy, Esther. Case Study Houses, 1945-1962. 2d ed.
and behaved. In these designs, there is a suggestion that Los Angeles: Hennessey & Ingalls, 1977. A seminal
modern existence could involve the personalization and book by an important historian of California architec-
domestication of the same economic impulses that had ture. Black-and-white plates, biographies of partici-
fueled the war machine. The Case Study Program is par- pants, bibliography, index.
ticularly American in its optimistic exploration of the _______, et al. Blueprints for Modern Living: History
expansion of the commercial and social possibilities of and Legacy of the Case Study Houses. Los Angeles:
industrial production, particularly American in its con- Museum of Contemporary Art, 1989. The catalog of
sistently spatial and technological symbolism. Ironically, an important exhibition and a detailed study of the
the Case Study Program legacy is an international and in- Case Study Program and its projects. Readable and in-
dustrial one. The steel-frame designs of Eames, Koenig, formative essays by scholars of architectural history
Soriano, and Ellwood had a significant impact on the de- and design. Black-and-white photographs, biogra-
velopment of a high-tech style of residential architecture phies of architects, chronology, bibliography, index,
in Great Britain and Europe. The structural and formal notes.
innovations of the Case Study Program are most familiar Pulos, Arthur J. “The Search for Modern Living.” In The
to Americans in industrial and commercial designs of the American Design Adventure, 1940-1975. Cambridge,
late 1960’s and early 1970’s. Mass.: MIT Press, 1988. Contextualizes the Case
The Case Study Program shared the glamorous aura Study Program in postwar American housing prob-
of science, the siren call of the new, and the promise of lems and promises. Black-and-white photographs,
convenience with its contemporary, the European Inter- comprehensive bibliography, index.
national style. In the hands of Entenza and his Case Study Smith, A. T. Elizabeth. Case Study Houses. Edited by
architects, however, the products of industry were do- Peter Goessel. New York: Taschen, 2002. Massive
mesticated and brought to an individualized scale. The history of the Case Study Program, including photo-
rational was made to serve the domestic. The Case Study graphs of each home, reproductions of plans and mod-
Program offered Americans single-family homes that els, a reprint of the original magazine pages announc-
were aesthetically avant-garde, affordable, and emi- ing the program, and biographies of the Case Study
nently practical. The innovations they introduced were architects. Highly recommended.
historically significant and internationally influential
and made the reputations of a number of important
See also: May 7, 1947: Construction of Levittown Is
American architects.
Announced; Apr., 1953: Fuller Builds First Industrial
— J. R. Donath
Geodesic Dome; Oct. 8, 1956: First Two-Story, Fully
Further Reading Enclosed Shopping Mall Opens; 1962: Bookchin
Banham, Reyner. “Architecture IV: The Style That Warns of Health Hazards of Artificial Environments;
Nearly . . .” In Los Angeles: The Architecture of Four Summer, 1964: Reston, Virginia, Exemplifies the
Ecologies. New York: Harper & Row, 1971. This Planned Community; Apr. 28-Oct. 27, 1967: Expo 67
meditation on urban Los Angeles includes a chapter Features Innovative Architecture; 1970: Design for
on Case Study houses as a Southern California archi- the Real World Calls for Industrial Design Reform.
428
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Fluoride Is Introduced into the U.S. Water Supply
January 25, 1945

Fluoride Is Introduced into the U.S. Water Supply
Fluoride was introduced into the water-supply system In 1931, McKay sent water samples for analysis to
of Grand Rapids, Michigan, as a test case to see if it Harry Churchill, a chemist at the Aluminum Company of
could reduce tooth decay. The results were promising America (Alcoa). Churchill found unusually high levels
enough that widespread fluoridation soon followed, of fluoride in the water, between 2 and 13 ppm. McKay
although many people expressed concern over the and Churchill concluded that the fluoride was responsi-
possible side effects of the practice. ble for the mottled teeth (a phenomenon now known as
dental fluorosis). At about the same time, a group of Ari-
Locale: Grand Rapids, Michigan zona researchers had produced mottling in the teeth of
Categories: Health and medicine; science and rats that were fed with high levels of fluoride, further
technology linking the element to mottling. McKay also observed
Key Figures that, although unsightly, the mottled teeth of his patients
Frederick McKay (1874-1959), American dentist seemed to be more resistant to decay. The apparent con-
H. Trendley Dean (1893-1962), American dental nection between fluoride and reduced decay eventually
surgeon convinced H. Trendley Dean of the U.S. Public Health
John Yiamouyiannis (1943-2000), American Service (USPHS) to investigate the effects of fluoride on
biochemist teeth.
George Waldbott (1898-1982), American allergist In the 1930’s, Dean studied the water supplies of
some 345 U.S. communities and found a low incidence
Summary of Event of tooth decay where the fluoride levels in the commu-
Fluoride is the water-soluble, ionic form of the element nity water systems were high. He also found that mot-
fluorine. It is present in most water supplies at low levels, tling was very minor at fluoride concentrations of 1 ppm
generally less than 0.2 parts per million (ppm), and or lower. The prospect of reducing tooth decay on a large
nearly all food contains traces of fluoride. On January 25, scale by adding fluoride to community water systems be-
1945, W. L. Harris, chief chemist of the city of Grand came extremely appealing to many public health offi-
Rapids, supervised the first addition of fluoride to a cials and dentists. By 1939, a proposal to elevate the fluo-
water-supply system in the United States. Proponents of ride levels to about 1 ppm by adding the element to water
fluoridation claimed it would dramatically reduce tooth supplies was given serious consideration, and eventually
decay, which was a serious and widespread problem in several areas were selected to begin fluoridation trials.
the early twentieth century. Opponents of fluoridation In January, 1945, the water supply of Grand Rapids,
were not entirely convinced of its effectiveness, were Michigan, was fluoridated with sodium fluoride. Mus-
concerned by possible side effects, and were disturbed kegon, a Michigan city with similar demographics, was
by the moral implications for personal rights of adding a selected as a control city in which the water remained
chemical substance to an entire city’s water supply. The unfluoridated. Later, cities in New York State, Illinois,
decision to fluoridate drinking water has generally rested and Ontario were chosen for similar studies. Although
1945
with local governments and communities, and fluorida- the trials were originally planned to last for ten to fifteen
tion has remained a controversial issue. years, substantial reductions in tooth decay were re-
It was Frederick McKay, a dentist in Colorado ported in the fluoridated cities after only a few years. Pro-
Springs, Colorado, who noticed in 1901 that many of his ponents of fluoridation were convinced that these studies
patients’ teeth were badly stained. Curious about the demonstrated the benefit of fluoride in reducing tooth de-
cause of this mottling, McKay concluded after three decay and saw no need to continue the trial studies beyond a
cades of study that the discolorations had no relation to few years. Wisconsin dentist John Frisch and dental ad-
race, socioeconomic level, general health, diseases, or ministrator Francis Bull began an intensive lobbying
nutrition. McKay noted that a small number of individu- campaign to convince the USPHS to support widespread
als living on the outskirts of the city who were not on the fluoridation immediately. Dean preferred to wait for the
main water system were free from mottling. He con- completion of the fluoridation trials, but by 1950, top ad-
cluded that some substance in the city’s water supply was ministrators of the USPHS overruled Dean and endorsed
responsible for the abnormality. wide scale fluoridation.
429
Fluoride Is Introduced into the U.S. Water Supply The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
In addition to the USPHS, the American Dental Asso- the issue across the country. By the mid-1960’s, it had also
ciation and the American Medical Association also sup- become a political issue. The USPHS emphasis shifted
ported fluoridation of drinking water. The case studies of from research to political promotion. The agency and
the late 1940’s had apparently demonstrated that fluori- other proponents of fluoridation continued to conduct
dation was an economical and convenient method to pro- some research, but there was little real effort to investigate
duce a 50 to 60 percent reduction in the tooth decay of an possible fluoride side effects. Critics pointed to the known
entire community and that there were no health risks as- harmful effects of large doses of fluoride that led to bone
sociated with the increased fluoride consumption. Con- damage (for example, skeletal fluorosis) and to the special
sequently, many communities quickly moved to fluori- risks posed to people with kidney disease or those who
date their water supplies in the 1950’s. Strong opposition were particularly sensitive to toxic substances.
to fluoridation soon emerged, however, as opponents Between the 1950’s and the 1980’s, one of the leading
claimed that the possible side effects of fluoride had been opponents of fluoridation in the United States was the al-
inadequately investigated. In fact, while it was initially lergist George Waldbott. Waldbott documented what he
promoting the benefits of fluoridation, the USPHS had believed were his patients’ adverse reactions to fluoride
conducted very few studies of the toxicity of water con- in water, but his conclusions were refuted by the Ameri-
taining 1 ppm of fluoride. Later, some studies of fluoride can Academy of Allergy. Later research showed that flu-
toxicity were conducted by USPHS scientists but were oride can act as an enzyme inhibitor and may have a
criticized by opponents as being potentially biased. mutagenic effect (that is, it may be capable of causing hu-
Many people were concerned by the addition of fluo- man birth abnormalities).
ride to water, since it was an established fact that high Controversial claims that fluoride can cause cancer
levels of fluoride were lethal. Prior to fluoride’s introduc- were also raised in the 1970’s, most notably by biochem-
tion as an additive to water, compounds such as sodium ist John Yiamouyiannis. Yiamouyiannis claimed that
fluoride were widely used in pesticides. An extraordi- American cities with fluoridated water had greater can-
nary accidental case of fluoride poisoning occurred in the cer death rates than cities with unfluoridated water. Fluo-
1940’s at an Oregon hospital, when roach powder con- ridation proponents were quick to discredit his work by
taining fluoride was mistaken for powdered milk and pointing out that he had failed to take other factors into
was used to prepare scrambled eggs. Of the several hun- consideration, such as the levels of known environmen-
dred people ingesting the contaminated eggs, nearly fifty tal carcinogens. The debate over the Yiamouyiannis re-
died. This and other early incidents involving fluoride port turned into a personal attack on the credibility and
poisoning were responsible for the considerable appre- authority of those involved.
hension felt by many people when they learned that a During the early years of the fluoridation debate, the
pesticide ingredient was to be added to their drinking USPHS was responsible for both promoting fluoridation
water. It is not unusual, however, for a substance that is and assessing its safety; government policy at the time
lethal at high concentration to be safe at lower levels, as did not recognize this as a conflict of interest. In later
is the case with most vitamins and trace elements. years, however, responsibility for the promotion and
Opponents of fluoridation were also concerned on regulation of environmental and health programs were
moral grounds, because fluoridation essentially repre- controlled by separate agencies. The fluoridation contro-
sented compulsory mass medication. Fluoridation oppo- versy was partly responsible for the eventual reorganiza-
nents argued that individuals had a right to make their tion of regulatory bodies.
own choices in health matters, and a community violated The development of the fluoridation issue in the
these rights when fluoride was added to its water supply. United States was closely observed by other countries.
Fluoridation proponents countered such criticism by Dental and medical authorities in Australia, Canada,
saying that it was morally correct to fluoridate water sup- New Zealand, and Ireland endorsed fluoridation, al-
plies, because to refrain from doing so would result in though not without considerable opposition. Fluorida-
many more people suffering from needless tooth decay. tion in Western Europe was greeted less enthusiastically,
and scientific opinion in some countries, such as France,
Significance Germany, and Denmark, concluded that it was unsafe.
The issue of fluoridation polarized by the 1960’s; there The decision to fluoridate community water supplies,
was no middle ground, since water either was fluoridated beginning with the Grand Rapids study, created one of
or it was not. Controversy and heated debate surrounded the greatest scientific controversies of the twentieth cen-
430
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Fluoride Is Introduced into the U.S. Water Supply
tury. Throughout the course of the debate, proponents of ical, 1988. Although some chapters are technical, sev-
fluoridation frequently claimed to have a monopoly on eral sections provide useful, easy-to-read informa-
scientific accuracy by dismissing and discrediting stud- tion. Chapter 1 provides a comprehensive account of
ies by opponents. While there is little doubt that fluoride fluoride in the environment. Chapter 8 examines fluo-
does reduce tooth decay, the exact degree to which fluoride toxicity. Chapter 10 provides a summary of fluo-
ridated water contributes to the reduction remains un- ridation issues, including a historical perspective and
known. Fluoride in food, salt, toothpastes, rinses, and the benefits and risks of fluoridation.
tablets have contributed to the drastic declines in tooth Estupiñán-Day, Saskia. Promoting Oral Health: The
decay during the twentieth century. The side effects of Use of Salt Fluoridation to Prevent Dental Caries.
1 ppm of fluoride in water ingested over many years re- Washington, D.C.: Pan American Health Organiza-
main unclear. Although it has been argued that any risks tion, 2005. Scientific study of the effects upon tooth
associated with fluoridation are small, these risks may decay of adding sodium fluoride to drinking water.
not be acceptable to everyone. Bibliographic references.
Since the 1960’s and 1970’s, concerns over environ- Hileman, Bette. “Fluoridation of Water.” Chemistry and
mental and health issues have grown, and it has often Engineering News 66 (August 1, 1988): 26-42. The
been difficult for the scientific community completely to author consulted both opponents and supporters of
resolve the potential hazard associated with small fluoridation when she wrote this article. Scientific ev-
amounts of chemical substances in the environment. idence and arguments against fluoridation, which
Only about 50 percent of U.S. communities have elected generally have received little attention in science and
to adopt fluoridation. In 1993, the National Research medical journals, are presented here in a nontechnical
Council published a report on the health effects of in- format.
gested fluoride and attempted to determine if the maxi- McClure, Frank J. Water Fluoridation: The Search and
mum EPA recommended level of 4 ppm for fluoride in the Victory. Bethesda, Md.: National Institute of Den-
drinking water should be modified. The report concluded tal Research, 1970. Provides an account of notable
that this level was appropriate but that further research events that led to fluoridation as a vital public health
might indicate a need for revision. The report also found measure early in the fluoridation debate.
inconsistencies in the scientific studies of fluoride toxic- McNeil, Donald. The Fight for Fluoridation. New York:
ity and recommended further research in this area. Oxford University Press, 1957. An early account cov-
The fluoridation issue demonstrated how scientific ering the decade after the first experimental trial in
debate can be influenced by political and social policies Grand Rapids. Presents both sides of the issue impar-
and pressures. Neither proponents nor opponents of the tially.
fluoridation issue have been consistently objective in the Martin, Brian. Scientific Knowledge in Controversy: The
analysis of their scientific findings. Only unbiased scien- Social Dynamic of the Fluoridation Debate. Albany:
tific research can adequately attempt to measure the po- State University of New York Press, 1991. The author
tential toxicity of low levels of fluoridated water. For presents a contemporary view of the debate, giving
more than half a century, the scientific community has more credibility to fluoridation opponents than most
been unable to reach a consensus on the toxicity of fluori- earlier works. The chapter by Edward Groth provides
1945
dated water. an authoritative account of the debate, with a new per-
— Nicholas C. Thomas spective on the role of fluoridation opponents.
National Research Council Committee on Toxicology.
Further Reading Health Effects of Ingested Fluoride. Washington,
Bryson, Christopher. The Fluoride Deception. New D.C.: National Academy Press, 1993. Reports the
York: Seven Stories Press, 2004. The most compel- findings of the National Research Council’s Commit-
ling and best-researched of the muckraking attacks on tee on Toxicology on the possible health effects of flu-
water fluoridation. Argues that fluoridation was es- oride, which recommended more research to resolve
sentially a public relations stunt by the government the question. Provides a good summary of scientific
and industry that ignored deleterious health effects of studies on fluoride toxicity.
fluoride. Bibliographic references and index. Shaw, James H., ed. Fluoridation as a Public Health
Ekstran, Jan, Ole Fejerskov, and Leon M. Silverstone, Measure. Washington, D.C.: American Association
eds. Fluoride in Dentistry. Chicago: Year Book Med- for the Advancement of Science, 1954. The author
431
Yalta Conference The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
provides early evidence for supporting the use of fluo- 1965: Congress Strengthens Water Laws; June, 1967:
ridation to reduce tooth decay on a wide scale. Scientists Debate the Addition of Antibiotics to Ani-
mal Feed; Nov. 20, 1969-Dec. 31, 1972: DDT Ban
See also: June 30, 1948: First Water Pollution Control
Signals New Environmental Awareness; Oct., 1970:
Act Is Passed; June 27, 1956: Congress Amends the
Pollution Fears Prompt Invention of Phosphate-Free
Water Pollution Control Act; July 17, 1964: Congress
Detergent.
Passes the Water Resources Research Act; Oct. 2,
February 4-11, 1945

Yalta Conference
The Yalta Conference between British, American, problems of the United Nations, Eastern Europe, and the
and Soviet representatives provided a controversial Far East.
blueprint designed to guide how major geopolitical The Yalta Conference lasted from February 4 to Feb-
issues would be addressed in the postwar world. ruary 11, 1945. The United States was represented by
The problems that surfaced at the conference both President Franklin D. Roosevelt, his closest civilian ad-
influenced and presaged the advent of the Cold War. viser, Harry Hopkins, and Edward Reilly Stettinius, Jr.,
the U.S. secretary of state. The British were represented
Locale: Yalta, Soviet Union (now in Ukraine) by Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Anthony
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations; Eden, the British foreign secretary. As host country, the
World War II Soviet Union was represented by Joseph Stalin, the So-
Key Figures viet leader, and Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov, the
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of Soviet commissar of foreign affairs. The three Allied
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 leaders had met once before, at Tehran in 1943, but had
Anthony Eden (1897-1977), British foreign secretary, postponed many of their decisions to be discussed later
1940-1945 or to be worked out by their foreign ministers for presen-
Harry Hopkins (1890-1946), special assistant to tation at Yalta. Generally, the atmosphere at Yalta was
President Roosevelt cordial. Churchill and Stalin, however, were suspicious
Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (Vyacheslav of each other’s motives, and Roosevelt, who died two
Mikhailovich Skryabin; 1890-1986), Soviet months later, was in failing health.
commissar of foreign affairs, 1939-1949 and 1953- Many of the decisions made at Yalta were ratifi-
1956 cations of earlier accords worked out by the foreign min-
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the isters; some agreements were reached only after much
United States, 1933-1945 bargaining. The United Nations, for example, had been
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; proposed as far back as 1941. In 1944, the foreign minis-
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central ters of the Allied nations had established an organiza-
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet tional structure for the new organization. The Russians
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 had insisted upon a Security Council veto on all matters,
Edward Reilly Stettinius, Jr. (1900-1949), U.S. even procedural ones, and had demanded sixteen seats in
secretary of state, 1944-1945 the General Assembly on the grounds that each of the So-
viet Republics was autonomous. These demands were
Summary of Event intended to offset the Pan-American and British Com-
Early in 1945, as Russian armies were advancing on Ger- monwealth blocs that would likely emerge in the future
many through Eastern Europe and American and British organization.
armies were entering western Germany, the leaders of Viewing the establishment of the United Nations on
the Allied nations met at Yalta, in the Russian Crimea, terms favorable to the United States as a prime objective,
to consider the political problems arising out of the Roosevelt believed that it “was the only device that could
approaching defeat of Germany, to plan an occupation keep the United States from slipping back into isolation-
policy for the conquered nations, and to discuss the ism” after the war. Thus, when Stalin agreed to drop his
432
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Yalta Conference
demands for an unlimited veto in the Security Council, temporary influence would be established. The Ameri-
Roosevelt agreed to the Soviet Union’s request for mem- cans and the British were to be preponderant in Greece,
bership in the General Assembly for the Soviet Ukrai- the Russians, in Romania and Bulgaria. Each country
nian and Byelorussian republics. After all, members of was to have equal shares in Hungary and Yugoslavia.
the British Commonwealth would have six votes in the This agreement was not discussed at Yalta, nor was there
assembly. Stalin agreed to send Molotov to the founding discussion on the future of Czechoslovakia, Finland, or
meeting of the United Nations, to be held in San Fran- the Baltic states, all of which later came under Russian
cisco in April, 1945. influence or control.
Poland presented two problems for the Allies: its The future of Germany was the most divisive problem
frontiers and its government. When Poland had been taken up at Yalta. Most of the decisions were based on rec-
conquered by the Germans and the Russians in 1939, a ommendations made by the foreign ministers, who had
Polish government-in-exile had been established in Lon- been discussing the problem since 1943. Stalin favored a
don. After the Soviet Union joined the Allies in 1941 and partition of Germany in order to keep it under control,
began liberating Poland from Nazi rule in 1944, Stalin and Churchill toyed with the idea of a dismembered Ger-
had formed the Polish Committee of National Libera- many. Since Roosevelt was vague, they decided to refer
tion, essentially a Communist government-in-exile, the matter to the ministers of foreign affairs. Ironically,
which was known as the Lüblin government. the Soviets would abandon their position by late March.
Stalin wanted the Communist government to be rec- The Allies approved a temporary military occupation;
ognized as the legitimate government by the Allies. Fur- Germany was to be divided into four zones of military
thermore, he wanted the Curzon line—an ethnically occupation, with France (whose section would be carved
based boundary—to be the frontier between the Soviet out of the Anglo-American part) being included as an oc-
Union and Poland, with Poland’s western frontier moved cupying power. Policy decisions pertaining to the admin-
farther west into Germany. Stalin stood in a strong posi- istration of the occupation were to be made by a four-
tion, since Russia’s Red Army was moving through Po- power Allied control commission in Berlin. Berlin itself
land, and he argued that he needed a Polish security was to be divided and occupied by all four powers, and
buffer between Germany and the Soviet Union. the Allies agreed that common occupation policies were
Stalin, dealing mostly with Churchill, won the con- to be imposed, by mutual agreement, on the whole of
cession that Poland’s eastern boundary would basically Germany.
follow the Curzon line and that Poland would receive As for German reparations and the German economy,
substantial territories in the north and west. The final Stalin favored a plan proposed earlier by U.S. secretary
boundary was to be decided at a
peace conference at war’s end. Stalin
did, however, agree that the Polish Yalta Conference, 1945
provisional government should be Dnepropetrovsk
Krivoy Rog Donetsk
reorganized on a broader, demo- Botosani
S o v Zaporozhye
i e
t
R o m
cratic basis to include democratic Chisinau

leaders from within Poland and from Odessa Frunze U
1945
abroad. Moreover, he agreed the n
a n
elections for this united Polish gov- Cr i

imea o
i a
ernment would occur “as soon as Braila Krasnodar

Bucharest
possible.”
n
As for the other countries of Black

Constanta
Sochi
newly liberated Eastern Europe, the Sea Yalta
Bulgaria Varna
Allies agreed to support all interim Burgas
governments until free elections Poti
could be held. Specific problems in
Istanbul Zonguldak
the Balkans had already been settled
by Stalin and Churchill at a meeting Bursa Ankara
T u r k e y
held in Moscow in October, 1944,
when they agreed that spheres of
433
Yalta Conference The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr. Morgenthau’s that Poland would be given compensation in Germany
plan favored complete deindustrialization of Germany: and that East Prussia would be divided between the So-
All of Germany’s industry was to be given to the Allies viet Union and Poland. The Allies agreed to appoint an-
as reparations, and Germany would be allowed to main- other commission to make recommendations on these
tain only an agrarian economy. At Yalta, neither Chur- questions.
chill nor Roosevelt favored this plan, nor could they The question of the Far East loomed as a major prior-
agree with Stalin on the exact amount of reparations to ity for Roosevelt and to some degree for Churchill. Even
demand from Germany. Roosevelt did agree in principle, though the British prime minister did not participate in
to a ten-billion-dollar figure for reparations to the Soviet the discussions about the Far East, he did sign off on the
Union as a “basis for discussion.” The only agreement resulting understanding. At the time of the Yalta Confer-
made, however, was the appointment of a reparations ence, the Japanese seemed a long way from surrender.
commission to study the problem and to make recom- The atomic bomb had not yet been tested, and Allied
mendations. forces in the Pacific were a long way from closing in on
Apart from the military occupation, there was no the homeland of Japan. Likewise, Japanese troops had
agreement as to whether Germany should be dismem- proved to be able fighters who were not inclined to sur-
bered, kept intact, or given new boundaries, other than render easily. Thus, Roosevelt wanted Stalin to commit
Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin (seated, from left to right) at the Yalta Conference. (Digital Stock)
434
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Yalta Conference
to a Russian entry into the war against Japan in order to and concludes that the conference was a victory for
save hundreds of thousands of American lives. the West in that it limited Russian aims.
Earlier, at Tehran, Roosevelt and Stalin had reached Freidel, Frank. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous
substantial agreements concerning the Far East, and at with Destiny. Boston: Little, Brown, 1990. Written af-
Yalta, by secret accords, their agreement was formal- ter four decades of research, this definitive political
ized. Thus, the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan biography deals with the major issues surrounding
within three months after the surrender of Germany. In Yalta.
return, the Soviets would be given control over certain Hughes, Matthew, and Matthew S. Seligmann. Does
areas in the Far East, including the Kuril Islands and the Peace Lead to War? Peace Settlements and Conflict
southern portion of Sakhalin, as well as receiving con- in the Modern Age. Stroud, Gloucestershire, England:
cessions in Manchuria and a lease on Lüshun (Port Ar- Sutton, 2002. Includes a chapter on the Chinese Civil
thur), on China’s Liaodong Peninsula. These concessions War of 1946-1949, arguing that the Yalta accords
were granted without the knowledge or agreement of the were responsible for the conflict. Bibliographic refer-
Chinese government. It was also agreed that Dalian, an- ences and index.
other Liaodong port, would be internationalized. Laloy, Jean. Yalta: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow. New
York: Harper & Row, 1988. Written by a French his-
Significance torian, this work places Yalta’s impact in the perspec-
Most of the agreements made at Yalta were considered tive of the European community.
to be temporary in nature. Nevertheless, when World Senarclens, Pierre de. From Yalta to the Iron Curtain:
War II ended and the Cold War began, these temporary The Great Powers and the Origins of the Cold War.
agreements quickly became permanent. As the globe Translated by Amanda Pingree. Washington, D.C.:
was divided between East and West, the boundaries and Berg, 1995. Traces the history of the Cold War, begin-
apportionments tentatively agreed to at Yalta came to de- ning with the decisions made at Yalta. Bibliographic
fine the points of contact between the Soviet bloc and the references and index.
Western democracies, up to and including the 1961 con- Sherwood, Robert E. Roosevelt and Hopkins. New York:
struction of the Berlin Wall that would symbolize the Harper & Row, 1948. This revealing work is written
height of the conflict. from the perspective of the key Roosevelt adviser.
— José M. Sánchez and Robert Franklin Maddox Snell, John L., ed. The Meaning of Yalta. Baton Rouge:
Louisiana State University Press, 1956. This group of
Further Reading
essays by noted historians treats the various issues
Buhite, Russell D. Decisions at Yalta: An Appraisal of
that dominated the Yalta Conference.
Summit Diplomacy. Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Re-
sources, 1986. The author concludes that Roosevelt See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
pursued a policy of détente with cooperation with the European Theater; 1943-1948: Soviets Take Control
Soviets as his main goal. of Eastern Europe; Nov. 28-Dec. 1, 1943: Tehran
Churchill, Winston S. The Second World War. Vol. 6: Conference Promotes Allied Cooperation in Iran;
Triumph and Tragedy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Apr. 25-June 26, 1945: United Nations Charter Con-
1945
1953. This memoir deals with the events of the convention; Mar. 5, 1946: Churchill Delivers His Iron
ference from the British perspective. Curtain Speech; Dec. 9, 1948: United Nations Adopts
Feis, Herbert. Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin. Princeton, Convention on Genocide; Aug. 12, 1949: Geneva
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1967. This volume Conventions Establish Norms of Conduct in War;
evaluates each decision made at the Yalta Conference Aug. 13, 1961: Communists Raise the Berlin Wall.
435
Soviet Exiles and Prisoners of War Are Forced into Repatriation The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
February 11, 1945

Soviet Exiles and Prisoners of War Are Forced
into Repatriation
Tens of thousands of mostly Soviet citizens who were 1937 as models of Soviet justice, when in fact they were
left in Western hands after World War II as prisoners rigged from the very beginning. Thus it was easy to con-
of war, along with Cossack soldiers and others fleeing vince U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt and British
Eastern Europe and communism, were forced to return prime minister Winston Churchill that Stalin would wel-
to the Soviet Union after the signing of a postwar come home Soviet citizens stranded abroad by the depre-
repatriation agreement among the Allies. On return,
dations of the Nazis.
however, the refugees were imprisoned or executed,
To Stalin, many of the refugees were dangerous be-
because Stalin had condemned them as traitors.
cause they had been exposed to foreigners and foreign in-
Also known as: Agreement Relating to Prisoners of fluence, including new ideas and new possibilities. Thus,
War and Civilians Liberated by Forces Operating Stalin decreed that all Soviet citizens who were former
Under Soviet Command and Forces Operating Un- prisoners of war were also traitors because they “failed”
der United States of America Command; Operation to hold their ground to the very death. He called for their
Keelhaul execution or for their perpetual exile to Siberia.
Locale: Eastern Europe; Soviet Union The number of Soviet prisoners of war was great be-
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; human cause whole divisions had been encircled and captured
rights; immigration, emigration, and relocation; in the chaotic early days of the war, largely because of
World War II; military history the incompetence of the top-level leadership. The final
purges of the Great Terror had gutted the army, for Stalin
Key Figures
believed that Mikhail Tukhachevsky and the other truly
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili;
talented leaders intended to conduct a coup against him.
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central
The leaders he kept alive were largely his old friends
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet
from the Russian civil war, who proved utterly inade-
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953
quate fighting the Germans.
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the
The large numbers of returning prisoners of war, even
United States, 1933-1945
allowing for the vast numbers who had died as a result of
Andrey Vlasov (1900-1946), leader of the Russian
mistreatment by the Nazis, could be considered a silent
Liberation Army
indictment of the quality of the Red Army’s leadership,
Summary of Event something Stalin could not tolerate. When the mass repa-
Among the agreements made by the Allied leaders at the triations of prisoners of war began, about one hundred
Yalta Conference near the close of World War II was one processing stations were created along the borders of the
for the repatriation of persons displaced by the war, par- Soviet Union. Agents of the Soviet secret police deter-
ticularly prisoners of war. On the surface the agreement, mined which returnees were to be shot on the spot as trai-
called the Agreement Relating to Prisoners of War and tors and which were merely to be shipped to Siberia.
Civilians Liberated by Forces Operating Under Soviet Prisoners of war were not the only repatriates. In addi-
Command and Forces Operating Under United States of tion to the soldiers who had been captured in those first
America Command (February 11, 1945), seemed inno- catastrophic weeks of the invasion of the Soviet Union,
cent enough, a humanitarian effort to get people safely there were large numbers of people who had fled the So-
back to their homeland now that the war was near its end. viet Union before the war and who had become en-
However, the Allies failed to comprehend the suspicious meshed in the Nazi system. Also, thousands of people
and cruel mind of their ally from the east, Joseph Stalin. were fleeing Soviet-occupied Eastern Europe. These ex-
The leader of the Soviet Union had mastered the tech- iles included whole communities of Cossacks previously
nique of presenting himself as a wise and gentle vision- loyal to the czar who had fled into Eastern Europe early
ary leader, the father of his people, while at the same time in the war and subsequently fought for the Nazis. The
committing atrocities against those very people. The Cossack fighters believed that aiding the Nazis was the
Western press praised his Moscow Trials of 1936 and lesser of two evils, and they hoped for a chance to destroy
436
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Soviet Exiles and Prisoners of War Are Forced into Repatriation
the Soviet system that had destroyed their old way of life. patriation. All involved believed that the U.S. leadership
When it was announced that the Cossacks had to return to should have suspected that something was amiss, that
the Soviet Union under the terms of the repatriation Stalin’s intention regarding the repatriation of prisoners
agreements, they resisted, often violently. Others went were not motivated by benign humanitarianism. In fact,
on hunger strikes to protest the prospect of being handed there is some evidence that a number of U.S. and British
over to Stalin. Their plight attracted the attention of such leaders knew what Stalin really intended but did not wish
luminaries as British king George VI and Geoffrey Fran- to put their own prisoners of war, stranded in Soviet-held
cis Fisher, the archbishop of Canterbury. However, these territory, at risk by playing political hardball.
pleas for a humanitarian exception went mostly unno- —Leigh Husband Kimmel
ticed, and the Cossacks were returned to the Soviet
Further Reading
Union by force. Even British troops fired on those who
Montefiore, Simon Sebag. Stalin: The Court of the Red
attempted to escape through the woods.
Tsar. New York: Knopf, 2004. An examination of the
The returning former prisoners then had to face the
workings of Stalin’s inner circle, particularly the way
Russian Liberation Army. During the early hopeless
in which Stalin frequently used his followers to de-
months of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, many
flect blame for his atrocities away from himself.
captives considered the Nazis not as enemies but as liber-
Perlmutter, Amos. FDR and Stalin: A Not So Grand Alli-
ators who would free them from Stalin’s tyranny. Among
ance, 1943-1945. Columbia: University of Missouri
them was General Andrey Vlasov, a capable young offi-
Press, 1993. A study of the relationship between Roo-
cer who had been catapulted into high position by the
sevelt and Stalin during World War II.
purges that had murdered older, more senior officers. He
Polian, Pavel. Against Their Will: The History and Geog-
was painfully aware of how Stalin had gutted the Red
raphy of Forced Migrations in the USSR. Translated
Army, and when the Nazis offered him an opportunity to
by Anna Yastrzhembska. New York: Central Euro-
fight against Stalin, he accepted the leadership of the
pean University Press, 2004. First published in 2001,
Russian forces in the Wehrmacht. It is difficult to deter-
this comprehensive study of forced migration and re-
mine how many of the soldiers under him joined the Rus-
patriation to and from the Soviet Union includes dis-
sian Liberation Army because they held a deep and burn-
cussion of the repatriations following World War II.
ing desire to destroy Stalin or how many joined because
Highly recommended.
doing so got them out of the hellish conditions of the
Seaton, Albert. The Horsemen of the Steppes: The Story
prisoner-of-war camps. These questions did not matter
of the Cossacks. New York: Hippocrene Books, 1985.
either to the Allies or to Stalin. The Allies saw them as
A history of the Cossacks, from their origins in the
treacherous enemies and Stalin saw them as traitors be-
cultural collision between the Tatars and the Rus-
cause they had fought for the Nazis. Thousands of them
sians, through the great peasant rebellions, to the
were shot immediately on entering Soviet territory. Vla-
postrevolution flights west, to the attempts to forcibly
sov was given a secret trial sometime in July of 1946. Al-
repatriate those who had fought for the Nazis.
though some accounts claim that he was shot, others
Tolstoy, Nikolai. The Secret Betrayal. New York: Scrib-
claim that the “honorable” penalty of being shot was con-
ner, 1978. The most extensive account available in
sidered too good for a turncoat and he was instead
1945
English of the forced repatriations. A highly contro-
hanged, with the drop being made deliberately short so
versial work that presents the story of the deaths of the
that he would endure a slow and painful death by stran-
repatriates to the Western world. Published as Victims
gulation.
of Yalta in 1977.
Ure, John. The Cossacks: An Illustrated History. New
Significance
York: Penguin Books, 2002. An accessible history of
As the full implications of the prisoners of war agreement
the Cossacks, their explorations, and their rebellions,
became known in the West, it became a matter of great
particularly of interest since it includes material only
contention, particularly for the conservative elements who
available since the fall of the Soviet Union, which gave
considered Roosevelt to have betrayed Eastern Europe to
Western scholars access to previously secret archives.
Stalin. Others considered the agreement a great shame to
the U.S. military, who obeyed the orders to send the refu- See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
gees back to their homeland, particularly given that the European Theater; Apr. 19-May 16, 1943: Warsaw
refugees themselves were so clearly opposed to their re- Ghetto Armed Uprising Against Nazis; May 8, 1945:
437
American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in Europe; Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Statute Is
Mar. 5, 1946: Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Approved; July 28, 1951: Adoption of the U.N. Con-
Speech; 1948: Soviets Escalate Persecution of Jews; vention Relating to the Status of Refugees; Mar. 5,
Dec. 9, 1948: United Nations Adopts Convention on 1953: Death of Stalin; Aug. 7, 1953: Refugee Relief
Genocide; 1949-1961: East Germans Flee to West to Act; Sept. 28, 1954: United Nations Drafts a Conven-
Escape Communist Regime; Dec. 14, 1950: United tion on Stateless Persons.
February 23, 1945

American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima
The photograph taken of the raising of the American Japanese archipelago. While the island of Okinawa was
flag atop Iwo Jima’s Mount Suribachi by U.S. Marines the first major Japanese target of the Pacific campaign,
became one of World War II’s most famous images, American planners, fresh from the recapture of the Phil-
although another month of bloody fighting would ippines, chose first to capture the Japanese military
follow before Japanese defenders were completely stronghold of Iwo Jima.
subdued. Capture of the strategic island paved the way Iwo Jima is a volcanic island, considered a part of Ja-
for more intense bombing of the Japanese mainland, pan’s Tokyo prefecture, that lies approximately at the
and the photograph would serve as the model for the midway point between the Mariana Islands and the Japa-
U.S. Marine Corps War Memorial in Arlington, nese mainland. In the last years of the Pacific war, Iwo
Virginia. Jima became a site of strategic importance. Saipan, the
most strategically important of the Marianas and a major
Also known as: Battle of Iwo Jima Japanese stronghold in the Pacific, fell to the United
Locale: Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima, Japan States in 1944. From Saipan, the Americans were able to
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil launch long-range bombing missions against Honshn,
unrest; photography the largest of the Japanese islands.
Key Figures The capture of Saipan and the intensification of
Joe Rosenthal (1911-2006), Associated Press bombing raids against Japan made Iwo Jima strategically
photographer important for America. Iwo Jima was a perfect location
Michael Strank (1919-1945), U.S. Marine Corps for the construction of landing strips for American
sergeant bombers damaged in bombing runs over Japan that
Franklin Sousley (1925-1945), U.S. Marine Corps would not be able to make the return trip to the Marianas.
private first class In addition, Iwo Jima served as an early-warning station
Ira Hamilton Hayes (1923-1955), U.S. Marine Corps for the Japanese forces, detecting American aircraft on
corporal the way to Japan. This was yet another reason that Amer-
Harlon Block (1924-1945), U.S. Marine Corps ican planners prioritized the capture of the island.
sergeant The invasion of Iwo Jima began on February 19,
John Bradley (1923-1994), U.S. Navy corpsman 1945. Before amphibious landings commenced, the is-
Rene Gagnon (1925-1979), U.S. Marine Corps private land was subjected to the longest preliminary bombard-
first class ment of the Pacific war. Once the way was prepared, a
fleet of eight battleships, eight cruisers, and ten escort
Summary of Event carriers supported the landings of more than thirty thou-
By 1944, the United States had recovered from its early sand Marines on the first day. More than forty thousand
setbacks in the war against Japan in the Pacific theater of others were committed before the battle ended.
World War II. It had effectively turned the tide against The Battle of Iwo Jima was a bloody one. The Japa-
the Asian power, and the central Pacific offensive—an nese troops were committed to pursuing a strategy of
island-hopping campaign progressively to take control gyokusai—literally meaning “shattered jewel” and indi-
of the Pacific Islands—had brought American forces cating a desire to fight to the last man. Their tenacious de-
within striking distance of the extreme south end of the fense resulted in large numbers of American casualties.
438
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima
Reports on Iwo Jima

The U.S. Navy issued countless press releases, or communiqués, during World War II, reporting on the progress of the Navy
against Japanese forces in the Pacific, including the Battle of Iwo Jima.
Communiqué No. 273, February 23, 1945

The 28th Regiment of United States Marines was observed raising the United States Flag on the summit of Mount Suribachi on
Iwo Island at 1035 today (East Longitude Date).
Communiqué No. 274, February 23, 1945

The 28th Regiment of Marines on Iwo Island achieved the rim of Mount Suribachi on the Northern, Eastern and Western sides
of the crater by 1200 today (East Longitude Date). Below on the steep slopes of the Volcano assault teams equipped with flame
throwers were still attacking numerous enemy strong points which had been by-passed. The drive which carried our forces to
the summit was supported effectively by Marine artillery.
After a night in which their lines remained stable the troops in the northern sector made a frontal attack on enemy strong
points and moved slowly toward the Central Iwo airfield. The enemy employing heavy artillery and mortar fire was offering
stiff resistance.
By 1200 small gains had been made in the center of the lines south of the field. . . .
Part of the northern beaches were subjected to mortar and sniper fire during the day.
During the night of February 22-23, a group of enemy swimmers landed on the western coast of the island to attack in the
rear of our lines. The Marines mopped them up after dawn.
Press Release No. 39, March 17, 1945

For twenty-six days on Iwo Island, the United States Marines fought under conditions which have had no parallel in the war
against Japan. Our troops have now defeated the enemy despite every natural advantage of his defenses. . . .
From the opening day, when at H-hour the pre-invasion bombardment successfully beat down the island defenses long
enough for the troops to gain a foothold which they were never to lose, our forces met and solved problems which could have
been insuperable for men less resolute in mind, heart and purpose.
Volcanic ash which immobilized even tracked vehicles and made them motionless targets; artillery long since registered on
every possible landing place; interlocking and mutually supporting pillboxes and strong points; underground labyrinths ex-
tending a total of many miles and the result of many years of military planning and construction; defenses whose depth was lim-
ited only by the coastlines of the island; a garrison which was made up of units of the enemy forces especially trained to utilize
the defensive advantages of this island; a terrain that was characterized by a high volcanic cone, cliffs, deep gulleys, several
commanding hills and a series of terraces rising from the beach to the prominences and plateaus which had to be taken these
were the problems of Iwo Island. . . .
Iwo Jima is approximately eight square miles in size, Block, and Strank did not survive the battle. A photo-
1945
and Mount Suribachi, a nearly 550-foot-tall volcanic graph of the flag-raising was taken by Joe Rosenthal, a
cone, was its most tactically significant feature in the bat- Jewish American photographer for the Associated Press.
tle. Capturing the mountain was an American priority. Bill Genaust, a Marine Corps photographer, captured the
Suribachi was riddled with tunnels, caves, and bunkers. raising of the flag on film. The image of the flag-raising
The advance up the mountain was extremely difficult. on Mount Suribachi soon became symbolic of the efforts
Flamethrowers and grenades were used to knock out Jap- of the U.S. Marine Corps and of the United States’ perse-
anese positions, but the American forces took heavy ca- verance in World War II.
sualties. Marines reached the summit of Suribachi on Rosenthal’s photograph was quickly sent to Guam,
February 23, and a small American flag was raised. where Associated Press photo editor John Bodkin, rec-
The first flag was not easily visible, so for morale pur- ognizing the power of the flag-raising image, wired it to
poses, a much larger flag was hoisted later that day by New York. Within twenty-four hours of the flag-raising,
Michael Strank, Ira Hamilton Hayes, Franklin Sousley, the Associated Press began to circulate the Suribachi
John Bradley, Harlon Block, and Rene Gagnon. Sousley, photograph, which ran in hundreds of newspapers in the
439
American Flag Is Raised at Iwo Jima The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1945, that their identities were re-

leased. Harlon Block was initially
misidentified as Henry Hansen, a
mistake that was rectified years later
thanks to the combined efforts of
the Block family and flag-raiser Ira
Hayes.
The three surviving flag-raisers—
Hayes, Bradley, and Gagnon—were
brought home to participate in a war-
bond drive and other functions to
boost morale on the home front. Af-
ter the war was over, Gagnon at-
tempted to parlay his fame into a
movie career with little success.
Gagnon was embittered by his faded
fame and died in 1979. Hayes, de-
pressed at being welcomed as a hero
when so many of the men in his unit
had given their lives on Iwo Jima,
Joe Rosenthal’s Pulitzer Prize-winning photograph of the American flag being raised began to drink and died from the ef-
at Iwo Jima. (National Archives) fects of alcohol abuse and exposure
in 1955 at the age of thirty-two. Like
Hayes, Bradley did not like to speak
United States and internationally. The picture immedi- of the Battle of Iwo Jima. He died of a stroke at age sev-
ately gained iconic status, and Rosenthal was awarded enty in 1994, the last of the flag-raisers to pass away.
the Pulitzer Prize in photography for 1945. The tragic story of Ira Hayes was popularized by the
The capture of Mount Suribachi and the raising of the song, “The Ballad of Ira Hayes” by Peter La Farge, which
American flag on the summit was an important event, but has been performed by artists such as Johnny Cash and
it by no means signaled the end of the Battle of Iwo Jima. Bob Dylan. The song details Hayes’s service to his coun-
Iwo Jima was not declared secure by the American com- try and the alienation he felt upon his return, highlighting
manders until March 26, 1945, and even then, resistance the issue of discrimination against Native Americans.
continued. Nearly 2,500 Japanese soldiers were killed in Rosenthal’s photograph is the basis for the U.S. Ma-
sporadic engagements that lasted until June, 1945. Over- rine Corps War Memorial sculpture in Arlington, Vir-
all, of the more than 20,000 Japanese troops on the is- ginia. The flag that was raised at Iwo Jima is currently lo-
land, only 200 were captured. The rest were killed in the cated in the U.S. Marine Corps Museum. It has been
fighting. The U.S. side suffered 6,821 dead and nearly continuously resurrected as a symbol of American his-
20,000 wounded. tory, as when the image was used on a postage stamp to
mark the fiftieth anniversary of the Battle of Iwo Jima
Significance and the end of the war in 1995.
The capture of Iwo Jima was costly, but the construction — Matthew Penney
of airstrips on the island allowed for more than two thou-
sand B-29 emergency landings, saving thousands of lives. Further Reading
The fall of Iwo Jima allowed the U.S. Army Air Corps to Bradley, James. Flags of Our Fathers. New York: Bantam
intensify its bombing of the Japanese mainland. As a re- Books, 2000. A best-selling, detailed treatment of the
sult, Japanese production of aircraft and other war ma- raising of the American flag on Iwo Jima. The book of-
tériel declined dramatically, hastening the end of the war. fers especially good treatment of the lives of the men
While the photograph of the flag-raising became pop- who raised the flag and the history of the photograph.
ular soon after the event itself, the individual flag-raisers Leckie, Robert. The Battle for Iwo Jima. New York:
were not immediately identified. It was not until April 8, I Books, 2004. A minutely detailed account of the
440
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Alcoa Is Convicted of Violating the Sherman Antitrust Act
Battle of Iwo Jima, the capture of Mount Suribachi, cific War. Includes excellent coverage of the Battle of
and the raising of the American flag by a former U.S. Iwo Jima including a topographical map of the island.
Marine and historian. See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
Rosenberg, Emily. A Date Which Will Live: Pearl Har- cific Theater; Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan In-
bor in American Memory. Durham, N.C.: Duke Uni- vades the Philippines; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944:
versity Press, 2003. Provides coverage of American Central Pacific Offensive; June 12-20, 1944: Battle of
memories of World War II. The major focus is on the Philippine Sea; Oct. 20, 1944: Japan Orders Ka-
Pearl Harbor, but it covers the Iwo Jima flag-raising mikaze Attacks; Apr. 1-July 2, 1945: Okinawa Cam-
and other important events. paign Meets Stiff Japanese Resistance; Aug. 6 and 9,
Willmott, H. P. The Second World War in the Far East. 1945: Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Naga-
London: Cassell, 1999. A general history of the Pa- saki.
March 12, 1945

Alcoa Is Convicted of Violating the Sherman
Antitrust Act
Although the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 declared it illegal “to mo-
had not committed predatory acts or engaged in nopolize, or attempt to monopolize” any part of the trade
anticompetitive practices, it was convicted of violating or commerce of the United States. Up to 1945, only overt
the Sherman Act on the basis of its large market share, acts had been founded to violate the act. The landmark
thereby establishing that large market share alone convictions in 1911 of Standard Oil and American To-
justified antitrust prosecution. bacco, for example, had been based largely on evidence
of predatory and exclusionary actions that appeared to be
Also known as: United States v. Aluminum Co. of undesirable in themselves and also indicative of an at-
America tempt to gain monopoly power. In acquitting U.S. Steel
Locale: New York, New York of antitrust charges in 1920, the Supreme Court had de-
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history; trade and clared that “the law does not make mere size an offense.”
commerce; business and labor The Alcoa case of 1945, however, indicated mere size, as
Key Figures measured by share of the product market, could be an of-
Learned Hand (1872-1961), judge of the U.S. Court of fense.
Appeals for the Second Circuit, 1924-1948, and The Aluminum Company of America was formed in
later chief judge, 1948-1951 1907 out of the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, which
Augustus N. Hand (1869-1954), judge of the U.S. had pioneered in the development of aluminum smelting
Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, 1928-1953 and fabrication. It was the only aluminum manufacturing
Thomas Swan (1877-1975), judge of the U.S. Court of firm of any consequence in the United States. This mo-
1945
Appeals for the Second Circuit, 1926-1951, and nopoly situation resulted from several factors. First,
later chief judge, 1951-1953 Alcoa controlled strategic patents. Second, aluminum
Francis G. Caffey (1868-1951), judge of the U.S. products were neither well known nor appreciated, and
District Court for the Southern District of New the firm had to struggle to develop a variety of end prod-
York, 1929-1947 ucts and to widen the market for them. This often meant
John C. Knox (1881-1966), judge of the U.S. District selling at low prices to encourage consumers to try such
Court for the Southern District of New York, 1918- items as aluminum cookware. Third, the economies of
1948, and later chief judge, 1948-1955 scale in aluminum production were such that, in the lim-
ited aluminum market of the early twentieth century, the
Summary of Event nascent industry could not support many firms of opti-
The antitrust conviction in 1945 of the Aluminum Com- mum efficient size. Alcoa became a vertically integrated
pany of America (Alcoa) was a landmark in the devel- company, significantly involved in mining bauxite (the
opment of American antitrust law. Section 2 of the ore), refining it, and fabricating it into a variety of end
441
Alcoa Is Convicted of Violating the Sherman Antitrust Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
products, some aimed at industrial users and others at The government appealed the case to the Supreme
households. As aluminum gained popularity, Alcoa ex- Court, but so many of the Court’s justices had been in-
panded its facilities to keep pace with demand, lowering volved as lawyers in earlier stages of the case that a quo-
its prices as its research helped reduce production costs. rum of the Court could not be secured. Congress autho-
A number of antitrust actions were brought against rized the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit,
Alcoa in its early years. The company accepted a consent based in New York, to hear the appeal. A three-judge
decree to settle a prosecution by the Department of Jus- panel consisting of Learned Hand, Augustus N. Hand, and
tice in 1912. The company agreed not to combine with Thomas Swan found the company guilty of violating the
others in controlling the price of aluminum, not to harass Sherman Antitrust Act in 1945. The crucial finding of fact
competitors, and not to cut off raw material supplies from was that Alcoa controlled 90 percent of the output of alu-
potential competing fabricators of end products. In 1921, minum ingot, a finding that disregarded the share of recy-
the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) tried unsuccess- cled scrap but counted Alcoa’s shipments to its own fab-
fully to block Alcoa’s absorption of a bankrupt competi- ricating operations. If scrap had been counted, Alcoa’s
tor. The FTC also tried in vain to bring charges of unfair share would have been only 64 percent, and if its internal
competitive practices in 1925. shipments had been excluded, its share would have been
In 1937, the Department of Justice brought Alcoa to only 33 percent. The measurement was crucial, since the
court again, charging illegal monopoly and seeking to court argued that 90 percent “is enough to constitute a
break up the company. The government claimed that monopoly; it is doubtful whether 60 or 64 percent would
Alcoa controlled all aluminum refining in the United be enough, and certainly 33 percent is not.”
States and 90 percent of aluminum sheet, tubing, cable, Once Alcoa was identified as a monopolist, its ac-
and wire. After a trial lasting 362 trial days, federal judge tions, though not overtly predatory or anticompetitive,
Francis G. Caffey dismissed all of the government’s were by definition illegal. The price charged by a mo-
complaints in 1941. nopolist is by definition a monopoly price. As the deci-
sion stated, “it must sell at some price, and the only price
at which it would sell is a price which it itself fixed.” The
Sherman Antitrust Act intent to monopolize could be presumed: “No monopo-
list monopolizes unconscious of what he is doing.” The
In 1945, Alcoa was found guilty of violating the Act to court argued in effect that Alcoa’s vigorous expansion of
Protect Trade and Commerce Against Unlawful Re- business was itself a strategy to discourage potential ri-
straints and Monopolies, commonly known as the vals: “It insists that it never excluded competitors, but we
Sherman Act of 1889, excerpted here. can think of no more effective exclusion than progres-
Sec. 1. Every contract, combination in the form of sively to embrace each new opportunity as it opened.”
trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or The court identified one specific example of supposed
commerce among the several States, or with foreign na- predatory conduct, that of setting prices for ingot and
tions, is hereby declared to be illegal. Every person who sheet too close to each other to allow other makers of
shall make any such contract or engage in any such com- sheet to operate at a profit.
bination or conspiracy, shall be deemed guilty of a mis- When the government had initiated the antitrust suit
demeanor, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished in 1937, its intent had been to require Alcoa to be broken
by fine not exceeding five thousand dollars, or by im- up. By the time the case was decided in 1945, however,
prisonment not exceeding one year, or by both said pun- the aluminum industry had changed substantially. Reyn-
ishments, at the discretion of the court.
olds Metals Company, which had long been the chief
Sec. 2. Every person who shall monopolize, or at-
manufacturer of aluminum foil, entered the refining end
tempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any
other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the of the industry in 1941. During World War II, the gov-
trade or commerce among the several States, or with for- ernment’s Defense Plant Corporation built nine alumi-
eign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, num smelters and a number of fabricating facilities to aid
and, on conviction thereof; shall be punished by fine not war production. These facilities were operated by Alcoa
exceeding five thousand dollars, or by imprisonment not under lease. Alcoa hoped to acquire some of these, but
exceeding one year, or by both said punishments, in the the federal Surplus Property Act of 1944 dictated that
discretion of the court. disposal policies should discourage monopoly.
In the 1945 decision, the court ruled that the govern-
442
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Alcoa Is Convicted of Violating the Sherman Antitrust Act
ment’s request to break up Alcoa should be deferred until Kefauver Amendment to the Clayton Antitrust Act.
the wartime facilities were disposed of. This took place The legal doctrines of the 1945 Alcoa case could be
over the period of 1946-1948. Most of the facilities were applied to other industrial situations. Although the Alcoa
taken by Reynolds or by Kaiser Aluminum and Chemical decision, chiefly drafted by Judge Learned Hand, was
Company, both of which emerged as relatively large in- not a Supreme Court case, the Court affirmed its essential
tegrated firms. Alcoa provided the newcomers with ac- doctrines when it found the major cigarette companies
cess to its major patents and technical knowledge. guilty of antitrust violations in 1946. Numerous antitrust
In 1947, Alcoa petitioned the court to be absolved from actions against large firms followed. In 1949, the gov-
the monopoly charge, citing the changes in industry struc- ernment accused American Telephone and Telegraph
ture. The government countered with a renewed request (AT&T) of monopolizing the market for telephone
to break up Alcoa. Federal district judge John C. Knox equipment because of its ownership of Western Electric,
responded in June, 1950, with a ruling that essentially de- the principal equipment supplier. The company agreed to
nied both requests. Breaking up the company would en- some policy modifications, and the government’s re-
danger “economic and industrial forces from which the quest to split off Western Electric was withdrawn.
public has reaped substantial benefit.” The judge did act Considerations similar to those of the Alcoa case were
to reduce the connection between Alcoa and its former involved in the government’s successful antitrust prose-
Canadian subsidiary, Aluminum, Ltd., ordering Alcoa cution of United Shoe Machinery Corporation, upheld
officers, directors, and large stockholders to sell off their by the Supreme Court in 1954. Large-firm antitrust pros-
holdings of one or the other. He also extended the court’s ecutions with elements similar to those of the Alcoa case
surveillance of the industry for another five years. were undertaken against Eastman Kodak, International
Business Machines (IBM), Radio Corporation of Amer-
Significance ica (RCA), Western Electric, United Fruit, and General
In the terminology of economists, the Alcoa case pro- Motors. All of these were settled when the defendants
vided the basis for using a “market structure” test for the agreed to consent decrees that did not involve major
presence of illegal monopoly. On one hand, the court’s structural changes in their industry.
decision in United States v. Aluminum Co. of America The most important cases following in the footsteps
implied that an efficient and progressive firm could be of United States v. Aluminum Co. of America were ones
declared to be an illegal monopoly even if it had commit- brought against IBM in 1969 and AT&T in 1974. These
ted no clearly predatory or exclusionary acts. On the came to very different outcomes. After a long and com-
other hand, the market-share standard of 90 percent was plex trial, the case against IBM for illegal monopoliza-
so high that few firms were likely to encounter it. Still, tion of the computer industry was dropped by the govern-
the ruling established that such spectacular success, ment in 1982. At about the same time, AT&T agreed to a
should it occur, would be cause for governmental inter- settlement that dramatically reorganized the entire tele-
vention in the future. phone industry. The various regional operating Bell
In the wake of the Alcoa case, the aluminum industry Telephone companies were made into fully indepedent
stabilized into a situation in which there were three domi- corporations, and entry into the long-distance telephone
nant firms in aluminum refining. All three also played service industry became much easier.
1945
important roles in fabrication, but numerous smaller —Paul B. Trescott
firms also competed in aluminum fabricating. Some
economists criticized the transformation of the industry, Further Reading
perceiving that it had become an oligopoly and that there Adams, Walter. “The Aluminum Case: Legal Victory—
would be wasteful aspects to this structure not present Economic Defeat.” American Economic Review 41
under the earlier near-monopoly. Most observers found (December, 1951): 915-922. Applauds the market-
that the industry behaved in a reasonably competitive share emphasis. Criticizes the court for failing to
fashion. Government surveillance continued, however. break up Alcoa.
In 1964, the Justice Department successfully challenged Areeda, Phillip, Louis Kaplow, and Aaron Edlin. Anti-
Alcoa’s bid to absorb Rome Cable Company. Both trust Analysis: Problems, Text, Cases. 6th ed. New
Rome and Alcoa produced aluminum cable, and their York: Aspen, 2004. Textbook containing case studies
combined market share of about 30 percent was large of the major antitrust cases in American history. Bib-
enough to disqualify the merger under the Celler- liographic references and index.
443
Going My Way Wins Best Picture The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Armentano, Dominick T. Antitrust and Monopoly: Anat- 2d ed. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1942. This older col-
omy of a Policy Failure. New York: John Wiley, lege text is well written. Chapter 11 deals with the
1982. Contains a detailed examination of the Alcoa evolution of the aluminum industry, while chapter 18
case that is part of the author’s attack on antitrust poli- discusses the antitrust case in the context of Sherman
cies, which he believes have punished efficient and Act cases in general.
progressive firms for their success. Smith, George David. From Monopoly to Competition:
Blair, Roger D., and David L. Kaserman. Antitrust Eco- The Transformation of Alcoa, 1888-1986. New York:
nomics. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1985. Cambridge University Press, 1988. A very scholarly
This college text for economics majors goes into con- yet readable company history. Quotes Alcoa execu-
siderable detail in comparing economic and legal cri- tives who thought that competition benefited from the
teria for monopoly. The Alcoa case is discussed antitrust action.
briefly in context. Whitney, Simon N. Antitrust Policies: American Experi-
Hylton, Keith N. Antitrust Law: Economic Theory and ence in Twenty Industries. 2 vols. New York: Twenti-
Common Law Evolution. New York: Cambridge Uni- eth Century Fund, 1958. Chapter 13 deals with the
versity Press, 2003. Comprehensive text on economic history of the aluminum industry and its antitrust ex-
principles behind antitrust and the development of perience. The best short summary of the antitrust
American antitrust law over more than one hundred case, its background, and its consequences.
years of litigation. Includes a chapter on the Alcoa
case. Bibliographic references and index. See also: May 2, 1941: NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself
Peck, Merton J. Competition in the Aluminum Industry, of a Radio Network; May 3, 1948: Antitrust Rulings
1945-1958. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Force Film Studios to Divest Theaters; Dec. 29, 1950:
Press, 1961. The most detailed scholarly study of the Celler-Kefauver Act Amends Antitrust Legislation;
industry during the period following the antitrust May 22, 1961: U.S. Supreme Court Orders Du Pont to
case. Disburse GM Holdings; Apr. 11, 1967: Supreme
Purdy, Harry L., Martin L. Lindahl, and William A. Court Rules Against a Procter & Gamble Merger; Jan.
Carter. Corporate Concentration and Public Policy. 16, 1970: Flood Tests Baseball’s Reserve Clause.
March 15, 1945

GOING MY WAY Wins Best Picture
Director-producer Leo McCarey’s feature film about Summary of Event
two Roman Catholic priests won seven Academy Leo McCarey struck chords with the masses and af-
Awards, including Best Picture of 1944. The quiet, firmed everyday faith with the 1944 Paramount Pictures
Oscar-winning film humanized religion, highlighted release of Going My Way. Rich with characterization and
the power of friendship, and underscored homespun built on the winning screen chemistry between seasoned
American values heightened during World War II. actors Bing Crosby and Barry Fitzgerald, McCarey’s
wartime film about two priests in a troubled parish culled
Locale: Hollywood, California
more public favor, critical acclaim, and industry awards
Category: Motion pictures and video
than nearly any other motion picture of its time. It re-
Key Figures ceived a total of seven Academy Awards, or Oscars, at
Bing Crosby (1903-1977), American singer and actor the March 15, 1945, ceremony at the renowned Grau-
Barry Fitzgerald (1888-1961), Irish actor man’s Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, where the Acad-
Leo McCarey (1898-1969), American screenwriter, emy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences conferred na-
producer, and director tional awards for films released the previous year.
Frank Butler (1890-1967), American screenwriter The Academy named Going My Way Best Picture of
Frank Cavett (1907-1973), American screenwriter 1944 and awarded McCarey two Oscar statuettes, one for
Pius XII (Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli; Best Original Story and another for Best Director, mak-
1876-1958), Roman Catholic pope, 1939-1958 ing him the first individual to receive more than one Os-
444
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Going My Way Wins Best Picture
car for a single film. Bing Crosby won Best Actor for his the Best Picture award brought it further acclaim.
performance as the easygoing Father Chuck O’Malley, Why was the film so popular as to sweep the Academy
and Barry Fitzpatrick, a veteran of Dublin’s famous Ab- Awards? The Everyman appeal of Crosby had some-
bey Theatre, won Best Supporting Actor for portraying thing to do with it. By 1944, Crosby was legendary: He
O’Malley’s irascible senior counterpart. Frank Butler had played the happy-go-lucky suitor in 1930’s singing
and Frank Cavett won Oscars for Best Screenplay, and boy-gets-girl films and was the comic co-star of a series
“Swingin’ on a Star,” sung in the film by O’Malley and of exotic road musicals, beginning with Road to Singa-
the hooligans he had turned into a choir, won for Best pore (1940), with Bob Hope and Dorothy Lamour. He
Song. Additionally, the film was nominated for cinema- entertained troops with the United Service Organization
tography and film editing awards. for National Defense (USO), and his sentimental record-
By 1944, the conferring of Best Picture was part of an ing of Irving Berlin’s “White Christmas” was a holiday
annual gala event for the Academy of Motion Picture favorite among soldiers and civilians. Fifty million radio
Arts and Sciences, formed in 1927 by production execu- fans tuned in weekly to Kraft Music Hall, which Crosby
tives and film luminaries whose members nominated and had hosted since 1935. Biographer Gary Giddins states
voted for winners in each award category. After 1941, that Crosby’s “was the voice of the nation, the cannily in-
when the United States joined the Allied Powers in formal personification of hometown decency—friendly,
World War II, the subjects and styles of mo-
tion pictures changed. About one-third of
the seventeen hundred films Hollywood pro-
duced between 1942 and 1945 dealt with
war, directly or indirectly. In the two years
before Going My Way received honors, Os-
cars for Best Picture had gone to war movies:
Mrs. Miniver (1942) depicted a British fam-
ily during an air raid campaign, and Casa-
blanca (1942) portrayed a cafe owner in
Nazi-occupied Morocco.
Going My Way, set in wartime and based
on the experiences of an actual priest, pivots
on the relationship between the unpreten-
tious and progressive young Father O’Mal- To view image, please refer to print edition
ley and a cantankerous, set-in-his-ways
older priest, Father Fitzgibbon, whose forty-
five-year management of New York’s poor
St. Dominic’s Church has become weighted
with mortgage woes and sagging spirits
among parishioners. Sent by a bishop to
1945
rehabilitate St. Dominic’s without disclos-
ing his assignment, O’Malley gradually wins
Father Fitzgibbon’s trust as he sets a run-
away on a respectable track, turns a window-
breaking gang of boys into a legitimate
choir, and secretly ensures the rebuilding
and solvency of the church. The relationship
between the two clerics embodies universal
struggles between youth and age and be-
tween flexibility and tradition, and award-
winning performances on both sides of the After winning the Academy Award for Best Actor in March, 1945, Bing
divide helped the film earn more than seven Crosby (left) relaxes with Ingrid Bergman, who won the Best Actress Award
million dollars at the box office even before for her role in Gaslight. (AP/Wide World Photos)
445
Going My Way Wins Best Picture The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
unassuming, melodious, irrefutably American.” Audi- sons different from those of the Academy. The Christian
ences and the Academy prized those traits in a screen Century, a major periodical, lauded the film’s “old-
priest, as well as in a troubadour. fashioned, simple Christianity” and friendly interaction
Many Americans linked the amiable, easygoing ways between parishioners and priests. Catholic World noted a
of Crosby’s Father O’Malley with the friendships and sensitive portrayal of age giving way to youth. In 1945,
homeland freedoms they hoped to preserve in World Crosby reprised his role as Father O’Malley in The
War II. Indeed, whether dealing with his crotchety fellow Bells of St. Mary’s, a McCarey-directed sequel that sent
priest, the neighborhood toughs, or mortgage holders de- O’Malley to rescue a crumbling parish school headed by
manding the interest they are owed, amiable O’Malley actor Ingrid Bergman as an ailing mother superior. Pope
simply chatted with them the way ordinary neighbors Pius XII thanked Crosby via letter for humanizing the
would. Finding common bonds in baseball, music, or priesthood and, later, granted the actor an audience in
heritage, he drew on an unlikely circle of friends—not part because of his portrayal of O’Malley in the films.
sermons—to make things right. Hence, baseball-loving
Significance
troublemakers began singing, an opera diva friend
For Crosby, Going My Way marked a career transition
helped replenish church coffers, Father Fitzgibbon’s Irish
from comic crooner to screen lead in a substantive story.
mother made a surprise visit, and a golfing priest took
With the film’s success, he signed a ten-year contract
over for O’Malley when the affable cleric moved on.
with Paramount Pictures. For the Academy of Motion
Unlike the rousing tunes of Star-Spangled Rhythm
Picture Arts and Sciences, Going My Way helped clarify
(1942) and other patriotic extravaganzas of the 1940’s,
the distinction between lead and supporting roles for
the sound track of Going My Way was subdued. The
award purposes. As a result of questions that had arisen
film’s four songs were performed a cappella, with simple
when Barry Fitzgerald was nominated in both lead and
piano accompaniment, or with the soft, melodic backing
supporting categories for the same role in the film, the
of a choir. With lyrics about tradition, love’s lasting
Academy revised its rules governing nominations.
power, and wise choices, the music added an intimate
For the Roman Catholic Church, the film improved
and thoughtful, if not overtly patriotic, mood to Mc-
the image of priests and helped offer religion as an acces-
Carey’s wartime offering.
sible force for good in an increasingly complex world.
Moreover, while many successful wartime pictures
Among the spectrum of brooding dramas, patriotic musi-
recounted military campaigns, Going My Way embraced
cals, combat films, and other cinematic fare available to
homefront sacrifice: A newly uniformed groom left for
the American public during World War II, Going My
Air Force duty, a parish lad returned home in a box, and
Way stood out as an optimistic reminder of values and
money for rents and mortgages was in short supply. Still,
friendships held dear, appealing to wartime sensibilities
Going My Way offered a brighter, more forgiving view of
of the public in the days before broadcast television dom-
human nature and frailties than did Double Indemnity
inated the media. As winner of the Best Picture Award in
(1944) and Gaslight (1944), two dark films about decep-
1944, it paved the way for such quietly uplifting films as
tion and crime that also landed nominations for Best Pic-
The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), which would depict
ture of 1944. These early film noirs may have expressed
former soldiers readjusting to civilian life in postwar
the mood of many Americans confronted with the hor-
America.
rors of war, but the hopeful film actively sought to ame-
— Wendy Alison Lamb
liorate that mood.
The few critics who took issue with Going My Way’s Further Reading
sweetness and tidy resolution found much else to praise. Agee, James. Agee on Film. Vol. 1. 1958. Reprint. New
James Agee, 1944 movie reviewer for Time and The Na- York: Perigee Books, 1983. Reviews and comments
tion, praised its “delight of human character” and called first published in Time, The Nation, and Life by the
Fitzgerald’s rendering of Father Fitzgibbon “the finest, Pulitzer Prize-winning author considered one of the
funniest and most touching portrayal of old age that has most perceptive movie critics of his time.
yet reached the screen.” Not surprising, audiences Bookbinder, Robert. The Films of Bing Crosby. Secau-
flocked to Going My Way in record numbers; in its time, cus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1977. Attributes Crosby’s
it was the highest-grossing film in Paramount Pictures box-office popularity to a friendly, unpretentious
history. screen presence, as much as to considerable musical
Roman Catholics welcomed Going My Way for rea- prowess. Photographs.
446
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Resistance
Braverman, Jordan. To Hasten the Homecoming: How trayed the American Past. New York: Columbia Uni-
Americans Fought World War II Through the Media. versity Press, 2003. Scholarly essays reveal how
Lanham, Md.: Madison Books, 1996. Tells how ra- diverse films, from training reels and documentaries
dio, comic strips, and the like fostered patriotism to combat dramas and lavish features, defined history.
“when no one knew who would win or what the post- Bibliographies and index.
war world would bring.”
Giddins, Gary. Bing Crosby: A Pocketful of Dreams. See also: Oct. 3, 1941: The Maltese Falcon Establishes
Boston: Little, Brown, 2001. Biography emphasizing a New Style for Crime Films; Nov. 26, 1942: Casa-
Crosby’s role as an American cultural icon. blanca Marks the Artistic Apex of 1940’s War-
Kallen, Stuart A. The War at Home. San Diego, Calif.: Themed Films; Dec. 20, 1946: Capra Releases It’s a
Lucent Books, 2000. Details how the Good War Wonderful Life; Mar. 30, 1955: On the Waterfront
changed family life, the workforce, race relations, Wins Best Picture; Apr. 4, 1960: Ben-Hur Wins Best
news, and entertainment. Picture; Apr. 8, 1963: Lawrence of Arabia Wins Best
Rollins, Peter C., ed. The Columbia Companion to Amer- Picture; Feb. 4, 1970: Patton’s Historical Realism
ican History on Film: How the Movies Have Por- Leads to Best Picture and Actor Awards.
April 1-July 2, 1945

Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Resistance
The last major battle of World War II began with the nese island of Kynshn and Formosa (Taiwan). The inva-
largest amphibious invasion in history. The bloodiest sion began on the tiny Kerama Islands, at the southwest-
campaign in the Pacific theater, it cost more than ern end of the chain.
250,000 Japanese and Okinawans and nearly 13,000 Fifteen miles east of the Keramas lay the Allies’ main
Allied troops their lives. The carnage presaged what goal: Okinawa. Okinawa, annexed by Japan in 1879, was
would happen in an invasion of the Japanese defended by approximately ninety thousand Japanese
homeland and was influential in the decision to drop troops and twenty thousand Okinawan conscripts under
atomic bombs on Japan. the command of Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima.
The Allies wanted Okinawa as a base for a projected in-
Also known as: Operation Iceberg; Battle of Okinawa vasion of Japan; the Japanese, despite their condescend-
Locale: Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands, Japan ing attitude toward the Okinawans, considered the island
Categories: Military history; World War II; wars, Japanese soil and were determined to fight to the last man
uprisings, and civil unrest to defend it.
Key Figures Operation Iceberg, the invasion of Okinawa, utilized
Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr. (1886-1945), American the largest invasion armada in history: 1,600 ships under
lieutenant general the command of Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, and
1945
Isamu Cho (1895-1945), Japanese lieutenant general 545,000 U.S. Army and Marine Corps soldiers com-
Roy S. Geiger (1885-1947), American major general manded by Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner,
Raymond A. Spruance (1886-1969), American admiral Jr. The attack force of approximately of 184,000 men
Matome Ugaki (1890-1945), Japanese vice admiral landed near the midpoint of Okinawa on April 1, 1945,
Mitsuru Ushijima (1887-1945), Japanese lieutenant which was both April Fools’ Day and Easter Sunday. It
general seemed like a joke and a blessing when the landings were
Hiromichi Yahara (1902-1981), Japanese colonel largely unopposed, and “L Day” (the L stood for “land-
ing”) was soon called “Love Day” by the American in-
Summary of Event vaders. For the next few days, objectives such as the cap-
On the day the Battle of Iwo Jima was declared over and ture of the Yontan and Kadena airfields were easily
that island secured, March 26, 1945, Allied military attained, and the burning question on the minds of
forces began their invasion of the Ryukyu Islands, a Marines heading north and Army solidiers heading south
chain of islands stretching southwest between the Japa- was, “Where are the Japanese?”
447
Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Resistance The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
General Ushijima, his forces weakened by the trans- heavy casualties. A Japanese counterattack (April 12-13)
fer of twenty-five thousand troops to Formosa and the was crushed, but fighting in the south was effectively
loss of fifty-six hundred soldiers in the sinking of the stalemated.
troop transport Toyama Maru, decided to wage jikyusen, The Americans launched a major offensive on the
a defensive war of attrition, using the rugged terrain of Shuri line on April 19. Bitter fighting, often hand-to-
Okinawa to greatest advantage. Accordingly, he sent two hand combat, raged as the Americans used tactics such
thousand men to fight in the mountainous territory of the as, in the words of Buckner, “corkscrew” (explosives)
northern Motobu Peninsula, while marshaling his main and “blowtorch” (flamethrowers and napalm) in trying
strength in an intricately fortified system of caves and to dislodge the tenacious Japanese defenders. The offen-
tunnels in the southern portion of Okinawa. This defensive was initially halted, but within the next few days
sive position, known as the Shuri line after its headquar- U.S. soldiers had begun to penetrate the Shuri line’s
ters in Shuri Castle, bisected the island and was set to be- outer defenses. Ushijima ordered his troops to withdraw
come a death trap for the advancing infantrymen. to the inner core of the Shuri line on April 23.
A death trap of a different nature
was planned for the Allied fleet.
Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki had Ryukyu Islands, Japan
gathered thousands of planes on
Kynshn to use in kamikaze (suicide) Ky Ns h N,
Japan
assaults on Allied ships. On April 6,
while American troops were still tra- Kagoshima
versing Okinawa largely unopposed, Shanghai
Ugaki unleashed the largest suicide E a s t
attack in history: 355 planes and 10
ships, including the largest battle- C h i n a
ship in the world, the Yamato. The C h i n a
Yamato and most of its escort were S e a
s
sunk before reaching Okinawa, but
d
kamikazes sank ten American ships
and damaged several others in an
n
attack that lasted two days. Ugaki
a
would launch nine other kamikaze Okinawa I. l
s
sorties—known as kikusi, or “float-

I
ing chrysanthemums”—during the Kerama Is.
succeeding months of the Okinawa
campaign. u
y
On April 8, the Americans “found” k
u
the Japanese. In the north, the Ma- y
Formosa R
rines engaged two thousand Japa- (Taiwan)
nese soldiers holed up around Mount
Yaetake on Motobu Peninsula. The Motobu
Marines battled their way to the East Peninsula
summit of the mountain, reaching it China Sea Ie Shima
and ending organized resistance on
and
Motobu on April 18. In the south, the

Army’s advance was halted by with-
Isl
Shuri
ering fire at Kakazu Ridge and other Castle
a
Kerama Is.
w
strongholds in the outer defensive na

ki
ring of the Shuri line. Several Ameri- Oroku Peninsula O
can assaults on these defenses over
the next few days were repulsed with
448
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Resistance
Meanwhile, three days before the main body of U.S. Significance

troops began their offensive against the Shuri line, two The Okinawan campaign exacted a staggering toll on the
regiments of infantrymen landed on Ie Shima, 3.5 miles combatants and the Okinawan civilians caught in the
west of Motobu Peninsula. In six days of brutal fighting, midst of the carnage. The Japanese battle casualties were
they killed nearly five thousand Japanese troops and roughly 100,000 dead and 10,000 prisoners (including
gained control of a valuable airfield. However, Ameri- unarmed laborers). The loss of sixteen ships essentially
can military personnel also lost their beloved war corre- ended Japan’s navy, and its air force was greatly weak-
spondent, Ernie Pyle, to a Japanese machine gun on ened by the loss of some three thousand planes (far fewer
April 18. than the original Allied estimate of seventy-eight hun-
The month of May began with renewed efforts by the dred).
Army, reinforced by the Marines, to crack the Shuri line. American ground casualties were the highest for any
The Japanese held on tenaciously, but Ushijima was to campaign against the Japanese: 49,151 men, of whom
make a decision that would doom the Shuri line defend- 12,500 were killed. U.S. naval losses in ships—36 sunk,
ers. Lieutenant General Isamu Cho, Ushijima’s fiery 368 damaged—and men—approximately 5,000 killed
chief of staff, argued for a major counterattack against and the same number wounded—were the worst in
the Americans. Colonel Hiromichi Yahara, Ushijima’s American naval history for one campaign. The Okina-
brilliant strategist and the primary advocate of a war of wans suffered most of all: An estimated 150,000, ap-
attrition, objected, but Ushijima sided with Cho and or- proximately one-third of the pre-invasion population,
dered an attack for May 3. died during the gory engagement. Additionally, the op-
In spite of being coordinated with one of the largest posing commanders were the two highest-ranking offi-
Japanese artillery bombardments of the war and a kikusi cers to die during one World War II battle.
to provide it cover, the attack was a disastrous failure. The horror that was Okinawa convinced the U.S.
The Japanese lost more than six thousand troops, numer- High Command that an invasion of Japan would be a
ous artillery pieces, and a significant amount of irre- bloodbath of unprecedented proportions. Undoubtedly,
placeable ammunition. A week later, in the midst of sev- the Okinawa campaign played a major role in President
enteen days of torrential rain that turned Okinawa into a Harry S. Truman’s decision to drop two atomic bombs
mire of mud and decaying flesh, the Marines in the west on Japanese cities.
and the Army in the east attacked the flanks of the now — Paul J. Chara, Jr.
weakened Shuri line. Ushijima, realizing that his de-
fenses were crumbling, ordered a retreat to the southern- Further Reading
most part of Okinawa, setting up a final stand in the rug- Appleman, Roy E., James M. Burns, Russell A. Gugelar,
ged terrain of Yake-Dake and Yuza-Dake. The Marines and John Stevens. Okinawa: The Last Battle. Wash-
captured Shuri Castle on May 29. ington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center for Military History,
By mid-June, the Marines had annihilated several 1948. Written by combat historians who participated
thousand Japanese naval troops on Oroku Peninsula, and in the Okinawa campaign, this book presents a com-
Ushijima’s last defenses were crumbling. On June 17, prehensive account of the battle. Numerous maps,
Ushijima’s army collapsed into unorganized pockets of charts, tables, and black-and-white photographs.
1945
soldiers willing to fight to the death and, unlike in other Feifer, George. Tennozan: The Battle for Okinawa and
Pacific battles, scores of Japanese ready to surrender. the Atomic Bomb. New York: Ticknor and Fields,
General Buckner did not witness the final victory, how- 1992. The horror of Okinawa is brought to life
ever; he was killed by Japanese artillery fire on June 15. through a focus on the personal experiences of three
Marine Major General Roy S. Geiger took over com- participants: a Marine, a Japanese soldier, and an
mand of American forces—becoming the first Marine to Okinawan. Black-and-white photographs.
command an army—and declared victory on June 21. Leckie, Robert. Okinawa: The Last Battle of World
Generals Ushijima and Cho committed ritual suicide the War II. New York: Viking, 1995. Good introductory
next day. One-sided fighting continued, however, for the read emphasizing the perspective of the average com-
next week, as a mop-up of the scattered remnants of batant. Black-and-white photographs.
Ushijima’s army yielded approximately nine thousand Sledge, Eugene B. With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and
Japanese dead and four thousand prisoners. The Battle of Okinawa. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press,
Okinawa was officially ended on July 2. 1996. A Marine veteran’s highly acclaimed memoir
449
Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the Nazis The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
provides a riveting, brutally honest account of the See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
lives of Marines during two horrific battles. Black- cific Theater; Dec. 10, 1941-May, 1942: Japan In-
and-white photographs, maps. vades the Philippines; Nov. 20, 1943-Nov. 27, 1944:
Yahara, Hiromichi. The Battle for Okinawa. New York: Central Pacific Offensive; June 12-20, 1944: Battle of
Wiley, 1995. Eyewitness account of the Okinawa the Philippine Sea; Oct. 20, 1944: Japan Orders Ka-
campaign from inside Japanese headquarters by one mikaze Attacks; Feb. 23, 1945: American Flag Is
of the Japanese army’s chief strategists. Black-and- Raised at Iwo Jima; Apr. 18, 1945: War Correspon-
white photographs. dent Pyle Dies in Combat; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945:
Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
April 9, 1945
Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the Nazis
Theologian and resistance leader Dietrich the manner in which Bonhoeffer went to his death “so en-
Bonhoeffer’s execution by the Nazis challenged the tirely submissive to the will of God.”
political conformism of a conventional Christianity Bonhoeffer had long been a leading figure in the Ger-
and modeled a costly discipleship of active resistance man opposition to National Socialism. In 1932, in lec-
to radical evil. He had encouraged the forming of a tures at the University of Berlin and sermons at Kaiser
Christian community built on a mature sense of Wilhelm Memorial Church, Bonhoeffer likened the elec-
personal responsibility and a courageous commitment toral successes of the National Socialists to the history of
to social justice. He is considered a martyr for his the pagan destruction of Jerusalem and warned that, un-
faith. less “the mortal illness of Germany” be “the death of the
church,” Christians, too, must recognize when the times
Locale: Germany call for the “blood of martyrs.” In the months after Hitler
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; religion, came to power in January, 1933, and began to construct
theology, and ethics; World War II the Third Reich, Bonhoeffer tried in vain to block the
Key Figures “coordination” or Nazification of the German Protestant
Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906-1945), Lutheran pastor and churches. Frustrated in these efforts, Bonhoeffer agreed
theologian in early 1935 to become a seminary director for the Con-
Wilhelm Canaris (1887-1945), admiral and head of the fessing Church, which had been formed during 1934 by
Abwehr, the German High Command’s Office of dissident pastors as an alternative to the new Reich
Military Counter-Intelligence Church. In September, 1937, however, police raids
Hans Oster (1888-1945), major general and head of closed Bonhoeffer’s seminary at Finkenwalde near
the Abwehr central office Stettin in eastern Prussia. The previous August his autho-
Hans von Dohnanyi (1902-1945), Bonhoeffer’s rization to teach at the University of Berlin had been re-
brother-in-law and Abwehr officer voked and, in January, 1938, he was banned entirely
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), chancellor of Germany, from working in the German capital.
1933-1945 These events deprived Bonhoeffer of any public audi-
ence and set the stage for the decision that would eventu-
Summary of Event ally call him to martyrdom at Flossenbürg. Bonhoeffer
On April 9, 1945, the Lutheran pastor and theologian belonged to a prominent family with extensive connec-
Dietrich Bonhoeffer was hanged at Flossenbürg concen- tions with the German elites. It was through these
tration camp in southeastern Germany. The previous connections—in particular, Bonhoeffer’s brother-in-law
night, a hastily assembled court-martial, probably on di- Hans von Dohnanyi, a former Reich supreme court jus-
rect orders of Adolf Hitler, had convicted Bonhoeffer of tice who had recently become a special deputy to the Of-
treason for his role in the German Resistance. The camp fice of Military Counter-Intelligence—that Bonhoeffer
doctor, who witnessed the execution, later marveled at made contact with leaders of the conservative and
450
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Bonhoeffer Is Executed by the Nazis
military resistance. These leaders included Admiral Wil- Buchenwald. Special prisoners like Bonhoeffer were
helm Canaris, head of the Office of Military Counter- loaded onto trucks for transport to sites in southern Ger-
Intelligence, or Abwehr; General Hans Oster, head of the many. For a time, it seemed that the confusion of the dis-
Abwehr central office and Canaris’s chief of staff; and integrating Third Reich might save Bonhoeffer. He was
General Ludwig Beck, former chief of the army general not among the prisoners originally sent to Flossenbürg;
staff. instead, he was diverted south to Regensburg and then
In “The Church and the Jewish Question” (April, Schönberg. On April 8, the first Sunday after Easter, offi-
1933), Bonhoeffer wrote that the unconditional obliga- cials of the Reich security office caught up with him.
tion to aid even non-Christian victims of oppression may That morning, Bonhoeffer had consoled his fellow pris-
require the church “to jam a spoke in the wheel [of state] oners with the text of 1 Peter 1:3: “We have been born
itself.” Until February, 1938, however, Bonhoeffer had anew to a living hope.” As he was led away, Bonhoeffer
conceived of this obligation in terms of nonviolent resis- reaffirmed this hope. “This is the end,” he proclaimed,
tance. Now he chose to become aware of, and tacitly ap- “for me the beginning of life.”
prove, efforts to overthrow and even assassinate Hitler.
The willingness of many even in the Confessing Significance
Church to take an oath of allegiance to Hitler in April, Dietrich Bonhoeffer played a critical role in the German
1938, encouraged this shift in Bonhoeffer’s thinking. So, Resistance, providing not only considerable moral au-
too, did the Kristallnacht pogrom in November. Bon- thority but also a valuable line of communication with
hoeffer struggled with his decision, however. In March, Allied leaders. The significance of Bonhoeffer’s contri-
1939, he left Germany for London and in June accepted bution to the resistance was clear to the Nazis. They
an invitation to go to the United States. Bonhoeffer de- hanged him alongside Canaris and Oster.
cided, however, that leaving Germany was a mistake and Bonhoeffer’s experience in the resistance played a
that “to participate in the reconstruction of Christian life” critical role in the elaboration of his theology as well. The
he must “share the trials of this time.” In July, in a su- letters and papers that Bonhoeffer composed during his
preme act of moral courage, Bonhoeffer returned to Ger- fifteen months at Tegel prison were sketches of the re-
many. In August, he became a civilian agent for the construction of Christian life of which Bonhoeffer would
Abwehr, and by the spring of 1940, Bonhoeffer had gone write in 1939. The traditional church, Bonhoeffer ar-
a step further in his support for the Resistance. He began gued, had made institutional authority its priority, and
to utilize his own extensive ecumenical connections to the spiritual dependence it encouraged fed the culture
smuggle Jews out of Germany and to establish contact that sustained Nazism. By contrast, Bonhoeffer imag-
between the German Resistance and Allied leaders. ined a new, more open, Christian community of persons
Bonhoeffer’s activities eventually aroused Nazi sus- with a mature sense of personal responsibility and a com-
picions. On April 5, 1943, he was arrested and impris- mitment to social justice—what he called a nonreligious
oned in Berlin’s Tegel prison. In repeated interrogations Christianity for a world come of age.
over the next fifteen months, Bonhoeffer skillfully cov- Bonhoeffer’s last major work, the unfinished Ethik
ered up the role of the Abwehr in the resistance. Nazi in- (1949; Ethics, 1955), which Bonhoeffer drafted during
vestigations of the resistance acquired a new urgency, the years of his participation in the resistance, made the
1945
however, after July 20, 1944, when Claus von Stauf- Christological question—what would Jesus do?—the
fenberg nearly succeeded in assassinating Hitler. In late center of a reconstructed Christianity. This question, in
September, police uncovered the Zossen file. This report turn, lay behind a distinction that Bonhoeffer made at the
on Nazi war crimes that Dohnanyi had compiled to jus- moment when he chose to enter the political realm.
tify a coup now provided evidence incriminating the Cheap grace, Bonhoeffer had written in Nachfolge
Abwehr leadership. Together, the July 20 plot and the (1937; The Cost of Discipleship, 1948), took the promise
discovery of the Zossen file transformed Bonhoeffer’s of redemption in the Christian scriptures as cause for
situation. Early in October, he was transferred to the self-satisfaction. Costly grace followed Christ’s example
Reich central security office in Berlin. Four months later, of serving others even to point of self-sacrifice. Living
he was transferred to the notorious Buchenwald concen- out this understanding of costly grace, Bonhoeffer pro-
tration camp near Weimar. vided an example that motivated generations of postwar
By the first days of April, 1945, gunfire from the U.S. Christians to challenge racial segregation in the United
army’s advance into central Germany could be heard in States, apartheid in South Africa, social injustice in
451
War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
South America, and the imposition of Soviet commu- reliable account of the conservative and military op-
nism in eastern Europe. position to the Third Reich.
—Charles R. Sullivan Pejsa, Jane. Matriarch of Conspiracy: Ruth von Kleist,
1867-1945. Cleveland, Ohio: Pilgrim Press, 1991. A
Further Reading
well-researched popular biography of the Prussian
Best, S. Payne. The Venlo Incident. London: Hutchinson,
aristocrat Ruth von Kleist. A personal friend of Bon-
1950. Chapter eight of this memoir by an English pris-
hoeffer and patron of the Finkenwalde seminary,
oner of war offers an eyewitness account of Bon-
von Kleist was also the grandmother of Maria von
hoeffer’s time in Buchenwald and his last days.
Wedemeyer, Bonhoeffer’s fiancé before his arrest.
Bethge, Eberhard. Dietrich Bonhoeffer: A Biography.
Schlabrendorff, Fabian von. “In Prison with Dietrich
Minneapolis, Minn.: Fortress Press, 2000. A magiste-
Bonhoeffer.” In I Knew Dietrich Bonhoeffer, edited
rial survey of Bonhoeffer’s life and work by his clos-
by Wolf-Dieter Zimmermann and Ronald Gregor
est friend and associate.
Smith. New York: Harper & Row, 1966. Another
Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. Letters and Papers from Prison.
eyewitness account of Bonhoeffer’s final months by
Edited by Eberhard Bethge. New York: Simon &
one of the few conspirators to assassinate Hitler to
Schuster, 1971. A poignant document of Bonhoef-
survive World War II.
fer’s imprisonment and one of the most influential
works of twentieth century Christian theology. See also: Aug. 9, 1942: Stein Is Killed by the Nazis; Sept.
De Gruchy, John W., ed. The Cambridge Companion to 30-Oct. 1, 1943: Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from
Dietrich Bonhoeffer. New York: Cambridge Univer- Germans; Feb. 11, 1945: Soviet Exiles and Prisoners of
sity Press, 1999. Leading scholars examine Bonhoef- War Are Forced into Repatriation; Oct. 24, 1945: Nor-
fer’s historical and intellectual contexts and the major wegians Execute Nazi Collaborator Quisling; 1946:
themes of his theology. Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective Responsi-
Klemperer, Klemens von. German Resistance Against bility for War Crimes; 1956: Wiesel’s Night Recalls
Hitler: The Search for Allies Abroad, 1938-1945. Ox- the Holocaust; 1959: Grass Publishes The Tin Drum;
ford, England: Clarendon Press, 1992. A detailed and 1963: Arendt Speculates on the Banality of Evil.
April 18, 1945

War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat
Veteran newspaper columnist Ernie Pyle died in an Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the
attack by an unknown Japanese sniper during fighting United States, 1932-1945
in World War II’s Pacific theater. A Pulitzer Prize Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969), supreme
winner for his folksy stories about common soldiers, commander of Allied forces in Europe, 1944-1945,
Pyle insisted on sharing troops’ experiences, even and later president of the United States, 1953-1961
when the risks were great. His death was a terrible
touchstone for readers who had followed his Summary of Event
dispatches since the Battle of Britain. He remains a Decades before the label “embedded reporter” was
journalistic icon. coined, Ernie Pyle became America’s eyewitness to the
twentieth century’s greatest military conflict, sharing
Locale: Ie Shima, Ryukyu Islands, Japan
with thousands of readers what he dubbed his “worm’s-
Categories: Publishing and journalism; World
eye” view of war because he spent most of his time
War II; wars, uprisings, and civil unrest
alongside regular soldiers. Frequently near the front lines
Key Figures and occasionally under fire, Pyle covered the Battle of
Ernie Pyle (1900-1945), American war correspondent Britain, as well as military campaigns in North Africa, It-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United aly, and France, before traveling to the Pacific to accom-
States, 1945-1953 pany U.S. Army and Marine infantrymen there.
Joseph B. Coolidge (1908-1987), American regimental The forty-four-year-old syndicated columnist was
commander with U.S. forces after they had fought on Iwo Jima and
452
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat
during the Battle of Okinawa, southwest of Japan’s Captain Waskow’s Body

main island. He went ashore on nearby Ie Shima
(also known as Iejima) the day after U.S. troops in- War correspondent Ernie Pyle wrote about the lives of World
vaded that island, and he spent the afternoon of War II combat soldiers, those on the front lines of battle. In this
April 17 talking to the troops. Pyle then spent the January 10, 1944, excerpt from his newspaper column, he re-
night in an abandoned Japanese bunker near the ported on what had by this time in the war become a mundane
task, that of moving the bodies of dead soldiers.
beach. The next morning, he had a cold C ration for
breakfast and met with Lieutenant Colonel Joseph I was at the foot of the mule trail the night they brought Capt.
B. Coolidge, commander of the 305th Regiment, Waskow’s body down. The moon was nearly full at the time,
who planned to scout locations for a new com- and you could see far up the trail and even part way across the
mand post on the island. valley below. Soldiers made shadows in the moonlight as they
Joining Coolidge and Pyle in a jeep were Major walked.
George Pratt of Eugene, Oregon, radio operator Dead men have been coming down the mountain all eve-
Dale Bassett of Brush, Colorado, and driver John ning, lashed onto the backs of mules. They came lying belly-
Barnes of Petersburg, Virginia. The group left at down across the wooden pack-saddles, their heads hanging
down on the left side of the mule, their stiffened legs sticking
about 10:00 a.m. and went up a narrow road through
out awkwardly from the other side, bobbing up and down as the
mined fields en route to forward positions closer to
mule walked. . . .
the village of Ie. At an intersection along that road, “This one is Captain Waskow,” one of them said quietly.
shots from a Japanese sniper using a .31-caliber Two men unleashed his body from the mule and lifted it off
Nambu machine gun were heard coming from a and laid it in the shadow beside the low stone wall. Other men
ridge above the jeep, more than two hundred yards took the other bodies off. . . .
away. Barnes pulled over, and the men took cover One soldier came and looked down, and he said out loud,
in nearby ditches. “God damn it.” That’s all he said, and then he walked away.
After sporadic bursts of gunfire, Pyle raised his Source: Living History America, edited by Erik Bruun and Jay
head to ask how the others were, and the sniper Crosby (New York: Tess Press, 1999).
fired again, striking him in the left temple, just be-
neath the helmet, and killing him. His body lay
where he fell, while the sniper continued to fire at
the remaining soldiers in the area. A combat photogra- After his 1925 wedding to Geraldine (“Jerry”) Sie-
pher reached it a few hours later; he was soon joined by a bolds, beginning what would be a tumultuous twenty-
chaplain and four soldiers, who retrieved the body. Pyle year marriage, Pyle took his bride on a makeshift honey-
was buried about one hundred yards from the sea in a cof- moon, traveling thousands of miles across the country
fin made of scrap lumber in a row of graves. A primitive for ten weeks. He then worked at the New York Evening
marker was erected, reading “At this spot the Seventy- World and the New York Evening Post before answering
Seventh Infantry Division lost a buddy. Ernie Pyle. 18 a 1928 call from his friend Lee Miller to come back to the
April 1945.” Washington Daily News. There, Pyle worked as a wire
The shot that ended Pyle’s life cut short a ground- editor, aviation columnist, and managing editor until
1945
breaking career that had touched many people. Born on 1935, when he became a roving reporter for a six-times-
August 3, 1900, near Dana, in rural Indiana, Ernest Tay- per-week Scripps Howard News Service newspaper col-
lor Pyle helped his tenant-farmer father and attended umn that eventually appeared in about two hundred
school until he enlisted in the U.S. Naval Reserve during newspapers.
World War I. Before he was deployed, the war ended, After World War II erupted in Europe, Pyle went to
and he enrolled at Indiana University, where he studied England in 1940 and covered the Battle of Britain and
journalism and made friends, including future recording other events in the European campaigns for about six
artist Hoagy Carmichael and lifelong confidante and months. He combined his conversational writing style
writer Paige Cavanaugh. In 1923, before graduating, with keen observational skills, showing Americans both
Pyle left school to be a reporter at the La Porte Herald in the human face and the effects of the war across the At-
La Porte, Indiana. Afterward, he moved to Washington, lantic Ocean. He returned to the United States in mid-
D.C., to work first as a reporter and then as a copy editor 1941, but went back to Europe in June, 1942, as a corre-
for the Washington Daily News. spondent for Scripps-Howard’s United Features. He
453
War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Ernie Pyle talks with a U.S. Marine on Okinawa. A few days later, he was killed by a Japanese sniper. (Courtesy, U. S. Army Center
for Military History)
accompanied troops through actions in North Africa and decades of an adversarial, even cynical, press relation-
Italy, as well as during the invasion of Normandy and the ship with the military. The immediate reactions to his
liberation of Paris. death included one from Coolidge, the officer who had
Pyle occasionally found himself at as much risk as the been with Pyle on Ie Shima. He tearfully recounted, “I
soldiers he covered: He was blown out of a ditch by a was so impressed with Pyle’s coolness, calmness and his
German dive-bomber and blasted out of a building in deep interest in enlisted men. The GI has lost his best
Anzio by a five-hundred-pound bomb. He narrowly friend.”
missed injury when German planes strafed an open Days after taking office following Roosevelt’s death,
meadow where he was located and when Allied planes Harry S. Truman said, “The nation is quickly saddened
mistakenly bombed U.S. troops at St. Lo. Throughout his again by the death of Ernie Pyle. No man in this war has
coverage of the war, Pyle peppered his columns with ev- so well told the story of the American fighting man as
eryday soldiers’ names and hometowns and the wartime American fighting men wanted it told. He deserves the
routines of life and death that they all faced. He won the gratitude of all his countrymen.” In Europe, General of
Pulitzer Prize in 1944. Pyle returned home once more the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower echoed Coolidge’s sen-
that year. Then, in January, 1945, he set sail to join Allied timents when he said that Pyle’s death meant that GIs had
forces in the Pacific, where he perished. lost one of their best, most understanding friends. Pyle’s
death as the war was winding down also seemed to un-
Significance derscore war’s fickle timing or outright senselessness. It
Coming just six days after the death of U.S. president broke a special bond people on the home front felt to the
Franklin D. Roosevelt and with victory over Japan seem- troops overseas.
ingly achievable, Pyle’s death was like a death in the Pyle’s war reports—appearing in more than two hun-
family for thousands of readers and soldiers who fol- dred daily and four hundred weekly newspapers for three
lowed the reporter’s stories. Further, the loss of the so- years—used an unpretentious style to capture the fears,
bering but hopeful journalistic style he originated cre- pains, and loneliness of average soldiers. Instead of cov-
ated a vacuum that has never been filled in subsequent ering actions by generals or armies, Pyle wrote from the
454
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat
point of view of the common GI. Moving relatively velopment as a journalist who wrote about regular
freely from unit to unit, he was so loyal to the troops with people and routine events instead of officials, experts,
whom he lived that he lobbied Congress to enact extra and the sensational.
combat pay for soldiers, like flight pay for pilots. Cre- Evans, Frank. “Remembering Ernie Pyle: Former Sol-
ating a body of work estimated at 2.5 million words over diers Can’t Forget War Correspondent Who Died
a decade, Pyle was a craftsman of short nonfiction, ex- Sixty Years Ago.” Denver Catholic Register, April
posing readers to people and places they otherwise 13, 2005, 15. Pyle’s special relationship to GIs and
would not discover or could not comprehend. In short, their families back home is recalled.
declarative sentences, he painted brief, idealistic snap- Fish, Peter. “Ernie’s Place.” Sunset, August, 2002, 148.
shots of citizen soldiers whose nation longed for their re- Summarizes Pyle’s personal side, including his mar-
turn. Sometimes subsequently criticized as sentimental, riage and the house he built in Albuquerque.
Pyle did not draw back from war’s horrors, but he em- Miller, Lee G. The Story of Ernie Pyle. New York: Vi-
phasized the greater good being accomplished by those king Press, 1950. Affectionate and richly detailed bi-
horrors. ography of Pyle by a longtime friend and editor.
The ongoing aftermath of Pyle’s death included sev- Nichols, David. Ernie’s War: The Best of Ernie Pyle’s
eral posthumous honors, including a Medal of Merit from World War II Dispatches. New York: Random
the Army, Navy, and federal government. The medal House, 1986. An introductory biographical essay pro-
was given to Pyle’s wife, Jerry, at a July screening of the vides background to Pyle’s writings, which culminate
film based on his life and reporting, The Story of G.I. Joe in pieces sent from the area in which he died.
(1945). Jerry Pyle’s health deteriorated, and she died of Sentman, Mary Alice. “Ernie Pyle.” In American News-
complications from influenza on November 23, 1945. paper Journalists, 1926-1950. Vol. 29 in Dictionary
Years later, Pyle’s remains were moved to an Army of Literary Biography. Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research,
cemetery on Okinawa, then to Hawaii, where they were 1984. Thorough profile of Pyle’s life, with special at-
buried alongside Army and Navy dead in the National tention to his career in journalism.
Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific, in Punchbowl Crater, Tobin, James. Ernie Pyle’s War: America’s Eyewitness
on the island of Oahu. Since World War II, other report- to World War II. New York: Free Press, 1997. Finely
ers in other wars have not matched Pyle’s skill in observ- crafted prologue and epilogue bookend an examina-
ing, in interviewing, and in explaining and describing the tion of Pyle as both participant and observer in World
inexplicable and the indescribable in accessible lan- War II.
guage. He set the standard for reporting designed to con-
See also: 1941-1945: U.S. Censorship and War Propa-
vey both the experience and the importance of war to the
ganda During World War II; Nov. 8, 1942: Invasion
people remaining on the home front.
of North Africa; Sept. 3-18, 1943: Western Allies In-
—Bill Knight
vade Italy; June 6, 1944: Invasion of Normandy Be-
Further Reading gins the Liberation of Europe; July 25, 1944: Allied
Dedera, Don. “Ernie Pyle’s Tales of WWII Eclipsed His Forces Break German Front in France; Apr. 1-July 2,
Days as a ‘Tramp with an Expense Account.’” Ari- 1945: Okinawa Campaign Meets Stiff Japanese Re-
1945
zona Highways, May, 1998, 49. Focuses on Pyle’s de- sistance.
455
United Nations Charter Convention The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
April 25-June 26, 1945

United Nations Charter Convention
The birth of the United Nations established a global tive security led to the establishment of the United Na-
international organization for conflict resolution and tions on June 26, 1945, in San Francisco, as a successor
maintenance of world peace originally attempted after to the League of Nations, which had rested on similar
World War I with the League of Nations. principles but had failed to achieve consensus from all
the Great Powers.
Locale: San Francisco, California Throughout the evolution of the United Nations, ini-
Categories: United Nations; organizations and tiative came from the Western powers, particularly the
institutions; diplomacy and international relations United States. From its inception, the United Nations
Key Figures was a Western idea, but the United States believed that
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of Soviet participation was essential to its success. It was
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 not until the October, 1943, Moscow Declaration, how-
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; ever, that the Soviet Union made a firm commitment to
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central establish a general international organization. In August,
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet 1944, the Big Four—the United States, the Soviet Union,
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 China, and Great Britain—at last met to discuss the ac-
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the tual structure of the postwar security organization. At the
United States, 1933-1945 invitation of President Roosevelt, the delegates assem-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United bled at a suburban Washington, D.C., estate, Dumbarton
States, 1945-1953 Oaks, to review proposals.
Edward Reilly Stettinius, Jr. (1900-1949), U.S. By October 7, the conferees at Dumbarton Oaks had
secretary of state, 1944-1945, and chairman of the reached agreement on a number of vital points. There
U.S. delegation to the Charter Convention were a number of outstanding problems after the conven-
Tom Connally (1877-1963), chairman of the Senate tion adjourned, however, the most notable of which was
Committee on Foreign Relations and member of the a disagreement between the United States and the Soviet
U.S. delegation to the Charter Convention Union over the functioning of veto power in the new or-
Arthur Hendrick Vandenberg (1884-1951), U.S. ganization. The Soviet Union insisted that each Big Four
senator from Michigan and member of the U.S. country be permitted an absolute veto over issues in
delegation which they were involved. Roosevelt appealed directly
Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (Vyacheslav to Joseph Stalin in the hope of modifying this position
Mikhailovich Skryabin; 1890-1986), Soviet but without success. The president decided to accept the
commissar of foreign affairs, 1939-1949 and 1953- progress that had been made and reserve a final decision
1956 on the veto question until after he had an opportunity to
Cordell Hull (1871-1955), U.S. secretary of state, discuss the matter with the Soviet leader in person.
1933-1944 The next major diplomatic conference between the
major powers was at Yalta in February, 1945. On paper,
Summary of Event Roosevelt had every reason to feel that he had achieved
On January 1, 1942, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston his goal after the conclusion of the Yalta Conference. Al-
Churchill, Maksim Maksimovich Litvinov (Russian am- though concerned with many different topics of far-
bassador to the United States), and representatives of reaching implications, the Yalta meeting of Stalin, Roo-
twenty-three other nations signed the Declaration of the sevelt, and Churchill did produce a temporary accord on
United Nations, pledging themselves to a continued alli- the United Nations veto question. Stalin accepted the
ance in the struggle against the Axis and to uphold the U.S. proposition that those issues that were defined as
principles enunciated in the Atlantic Charter. This latter procedural could not be vetoed by any member of the or-
document was a joint statement made by Roosevelt and ganization; such issues would instead require a majority
Churchill on August 14, 1941, that spoke of the need to vote of the Security Council. It was further agreed that in
establish a permanent organization for collective secu- certain cases a disputant to an issue—even one of the Big
rity. Eventually, this commitment to permanent collec- Four—must abstain from voting. Finally, it was decided
456
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United Nations Charter Convention
that all nations that declared war on the Axis by March 1, Harry S. Truman, Roosevelt’s successor, was firmly
1945, would be considered charter members of the committed to the same sort of program Roosevelt had
United Nations. supported, and he endorsed the delegation. At the con-
At the invitation of the Big Four, forty-six other na- vention, the U.S. representatives immediately became
tions assembled in San Francisco on April 25, 1945, to bogged down in a number of disputes. Russia already
establish the United Nations. President Roosevelt had was creating tensions within the Allied coalition by its
chosen the U.S. delegation with great care. Recalling the supposed intransigence regarding Poland. It was only at
unfortunate experiences of Woodrow Wilson and the Truman’s insistence that Stalin, who viewed the entire
Paris convention, Roosevelt picked a bipartisan delega- San Francisco affair as a Western production, permitted
tion. At the head of the group was Edward R. Stettinius, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov, the Soviet foreign
Jr., newly appointed secretary of state. He was joined by minister, to attend the convention in place of a lower-
a number of other delegates, the most notable of whom ranking official. In San Francisco, the United States and
were Senator Arthur Hendrick Vandenberg, a Michigan Russia again disagreed over voting procedure. Seeking
Republican who had moved from an isolationist position to revoke the decision made at Yalta, Molotov now in-
to one of full support of the president, and Senator Tom sisted that each Great Power be granted the veto over any
Connally, a Texas Democrat who was chairman of the attempt by the Security Council to discuss an issue. Tru-
Senate Foreign Relations Committee. The president did man appealed to Stalin personally and finally was able to
not live to see the convention open: He died of a stroke on persuade him that a decision to discuss an issue was a
April 12, 1945, only two months before World War II procedural question and therefore not subject to a simple
ended. veto.
1945
The United Nations headquarters building in New York City. (Christopher Walker/Dreamstime.com)
457
United Nations Charter Convention The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
U.N. Member States and Year of Membership

Afghanistan (1946) Dominican Republic Libyan Arab Jamahiriya São Tomé and Príncipe
Albania (1955) (1945) (1955) (1975)
Algeria (1962) Ecuador (1945) Liechtenstein (1990) Saudi Arabia (1945)
Andorra (1993) Egypt (1945) Lithuania (1991) Senegal (1960)
Angola (1976) El Salvador (1945) Luxembourg (1945) Serbia and Montenegro
Antigua and Barbuda Equatorial Guinea Madagascar (1960) (2000)
(1981) (1968) Malawi (1964) Seychelles (1976)
Argentina (1945) Eritrea (1993) Malaysia (1957) Sierra Leone (1961)
Armenia (1992) Estonia (1991) Maldives (1965) Singapore (1965)
Australia (1945) Ethiopia (1945) Mali (1960) Slovakia (1993)
Austria (1955) Fiji (1970) Malta (1964) Slovenia (1992)
Azerbaijan (1992) Finland (1955) Marshall Islands (1991) Solomon Islands (1978)
Bahamas (1973) France (1945) Mauritania (1961) Somalia (1960)
Bahrain (1971) Gabon (1960) Mauritius (1968) South Africa (1945)
Bangladesh (1974) Gambia (1965) Mexico (1945) Spain (1955)
Barbados (1966) Georgia (1992) Micronesia, Federated Sri Lanka (1955)
Belarus (1945) Germany (1973) States of (1991) Sudan (1956)
Belgium (1945) Ghana (1957) Moldova, Republic of Suriname (1975)
Belize (1981) Greece (1945) (1992) Swaziland (1968)
Benin (1960) Grenada (1974) Monaco (1993) Sweden (1946)
Bhutan (1971) Guatemala (1945) Mongolia (1961) Switzerland (2002)
Bolivia (1945) Guinea (1958) Morocco (1956) Syrian Arab Republic
Bosnia and Herzegovina Guinea-Bissau (1974) Mozambique (1975) (1945)
(1992) Guyana (1966) Myanmar (1948) Tajikistan (1992)
Botswana (1966) Haiti (1945) Namibia (1990) Thailand (1946)
Brazil (1945) Honduras (1945) Nauru (1999) Timor-Leste (2002)
Brunei Darussalam Hungary (1955) Nepal (1955) Togo (1960)
(1984) Iceland (1946) Netherlands (1945) Tonga (1999)
Bulgaria (1955) India (1945) New Zealand (1945) Trinidad and Tobago
Burkina Faso (1960) Indonesia (1950) Nicaragua (1945) (1962)
Burundi (1962) Iran, Islamic Republic Niger (1960) Tunisia (1956)
Cambodia (1955) of (1945) Nigeria (1960) Turkey (1945)
Cameroon (1960) Iraq (1945) Norway (1945) Turkmenistan (1992)
Canada (1945) Ireland (1955) Oman (1971) Tuvalu (2000)
Cape Verde (1975) Israel (1949) Pakistan (1947) Uganda (1962)
Central African Republic Italy (1955) Palau (1994) Ukraine (1945)
(1960) Jamaica (1962) Panama (1945) United Arab Emirates
Chad (1960) Japan (1956) Papua New Guinea (1971)
Chile (1945) Jordan (1955) (1975) United Kingdom of Great
China (1945) Kazakhstan (1992) Paraguay (1945) Britain and Northern
Colombia (1945) Kenya (1963) Peru (1945) Ireland (1945)
Comoros (1975) Kiribati (1999) Philippines (1945) United Republic of
Congo, Democratic Korea, Democratic Poland (1945) Tanzania (1961)
Republic of the People’s Republic Portugal (1955) United States of America
(1960) of (1991) Qatar (1971) (1945)
Congo, Republic of the Korea, Republic of Romania (1955) Uruguay (1945)
(1960) (1991) Russian Federation Uzbekistan (1992)
Costa Rica (1945) Kuwait (1963) (1945) Vanuatu (1981)
Côte d’Ivoire (1960) Kyrgyzstan (1992) Rwanda (1962) Venezuela, Bolivarian
Croatia (1992) Laos (Lao People’s Saint Kitts and Nevis Republic of (1945)
Cuba (1945) Democratic (1983) Viet Nam (1977)
Cyprus (1960) Republic) (1955) Saint Lucia (1979) Yemen (1947)
Czech Republic (1993) Latvia (1991) Saint Vincent and the Yugoslav Republic of
Denmark (1945) Lebanon (1945) Grenadines (1980) Macedonia (1993)
Djibouti (1977) Lesotho (1966) Samoa (1976) Zambia (1964)
Dominica (1978) Liberia (1945) San Marino (1992) Zimbabwe (1980)
458
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United Nations Charter Convention
On another issue, however, the United States found iting rights for each state. The General Assembly could
self in complete agreement with the Soviet Union. As make recommendations only with regard to areas under
conceived by the Big Four in pre-San Francisco meet- its purview, while the Security Council could bind U.N.
ings, the United Nations was to operate through the dom- members under the provisions of chapter 7 for enforce-
ination of the five major powers, which now included ment of international peace and security.
France. It was agreed by all major powers that only una- The United Nations Charter was signed on June 26,
nimity among themselves could keep the peace. This 1945. By October 24, the five permanent members of the
agreement, however, met stiff resistance from the Security Council and a majority of the other charter
smaller powers, both before and during the U.N. Confer- member-nations had ratified the charter, and on that day,
ence at San Francisco. Latin American representatives the United Nations officially came into existence.
met at Mexico City in early 1945 and called for a more
Significance
powerful general assembly and an international court,
Almost immediately after the creation of the United Na-
and they insisted on a greater role for regional organiza-
tions, the Cold War deepened and the Allied consensus
tions in the maintenance of peace. Small powers ex-
Roosevelt had hoped would furnish the basis for effec-
pressed resentment at San Francisco concerning the veto
tive global management of conflict evaporated. Secu-
provisions insisted upon by the major powers, but the lat-
rity Council action was often frustrated by the threat or
ter held firmly to their dominant role in the Security
use of the veto. Apart from the Korean War—during
Council.
which the Soviet Union was boycotting Security Coun-
On a host of other points, concessions were made to
cil sessions, thus enabling the latter to deploy forces to
the smaller powers that resulted in a strengthening of
resist North Korean aggression—the Security Council
provisions for regional collective security in cooperation
was unable to invoke its collective enforcement powers.
with the Security Council and in the elaboration of an ex-
This led to the development of roles for the General
tensive set of articles dealing with decolonization and
Assembly and the Secretariat in pursuing peacekeeping
trusteeship arrangements for non-self-governing territo-
initiatives that the Security Council itself eventually
ries. The Dumbarton Oaks proposals developed by the
adopted, short of using economic sanctions or military
Great Powers had been largely silent on these issues, so
force. Over time, with the development of the United
the details of these initiatives had to be sketched out at
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organiza-
San Francisco. The result was a U.N. structure with six
tion (UNESCO) and the United Nations International
major organs instead of the four anticipated at Dum-
Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF; later the United
barton Oaks. To the Security Council, the General As-
Nations Children’s Fund), the organization became as-
sembly, the Secretariat, and the International Court of
sociated more with philanthropic endeavors than with
Justice were added the Economic and Social Council
the maintenance of peace or the enforcement of social
(ECOSOC) and the Trusteeship Council.
justice, goals in the pursuit of which it tended to be rela-
While the Security Council was created to deal with
tively powerless.
the major U.N. goal of maintaining global peace and se-
—George Q. Flynn and Robert F. Gorman
curity and punishing acts of aggression under chapters 6
and 7 of the charter, the General Assembly was granted Further Reading
1945
even broader authority not only to discuss peace and se- Bennett, A. LeRoy. International Organizations: Princi-
curity matters (although it could make no recommenda- ples and Issues. 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pren-
tions on such matters while the Security Council was en- tice Hall, 1995. A comprehensive treatment of the ori-
gaged in deliberations concerning them) but also to gins, genesis, and historical development of the United
coordinate U.N. efforts to eliminate the underlying Nations in the context of wider developments in inter-
causes of conflict. ECOSOC and the Trusteeship Coun- national organization.
cil, as well as mechanisms established to promote decol- Claude, Inis L., Jr. Swords into Plowshares: The Prob-
onization under General Assembly oversight, were es- lem and Progress of International Organization. 3d
tablished to address these underlying causes of conflict, rev. ed. New York: Random House, 1964. A standard
which were attributed to the lack of self-determination, history of the early development of the United Na-
poverty, violations of human rights, and other social pa- tions.
thologies. The General Assembly, unlike the Security Goodrich, Leland M., Edvard Hambro, and Anne P.
Council, was open to all member states, with equal vot- Simons. Charter of the United Nations: Commentary
459
Algerian Nationalists Riot at Sétif The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
and Documents. 3d ed. New York: Columbia Univer- ernment Printing Office, 1946. Contains a wealth of
sity Press, 1969. Although dated, an invaluable, article- documents, reports, verbatim records, and summaries
by-article analysis of the actual practice of the United of meetings leading up to and including the U.N. Con-
Nations in its first two decades of implementing char- ference in San Francisco.
ter provisions. Weiss, Thomas, David P. Forsythe, and Roger A. Coate.
Lee, Roy S., ed. Swords into Plowshares: Building The United Nations and Changing World Politics.
Peace Through the United Nations. Boston: Nijhoff, Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994. Examines the
2006. Anthology of essays evaluating the United Na- theory of collective security and its applicability to
tions’ history and progress from the point of view of U.N. efforts at peacekeeping and the protection of hu-
the early twenty-first century. man rights in the late twentieth century.
Mingst, Karen A., and Margaret P. Karns. The United
Nations in the Post-Cold War Era. Boulder, Colo.: See also: Aug. 14, 1941: Atlantic Charter Declares a
Westview Press, 1995. Traces the development of the Postwar Right of Self-Determination; Feb. 4-11, 1945:
United Nations and its prospects for renewed activity Yalta Conference; Feb. 1, 1946: First U.N. Secretary-
in global peacekeeping and economic development. General Is Selected; Feb. 5, 1946: Establishment of
The United Nations Conference on International Orga- the International Court of Justice; Nov. 9-Dec. 15,
nization, San Francisco, California, April 25 to June 1946: United Nations Admits Its First New Member
26, 1945. Selected Documents. U.S. Department of States; Dec. 12, 1946: Spain Is Denied Entrance into
State Conference Series 83. Washington, D.C.: Gov- the United Nations.
May 8, 1945
Algerian Nationalists Riot at Sétif
A series of political and social developments led to the Germany and the end of the European phase of World
outbreak of mass violence in eastern Algeria. France’s War II. Some eight thousand people, many young chil-
brutal suppression of the violence arguably increased dren, gathered at the mosque near the town’s railroad sta-
tensions in the country, hastening the Algerian War of tion. At some point during the celebration, however, the
Independence and later decolonization. crowd began to express its resentment of its colonial sta-
tus: Algerians were the colonial subjects of an imperialist
Locale: Sétif, Algeria occupying power, France. Violence directed against the
Categories: Colonialism and occupation; French colonials broke out, leading eventually to more
independence movements; wars, uprisings, and civil than ten thousand deaths.
unrest The incident in Sétif was a symptom of tension that
Key Figures had existed between the French and the Algerian Mus-
Ferhat Abbas (1899-1985), Algerian nationalist leader lims since before World War II, although it was not man-
Ahmed Messali Hadj (1898-1974), Algerian ifested in violence prior to the Sétif revolt. Algerian na-
revolutionary leader tionalism centered on personalities representing three
Yves Chataigneau (1891-1961), governor-general of major trends of thought. The first group, led by Ahmed
Algeria, 1944-1948 Messali Hadj, was violently anti-French and demanded
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), head of the French total independence from French rule. After the Sétif
provisional government, 1944-1946 incident, when his Algerian People’s Party (PPA) was
Maurice Violette (1870-1960), governor-general of banned, Messali Hadj persisted and created a new orga-
Algeria, 1925-1927 nization, the Movement for the Triumph of Democratic
Liberties (MTLD), with essentially the same demands.
Summary of Event The second group, led by Ferhat Abbas and his Friends
The people of the predominantly Muslim town of Sétif, of the Manifesto and Liberty (AML), pursued assim-
located in the Department of Constantine, Algeria, gath- ilationist politics with a goal of Algerian autonomy
ered on May 8, 1945 (V-E day), to celebrate the defeat of within the French system. After the AML was banned in
460
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Algerian Nationalists Riot at Sétif
the aftermath of the Sétif revolt, Abbas too formed a sec- ing in casualties, between the police and demonstrators
ond movement, the Democratic Union of the Algerian in Algiers and other cities. There was no police interven-
Manifesto (UDMA). The most direct influence on the tion during Sétif’s May Day parade, however.
Muslim masses, however, was exerted by the third The local AML leaders agreed to act responsibly dur-
group, their religious leaders. ing Sétif’s V-E Day celebration on May 8 as well, prom-
The colons (Algerian Europeans, both French and ising to respect a police ban on political slogans. They
others) resisted pressure from both the Algerian moder- planned to lay a wreath at the local war memorial and then
ates, who demanded French citizenship through assimi- disperse. On reaching the center of town, however, some
lation, and the radicals, who demanded independence. members of the crowd brought out small British, Ameri-
The colons allied themselves with powerful elements of can, and French flags amid shouts of “long live Messali,”
the French government, bureaucracy, and military and “long live free and independent Algeria,” and “down with
controlled the Algerian government through influence, colonialism.” At least one man waved the green-and-
finance, and the press. The major French response to the white Algerian national flag. The commissioner of po-
early assimilationist demands of the educated Algerians lice, with only a few officers at his disposal, reluctantly
was the Blum-Violette proposals of 1936, coauthored by decided to intervene. In the ensuing scuffle a spectator
Maurice Violette, which would have extended citizen- was shot, possibly by a panic-stricken police officer.
ship initially to a few thousand Muslims. Even this mod- By noon, the rumor of what some saw as the beginning
est effort at conciliation was obstructed by the deter- of a holy war spread east as well as north to the Babor
mined opposition of the colons, however. Mountains. During the night, armed Muslims rampaged
The Algerian economy was organized to serve the co- through the isolated villages and farms, cutting power
lons’ interests. Commercially cultivated farmlands in the lines, breaking into railroad carriages, and setting fire to
northern plains were controlled by colons. These lands public buildings. Guelma, a major town about 165 miles
had yields almost ten times as high per acre as the infer- to the east, was encircled by a mob on May 9. Incited by
tile lands to the south, to which the Muslims had been events in Sétif, Muslim mobs lost control and committed
driven beginning in the early 1900’s. The colons exer- atrocities against helpless Europeans of all ages, sometimes
cised similar control over railroads, shipping, and other mutilating their victims’ bodies. The prefect of Constan-
industrial enterprises. The plight of the Muslim farmers tine called on Yves Chataigneau, the governor-general,
was complicated by high population growth and the to send in the army. Violence continued for five days,
gradual subdivision of their lands in the south. They de- spreading to settlements such as Sillegue, El Ouricia, La-
pended for their meager livelihood on raising sheep and Fayette, Chevreul, Perigotville, and Kerrata. More than
crops on their own land or sharecropping on colon farm- one hundred European men, women, and children were
lands in the north. killed, one-third of them petty government officials,
Prior to Sétif, Ferhat Abbas’s AML had led political symbols of the French presence in Algeria.
agitation for a change in the conditions of native Algeri- The army, called in after five days, restored order in
ans, which added to tensions in the colony. The AML, Constantine. Rather than bringing the culprits of the mob
which diverged from Abbas’s agenda and came to be violence to justice and punishing the guilty, the army
dominated by Messali Hadj’s followers, adopted a reso- hastily adopted a policy of reprisal. The governor-general
1945
lution for complete independence at the organization’s himself gave the orders for repression, so Charles de
congress in March, 1945. The political atmosphere in Al- Gaulle, head of the French provisional government, was
geria had been charged with expectation for change since probably kept informed and had some responsibility for
the landing of Anglo-American forces in Algeria in the army’s actions.
1942. That atmosphere was influenced by the apparently The retaliatory army actions, meant to protect and
anticolonial tone of the Atlantic Charter, signed in 1941. perhaps avenge the Europeans, have been described as a
Muslim sentiments were further aroused by the establish- veritable massacre. Martial law was declared in Constan-
ment of the Arab League, a symbol of Arab unity, in 1945. tine. An army of about ten thousand Senegalese and le-
On the eve of the Sétif incident, the AML, which gionnaires was given almost a free hand to clean up the
feared the consequences of the policy of confrontation area between the cities of Sétif and Guelma. This force
advocated by the Communist Party of Algeria, publicly rounded up hundreds of Muslims, summarily executing
attacked that policy. During May Day parades one week anyone suspected of any crime, as well as anyone found
prior to the Sétif incident, there had been clashes, result- without the identity brassard prescribed by the army. In-
461
Algerian Nationalists Riot at Sétif The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
terrogations using violent methods were often held in never published a final report, mentioned in its provi-
public. Indiscriminate aerial and naval bombardments sional report the resentment toward an unjust system felt
added to the death tolls, especially those of the innocent. by those Muslims who returned to Algeria after working
On a single day, the French air force’s P-39 and B-26 in more egalitarian environments outside the country.
warplanes flew three hundred sorties. Such repeated pu- Their resentment found a sympathetic reception among
nitive operations destroyed many machtas, or Muslim their fellows.
settlements, particularly between Guelma and the coast. The repression of native Algerians by the colons led
French naval units from the Gulf of Bongui repeatedly to expression by poets and politicians alike. Poet Kateb
shelled the coastal settlements at close range. Yacin, who was then sixteen years old, spoke about his
Arms were distributed to European civilians as an first feelings of nationalism. Ben Bella, the revolutionary
added measure to ensure their safety. The Europeans leader who was returning to Algeria after serving with
quickly formed vigilante groups and roamed the country- the French army, was aghast at the sight of the bloody re-
side, meting out their own justice. More than two hun- pression. Hardly any nationalists believed any longer
dred Muslims were shot in Chevreul. Victims of the vigi- that changes in the colonial system could be accom-
lantes were often old men, women, and children. The plished through reform.
victims’ bodies were sometimes mutilated, and their The French tried to stem the growing tide of Algerian
homes were often destroyed. nationalism by granting Algerians limited political
Estimates of the death toll ranged from a few hundred rights. In addition to granting French citizenship to lim-
to nearly fifty thousand. Official European casualties ited numbers who did not have to relinquish their rights
were 89 dead and 150 injured. French army officers in- under Qur$3nic laws, a privilege that had been granted to
volved gave a moderate estimate of between six thou- a few beginning in 1944, the French gave voting rights to
sand and eight thousand Muslim dead. The Algerian na- women, recognized Arabic as another official language
tional press put the figure at fifty thousand dead, and The along with French, and brought the tribes in the southern
New York Times estimated about eighteen thousand high plains under civilian rule for the first time.
Muslims dead. One plausible explanation for the wide In September, 1947, dual electoral colleges were intro-
discrepancy between these figures was the large number duced for the Algerian assembly, one for the French mi-
of Muslims who fled their villages once the army action nority and another for Muslim French subjects. Artificial
started, thus depleting their ranks temporarily. parity between the two in representation, however, al-
Apart from the activities of the European vigilante lowed the French to maintain official control, vitiating the
groups, the army made wholesale arrests of suspects, purpose of representation. Confidence in French goodwill
some of whom were only remotely connected to Sétif further eroded after the 1948 assembly elections, in which
and the mob violence there. These arrests posed a major widespread official use of gerrymandering and other kinds
threat to Muslims’ personal freedom. Ferhat Abbas, who of fraud resulted in a landslide victory of official candi-
visited the governor-general to congratulate him on the dates over the nationalists. The governor-general, ap-
allied victory over Germany, was arrested inside the pointed by the French Ministry of Interior, retained the
governor-general’s mansion. His AML was banned soon ultimate control over administration.
afterward. Messali Hadj’s party bore the brunt of the The greatest long-term political consequence of the
arrests. Of about forty-five hundred arrested in the after- massacres was the resolve of many young men to fight
math of the Sétif incident, about one hundred were exe- colonialism by every means at their disposal. The Algeri-
cuted and sixty-four were imprisoned for life. ans finally mounted a full-scale revolution in November,
Back in the mother country, France, like the rest of 1954. Insecurity of life and property and violation of per-
Europe, was busy with victory celebrations, and major sonal freedom became common experiences, as native
French newspapers downplayed the extent of the vio- Algerians struggled to liberate their country from French
lence in Constantine. De Gaulle himself dismissed the imperial control. The French, for their part, adopted tor-
events as insignificant. ture as a common means of eliciting information from
suspects in their attempt to root out all revolutionaries.
Significance Indeed, at one point in 1957, a formal proposal was made
Tension built upon the inferiority of Muslim wealth and to approve the use of torture by the French army. The re-
status within the colonial system erupted into violence in volt at Sétif thus marked the initial stage of Algerian rev-
Sétif. The official inquiry committee on Sétif, which olution, starting the period of resistance to France’s mas-
462
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in Europe
sive efforts to retain Algeria within its political system, nology of events, detailed bibliography, and rare pho-
and it oriented indigenous Algerians toward the goal of tos. The first three chapters are useful for those inter-
national independence, which was achieved in 1962. ested in Sétif.
—Asit Kumar Sen Naylor, Phillip C. France and Algeria: A History of De-
colonization and Transformation. Gainesville: Uni-
Further Reading
versity Press of Florida, 2000. A scholarly account of
Ageron, Charles Robert. Modern Algeria: A History from
the historical relationship between France and Al-
1830 to the Present. Edited and translated by Michael
geria.
Brett. London: Hurst, 1991. Revised and updated
Ruedy, John. Modern Algeria: The Origins and Develop-
translation of the ninth edition of this standard of Al-
ment of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University
gerian history.
Press, 1992. Broad survey of Algeria’s history. In-
Behr, Edward. The Algerian Problem. Westport, Conn.:
cludes extensive bibliography.
Greenwood Press, 1976. Eyewitness account of the
Stone, Martin. The Agony of Algeria. New York: Colum-
period from the Algerian revolution to Algeria’s inde-
bia University Press, 1997. Vast history of Algeria’s
pendence. Includes a short bibliography almost en-
difficult history with several chapters focusing on the
tirely composed of French publications; photos, map,
influence of the French. Bibliography.
no index.
Gordon, David C. The Passing of French Algeria. Lon- See also: Oct. 20, 1952-1957: Mau Mau Uprising Cre-
don: Oxford University Press, 1966. An account of ates Havoc in Kenya; Mar. 6, 1957: Ghana Gains In-
the revolution written from the neutral British per- dependence from the United Kingdom; 1958: Things
spective. Like the books by Behr and by Horne, this Fall Apart Depicts the Destruction of Ibo Culture;
volume treats the nationalist cause with understand- Oct. 2, 1958: Guinea Gains Independence from
ing. Bibliography and index. France; 1960: Africa’s Year of Independence; Sept. 1,
Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace. Harmonds- 1961: Eritrea Begins Its War for Independence; July
worth, England: Penguin Books, 1987. One of the 5, 1962: Algeria Gains Independence from France;
best works on the military aspect of the revolution by Oct. 9, 1962: Uganda Gains Independence; May 25,
a British historian. Inspired and almost poetic, yet ex- 1963: Organization of African Unity Is Founded;
tremely detailed, account of the political and social Apr. 28, 1966: Southern Rhodesian Freedom Fighters
context of the revolution. Includes maps, charts, chro- Begin Toppling White Supremacist Government.
May 8, 1945
V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in Europe
The Allied defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969),
marked not only the end of a brutal war in Europe but commander in chief of Allied forces in
also the transfer of international power from the center Western Europe
1945
of the European continent to two world powers at Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), chancellor of Germany,
Europe’s flanks, the United Kingdom and the Soviet 1933-1945, and führer, 1934-1945
Union. The war in the Pacific would end with Japan’s Bernard Law Montgomery (1887-1976), British
surrender on August 15, 1945. commander of the Twenty-first Army Group
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president
Locale: Rheims, France of the United States, 1933-1945
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings, and civil Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich
unrest; geography Dzhugashvili; 1878-1953), general secretary
Key Figures of the Central Committee of the Communist
Omar N. Bradley (1893-1981), U.S. commander of the Party of the Soviet Union, 1922-1953, and
Twelfth Army Group premier, 1941-1953
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of the Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the
United Kingdom, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 United States, 1945-1953
463
V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in Europe The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Summary of Event Adolf Hitler, the führer of Germany, had ordered his
After repelling the German counterattack in the Ar- commanders to defend every inch of ground, and as a re-
dennes during the Battle of the Bulge in December, 1944, sult of this directive, Eisenhower was able to destroy
the commander in chief of Allied forces in Western Eu- much of the German army in battles west of the Rhine
rope, General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, pre- in February, 1945. He also was able to capture the
pared for the final offensive into the heart of Germany. Ludendorff railroad bridge over the Rhine at Remagen
He planned three crossings of the Rhine River in the on March 7, so that he had a bridgehead in the center;
spring of 1945—one on the north by Field Marshal Ber- consequently, he abandoned plans to cross the river on
nard Law Montgomery’s Twenty-first Army Group, con- his left and right flanks, and instead he rushed troops
sisting mainly of British and Canadian troops and the across the Rhine at Remagen.
U.S. Ninth Army; another in the center by Lieutenant By March 28, Bradley’s forces had passed through
General Omar N. Bradley’s Twelfth Army Group; and a Remagen and reached Marburg, where they were ready
third in the south by the U.S. Third and Seventh Armies. to swing northward to link up with Montgomery’s
Twenty-first Army Group. Bradley was
promoted to general the following day.
Germany Surrenders Montgomery’s army group also had
crossed the Rhine and had cut off Ger-
Instrument of surrender of all German Forces to the Supreme Com- man Army Group B, assigned to defend
mander of the Allied Expeditionary Force, General Dwight D. Eisen- Germany’s main industrial area, the Ruhr
hower, and to the Supreme High Command of the Red Army Valley. Eisenhower informed Montgom-
ery that once the latter’s encirclement of
Berlin, May 8, 1945
1. We the undersigned, acting by authority of the German High Com- German units had been completed, the
mand, hereby surrender unconditionally to the Supreme Commander, U.S. Ninth Army (which had been fight-
Allied Expeditionary Force and simultaneously to the Supreme High ing with Montgomery’s Twenty-first
Command of the Red Army all forces on land, at sea, and in the air Army Group) would revert to General
who are at this date under German control. Bradley’s Twelfth Army Group for the
2. The German High Command will at once issue orders to all German final move into Germany. This adminis-
military, naval and air authorities and to all forces under German con- trative shift was a major change in Eisen-
trol to cease active operations at 2301 hours Central European time on hower’s overall strategy.
8th May 1945, to remain in the positions occupied at that time and to Before the capture of the railroad
disarm completely, handing over their weapons and equipment to the
bridge at Remagen, Eisenhower had in-
local allied commanders or officers designated by Representatives of
tended that Montgomery should spear-
the Allied Supreme Commands. No ship, vessel, or aircraft is to be
scuttled, or any damage done to their hull, machinery or equipment, head the major military effort east of the
and also to machines of all kinds, armament, apparatus, and all the Rhine, with Berlin as the primary target;
technical means of prosecution of war in general. now he was shifting the emphasis to Brad-
3. The German High Command will at once issue to the appropriate ley’s Twelfth Army Group headed for
commanders, and ensure the carrying out of any further orders issued Dresden. On March 28, Eisenhower in-
by the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force and by the formed Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin of
Supreme High Command of the Red Army. his intentions, implying that he would
4. This act of military surrender is without prejudice to, and will be su- leave capture of the German capital to the
perseded by any general instrument of surrender imposed by, or on Soviet armies advancing from the east.
behalf of the United Nations and applicable to GERMANY and the
The prime minister of Great Britain,
German armed forces as a whole.
Winston Churchill, was furious. He con-
5. In the event of the German High Command or any of the forces under
their control failing to act in accordance with this Act of Surrender, sidered Eisenhower’s shift in emphasis
the Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force and the Su- uncalled-for from the military point of
preme High Command of the Red Army will take such punitive or view and held that Berlin should remain
other action as they deem appropriate. the prime objective for both the British
6. This Act is drawn up in the English, Russian and German languages. and the U.S. forces. Eisenhower insisted
The English and Russian are the only authentic texts. that Berlin was no longer important, be-
cause no German armies or government
464
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 V-E Day Marks the End of World War II in Europe
agencies of any significance re-

mained in the capital. The Supreme
Allied Commander wanted to end
the war as soon as possible; to do
so he had to destroy the remaining
German armed forces, which were
concentrated in southern Germany.
Churchill insisted that politically it
was essential for the British and
Americans to capture Berlin, for if
the Soviets were allowed to capture
the capital, they would gain an exag-
gerated opinion of their contribution
to the common victory. Churchill
also implied that if the Anglo-Amer-
ican forces took Berlin, they could
hold the city for the purpose of mak-
ing postwar deals with the Soviets.
The division of Germany into
zones of occupation already had been Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel signs the terms of Germany’s surrender, ending the war
decided, and Berlin was located in Europe. (National Archives)
within the territory allotted to the So-
viet zone. Berlin itself was to be di-
vided into sectors among the Allies. Eisenhower held Admiral Karl Doenitz, began negotiations for surrender
that it would be foolish to waste U.S. and British lives in on May 4. Doenitz wanted to hand over German forces to
taking a city that would have to be handed over by prior the Western Allies, hoping thereby to avoid punishment
agreement to the Soviets because it was to be allocated to from the Soviets for German crimes in the east, but Ei-
their zone. At no time did Churchill advocate repudiating senhower refused to comply. Doenitz, his country in
earlier agreements with the Soviets concerning the divi- ruin, agreed to the immediate unconditional surrender of
sion of Germany, although he did want “to shake hands all Germany’s armed forces. German and Allied repre-
as far east as possible” with the Red Army. sentatives met at Eisenhower’s headquarters in Rheims,
Churchill could not give orders to Eisenhower; that France, on May 7 and signed the necessary documents
prerogative was reserved for the combined chiefs of staff that made the surrender effective the following day. Tru-
of the United States and Great Britain, or the president of man declared that day, May 8, to be V-E day (victory in
the United States. The chief of staff of the U.S. Army, Europe day).
General of the Army George C. Marshall, saw to it that
Eisenhower was given a free hand in field operations. Significance
1945
Churchill appealed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, It soon became evident that the documents signed at
but Roosevelt’s foreign policy was to make every effort Rheims were not the correct versions previously agreed
to attain good relations with Stalin, and he refused to or- upon by the Allies. Confusion reigned. The documents
der Eisenhower to race the Soviet army to Berlin. After had not been approved formally by the Soviets, did not
Roosevelt’s death on April 12, 1945, the new president, make provisions for authoritative Russian translations,
Harry S. Truman, adopted the same policy. Eisenhower and were signed by an obscure Soviet general without
was free to do as he thought fit, and he sent his armies into Stalin’s knowledge. Although the United States tried to
central and southern Germany, avoiding Berlin. The So- downplay the mistake, the Soviets insisted upon a second
viets captured the German capital in late April. surrender ceremony with the proper documents and dif-
Eisenhower’s forces reached the Elbe River in central ferent representatives in Berlin. That ceremony took
Germany between April 19 and May 2. On April 25, U.S. place on May 9, a date that Soviets subsequently com-
and Russian patrols met near Torgau and cut Germany in memorated as the “true” V-E day. The Soviets had
half. Hitler committed suicide on April 30; his successor, achieved a symbolic victory over the United States, as
465
Evelyn Waugh Captures Prewar English Life in Brideshead Revisited The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the second signing ceremony bolstered Moscow’s dark William Morrow, 1986. Examines the events leading
intimations that the Western allies sought to marginalize up to V-E day, incorporating maps and diagrams. Di-
the Soviet Union in the postwar order. As much as mark- vided into sections that focus on the different military
ing the end of the war against Germany, V-E day also can fronts of the war.
be seen as the opening of the Cold War. In July, the Brit- The Second World War. 9 vols. Naples, Fla.: Trident
ish, the Soviets, and the Americans met at the Potsdam Press International, 2000. Illustrated with more than
Conference to work out a peace agreement and to discuss twenty thousand photographs, this nine-volume
the disposition of Germany, Eastern Europe, and the Jap- chronicle is unsurpassed as a visual record of World
anese surrender. War II in both major theaters.
—Stephen E. Ambrose, updated by Steve D. Boilard Short, K. R. M., and Stephen Dolezel, eds. Hitler’s Fall:
The Newsreel Witness. London: Croom Helm, 1988.
Further Reading
Examines how the struggle with and victory over Ger-
Bahn, Karl. Berlin, 1945: The Last Battle, 16 April-
many was portrayed by contemporary media. Essays,
2 May 1945. Barnsley, England: Pen and Sword
drawn from several countries, focus on commercial
Books, 2001. An authoritative account of the Euro-
and governmentally controlled newsreel films.
pean theater’s final assault, which prompted Hitler’s
Weinberg, Gerhard. “The Final Assault on Germany.” In
suicide and Germany’s surrender.
A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II.
Churchill, Winston S. Triumph and Tragedy. Vol. 6 in
New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. An
The Second World War. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
engaging and authoritative chapter in a lengthy book
1953. In this World War II history volume, Churchill
by a prominent scholar. Includes notes.
examines and reflects upon the victory in Europe.
Dear, Ian C. B. The Oxford Companion to World War II. See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
New ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. A European Theater; Dec. 11, 1941: Germany and Italy
thorough encyclopedic work with more than seven- Declare War on the United States; June 6, 1944: Inva-
teen hundred alphabetized entries on World War II. sion of Normandy Begins the Liberation of Europe;
Gilbert, Martin. The Day the War Ended: May 8, 1945, July 25, 1944: Allied Forces Break German Front in
Victory in Europe. New York: Henry Holt, 1995. One France; Aug. 15, 1944: Operation Dragoon; Sept. 12,
of the best works to come out at the fiftieth anniver- 1944: Allied Forces Begin the Battle for Germany;
sary of V-E day. Includes photos and a bibliography. Dec. 16, 1944-Jan., 1945: Battle of the Bulge; Feb. 4-
Lucas, Jones Sidney. Last Days of the Third Reich: The 11, 1945: Yalta Conference; July 17-Aug. 2, 1945:
Collapse of Nazi Germany, May, 1945. New York: Potsdam Conference.
May 28, 1945

Evelyn Waugh Captures Prewar English Life in
BRIDESHEAD REVISITED
Toward the end of World War II, Evelyn Waugh, Laura Herbert Waugh (1916-1973), Waugh’s second
previously known as a satirical novelist, wrote wife and the mother of his children
Brideshead Revisited, in which he lamented the Augustus Dudley Peters (1892-1973), Waugh’s literary
decline of the English aristocracy and proclaimed agent
the love of God, through Catholicism, as greater
than any human love. Summary of Event
Upon the British publication of Evelyn Waugh’s novel
Brideshead Revisited (1945, 1959), readers could note
that he included an “Author’s Note” in which he stated,
Category: Literature
“I am not I; thou art not he or she; they are not they,” as if
Key Figures to deter anyone from trying to link the fictional tale with
Evelyn Waugh (1903-1966), British novelist and biographical details of the author’s life. Nevertheless,
journalist much in this Roman Catholic and aristocratic novel sug-
466
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Evelyn Waugh Captures Prewar English Life in Brideshead Revisited
gested that Waugh modeled Charles Ryder, the first- The prologue to the novel begins at a bleak army post
person narrator, partly upon himself. near Glasgow, Scotland, in the early spring of either
Waugh was the second son in an upper-middle-class 1943 or 1944, by which time the narrator, Captain
Anglican family. Too young to fight in World War I, he Charles Ryder, has fallen out of love with the army.
went to Lancing College, a public school, and then to Ryder sees a symbol of the decline of civilization in
Hertford College, Oxford University, which he left in Lieutenant Hooper, a cheerful, incompetent, culturally
1924 without earning a degree. He next studied art non- ignorant, and morally obtuse young man with a little
chalantly and taught school before the publication in business experience. The morning after his battalion
April, 1928, of his biography of the nineteenth century travels by train far south into England and arrives at night
poet and painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, followed in five at an undisclosed destination, Charles learns that he has
months by the publication of his satirical novel Decline returned to Brideshead, the formerly magnificent estate
and Fall. That year also witnessed his marriage to of the Flyte family.
Evelyn Gardner (“She-Evelyn”), whose adultery the In the version of the novel published in the 1940’s, the
next year led to their secular divorce in January, 1930, an two main sections are those of Charles’s memories. The
event that occurred eight months before Waugh’s con- title of book 1, “Et in Arcadia Ego” (a phrase written on a
version to Catholicism. human skull that Charles has bought), may allude to a
After Decline and Fall came other novels, including A seventeenth century painting by Nicolas Poussin in
Handful of Dust (1934), as well as short stories, travel which shepherds of ancient Arcadia, supposedly an
books, articles, reviews, and a biography of the sixteenth earthly paradise, realize that death is there too. For
century Catholic martyr Edmund Campion. As for his Charles, an art-loving agnostic, Oxford University and
personal life, in 1936 Waugh received a Catholic
annulment of his first marriage and, in the fol-
lowing year, married Laura Herbert, a Catholic
cousin of his first wife and, like her, an earl’s
granddaughter. In the third month of World War
II, Waugh joined the British military, in which he
served in one branch or another, often to every-
one’s dissatisfaction, until September, 1945.
While training as a parachutist in December,
1943, Waugh broke his leg and, on leave, on Feb-
ruary 1, 1944, in seclusion at a hotel in Chag-
ford, Devon, he began writing a novel initially
titled The Household of Faith. The title would be
changed to Brideshead Revisited. In occasional
contact with Augustus Dudley Peters, his literary
agent, Waugh wrote the novel quickly. Although
he did do some traveling to fulfill slight military
1945
duties, he did not visit his wife and family until
more than a week after the May 13 birth of his
daughter Harriet Waugh. On June 20, he sent his
novel to the London publishing firm of Chap-
man & Hall. Five months later, while on a mili-
tary mission to Yugoslavia, Waugh received the
proofs, which he corrected within six days. After
a magazine serialized Brideshead Revisited from
November, 1944, to February, 1945, with unau-
thorized omissions, the novel appeared in its first
British edition on May 28, 1945, and in the next
year it appeared in the United States as a selection
of the Book-of-the-Month Club. Evelyn Waugh. (Library of Congress)
467
Evelyn Waugh Captures Prewar English Life in Brideshead Revisited The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Brideshead in the early 1920’s seem for a while to be par- Charles thinks that he lives now in the “age of Hooper,”
adise because of his romance with Sebastian Flyte, the and his mind sadly turns to Lamentations 1:1 and Ecclesi-
marquis of Marchmain’s younger son. Sebastian, how- astes 1:2. He thinks also of the Brideshead chapel, now re-
ever, feels estranged from his family and, like his father, opened, of the flame burning in the chapel lamp, of those
who lives with a mistress in Venice, he hates Lady who built the great house long before from stones of the
Marchmain, the intensely Catholic matriarch who, castle that had preceded it, and of the “fierce little human
Sebastian believes, tries to control him. As book 1 pro- tragedy” in which he has acted. Somehow, he sees hope.
gresses, Sebastian and Charles leave the university.
Significance
Sebastian eventually makes his way to Morocco, while
Brideshead Revisited became a best seller in Britain and
Charles, with the encouragement of his widowed, emo-
the United States, despite its fundamental seriousness.
tionally detached father, heads for Paris, where he stud-
Many professional critics praised it, although some
ies art. As book 1 ends in 1926, Sebastian has sunk
claimed it was snobbish or objected to its Catholicism. In
deeply into alcoholism, Charles has begun painting pro-
1959, writing a preface to a revised edition, Waugh ac-
fessionally, and Lady Marchmain has died.
knowledged that the lushness of his descriptions in some
Drawing its title, “A Twitch upon the Thread,” from a
passages had come in response to the privations of the war
phrase in one of G. K. Chesterton’s Father Brown stories,
and that his fear of the disappearance of the aristocracy
book 2 follows the relationship between Charles Ryder
and their country homes had not been realized. As for
and Julia Flyte Mottram, Sebastian’s beautiful sister, of
dramatizations, talks that Waugh and Metro-Goldwyn-
whom, according to Charles, Sebastian was the “forerun-
Mayer conducted in 1947 did not lead to a film version,
ner.” Legally, Charles and Julia are married to other per-
but the British television miniseries of 1981, with Jeremy
sons, but emotionally their marriages have already ended
Irons, Anthony Andrews, and Diana Quick, was a great
when they meet again in 1936 on an ocean liner on their
success that renewed public interest in Waugh’s por-
way back to England and begin a passionate affair. After
trayal of a troubled family and his truly countercultural
a showing of his latest paintings in London, Charles does
defense of social hierarchy and Catholic Christianity.
not go home with his wife, Celia, to see their son and the
—Victor Lindsey
daughter who Charles suspects is the child of Celia’s
adultery. Rather, he travels with Julia to Brideshead, Further Reading
where they spend most of their time in what, at least for Davis, Robert Murray. “Brideshead Revisited”: The
Charles, is almost a paradise. Past Redeemed. Boston: Twayne, 1990. Gives a close
Julia’s brother Bridey shocks the couple into recog- reading of the novel, with an emphasis on how its
nizing the reality of their situation, when he tells them structure helps present its theme.
that his fiancé, a traditional Catholic, will not visit Page, Norman. An Evelyn Waugh Chronology. New
Brideshead while Julia and Charles are there, living “in York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Succinctly tells where
sin.” Trying to bring an earthly order to their lives, the Waugh was and what he did on many days of his life.
two lovers plan to divorce their spouses. Then, however, Stannard, Martin. Evelyn Waugh: The Early Years,
Lord Marchmain and his mistress return to England early 1903-1939. London: Dent, 1986. Extensively studies
in 1939, as war approaches, to live at his ancestral estate. Waugh’s life, including his writing, from his birth un-
Having been excommunicated years before and having til November, 1939.
scoffed at religion, the old man seems unlikely to rejoin _______. Evelyn Waugh: The Later Years, 1939-1966.
the faith. However, when, at Julia’s request, a priest vis- New York: Norton, 1992. Extensively studies
its him on his deathbed in the summer, urges him to re- Waugh’s life, including his writing, from December,
pent, and gives him absolution, Lord Marchmain crosses 1939, until his death.
himself. This miracle, God’s twitch upon a thread, also _______, ed. Evelyn Waugh: The Critical Heritage.
draws Julia away from Charles and back into her child- London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984. Includes
hood faith and, according to many readers, leads Charles eleven reviews of Brideshead Revisited, along with
to accept the loss of Julia and to join the Church himself. argumentative exchanges and Waugh’s preface to the
In the epilogue, Charles returns to the bleakness of 1959 edition.
World War II, to the damage done to Brideshead, offi- Wykes, David. Evelyn Waugh: A Literary Life. New
cially and unofficially, by soldiers lacking respect for the York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999. Argues that Waugh’s
beauty it once had and the order it once symbolized. novels declined in artistic quality beginning with
468
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Britten Completes Peter Grimes
Brideshead Revisited, in which the physical appeal to Eighty-Four Portrays Totalitarianism and Mind Con-
readers overpowers the spiritual. trol; 1950’s: “Angry Young Men” Express Working-
Class Views; 1951-1975: Powell Publishes the Epic A
See also: Feb., 1942: Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil Dance to the Music of Time; 1961: Catch-22 Illus-
in The Screwtape Letters; 1948: Greene’s The Heart trates Antiwar Sentiment; 1963: Le Carré Rejects the
of the Matter Is Published; June, 1949: Nineteen Fantasy World of Secret Agents.
June 7, 1945
Britten Completes PETER GRIMES
Peter Grimes, written by composer Benjamin Britten is scarcely an instantly appealing one; as Patricia How-
and first produced at the end of World War II, ard has said of the opera, “its miracle is that a character as
revitalized the British operatic tradition and unattractive, unapproachable, and undeniably unpleas-
reawakened international interest in English opera. ant as Grimes in the end manages to gain our sympathy.”
Britten, who shared with Crabbe a fascination with
life along the harsh Suffolk coast, had been impressed in
Categories: Music; theater
1934 by his first hearing of Alban Berg’s opera Wozzeck
Key Figures (1925), the title character of which is perhaps the ulti-
Benjamin Britten (1913-1976), British operatic mate antihero of twentieth century opera. The same year
composer he heard Wozzeck, Britten first came to the general atten-
Peter Pears (1910-1986), British tenor and Britten’s tion of English musical audiences with his “Simple Sym-
lover phony” (1934). He had already attracted the attention of
Montagu Slater (1902-1956), British poet and novelist composer Frank Bridge with his compositional talent,
Summary of Event and his promise provided consolation to the English
Not counting the operas by the German-born George audience that had just lost its three major composers—
Frideric Handel in the eighteenth century or the light op- Gustav Holst, Frederick Delius, and Edward Elgar. De-
eras of the Victorian team of W. S. Gilbert and Arthur pressed by a combination of factors, specifically his dis-
Sullivan, Peter Grimes (1945) was the first international tress as a pacifist at the imminent onset of the war and
success by a native English opera composer since Henry discomfort with his own homosexuality in a country
Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas (1689). Its composer, Ben- where it was a crime, Britten moved to the United States
jamin Britten, was a product of the windswept seacoast in May, 1939, with his companion, Peter Pears.
of Suffolk and retained a lifelong affection for its people It was the chance reading in 1941, in California, of an
and vulnerable landscape. Although he had left England appreciative essay on Crabbe by novelist E. M. Forster
in May, 1939, dreading the onset of World War II and in- that caused Britten to decide to return to England. He was
spired by W. H. Auden’s promise of greater artistic free- commissioned by conductor Serge Koussevitsky to write
1945
dom in the United States, he eventually returned to En- an opera, and he called upon a colleague from the Left
gland and made his native Suffolk his home. He died in Theatre, Montagu Slater, to reshape Crabbe’s poem into
1976 in Aldeburgh, the village he depicted in Peter a libretto. The actual composition of the opera took place
Grimes. between January, 1944, and February, 1945, and the first
The story of the opera’s astonishing success begins performance was given by the Sadler’s Wells opera com-
and ends in Britten’s beloved Aldeburgh. The eighteenth pany in London on June 7, 1945, a month after the col-
century poet George Crabbe was born and reared in lapse of Nazi Germany. Peter Pears sang the title role;
Aldeburgh. Among the portraits in his The Borough: A Joan Cross (who was also the director of Sadler’s Wells)
Poem in Twenty-four Letters (1810) is “Peter Grimes,” sang the role of Ellen Orford. The director was Eric Cro-
which tells the story of a lonely, unpleasant fisherman zier, and the conductor was Reginald Goodall.
who had become an object of local antipathy. Grimes Britten wrote Peter Grimes in a relatively conserva-
hired three apprentices from the workhouse, each of tive style, rejecting Richard Wagner’s goal of “endless
whom died under mysterious circumstances. The subject melody” in favor of the older operatic practice of provid-
469
Britten Completes Peter Grimes The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ing discrete pieces of music. Britten later explained, task of repairing the ravages of the war. American liter-
“One of my chief aims is to try and restore to the musical ary critic Edmund Wilson was bowled over by the musi-
setting of the English language a brilliance, freedom, and cal and dramatic power of the opera and recognized that
vitality that have been curiously rare since the death of it implicitly addressed the issues of the war, specifically
Purcell.” Slater, a prolific poet and scriptwriter, provided “the blind anguish, the hateful rancors and the will to de-
Britten with a solid poetic libretto; Britten’s vocal writ- struction of these horrible years.”
ing was strongly influenced by his deep relationship with One unspoken subject of Peter Grimes, as well as
the tenor Peter Pears, for whom the title role was tailored. many of Britten’s later operas, was homosexuality. Brit-
Britten’s opera centers on its title character, the lonely ten himself was reluctant to discuss his own sexuality,
Suffolk fisherman. Whereas the Peter Grimes of Crabbe’s and until recently even critical works on Britten’s life
poem was not accorded any gift for decency or introspec- and art were reluctant to raise the subject. The obituary
tion, in Slater’s libretto Crabbe’s grim fisherman became for Britten in The New York Times coyly spoke of “the
a character too proud and self-willed to come to terms composer and Mr. Pears, both bachelors,” yet within a
with society. He is a cranky, stubborn nonconformist and few years of his death, critics would begin aggressively
a kind of visionary, as his first-act aria, “Now the Great to reinterpret the composer’s life and art as responses to
Bear and Pleiades . . . Are Drawing Up,” clearly reveals. his own homosexuality.
He makes the mistake of thinking that he will impress the By these accounts, Peter Grimes’s behavior in the op-
surly villagers by the acquisition of wealth. era is seen variously as that of an alienated homosexual
The opera opens, abruptly, with a trial scene, in which or a potentially or actively abusive male, but Britten him-
Peter is convicted of negligence in the death of his first self never spoke of the opera in these terms. Such inter-
apprentice. When Ellen Orford, the village widow who pretations are far from Crabbe’s original conception of
genuinely sympathizes with Peter, tries to console him, Peter as a man “untouched by pity, unstung by remorse,
the music dramatically reveals his inability to communi- and uncorrected by shame.” The character of Peter
cate: The two sing an unaccompanied duet in different Grimes is more likely now to be perceived by audiences
keys. Later, Ellen notices bruises on Peter’s newest ap- as lonely, alienated, guilty, and—while abusive—in-
prentice; when she inquires about them, Peter brutally creasingly sympathetic.
strikes her, painfully confirming his reputation as an abu- Critics have admired the opera for the strength of its
sive figure. choral writing, and it has been compared with other op-
As the villagers storm up the hill to Peter’s cabin to eras in which the community plays an integral role, such
check on his treatment of the boy, Peter inadvertently as Modest Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov (1874) and
pushes the boy over a cliff to his death. This last act of un- George Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess (1935). The opera is
conscious violence also pushes Peter over the brink into filled with great scenes for the chorus, depicting villagers
madness, allowing Britten to provide his hero with a fa- in a variety of social institutions—at Peter’s trial, mend-
miliar staple of romantic opera, the mad scene. Peter’s ing fishing nets, in church, and in the village pub. An
mad recitative set the pattern of lonely reminiscences for even stronger case might be made for the orchestra as the
Britten’s later deranged or persecuted characters such as true hero. Britten’s orchestration skillfully depicts the
Lucretia, Billy Budd, and Aschenbach. In spoken dia- roaring of the wind, the surging of the waves, and the
logue, Balstrode (Peter’s last village friend) tells him to menace of an ocean storm. The orchestra is called on to
take his boat out to sea and sink it. provide rousing music for a vivid round, “Old Joe Has
Both the critics and the theatergoing public judged Gone Fishing;” music for a barn dance; and liturgical
Britten’s work a success. Indeed, the production was so music for the church scene. Four of the opera’s six or-
successful that it revived the tradition of English opera. chestral interludes have achieved independent life in the
Music critic Henry Davey had once lamented that En- concert hall as the Four Sea Interludes.
glish opera was “the darkest page in our musical his- Stylistically, the opera is notable for its energy and va-
tory,” noting sadly that no serious English opera either riety. Peter’s songs favor the unusual interval of the
had consistently held the stage outside England or had ninth, a leap suggestive of the character’s idealism. The
earned the admiration of audiences and critics since Dido orchestra initially provides the melody for Peter’s aria
and Aeneas. The success of Peter Grimes proved that “Now the Great Bear and Pleiades. . . Are Drawing Up,”
there was an audience for an austere opera on a bleak sub- while the singer holds a single note (a favorite device of
ject at a moment when England was facing the daunting Giacomo Puccini). The melodies are simple but have pi-
470
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Britten Completes Peter Grimes
quant twists for a modern listener, such as an unexpected mance, Noye’s Fludde (1957), The Burning Fiery Fur-
sharp or flat. Britten has the energy and vitality of Giu- nace (1966), and The Prodigal Son (1968); Curlew River
seppe Verdi and Leoš Janácek’s instinct for rendering (1964) is related to this group. The Turn of the Screw
village activities. Like Dmitri Shostakovich, Britten had (1954) and A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1960) are
the courage to resist serialism and other avant-garde sys- based on formidable literary sources. Britten’s last opera
tems, with the result that his music is now admired for its was Death in Venice (1973), based on Thomas Mann’s
integrity and accessibility to audiences. novella; it marked his final operatic collaboration with
Peter Pears, for whom so much of his vocal music had
Significance been written.
The success of Peter Grimes, in addition to reviving En- Although the power and invention of Peter Grimes
glish opera in general, had the more immediate effect of are not in dispute, Britten’s later operas show increasing
revitalizing the Sadler’s Wells opera company, which sophistication and a greater mastery of technique than
had been nearly starved of resources because of wartime did the 1945 work. Some critics argue for Billy Budd as
austerity. It also helped reinvigorate England’s cultural his operatic masterpiece, while others regard Death in
life in the years between the war’s end and the Festival of Venice as his greatest work. If Peter Grimes marked the
Britain in 1951. It marked the first operatic collaboration first peak in Britten’s reputation as a composer, however,
of the creative pair of Britten and his longtime compan- his War Requiem (1962) clearly marked the second. Both
ion, tenor Peter Pears; their mutual success, as composer works shared the composer’s mastery of technique and
and performer, would extend nearly thirty years. indignation at human cruelty to other humans. Like his
Unpromising though it must have seemed in 1945, the great predecessor Edward Elgar or his Russian friend and
story of Peter Grimes set the course of Britten’s operatic contemporary Dmitri Shostakovich, Britten in his final
career, with its main figure a relative innocent who is sac- years produced music that was increasingly austere and
rificed to the will of an inflexible community. This theme melancholy, as well as detached and oblique. Like Elgar
would enter the stories of Albert Herring, Billy Budd, and Shostakovich, he shared a deeply humanistic com-
and the friends of the prophet Daniel in The Burning Fi- passion for the victims of violence and prejudice.
ery Furnace (1966). The same theme could even be said — Byron Nelson
to describe two other sensitive, tormented figures: Cap-
tain Vere in Billy Budd (1951) and Aschenbach in Death Further Reading
in Venice (1973). Brett, Philip, ed. Benjamin Britten: “Peter Grimes.”
The major and unexpected success of Peter Grimes at Cambridge Opera Handbooks. New York: Cambridge
Sadler’s Wells led, within three years, to productions University Press, 1983. Useful compendium of es-
throughout Europe and, in America, at the Tanglewood says, including E. M. Forster’s positive assessment of
Music Festival. On February 12, 1948, the opera was Crabbe’s poetry that brought the story of Peter
performed at New York’s Metropolitan Opera. In 1967, Grimes to Britten’s attention in 1941. Eager to place
the Metropolitan Opera staged a new production with the opera in the context of Britten’s homosexuality.
Jon Vickers in the title role, Heather Harper as Ellen, and Felsenfeld, Daniel. Britten and Barber: Their Lives and
Colin Davis conducting. Vickers’s stern dignity and Their Music. Pompton Plains, N.J.: Amadeus Press,
1945
heavy Wagnerian voice offered a sharp contrast to 2005. Study of Britten alongside a similar study of
Pears’s distinctive and far lighter tenor voice; since then, composer Samuel Barber, comparing their careers
Vickers’s dark conception of the role has come to be and their works. Includes a full-length compact disc,
thought of as definitive. as well as bibliographic references and a discography
After Peter Grimes, Britten proceeded quickly to new of each composer’s work.
operatic projects, both chamber operas on an intimate Grout, Donald Jay. A Short History of Opera. New York:
scale, such as The Rape of Lucretia (1946) and Albert Columbia University Press, 1947. A standard older
Herring (1947), and large-scale operas requiring many history of opera, still impressive for its range and con-
soloists and a large chorus, such as Billy Budd and ciseness.
Gloriana (1953), the latter written to celebrate the coro- Howard, Patricia. The Operas of Benjamin Britten: An
nation of Queen Elizabeth II. The Little Sweep (1949) Introduction. New York: Praeger, 1969. Sensitive but
was written as children’s entertainment. Britten wrote a dated study of the operas up to The Burning Fiery
trio of “church operas” for semiprofessional perfor- Furnace.
471
Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Kennedy, Michael. Britten. London: Dent, 1981. A good White, Eric Walter. Benjamin Britten: His Life and Op-
chronological study of the composer’s works. eras. 2d ed. Berkeley: University of California Press,
Kildea, Paul Francis. Selling Britten: Music and the Mar- 1983. A thorough study, with detailed chapters on
ketplace. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. each of the operas.
A study of Benjamin Britten’s operatic scores that fo-
cuses on their mass-cultural appeal and their distribu- See also: Apr. 22, 1944: U.S. Highball Premieres in
tion as commodities beyond and apart from their stag- New York; Oct. 30, 1944: Graham Debuts Appala-
ing. Bibliographic references and index. chian Spring with Copland Score; Dec. 30, 1948: Por-
Schmidgall, Gary. Literature as Opera. New York: Ox- ter Creates an Integrated Score for Kiss Me, Kate;
ford University Press, 1977. Influential study of the Sept. 11, 1951: Stravinsky’s The Rake’s Progress Pre-
interrelationships of operas and their literary sources; mieres in Venice; Sept. 26, 1957: Bernstein Joins
features a sensitive chapter on Death in Venice. Symphonic and Jazz Elements in West Side Story.
Summer, 1945
Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic
Benjamin Minge Duggar directed the research that led where Aureomycin was first isolated by Benjamin
to the discovery, production, and application of Minge Duggar.
Aureomycin (chlortetracycline), the first broad- Before the auspicious debut of Aureomycin, several
spectrum antibiotic that was both safe and effective. antibiotics had become available to health professionals.
Aureomycin could be taken by mouth, instead of by By far the most efficacious of the new “miracle drugs”
injection only, and it was effective in 90 percent of was penicillin, successful against 40 percent of bacteria-
cases. caused diseases, and streptomycin, effective against 30
percent. These therapeutic agents had given physicians
Also known as: Aureomycin; chlortetracycline the weapons they needed to conquer the terminal and dis-
Locale: Pearl River, New York abling infections.
Categories: Health and medicine; science and Nevertheless, many dangerous infections refused to
technology surrender to either agent, and these now stood out. Several
Key Figures were caused by viruses and by small virus-like bacteria,
Benjamin Minge Duggar (1872-1956), American known as atypical bacteria. Among the latter were the
botanist, professor, and consultant in mycology rickettsias, chlamydias, and mycoplasmas. Some typical
(study of fungi) at Lederle Laboratories bacteria, including the brucellas, also defied the new
Yellapragada Subba Row (1896-1948), Indian drugs. Furthermore, the antibiotics available in the late
American biochemist who was the director of 1940’s were deficient in another area: Resistant strains of
research at Lederle pathogenic microbes were growing ever more numerous.
Albert Carl Dornbush (b. 1914), American Thus, the fact that many infections were not well con-
microbiologist who headed Lederle’s trolled, or even affected, by current antibiotics provided
microbiological assay laboratory in the 1940’s a strong incentive to search for more germ fighters.
The discovery of penicillin, a mold-derived drug, had
Summary of Event sent scientists back to the soil in a quest for natural sub-
On July 21, 1948, at a conference arranged by the presti- stances with antibiotic properties; during World War II,
gious New York Academy of Sciences in the Museum of this pursuit was taken over by the resource-rich, profit-
Natural History, the new antibiotic Aureomycin was in- seeking pharmaceutical industry. By 1945, at least six
troduced to the public. It was uncommon for a medical drug companies had teams of investigators seeking antibi-
breakthrough to be trumpeted to the world as this drug otics. One of them was Lederle Laboratories, a division of
was. About twenty clinicians were present to broadcast American Cyanamid Company. Lederle had specialized
the spectacular results they had achieved with it. Also on in remedies for infectious diseases, and the company’s
hand were several scientists from Lederle Laboratories, search for new mold-derived drugs began in 1939.
472
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic
The company’s success in developing a new multi- 377,” which contained a golden-colored mold obtained
purpose antibiotic owed much to the biochemist Yella- from a soil sample taken from the campus of the Univer-
pragada Subba Row, who joined Lederle in 1940. As di- sity of Missouri. It was one of several samples sent to
rector of research, he supervised Lederle’s chemical, Duggar in the summer of 1945 by his former colleague,
medicinal, and pharmaceutical research. During World William Albert Albrecht, chair of Missouri’s department
War II, Subba Row contributed to the research on peni- of soils. Duggar was pleased to observe that A 377 exhib-
cillin and streptomycin in large quantities. He was also ited antibiotic potential.
responsible for bringing Duggar to Lederle. Mindful of According to procedure, the promising mold was sub-
Duggar’s extensive knowledge of molds, Subba Row injected next to a battery of tests to assess the extent of its
vited the former professor of several of Lederle’s scien- antimicrobial activity and its degree of toxicity. The
tists to take a position with the company as a consultant safety of the substance was a prime consideration; any
in mycological research and production. antibiotic that was injurious to the patient would have no
Although Duggar’s name did not become familiar therapeutic value.
outside his field until 1948, his work had been known to Test-tube experiments were conducted in September,
botanists for a long time. For several decades, he had 1945, to gauge the mold’s effectiveness against some
been recognized internationally as an authority on molds fifty pathogenic organisms. Albert Carl Dornbush, from
and fungi. Nevertheless, on reaching the age of seventy, the University of Wisconsin, was in charge of the impor-
he was forced to retire from teaching. Still quite active tant in vitro work. The results were astounding. The mold
physically and mentally, Duggar was not content to live arrested the growth of staphylococci, streptococci, and
in retirement, especially in the midst of a devastating bacilli. That the mold, later named Streptomyces aureo-
world war. Hence, in 1944, he accepted Subba Row’s of- faciens by Duggar, resisted bacilli signified that it was
fer to join Lederle. producing an antibiotic that might have a wider scope of
At first, Duggar’s work at Lederle was concerned activity than either penicillin or streptomycin. The anti-
with plant sources of antimalarial drugs. He was im- biotic substance extracted from Streptomyces aureo-
pressed deeply by the success of penicillin, which had faciens was christened Aureomycin, a name derived
just come into widespread use. He perceived that the sur- from the Latin word aureus (gold) and the Greek mykes
face had only been scratched in the field of antibiotics. (fungus). Both the mold and the antibiotic had a golden
He soon initiated an immense soil-screening program. hue. Aureomycin was later given the generic name of
His objective was to discover a superior antibiotic—one chlortetracycline.
that would combat diseases that completely resisted pen- Two more years of experiments by Lederle scientists
icillin and other available antibiotics. demonstrated that Aureomycin was not toxic to labora-
Duggar and his colleagues believed that one of the tory animals and that it had an effective range of action
lesser groups of molds, known as actinomycetes, might much greater than anyone had expected. In 1947, the new
yield a valuable antibiotic. Actinomycetes occupy an in- drug was isolated in a relatively pure and inexpensive
termediate position between genuine bacteria and fungi. form; that same year, it was used for the first time on hu-
An expert on actinomycetes, Duggar remarked that his man patients. Clinicians at several university-affiliated
fellow mycologists had hitherto treated the microorgan- hospitals reported success in controlling numerous in-
1945
isms “with static contempt.” fections that had responded poorly or not at all to previ-
Because molds are denizens of the soil, Lederle scien- ously available antimicrobial agents. Furthermore, they
tists began their project by gathering from all over the observed that Aureomycin produced only a small num-
country more than six hundred soil samples, which they ber of side effects. By mid-1948, the drug was being
screened for actinomycete strains that might have manufactured at the rate of a pound a day. It was first of-
microbe-killing potential. The molds were tested by put- fered to physicians on a wide basis on December 1, 1948.
ting them in petri dishes, along with specific microorgan- Aureomycin soon took its place among the most useful
isms, and then observing their ability to inhibit the of all life-saving drugs.
growth of neighboring organisms. The screening was a
long, tedious task. Duggar and his team suffered disap- Significance
pointment after disappointment. More than thirty-five Antibiotics revolutionized the therapy of infectious dis-
hundred strains were scrutinized and rejected. Even- eases in the 1940’s, and Aureomycin brought extraor-
tually, the investigators came to a petri dish labeled “A dinary assets to the new age of medicine. One was its ver-
473
Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
satility. Possessing a much broader application than family, the tetracycline group probably represents the
penicillin or streptomycin, it was effective against 90 most beneficial and least hazardous of the wonder drugs.
percent of bacteria-caused infections. Also, unlike the The tetracyclines are relatively safe antibiotics. Never-
two formerly premier antibiotics, which were usually ad- theless, they are capable of causing a variety of reactions,
ministered by needle, Aureomycin was effective when chiefly nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In addition,
taken by mouth. Consequently, it could be dispensed tetracyclines can discolor developing teeth permanently.
quickly and painlessly either in the physician’s office or For this reason, they are contraindicated in the treatment
in the patient’s home. of children and pregnant women.
Most important, Aureomycin proved to be remark- Since 1948, Aureomycin and other tetracyclines have
ably effective against certain infections that had failed to been widely—and often inappropriately—used to treat a
respond to either penicillin or streptomycin. One of these wide range of diseases. This unrestricted application
illnesses was Rocky Mountain spotted fever, endemic caused many pathogenic microorganisms, particularly
throughout the continental United States and recognized streptococcus strains, to become resistant. As a result,
as one of the most severe of all infectious diseases. The tetracyclines are no longer the antibiotics of choice for
tick-transmitted malady killed one out of every five vic- treating most common respiratory or urinary tract infec-
tims. The number of fatalities declined sharply, however, tions.
after Aureomycin became available. In its first clinical — Ronald W. Long
trials, the drug dramatically restored to health a boy who
was in a coma from tick fever. Numerous other diseases Further Reading
caused by atypical bacteria—including typhus, lympho- Cowen, David L., and Alvin B. Segelman, eds. Antibiot-
granuloma venereum (a disabling sexually transmitted ics in Historical Perspective. Rahway, N.J.: Merck,
disease), trachoma, parrot fever, and mycoplasmal pneu- 1981. A lavishly illustrated volume that traces the his-
monia—yielded to the new microbe fighter. Aureomycin tory of substances with antimicrobial activity from
rapidly became—and remained for several decades—the ancient Sumer and Egypt to the 1970’s. Streptomy-
drug of choice in treating rickettsial, chlamydial, and cin—which the Merck Pharmaceutical Company
mycoplasmal infections. helped develop—and penicillin receive prime atten-
The golden antibiotic, moreover, became the pre- tion. One chapter is devoted to Aureomycin and an-
ferred antimicrobial agent in combating several diseases other to tetracyclines. Bibliographies.
caused by typical bacteria. For example, it was used ex- Dowling, Harry F. Fighting Infection: Conquests of the
tensively in infections of the urinary tract because it often Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
was effective against a broader spectrum of pathogens versity Press, 1977. Written by a former medical prac-
than streptomycin, and resistant microorganisms did not titioner who participated in the early clinical trials of
develop so quickly. Aureomycin. A well-organized, fully documented,
Duggar had predicted that Aureomycin would be a indexed history of infectious diseases and their treat-
boon to farmers and poultry raisers. Indeed, the antibiotic ment, beginning with early immunization efforts and
has been used widely as a feed supplement to stimulate culminating in the discovery and widespread applica-
the growth of livestock. Some authorities, however, tion of sophisticated germ fighters. An excellent
question the practice, because it breeds resistant bacteria study.
that could pose a public health problem eventually. Fur- Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. A
thermore, prolonged low exposure to an antibiotic can Public Health Action Plan to Combat Antimicrobial
sensitize individuals, making them unable to take the Resistance. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department
drug later to treat infection. of Health and Human Services, 2001. Available at
Aureomycin enjoys the distinction of being the first of http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan/
the tetracyclines, a family of antibiotics that includes Ter- aractionplan.pdf. A government report on the resis-
ramycin, achromycin, and declomycin. Tetracyclines tance of microorganisms to antibiotics, a major,
are basically bacteriostatic, meaning they inhibit bacte- worldwide health concern.
rial growth, and they oppose most of the same microor- Lappé, Marc. Germs That Won’t Die: Medical Conse-
ganisms. They differ mainly in how readily they are ab- quences of the Misuse of Antibiotics. Garden City,
sorbed by the body and in how long their effects persist. N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1982. Written by a pathologist
Many medical experts affirm that next to the penicillin and public health official, this book presents a history
474
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic
of the evolution of antibiotics and laments the prob- century. Appropriate for young readers. Profusely il-
lems caused by their widespread application. Lappé lustrated, index, no bibliography.
argues that the excessive and indiscriminate prescrip- Sneader, Walter. Drug Discovery: A History. Hoboken,
tion of these drugs by physicians and their use in ani- N.J.: Wiley, 2005. More than a compilation of drugs,
mal feeds have contributed to the emergence of resis- this work provides an interesting narrative of the ori-
tant bacteria. Glossary, chapter bibliographies, and gins, development, and history of drugs with espe-
index. cially significant social and medical import. Includes
Lightman, Alan P. The Discoveries. New York: Pan- discussion of antibiotics.
theon Books, 2005. Lightman, a physicist and novel- Walker, J. C. “Benjamin Minge Duggar.” In Biographi-
ist, explores some of the most important discoveries cal Memoirs. Vol. 32. New York: Columbia Univer-
in the sciences of the twentieth century, including the sity Press, 1958. Until a full-length biography of
discovery of antibiotics. The book also provides pri- Duggar becomes available, readers will have to resort
mary source material, a bibliography, and an index. to vignettes, and this is one of the best. Includes a list
Mahoney, Tom. The Merchants of Life. New York: of articles and books written or coauthored by
Harper & Brothers, 1959. A laudatory descriptive ac- Duggar.
count of the U.S. pharmaceutical industry. Tells the Williams, J. H., ed. Aureomycin: A New Antibiotic. New
story of eighteen leading companies, including York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1948. A
Lederle. Presents an abundance of factual informa- highly technical collection of sixteen reports written
tion, especially about their founders and their notable by Lederle scientists and other researchers who par-
drugs. Index, no bibliography. ticipated in the development and testing of Aureomy-
Nicolaou, K. C., and Christopher N. C. Boddy. “Behind cin. The highly technical nature of the reports will
Enemy Lines.” Scientific American, May 21, 2001, probably limit their appeal to specialists.
54-60. Examines in nontechnical language how mi- See also: Sept., 1943-Mar., 1944: Waksman Discovers
crobes are fast becoming resistant to antibiotics. Dis- the Antibiotic Streptomycin; Nov., 1947: First Broad-
cusses the history of antibiotics and provides a break- Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered; July 2, 1952: Salk
down of how microbes resist antibiotics. Develops a Polio Vaccine; 1957: Isaacs and Lin-
Reinfeld, Fred. Miracle Drugs and the New Age of Medi- denmann Discover Interferons; 1957: Sabin De-
cine. Rev. ed. New York: Sterling, 1962. Brief and in- velops the Oral Polio Vaccine; 1967: World Health
teresting pictorial panorama of modern medical dis- Organization Intensifies Its Campaign to Eradicate
coveries, beginning with Louis Pasteur’s germ theory Smallpox; June, 1967: Scientists Debate the Addition
of disease in the nineteenth century to the antibiotics, of Antibiotics to Animal Feed; 1969: German Mea-
vaccines, and synthetic drugs of the mid-twentieth sles Vaccine Is Developed.
1945
475
First Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
July 16, 1945

First Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated
Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer directed the 1938. When they discovered radioactive barium impuri-
development and design of the nuclear bomb in the ties in neutron-irradiated uranium, they wrote to their
Manhattan Project during World War II, culminating colleague Lise Meitner, a refugee in Sweden from Ger-
in the first successful nuclear explosion at man anti-Semitic laws. She and her nephew Otto Robert
Alamogordo, New Mexico. Ten days after what was Frisch saw the possibility of fission and calculated the
called the Trinity test, the United States and Great large release of energy in the repulsion of the nuclear
Britain demanded Japan’s unconditional surrender. fragments such as barium, which matched the resulting
The bomb’s explosion also hailed the start of the loss of mass. This result was reported to Niels Bohr in
atomic age. Copenhagen and was published in the English journal
Nature in February, 1939.
Also known as: Trinity test; atomic bomb; a-bomb; The energy of fission fragments was soon measured
the bomb by Frisch in Copenhagen, and Frédéric Joliot and his as-
Locale: Alamogordo, New Mexico sociates in Paris, who demonstrated the release of up to
Categories: World War II; physics; engineering; three additional neutrons. Soon, several researchers in
military history American laboratories confirmed the energy and neutron
Key Figures yields.
J. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967), American While visiting the United States from January to May
physicist who directed the Los Alamos Laboratory of 1939, Bohr derived a theory of fission with John
Leslie Richard Groves (1896-1970), American Archibald Wheeler of Princeton University. This theory
engineer and army general in charge of the atomic led Bohr to predict that the common isotope uranium 238
bomb project (which accounts for 99.3 percent of the uranium found in
Enrico Fermi (1901-1954), Italian American nuclear nature) would require fast neutrons for fission, but the
physicist and 1938 Nobel laureate in physics rarer uranium 235 would fission with neutrons of any en-
ergy. This suggested the idea of studying fission in a sys-
Summary of Event tematic way with a controlled chain reaction using slow
The successful detonation of the first atomic bomb was neutrons.
the dramatic conclusion of nearly fifty years of scientific By July of 1939, the need for government support and
research and a four-year crash program of wartime de- secrecy led Leo Szilard and Eugene Paul Wigner to ap-
velopment. The discovery of radioactivity by Antoine- proach Einstein about writing a letter to President Frank-
Henri Becquerel in 1896 revealed the enormous energy
locked inside the atom. Albert Einstein’s 1905 theory of
relativity showed that this energy could be accounted for “I Am Become Death, the
by a tiny loss of mass in a radioactive material. Destroyer of Worlds”
A practical method of releasing large quantities of
atomic energy was not possible, however, until after the Years after witnessing the first atomic bomb blast in
discovery of the neutron in 1932 by James Chadwick. 1945, Los Alamos Laboratory director J. Robert Oppen-
This discovery led Enrico Fermi in 1934 to bombard var- heimer remembered the life-changing explosion with
ious elements with neutrons, whose lack of electric words that have become infamous.
charge allowed them to penetrate the positive nucleus We knew the world would not be the same. A few
and transmute them to heavier radioactive atoms. Fermi people laughed, a few people cried, most people were si-
showed that neutrons slowed by water were especially lent. I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture, the
effective and thought he had produced transuranic ele- Bhagavad-Gita. Vishnu is trying to persuade the Prince
ments by bombarding uranium. He failed to recognize that he should do his duty and to impress him takes on his
that he had probably split the uranium nucleus into multi-armed form and says, “Now, I am become Death,
lighter nuclei. the destroyer of worlds.” I suppose we all thought that
The first evidence of uranium fission was observed by one way or another.
Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in Berlin at the end of
476
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated
Seeing the Blast Up Close ment in the Berkeley cyclotron led to the
discovery of plutonium in 1940 and the
U.S. brigadier general Thomas F. Farrell provided the following de- fact that plutonium 239 was fissionable.
scription of the first atomic bomb blast to the secretary of war on July 16, Since uranium 238 was found to absorb
1945. Along with others, Farrell was in a project “control shelter” that neutrons without fission at some high en-
was located merely 10,000 yards from the site of the explosion. ergies, it could not be used for a bomb but
The effects could well be called unprecedented, magnificent, beauti-
offered the possibility of breeding pluto-
ful, stupendous and terrifying. No man-made phenomenon of such tre- nium, which could then be separated from
mendous power had ever occurred before. The lighting effects beggared uranium by chemical methods.
description. The whole country was lighted by a searing light with the in- In 1941 at Columbia University, Fermi
tensity many times that of the midday sun. It was golden, purple, violet, began research on fission rates in a sub-
gray and blue. It lighted every peak, crevasse and ridge of the nearby critical lattice of uranium oxide and graph-
mountain range with a clarity and beauty that cannot be described but ite and showed that a chain reaction would
must be seen to be imagined. It was that beauty the great poets dream be sustained if impurities are reduced to
about but describe most poorly and inadequately. Thirty seconds after less than 1 percent. His group moved to
the explosion came first, the air blast pressing hard against the people Chicago in 1942, where they constructed a
and things, to be followed almost immediately by the strong, sustained,
reactor with 40 tons of natural uranium
awesome roar which warned of doomsday and made us feel that we puny
things were blasphemous to dare tamper with the forces heretofore re-
and 385 tons of graphite, large enough for
served to The Almighty. Words are inadequate tools for the job of ac- a sustained chain reaction. When neutron-
quainting those not present with the physical, mental and psychological absorbing cadmium control rods were par-
effects. It had to be witnessed to be realized. tially removed on December 2, a sharp in-
crease in neutrons indicated success. Much
larger reactors would be needed to breed
sufficient plutonium for a bomb.
lin D. Roosevelt. The president responded by forming During 1942, the Manhattan District of the Corps of
the Advisory Committee on Uranium, which provided Engineers was formed under General Leslie Richard
$6,000 to Columbia University for the purchase of fifty Groves, who contracted with the Du Pont Corporation to
tons of uranium oxide and four tons of graphite to study construct three secret atomic cities at a total cost of $2
its ability to slow neutrons. billion. At Oak Ridge, Tennessee, twenty-five thousand
Meanwhile, in England, Frisch and Rudolf Peierls workers built a one-thousand-kilowatt reactor as a pilot
worked out the requirements for an atomic bomb in a pa- plant and spent two years building a five-thousand-stage
per sent to the English government in the spring of 1940. gaseous diffusion plant for uranium 235 separation.
They estimated that less than 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) Huge electromagnets were built also for further uranium
was required for a critical mass of pure uranium 235, in enrichment at a cost of $500 million. A second city of
which more neutrons would cause fission than those that sixty thousand inhabitants was built at Hanford, Wash-
escaped or were absorbed. If two or more subcritical ington, where three huge reactors and remotely con-
masses could be brought together rapidly enough, they trolled plutonium-extraction plants were completed in
1945
would produce an explosion equivalent to several thou- early 1945.
sand tons of dynamite. They also outlined the extensive Study of fast-neutron reactions for a nuclear bomb
effort that would be needed to separate uranium 235 from were brought together in June of 1942 at Chicago under
natural uranium. the leadership of J. Robert Oppenheimer. He soon be-
By December, 1941, when the United States entered came a personal adviser to Groves, who built Oppenhei-
World War II, contracts had been arranged with about mer a laboratory for the design and construction of the
twelve American universities for uranium research. bomb at Los Alamos, New Mexico. In 1943, Oppenhei-
Wartime research was supervised by Vannevar Bush, mer gathered two hundred of the best scientists of the
with James Bryant Conant as his representative for ura- Manhattan Project to live and work at this third secret
nium research. Three major projects included the study city. Equipment was assembled, and research was begun
of uranium separation methods at Columbia, cyclotron on such problems as neutron absorption, uranium and
studies at the University of California, and chain-reaction plutonium fabrication and purification, and explosive
studies at the University of Chicago. Uranium bombard- methods for forming a critical mass.
477
First Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Finally, two bomb designs were developed. A gun- On August 6, after authorization by President Harry
type bomb called Little Boy used 15 kilograms (33 S. Truman, the B-29 named Enola Gay dropped the ura-
pounds) of uranium 235 in a 4,500-kilogram (5-ton) cyl- nium bomb Little Boy on Hiroshima at 8:15 a.m. On Au-
inder about 2 meters (2 yards) long and 0.5 meters (0.5 gust 9, the plutonium bomb Fat Man was dropped on
yards) in diameter, in which a uranium bullet could be Nagasaki. Approximately 100,000 people died at Hiro-
fired into three uranium target rings to form a critical shima out of a population of 400,000, and about 50,000
mass. An implosion-type bomb called Fat Man had a 5- more died at Nagasaki. Japan offered to surrender on Au-
kilogram (11-pound) spherical core of plutonium about gust 10, and after a brief attempt by some army officers to
the size of an orange, which could be squeezed inside a rebel, an official announcement by Emperor Hirohito
2,300-kilogram (2.5-ton) sphere about 1.5 meters (1.5 was broadcast on August 15.
yards) in diameter by properly shaped explosives to — Joseph L. Spradley
make the mass critical in the shorter time required for the
faster plutonium fission. Further Reading
By early 1945, the first usable amounts of plutonium Bernardini, Carlo, and Luisa Bonolis, eds. Enrico Fermi:
and uranium arrived from Hanford and Oak Ridge. His Work and Legacy. New York: Springer, 2004. A
Enough plutonium was available by the end of May to laudatory history of Fermi, his work, and his place in
begin critical-mass studies by Frisch’s group. A test date the development of nuclear physics. Includes the
was set for July, when one uranium and two plutonium chapter “The Birth of Nuclear Energy: Fermi’s Pile,”
bombs would be finished. A flat scrub region 200 kilo- which discusses Fermi’s work on nuclear chain reac-
meters (125 miles) southeast of Alamogordo was chosen tions.
for the test site named Trinity, and observer bunkers Bird, Kai, and Martin J. Sherwin. American Prometheus:
were built about 10 kilometers (6.25 miles) from a 30- The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer.
meter (33-yard) steel tower. New York: Knopf, 2005. A biography of the physicist
On Friday, July 13, one of the plutonium bombs was who directed the Los Alamos Laboratory and the det-
assembled at the site; the next morning, it was raised to onation of the first nuclear bomb. Richly detailed, this
the top of the tower. On July 16, after a short thunder- work also explores Oppenheimer being branded a
storm delay, the bomb was detonated at 5:30 a.m. The re- traitor and accused of treason during the McCarthy
sulting implosion initiated a chain reaction of nearly 60 era of the 1950’s.
fission generations in about a microsecond. It produced Junck, Robert. Brighter than a Thousand Suns. Trans-
an intense flash of light, followed by a fireball expanding lated by James Cleugh. New York: Harcourt Brace
to a diameter of about 600 meters (656 yards) in two sec- Jovanovich, 1958. A very readable historical account
onds, and then it rose to a height of more than 12 kilome- of the personal lives and political struggles of the
ters (7.5 miles), forming its ominous mushroom shape. atomic scientists who discovered nuclear fission and
Forty seconds later, an air blast hit the observer bunkers, developed the bomb, with a particular focus on Op-
followed by a sustained and awesome roar. Measurements penheimer.
confirmed an explosive power of 18.6 kilotons of TNT Norris, Robert S. Racing for the Bomb: General Leslie R.
(trinitrotoluene), nearly four times the predicted value. Groves, the Manhattan Project’s Indispensable Man.
South Royalton, Vt.: Steerforth Press, 2002. Abiogra-
Significance phy of Groves, who was in charge of the Manhattan
The successful development of the atomic bomb had an Project. Also discusses how he later shaped policies
immediate impact in ending World War II and a longer- regarding nuclear weapons at the national as well as
term influence on postwar weapons development and international level.
nuclear technologies. On March 9, 1945, 325 American Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New
B-29 bombers dropped two thousand tons of incendiary York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. The most compre-
bombs on Tokyo, resulting in 100,000 deaths from the hensive history of the atomic bomb available for
firestorms that swept the city. Still, the Japanese military general readers. Rich in human, political, and scien-
refused to surrender, and American military plans called tific detail, it provides the complete story of how the
for an invasion of Japan, with estimates of up to a half bomb was developed, from the discovery of radioac-
million American casualties, plus as many as 2 million tivity to the development of the hydrogen bomb.
Japanese casualties. Nearly eight hundred pages of text are supplemented
478
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Potsdam Conference
by about seventy pages of documentation. Includes a Williams, Robert C., and Philip L. Cantelon, eds. The
good index. American Atom: A Documentary History of Nuclear
Schroeer, Dietrich. Physics and Its Fifth Dimension: So- Policies from the Discovery of Fission to the Present,
ciety. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1972. A good 1939-1984. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
textbook on the interaction of science and society, Press, 1984. This volume includes the Szilard-Einstein
with chapters on building the bomb, the decision to letter, the Frisch-Peierls memorandum, the letters of
drop it, the hydrogen bomb, and the fallout problem. Oppenheimer, and many documents on the Man-
Illustrations and references. hattan Project and postwar developments related to
Smyth, Henry De Wolf. Atomic Energy for Military Pur- nuclear weapons.
poses. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
1945. This volume is the official report of the scien- See also: June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945: United States
tific and technical work that was done from 1940 to Develops the First Nuclear Weapon; Dec. 2, 1942:
1945 to develop the bomb. It covers many details of Fermi Creates the First Controlled Nuclear Fission
both civilian and government involvement in the proj- Chain Reaction; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs
ect. Includes several technical appendixes and in- Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Aug., 1946: Hiro-
dexes. shima Recounts the Story of Surviving a Nuclear Ex-
Trinity Remembered, the Trinity Test: Historic Docu- plosion; 1951-1952: Teller and Ulam Develop the
ments, Photos, and Videos. A Web site devoted to the First Hydrogen Bomb; Jan. 21, 1954: First Nuclear-
history of the detonation of the first nuclear bomb. In- Powered U.S. Submarine Is Launched; Mar. 1, 1954:
cludes a wealth of resources and links to primary Nuclear Bombing of Bikini Atoll; Oct. 16, 1964:
sources. http://www.trinityremembered.com/. China Explodes Its First Nuclear Bomb.
July 17-August 2, 1945

Potsdam Conference
The Potsdam Conference was intended to settle Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), head of the
unresolved issues between the three major Allied provisional government of France, 1944-1946
Powers as to the end of World War II. It helped shape
relations between those powers after the war, beginning Summary of Event
the foreign policies that would lead to the Cold War and At the close of the Yalta Conference in February of 1945,
shaping the map of Europe for the next few decades. the leaders of the United States, Great Britain, and the
Soviet Union had agreed that they would meet again to
Locale: Potsdam, Germany
settle remaining European problems resulting from the
defeat of Germany. These problems concerned peace
World War II
treaties with the former Axis nations and satellites. For
1945
Key Figures the Western Allies, the problems included the Soviet
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of Union’s violation of its agreement to allow the establish-
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 ment of free governments in Eastern Europe.
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, When Germany surrendered in May, 1945, the Allied
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central leaders began preparations for another conference.
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Prime Minister Winston Churchill was particularly eager
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 for the meeting to be held as soon as possible, not only to
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United forestall further Soviet gains in Europe but also because
States, 1945-1953 of the possibility that upcoming British elections to be
Harry Hopkins (1890-1946), special assistant to held in July might vote him out of office before he could
President Franklin D. Roosevelt participate in these important foreign policy decisions.
Clement Attlee (1883-1967), prime minister of Great Harry S. Truman, who had taken office as president of
Britain, 1945-1951 the United States in April after the death of Franklin D.
479
Potsdam Conference The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Winston Churchill, Harry S. Truman, and Joseph Stalin (left to right) at the Potsdam Conference. (National Archives)
Roosevelt, wanted to delay the meeting long enough to allow troops into Berlin until Western soldiers left the
familiarize himself with the issues to be discussed. So- Russian zone. Despite Churchill’s misgivings, Truman
viet leader Joseph Stalin had no apparent preference reordered a retreat, and the British and Americans were al-
garding the scheduling of the meeting. It was finally lowed into Berlin.
agreed that the conference would open on July 17 and be The Potsdam Conference began on July 17, 1945, and
held in Potsdam, Germany. lasted for two weeks. In the middle of the conference,
Two other problems had to be solved. One involved British election returns proclaimed the defeat of Chur-
the provisional president of France, Charles de Gaulle. chill and the triumph of the Labour Party. Churchill was
France had been allotted an occupational zone in Ger- replaced as prime minister by Labour Party leader Cle-
many, but past relations between the Allies and de Gaulle ment Attlee. Since Attlee had attended the conference
had been so trying that no one wanted him at the Potsdam earlier, however, there was no change in British policy.
Conference, and he was not invited. The other problem Recalling the hasty decisions and mistakes made at
concerned the occupation armies in Germany. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, Truman proposed
the course of the war, both Western Allied troops and So- that the Council of Foreign Ministers meet at their leisure
viet troops had occupied German areas not included in to draft peace treaties for the defeated Axis nations. This
their agreed occupational zones. In addition, there were proposal was accepted by all. Within two years, the for-
no American troops in Berlin, and the American military eign ministers produced acceptable treaties.
commanders wanted soldiers there to protect the presi- Eastern Europe, however, was a much more compli-
dent on his trip to Potsdam. The Soviet Union refused to cated matter. Stalin wanted Western diplomatic recogni-
480
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Potsdam Conference
tion for the pro-Communist governments there, but Tru- located in the British zone, in order to compensate for the
man and Churchill refused. As for Poland, the Allies had meager resources in their zone. The Soviets finally
agreed at Yalta that free elections would be held “as soon agreed to accept a percentage of the Ruhr industrial ma-
as possible”; since the Yalta Conference, however, the chinery in return for food products that they were to ship
Communist-controlled Warsaw government had taken from their zone to the zones of the Western Allies. These
over Poland and had made no plans for free elections. Western zones needed food supplies, because they had
Furthermore, members of the anti-Communist Polish become heavily crowded with refugees who had fled the
government-in-exile had been arrested when they had re- Russian zone in the last days of the war. All other repara-
turned from London to Poland after the German sur- tions were renounced.
render. In other matters, the Potsdam Conference members
Truman had sent Harry Hopkins, formerly President agreed on an occupational zone arrangement for Austria
Roosevelt’s top civilian adviser, on a diplomatic mission similar to that in Germany. They condemned Spain for
to Moscow in May to inquire into the Polish situation. having supported the Axis Powers during the war and
Hopkins had arranged a compromise between the Lon- forbade Spain’s entry into the United Nations. Finally,
don and Warsaw Poles on a coalition government, de- they agreed upon the orderly and humane transfer to Ger-
spite the fact that the Communists held fourteen out of many of nine million displaced German civilians living
twenty-one of Poland’s cabinet seats, and the Polish gov- in areas outside Germany. They also established a mech-
ernment had agreed to hold free elections. At Potsdam, anism to deal with the details of the peace treaties in the
this agreement was ratified with the stipulation that the postwar period. In a final gesture, the Potsdam Declara-
Allied press be admitted and allowed to report on the tion was issued to the Japanese government, calling upon
elections. The Polish interim government was granted it to surrender unconditionally or face total destruction.
Western diplomatic recognition. On August 2, a statement of the agreements, known as
As for the Polish-German frontier, when Soviet the Potsdam Protocol, was signed, and the participants
troops had liberated Poland, they had turned over all Ger- went home.
man lands east of the Oder-Western Neisse River line to
the Poles. The southern half of East Prussia had also been Significance
turned over to the Poles. Stalin proposed that the Allies The Potsdam Conference thus helped to draw the map of
recognize these boundaries permanently. Truman and the postwar world—the map that would constitute the
Churchill accepted them only as temporary borders arena of the Cold War. As a result, the issue of atomic
pending a final peace treaty with Germany. weapons has loomed in retrospect as a major backdrop to
The German problem was the central issue at Pots- this conference, causing much historical debate. Some
dam. The main dispute was between the Soviet desire for scholars argue that the United States helped bring about
harsh reparations and a weak Germany to act as a buffer the Cold War by taking a tough stance with the Soviets as
against future invasion and the Western Allied aim of a a result of U.S. possession of an atomic bomb. Some
restored and pacified Germany to act as a buffer against have even argued that the exact date of the beginning of
Soviet expansion. So intense was this dispute that the the nuclear arms race can be traced to Truman’s conver-
leaders could agree only on noncontroversial issues. sation with Stalin on July 24, 1945, in which he revealed
1945
Thus, the Allies agreed to abolish Nazi institutions and that the United States had a weapon of “unusual destruc-
prohibit arms manufacturing. They also agreed that Ger- tive force.”
many was to be treated as a single economic entity and Other scholars point out that the United States no lon-
that the Control Council in Berlin was to make unani- ger needed Soviet intervention in the Pacific war after
mous decisions for Germany as a whole. Within each oc- they had successfully tested the bomb, so it had no reason
cupation zone, however, each military commander was to court Soviet favor or to appease Soviet desires. Many
to have sovereign authority. Local self-government was conservative historians see Potsdam as part of an overall
to be encouraged, and the German economy was to be acquiescence to the Communists. Nevertheless, given
geared toward peaceful pursuits. the military strength and strategic location of Soviet
On the question of reparations, the conference mem- troops at the time of the conference, the agreements
bers agreed that each power could take what it wanted reached at Potsdam generally have been accepted as be-
from its occupation zone. The Soviets, however, wanted ing motivated by political realism. The Soviets, who had
industrial equipment from the Ruhr complex, which was lost tens of millions of people in the war, were absolutely
481
Potsdam Conference The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
committed to protecting their borders. The Western discussing the broader implications of Stalin’s inter-
Allies’ motives for resisting the Soviet will were not actions with Truman.
equally compelling at the time, given that the Soviets Maddox, Robert James. From War to Cold War: The
could not have been dislodged from Eastern Europe Education of Harry S. Truman. Boulder, Colo.:
without beginning another all-out war—something nei- Westview Press, 1988. Maddox analyzes the Potsdam
ther the United States nor Britain was prepared to do. Conference in the overall context of Truman’s com-
— José M. Sánchez and Robert Franklin Maddox ing to grips with the problems of the ending of the war
and the subsequent unraveling of the coalition.
Further Reading
Mee, Charles L., Jr. Meeting at Potsdam. Reprint. New
Alperovitz, Gar. Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and
York: Franklin Square Press, 1996. This volume ar-
Potsdam. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965. This
gues that the victorious leaders acted in a Machiavel-
revisionist historian blames American bellicosity at
lian fashion to achieve their goals, and that the origins
Potsdam on the fact that Truman knew about the suc-
of the Cold War and nuclear arms race can be found in
cessful explosion of the atomic bomb.
this conference.
Feis, Herbert. Between War and Peace: The Potsdam
Robertson, David. Sly and Able: A Political Biography of
Conference. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
James F. Byrnes. New York: W. W. Norton, 1994.
Press, 1960. The author maintains that compromise
Critical of revisionists, the author concludes that
was necessary since the Russian army stood in a
Byrnes’s primary motivation for use of the atomic
strong European position, which placed it in control
bomb was to end the war with Japan and not to im-
of Eastern Europe in 1945, and since the war against
press the Russians.
Japan was still in progress.
Woods, Randall, and Howard Jones. Dawning of the Cold
Ferrell, Robert H. Harry S. Truman: A Life. Columbia:
War: The United States’ Quest for Order. Athens:
University of Missouri Press, 1994. Written by a pre-
University of Georgia Press, 1991. This work, which
mier Truman scholar, this work argues that no West-
is based on a synthesis of scholarship, concludes that
ern figure could allow the status quo to be defined
the potential impact the atomic bomb would have on
by the presence of Soviet troops in the eastern part
Russia was “not decisive” in Truman’s decision.
of Europe.
Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi. Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Tru- See also: Aug. 14, 1941: Atlantic Charter Declares a
man, and the Surrender of Japan. Cambridge, Mass.: Postwar Right of Self-Determination; 1943-1948:
Belknap Press, 2005. Details the role of Potsdam Soviets Take Control of Eastern Europe; Jan. 14-24,
(which it calls “the turning point”) in the campaign 1943: Casablanca Conference; Feb. 4-11, 1945: Yalta
against Japan after Germany’s surrender, as well as Conference.
482
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Labour Party Forms Britain’s Majority Government
July 26, 1945

Labour Party Forms Britain’s Majority Government
In the aftermath of World War II, Great Britain’s Conservatives who, like himself, had opposed Chamber-
Labour Party won a majority of seats in national lain’s conciliatory policy toward Germany. A tough, ag-
parliamentary elections. The party introduced a gressive leader, Churchill played a major role in the
planned economy, nationalized several industries, and Allied victory over Germany in May, 1945. As Parlia-
created the modern welfare state. ment had by then prolonged its session for ten years,
Churchill agreed shortly after the German surrender to
Locale: United Kingdom hold a general election. The king dissolved Parliament
Categories: Government and politics; diplomacy on June 15.
and international relations In order to prepare the way for the general election
Key Figures scheduled for July 5, the coalition cabinet resigned and
Clement Attlee (1883-1967), prime minister of Great Churchill appointed an exclusively Conservative cabi-
Britain, 1945-1951 net. The election campaign was primarily a contest be-
Aneurin Bevan (1897-1960), minister of health, 1945- tween the Conservative and Labour Parties. Both parties
1951, and minister of labour and national service, presented themselves to the electorate as being best qual-
1951 ified to solve Great Britain’s desperate postwar eco-
Ernest Bevin (1881-1951), British foreign secretary, nomic problems, which included the necessity of fund-
1945-1951 ing a staggering debt of more than three billion pounds
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of and of replacing personal property, shipping, and indus-
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 try destroyed during the war.
George VI (1895-1952), king of the United Kingdom The Labour Party proposed a comprehensive eco-
of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 1936-1952 nomic plan that called for, among other things, the na-
tionalization of many industries and the establishment of
Summary of Event extensive controls over those in private hands. The Con-
The victory of the Labour Party in the parliamentary servatives, while recognizing the need to continue cer-
elections of July, 1945, marked the end of the National tain economic controls, denounced the Labour program
Coalition government that had held office in Great Brit- of nationalization as a major infringement upon the pri-
ain since 1931. This government, comprising Conser- vate enterprise system. Both parties promised an exten-
vatives, Liberals, and a few Labourites, represented the sion of social services and full employment. During the
effort of its members to find solutions to the grave finan- campaign, it was obvious that Labour had superior party
cial problems brought on by the Great Depression of organization, and Churchill made an appalling gaff, im-
1929. In reality, the National Coalition government was plying that Labour’s sweeping economic changes would
only a facade for the rule of the Conservative Party, bring in a “gestapo” state, a clearly unfair charge against
which in its own right commanded an absolute major- a party with an admirable war record. In addition, many
ity in Parliament as constituted in the elections of 1931 voters still blamed the Conservatives for their allegedly
1945
and 1935. mean-spirited social policies during the Great Depres-
The Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin headed the sion and for their bungling policy of appeasement prior
coalition as prime minister from 1935 to 1937. Follow- to the war.
ing his resignation, King George VI called upon Neville The election gave the Labour Party a substantial ma-
Chamberlain, also a Conservative, to lead the nation. jority with 393 seats as opposed to the 213 seats retained
Chamberlain’s policy of appeasing Nazi Germany in by the Conservatives. The vote was officially tabulated
the late 1930’s led to his resignation in 1940, when on July 26, 1945. Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as
Adolf Hitler, chancellor and führer of Germany, or- prime minister the next day. By virtue of his victory,
dered German troops to overrun Western Europe. King Attlee became Great Britain’s chief representative at the
George thereupon asked Winston Churchill, the spokes- Potsdam Conference, which was then meeting to decide
man for those Conservatives who had condemned ap- the fate of postwar Germany.
peasement, to form a government. Churchill reorganized The Labour Party remained in power from 1945
the cabinet extensively, bringing in both Labourites and through most of 1951, during which period it attempted,
483
Labour Party Forms Britain’s Majority Government The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
with the aid of loans from the United States, to deal with pointed secretary of state for foreign affairs. The country
Great Britain’s economic and social problems by imple- played a positive role in creating the United Nations.
menting its socialistic program. Attlee, unimposing in Consistent with its socialist principles, the Labour gov-
appearance and totally lacking charisma, nevertheless ernment granted independence to India (1947), Pakistan
turned out to be a first-rate leader and put together a for- (1947), Ceylon (1948), and Burma (1948), and in some-
midable cabinet. In October, 1945, he secured from the thing of a diplomatic debacle, Britain voluntarily surren-
House of Commons an extension of the government’s dered its mandate for Palestine in 1948, which immedi-
wartime emergency powers for five years. During this ately led to fighting between Jews and Arabs in that area.
period, the government nationalized the Bank of En- During the early stages of the Cold War, Britain re-
gland, overseas cable and wireless services, civil avia- mained a staunch ally of the United States, joining the
tion, coal mines, railroads, road haulage (trucking), ca- North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949 and offering
nals and docks, gas and electricity companies, and the military support during the Korean War. Much to Amer-
iron and steel industries. Owners of these industries were ica’s displeasure, however, Britain recognized the Com-
generously compensated. munist regime of China in 1950. Significantly, Britain
It was estimated that roughly 20 percent of the na- spurned any negotiations dealing with the creation of a
tion’s economy was in state hands. Labour subjected European political and economic union, preferring in-
industry left in private hands to extensive controls, pri- stead to maintain close ties with the Commonwealth na-
marily to establish a healthy balance of trade between ex- tions and the United States.
ports and imports. Strict government regulations also With the expiration of its term in February, 1950, the
maintained rationing in the buying of food, clothing, and Labour government stood for reelection. The Labour
fuel. In agriculture, the Attlee government established Party ran on a platform that called for the consolidation
price supports for milk, livestock, eggs, and potatoes of the gains it had made since the end of the war. The
and set detailed standards of efficient production which Conservatives promised to supply more housing and to
farmers had to follow. end further nationalization and excessive controls. In ad-
It is Labour’s domestic program for which it is chiefly dition, they attempted to assure the electorate that, con-
remembered. The party constructed the modern welfare trary to statements from the Labour camp, they would
state, or, in the parlance of that time, offered security not bring back unemployment and reduce the social ser-
“from the womb to the tomb.” In 1946, Parliament vices. Many people who had supported the Labour Party
passed the National Insurance Act. Funded by contribu- in 1945 now cast their votes for the Conservatives, who
tions from employers, employees, and the state, this act captured 297 seats. The Labour Party, however, retained
dispensed funds for unemployment benefits, old age control with 315 seats.
pensions, and grants to mothers having children. During the following months, the Labour Party barely
The National Health Service, which began operation managed to maintain this slender majority. A split in the
in 1948, was by far the government’s most popular pro- ranks of Labour between right- and left-wingers during
gram. Pushed by Aneurin Bevan, minister of health, this the middle of 1951 finally induced Attlee to call another
act provided to everyone free medical services and sup- election in October. This time, the Conservatives won a
plies, hospital care, and nursing aid. Bevan was also re- slim majority of seats, and once again Churchill became
sponsible for directing the government-sponsored hous- prime minister. The Conservatives were to remain in
ing program, which built approximately one million power for the next thirteen years.
units during Labour’s term of office. In conjunction with
the expansion of social services, Attlee attempted to Significance
bring about a modest redistribution of Great Britain’s The Labour government of 1945-1951 is regarded as one
wealth by changing the tax laws whereby the heaviest of the most important in modern British history. Correctly
burden fell upon the wealthy. Because of the resistance or incorrectly, it is credited with creating the modern wel-
to these and other reform measures in the House of fare state, demonstrating the virtues of rational economic
Lords, the Attlee government pushed an act through Par- planning, and attempting to build a society embodying
liament which restricted the powers of the House of the virtues of social justice and economic security. Sig-
Lords to delay legislation. nificantly, the Conservative Party after it returned to of-
Foreign policy during this period was directed by Er- fice accepted almost all of the welfare state and much of
nest Bevin, a former trade union leader who was ap- the nationalization program. This consensus was to last
484
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki
until the 1980’s, when it was vigorously challenged by McCullum, R. B., and A. Readman. The British General
Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative government. Election of 1945. London: Oxford University Press,
— Edward P. Keleher and David C. Lukowitz 1947. A good analysis of the election which brought
the Labour Party to power.
Further Reading
Morgan, Kenneth O. Labour in Power, 1945-1951. Ox-
Bullock, Alan. Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary, 1945-
ford, England: Clarendon Press, 1984. This lengthy,
1951. New York: W. W. Norton, 1983. A flattering
detailed account is arguably the finest study on the
account of Bevin’s days at the Foreign Office by a re-
topic. Written by a distinguished Oxford historian.
spected Oxford historian.
Pearce, Robert. Attlee’s Labour Governments, 1945-
Burridge, Trevor. Clement Attlee: A Political Biography.
1951. New York: Routledge, 1994. A brief introduc-
London: Jonathan Cape, 1985. A detailed, heavily
tion to the topic designed specifically for students.
documented study of Attlee’s political career. In-
Excellent bibliographical essay.
cludes photographs and a lengthy bibliography.
Swift, John. Labour in Crisis: Clement Attlee and the
Cairncross, Alec. Years of Recovery: British Economic
Labour Party in Opposition, 1931-40. New York:
Policy, 1945-51. New York: Methuen, 1985. An ex-
Palgrave, 2001. Details Attlee’s career as a prewar
pert analysis of Britain’s economy with special em-
opposition leader; important background for under-
phasis upon the financial crises of this period. For the
standing the Labour government of 1945-1951. Bib-
advanced student.
Headlam, Sir Cuthbert Morley. Parliament and Politics
in the Age of Churchill and Attlee: The Headlam Di- See also: July 1, 1950: European Payments Union Is
aries, 1935-1951. Edited by Stuart Ball. New York: Formed; July-Sept., 1958: Race Riots Erupt in Lon-
Cambridge University Press, 1999. Diary of a British don; July 31, 1959: Basque Separatist Organization Is
member of Parliament, detailing the workings of Brit- Formed; Nov. 8, 1965: British Parliament Abolishes
ain’s government under both Churchill’s and Attlee’s the Death Penalty; Aug., 1969: British Troops Re-
ministries. store Order in Northern Ireland.
August 6 and 9, 1945

Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki
U.S. military planes dropped atomic bombs Leslie Richard Groves (1896-1970), head of the
on two Japanese cities with consequences Manhattan Project
both human and environmental that were of Leo Szilard (1898-1964), Hungarian-born physicist
unprecedented proportions. Japan surrendered who first considered the possibility of a nuclear
on August 14, leading to the end of World chain reaction
War II and signaling the start of an age of
nuclear weaponry. Summary of Event
1945
At 8:15 a.m. on August 6, 1945, the first atomic weapon
Also known as: Fat Man and Little Boy
ever released over a human population exploded in the
Locale: Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan
air above Hiroshima, Japan. The blast energy and de-
Categories: World War II; wars, uprisings,
struction were on a scale hitherto unknown and heralded
and civil unrest
the beginning of the atomic age. Three days later, on Au-
Key Figures gust 9, a second atom bomb was released over the city of
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the Nagasaki at about 11:00 a.m.
United States, 1945-1953, who gave final That weapon, originally planned for the city of
approval for the dropping of the bombs Kokura—a strategically important location that housed a
Henry L. Stimson (1867-1950), U.S. secretary Japanese army base located only 100 miles west of Hiro-
of war under Truman shima—was delivered to Nagasaki instead. The weather
James Francis Byrnes (1879-1972), U.S. secretary observation aircraft accompanying the bomber directed
of state under Truman the attack toward Nagasaki because of heavy clouds over
485
Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Kokura. Nagasaki might have escaped destruction on the event that the city was struck by conventional weap-
that day had it not been for a small break in the clouds that ons. Some were volunteer students; others had been
permitted the crew to release the weapon over a muni- drafted by the army for a variety of jobs within the city. It
tions plant. has been estimated that there were about 350,000 indi-
It has been estimated that the total explosive power of viduals in Hiroshima on the morning when the Enola
the weapon released over Hiroshima by the B-29 bomber Gay dropped its bomb. Released from an initial altitude
Enola Gay was equivalent to 12.5 thousand tons of trini- of six miles, the weapon exploded about one-third of a
trotoluene (TNT). Its explosive power was derived from mile above the ground, at a point judged to cause maxi-
the fission of uranium 235. The bomb delivered to Naga- mum damage on the ground below. Both the detonation
saki was almost twice as powerful; its energy came from altitude and the point directly beneath it were later deter-
the fission of the element plutonium. Each of the weap- mined from the lengths of shadows cast by standing ob-
ons was equivalent in destructive power to the explosives jects; the shadows were seared into the ground by the in-
that might have been carried at that time by a fully loaded tense heat of the explosion.
fleet of several thousand of the world’s largest bomber Seen as an isolated historical event, the release of
planes—an unprecedented release of energy. these two weapons over predominantly civilian popula-
Many of those who fell victim to the Hiroshima tions is almost impossible to comprehend. In 1945, how-
weapon were engaged on that fateful day in the open air, ever, following the defeat of Germany by the Allies, the
demolishing structures to provide adequate firebreaks in Japanese military was in retreat throughout the Pacific
theater. Returning to its homeland, where civilian mo-
rale, food, and strategic supplies were already at paralyz-
“To the Japanese People” ingly low levels, the Japanese army was determined to
fight to the last soldier, even if it led to the destruction of
A translated U.S. government leaflet that was dropped the entire country and its people.
on Japanese cities in conjunction with the Atomic Bomb It was during the meetings in Potsdam, Germany, be-
(dated August 6, 1945) reads as follows: tween the leaders of Russia, Great Britain, and the United
States, that news of the first successful nuclear detona-
America asks that you take immediate heed of what
we say on this leaflet. tion at Alamogordo, New Mexico, was conveyed to Pres-
We are in possession of the most destructive explo- ident Harry S. Truman. That was in July, 1945, just one
sive ever devised by man. A single one of our newly de- month before the bombings. There had been, throughout
veloped atomic bombs is actually the equivalent in ex- the preceding months, intense discussions among scien-
plosive power to what 2,000 of our giant B-29’s can tists and between government officials concerning the
carry on a single mission. This awful fact is one for you best strategy for concluding the war in the quickest way.
to ponder and we solemnly assure you it is grimly accu- In 1939, the year in which World War II began in Eu-
rate. rope, Hungarian-born physicist Leo Szilard met with Al-
We have just begun to use this weapon against your bert Einstein, the most prestigious scientific figure in the
homeland. If you still have any doubt, make inquiry as to
world. Szilard was persuasive in expressing his concerns
what happened to Hiroshima, where just one atomic
that Germany should not be allowed to be the first to create
bomb fell on that city.
Before using this bomb to destroy every resource of an atomic weapon, and he enlisted Einstein’s assistance to
the military by which they are prolonging this useless persuade U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt to support
war, we ask that you now petition the Emperor to end the a vigorous program of nuclear research. This ultimately
war. Our President has outlined for you the thirteen con- led to the formation of the Manhattan Project, the U.S. ef-
sequences of an honorable surrender: We urge that you fort to build an atomic weapon for the United States before
accept these consequences and begin the work of build- the Germans or Japanese, who were known to be vigor-
ing a new, better, and peaceloving Japan. ously engaged in nuclear research, could build their own.
You should take steps now to cease military resis-
tance. Otherwise, we shall resolutely employ this bomb Significance
and all our superior weapons to promptly and forcefully
No other event in recorded history can be compared with
end the war.
the impact of the first uncontrolled release of the energy
EVACUATE YOUR CITIES
of the atom. In terms of psychological, social, human,
and potential environmental consequences, there were
486
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki
no precedents. People began to come “The Most Terrible Thing Ever Discovered”
to terms with a force that possessed
the potential for the destruction of all U.S. president Harry S. Truman wrote in his diary of July 25, 1945, about the
life on Earth, including the extinc- decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan.
tion of the human species itself.
We have discovered the most terrible bomb in the history of the world. It
There exist many firsthand ac-
may be the fire destruction prophesied in the Euphrates Valley Era, after Noah
counts by individuals who survived and his fabulous Ark.
the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bomb- Anyway we “think” we have found the way to cause a disintegration of the
ings. One student recalled that she atom. An experiment in the New Mexican desert was startling—to put it
felt as though she had been struck on mildly. Thirteen pounds of the explosive caused the complete disintegration of
the back by a hammer, then thrown a steel tower 60 feet high, created a crater 6 feet deep and 1,200 feet in diame-
into boiling oil, then blown away ter, knocked over a steel tower 1/2 mile away and knocked men down 10,000
by the force of the ensuing wind. A yards away. The explosion was visible for more than 200 miles and audible for
five-year-old child who had escaped 40 miles and more.
from entrapment under his house at- This weapon is to be used against Japan between now and August 10th. I
have told the Sec. of War, Mr. [Henry L.] Stimson, to use it so that military ob-
tempted to flee the city and later re-
jectives and soldiers and sailors are the target and not women and children.
ported seeing naked people with skin
Even if the Japs [sic] are savages, ruthless, merciless and fanatic, we as the
so badly damaged it was hanging leader of the world for the common welfare cannot drop that terrible bomb on
from their bodies like rags. Others the old Capitol or the new.
likened the scene to a painting of He and I are in accord. The target will be a purely military one and we will
Hell. It has been estimated that nearly issue a warning statement asking the Japs to surrender and save lives. I’m sure
50 percent of those who happened to they will not do that, but we will have given them the chance. It is certainly a
be within a three-quarter-mile radius good thing for the world that Hitler’s crowd or Stalin’s did not discover this
of the burst point died that day; many atomic bomb. It seems to be the most terrible thing ever discovered, but it can
more would die subsequently as a re- be made the most useful.
sult of direct wounds or severe radia-
tion exposure.
Prior to the dropping of the atomic
bombs, the most severe wartime casualties on Japanese The immediate combined losses of life in this brief span
soil had occurred earlier that year in Tokyo, when ap- of time can be compared to the total loss of U.S. military
proximately 10 percent of the city’s population of one personnel—about 300,000—in World War II.
million had died of firebombing-related injuries. It has In addition to the immediate thermal and blast effects
been estimated that nearly 200,000 lives ultimately were created by the enormous fireball, the fires ignited on the
lost in Hiroshima within five years of the bombing, and ground gave rise to smoke plumes containing soot and
about 74,000 in a similar period in Nagasaki. radioactive debris; these rose into the atmosphere, where
The Japanese military was unsure of the nature of the they were absorbed by thunderclouds. This produced the
deadly weapon that had been released. Many people be- “black rain” that fell in the hours following the explosion.
1945
lieved that everyone would die. Others believed that all With a sticky, oil-like consistency, it quickly poisoned
natural life in Hiroshima—once regarded as among the fish in the local river and deposited its lethal radioactivity
most beautiful of all Japanese cities—would perish. Dur- onto the skin of the survivors. The black rain suggested
ing that five-year span, evidence of increased incidences that in a large-scale nuclear exchange, dense smoke
of leukemia, together with dramatic increases in the rates clouds in the atmosphere could hold the potential for dra-
of other cancers, served to confirm suspicions of delayed matic climate changes. Such sooty smoke would absorb
effects of nuclear radiation on humans. Survivors of Hi- the light of the sun, heating the atmosphere and allowing
roshima showed a death rate from leukemia seven times the surface of the earth to cool. This could have disastrous
higher than the nation’s average, and the incidence of hu- effects on the earth’s ability to produce crops, and it could
man and animal cancers of all types—breast, lung, thy- also dramatically reduce normal summer temperatures. In
roid—continued to rise in the following years. Long-term Hiroshima, survivors shivered in the middle of summer.
genetic effects were also issues of deep concern for future By the spring of 1945, on the verge of successfully
generations of the survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. achieving and testing the bomb, many atomic scientists,
487
Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
including Szilard, had urged that it not be used against drop the atomic bomb on Japan. Also discusses the
Japan. The war in Europe was ending, and there were in- controversies concerning how to remember this part
creasing concerns that a first-use strategy against a coun- of U.S. and Japanese history, including the ethics of
try that was so close to defeat would have serious conse- memorializing the destruction in the Enola Gay exhi-
quences for the United States in the postwar world. bition at the Smithsonian in 1995.
Truman, however, received the advice of an interim com- Fogelman, Edwin. Hiroshima: The Decision to Use the
mittee to drop the bomb as soon as possible. His secretary A-Bomb. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1964.
of state, James Francis Byrnes, seconded that opinion, be- A compilation of contemporary works excerpted
lieving that an unprecedented show of U.S. power would from the writings of those involved in the events that
serve to control the postwar expansion of the Soviet Union led to the bombing. The principal scientists, the deci-
in Eastern Europe. That view was shared by Secretary of sion makers in government, and writers in Japan re-
War Henry L. Stimson, who believed further that a post- port on their own perspectives.
war sharing of atomic secrets with the Soviets would Hersey, John. Hiroshima. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
tend to ensure their good behavior in the postwar world. 2002. This classic work, written in 1946, adds a chap-
Another point of view held that a demonstration of the ter written nearly forty years after the original and re-
bomb on some neutral territory might in itself induce the counts the author’s search for the six original survi-
Japanese to surrender. Fears that the still-experimental vors of Hiroshima whose stories were documented in
weapon would fail to detonate, along with concerns that the first edition of the book. Widely read in its original
the Japanese military might sabotage the weapon, pre- form (except in Japan, where U.S. authorities blocked
vailed when the decision was finally made. The added its publication until 1949), this work is probably the
sense that the United States had within its grasp a tool most moving story of individual human responses to
that could end the war quickly, and so avoid any further the tragedy.
losses of the lives of its service personnel, made a com- Hogan, Michael J., ed. Hiroshima in History and Mem-
pelling argument in favor of the bomb’s use. ory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. A
Within a few years of the surrender of Japan, several work of memory and remembrance that focuses on
more of the world’s technologically advanced nations how Hiroshima and Nagasaki have remained as poi-
had their own atom bombs. In 1954, the United States ex- gnant symbols in the national consciousness not only
ploded an entirely different type of weapon, a hydrogen of Japan but also of the United States.
bomb, the energy of which was almost a thousand times Ishikawa, Eisei, and David L. Swain, trans. Hiroshima
that of the Hiroshima device. The postwar years saw and Nagasaki. New York: Basic Books, 1981. Pre-
the birth of numerous efforts to control the spread and pared by a committee of Japanese commissioned by
proliferation of nuclear arsenals, which rapidly increased the two cities to report on the physical, medical, and
during the Cold War. With the end of the Cold War in social effects of the bombings. Contains an extensive
the 1990’s, however, genuine nuclear disarmament be- bibliography as well as photographs, maps, charts,
gan to take place, reducing fears of nuclear confronta- and tables.
tion and war. Kurzman, Dan. Day of the Bomb: Countdown to Hiro-
Nuclear proliferation continued to be a threat, how- shima. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986. Written by a
ever, gaining renewed attention with the growth of terror- former journalist and foreign correspondent, this is a
ist movements with potential access to nuclear materials highly readable work with citations from personal in-
and the capacity to produce smaller “dirty” bombs. The terviews, unpublished documents, and papers. Con-
peaceful exploitation of nuclear energy also expanded tains an extensive bibliography, including periodical
greatly, producing about 17 percent of global energy sixty and broadcast materials.
years after the use of atomic weapons against Japan. Lifton, Robert Jay. Death in Life: Survivors of Hiro-
—David G. Fenton shima. 1967. New ed. Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press, 1991. Perhaps more than any
Further Reading other writer, Lifton has succeeded in conveying the
Bird, Kai, and Lawrence Lifschultz, eds. Hiroshima’s psychological ramifications of the disastrous events.
Shadow. Stony Creek, Conn.: Pamphleteer’s Press, The research that led to the present work was under-
1998. An excellent resource that explores the moral taken in Japan by way of many interviews with survi-
and ethical aspects of the United States’ decision to vors and their relatives. Includes an updated preface.
488
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Truman Proclamation on the Continental Shelf
Selden, Kyoko, and Mark Selden, eds. The Atomic Press, 2004. An analysis of President Truman’s deci-
Bomb: Voices from Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Ar- sion to drop the atomic bombs. Highly recommended
monk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1989. Mark Selden’s open- for general readers and students of American and
ing chapter reviews, and is highly critical of, the U.S. Asian history, World War II, and the atomic age.
decision to employ the weapons against Japan. The See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
balance of the book contains four short novels, as well cific Theater; Apr. 18, 1942: Doolittle Mission Bombs
as many poems and drawings, some by authors who Tokyo; June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945: United States
were children in Hiroshima at the time of the bomb- Develops the First Nuclear Weapon; June 15, 1944:
ing. Essential reading for an understanding of the Superfortress Bombing of Japan; Oct. 20, 1944: Japan
events and their impact on the people of the two cities. Orders Kamikaze Attacks; July 16, 1945: First Nu-
Walker, Samuel J. Prompt and Utter Destruction: Tru- clear Bomb Is Detonated; Aug., 1946: Hiroshima Re-
man and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan. counts the Story of Surviving a Nuclear Explosion;
Rev. ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Oct. 16, 1964: China Explodes Its First Nuclear Bomb.
September 28, 1945

Truman Proclamation on the Continental Shelf
Started by President Franklin Roosevelt, Jr., and ence of foreign vessels fishing off their coasts, among
championed by Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, them Japanese vessels in Bristol Bay, Alaska. Though
the Truman Proclamation was a unilateral claim by the Japanese government agreed to ban Japan’s salmon-
the United States on the natural resources located in fishing activities in that area in 1938, the American fish-
the continental shelf. Issues of federal versus state ing states remained dissatisfied with the traditional three-
jurisdiction over offshore resources resulted in a mile limit on exclusive coastal fishing, believing that U.S.
compromise between the federal government and some jurisdiction should be extended to include the waters
coastal states. Although the proclamation negatively above the continental shelf, which extended farther.
influenced U.S. relations with the Latin American A related incident in 1939 caught President Franklin
states, it marked the beginning of international law on D. Roosevelt’s attention. The Independent Exploration
the continental shelf. Company asked the Department of the Interior for per-
mission to ascertain the presence of oil beyond the three-
Also known as: Proclamation 2667; Policy of the
mile limit in the Gulf of Mexico. President Roosevelt
United States with Respect to the Natural Resources
proposed to the Department of the Interior the possibility
of the Subsoil and Sea Bed of the Continental Shelf
of establishing national oil resources off the nation’s
coasts. The proposal was turned down on the basis of in-
ternational law, which stated that the seabed outside ter-
environmental issues; natural resources
ritorial waters was accessible by all and owned by no
1945
Key Figures one. Not until 1943 was the issue revisited, and eventu-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), thirty-third president of ally the policy known as the Truman Proclamation on the
the United States, 1945-1953 Continental Shelf was formed in 1945.
Harold Ickes (1874-1952), U.S. secretary of the The policy began with a May, 1943, memorandum
interior from the General Land Office of the Department of the
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), thirty-second Interior stating that the continental shelf contained natu-
president of the United States, 1933-1945 ral resources that the United States needed, was an im-
James Francis Byrnes (1879-1972), U.S. secretary of portant breeding ground for fish, and could serve as a
state, 1945-1947 hiding place for submarines. The memorandum also sug-
gested drawing a line between domestic and interna-
Summary of Event tional waters 100 or 150 miles from the shore. Immedi-
Before World War II broke out in 1939, some fishing ately, Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes brought the
states in the United States were concerned with the pres- matter to President Roosevelt’s attention and proposed
489
Truman Proclamation on the Continental Shelf The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Presidential Proclamation 2667 tries. In the final agreement, Ickes’s

“sovereignty” was replaced by “juris-
Whereas the Government of the United States of America, aware of the
diction.”
long range world-wide need for new sources of petroleum and other miner-
Ickes also wanted the proclamation
als, holds the view that efforts to discover and make available new supplies
of these resources should be encouraged; and
to be announced immediately. Presi-
Whereas its competent experts are of the opinion that such resources un- dent Roosevelt gave his approval to the
derlie many parts of the continental shelf off the coasts of the United States matter on March 31, 1945; however, he
of America, and that with modern technological progress their utilization is wanted to have the proclamation publi-
already practicable or will become so at any early date; and cized only after informal consultations
Whereas recognized jurisdiction over these resources is required in the with several countries. The countries
interest of their conservation and prudent utilization when and as develop- notified of the proposed proclamation
ment is undertaken; and were Great Britain, Russia, Canada,
Whereas it is the view of the Government of the United States that the ex- Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway,
ercise of jurisdiction over the natural resources of the subsoil and sea bed of
France, Ireland, Denmark, Cuba, and
the continental shelf by the contiguous nation is reasonable and just, since
Portugal. The issuance of the procla-
the effectiveness of measures to utilize or conserve these resources would be
contingent upon cooperation and protection from shore, since the continen- mation was further delayed when Pres-
tal shelf may be regarded as an extension of the land mass of the coastal na- ident Roosevelt died on April 12. His
tion and thus naturally appurtenant to it, since these resources frequently successor, Harry S. Truman, gave his
form a seaward extension of a pool or deposit lying within the territory, and verbal approval in early May. Another
since self-protection compels the coastal nation to keep close watch over ac- delay was caused by the fact that James
tivities off its shores which are of their nature necessary for utilization of Francis Byrnes had become secretary
these resources; of state, and he needed time to become
Now therefore I, Harry S. Truman, President of the United States of informed concerning the continental
America, do hereby proclaim the following policy of the United States of shelf matter. The proclamation was fi-
America with respect to the natural resources of the subsoil and sea bed of
nally released on September 28, 1945.
the continental shelf.
Better known as the Truman Procla-
Having concern for the urgency of conserving and prudently utilizing its
natural resources, the Government of the United States regards the natural mation on the Continental Shelf, Proc-
resources of the subsoil and sea bed of the continental shelf beneath the high lamation 2667 asserted that the United
seas but contiguous to the coasts of the United States as appertaining to the States had jurisdiction over the natural
United states, subject to its jurisdiction and control. In cases where the conti- resources in the continental shelf under
nental shelf extends to the shores of another State, or is shared with an adja- the high seas contiguous to the coasts
cent State, the boundary shall be determined by the United States and the of the United States and its territories.
State concerned in accordance with equitable principles. The character as According to the proclamation, other
high seas of the waters above the continental shelf and the right to their free nations’ rights of free and unimpeded
and unimpeded navigation are in no way thus affected. navigation of waters above the shelf
were still respected, and the limit of
U.S. territorial waters remained three
miles seaward from the coast. Because
forming new concepts of territorial limits. Accordingly, the vertical dimension of the claim was not mentioned in
the president asked the State Department to give consid- the proclamation, a White House press release of the
eration to mineral resources, fisheries, and extended ju- same date indicated that the proclamation applied to the
risdiction offshore. An agreement was reached between submerged land out to a water depth of 100 fathoms (600
the State Department and the Interior Department: The feet). Executive Order 9633, issued on the same day,
former would work on the fisheries statement and the lat- placed the continental shelf’s resources under the juris-
ter on the continental shelf statement. Secretary Ickes diction and control of the secretary of the interior.
proposed that the United States claim absolute sover- It should be noted that a related proclamation, Procla-
eignty over the continental shelf and the waters above it. mation 2668, was issued the same day. This proclama-
The State Department, however, was more concerned tion provided for the establishment of conservation
with rights of access for American vessels, fishermen, zones for the protection of fisheries in certain areas of the
and aircraft in the vicinities of the coasts of other coun- high seas contiguous to the United States. In such areas,
490
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Truman Proclamation on the Continental Shelf
fished only by American nationals, the United States However, the Submerged Lands Act, enacted by Con-
would establish regulations by itself. Where foreign fish- gress in 1953, granted the states that had brought the ac-
ermen also operated, such zones would be established tions certain jurisdictional rights to offshore lands. Texas
under the international agreement with foreign states. and Florida were granted a ten-mile limit and the control
and development of oil and gas resources and explora-
Significance
tion. Beyond this special limit and the usual three-mile
During a five-year period after the issuance of the procla-
limit applied in other states, resources in the seabed and
mation, a number of states in Central and South America
subsoil were deemed to belong to the federal govern-
also began staking out unilateral claims of their own to
ment. The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, enacted
offshore areas. While the continental shelf declaration of
by Congress in the same year, gave the federal govern-
Mexico could be interpreted as consistent with the U.S.
ment the right to offer mineral leases on submerged lands
position, the stance taken by Argentina, Chile, and El
beyond state jurisdiction.
Salvador was out of line with American policy. Argen-
— Anh Tran
tina claimed both its continental shelf and the epi-
continental sea above it, while Chile and El Salvador as- Further Reading
serted sovereignty over a 200-mile zone. Their claims Cicin-Sain, Biliana, and Robert W. Knecht. The Future
were based on at least two factors. First, the distribution of U.S. Ocean Policy: Choices for the New Century.
of continental shelf areas was not uniform; in the case of Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2000. This in-depth
these states, there was little continental shelf to be found. analysis of the evolution of U.S. ocean policy in-
Second, some of these states wanted to limit the access of cludes a discussion of the most important ocean and
foreign fishing vessels and to control the depletion of fish coastal issues facing the nation. A valuable guide for
stock in their adjacent areas. students and scholars of marine and coastal environ-
Internationally, then, the Truman Proclamation nega- ment management and law.
tively influenced U.S. foreign relations with the Latin Freestone, David, Richard Barnes, and David Ong, eds.
American states. Though the American claim of the con- The Law of the Sea: Progress and Prospects. New
tinental shelf made sense in view of American interests, York: Oxford University Press, 2006. A critical re-
it did not similarly make sense from the perspective of view of the U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea
foreign states. It also required the United States to protest and its relationship to a wide range of developments
and combat their claims; in fact, these states accepted the that have occurred since 1982.
U.S. view only under diplomatic pressure. On a positive Murphy, John F. The United States and the Rule of Law
note, the International Court of Justice eventually con- in International Affairs. New York: Cambridge Uni-
sidered the Truman Proclamation as the starting point of versity Press, 2004. A textbook account of the proce-
the two concepts of international law relating to the con- dures and processes of international law, including in-
tinental shelf: delimitation by mutual agreement and de- ternational law of the sea.
limitation in accordance with equitable principles.
Domestically, the matter of federal-state jurisdiction See also: Oct. 15, 1969: Canada Announces Ban on
over offshore resources resulted in a compromise be- Hunting Baby Seals; Mar. 31, 1970: Canada Bans
1945
tween the federal government and a number of coastal Commercial Fishing in Lakes St. Clair and Erie; Apr.
states. In 1947 and 1950, the U.S. Supreme Court gave 3, 1970: Congress Mandates Oil-Spill Liabilities and
the federal government full authority over the lands and Penalties; Oct. 26, 1970: Resource Recovery Act Is
natural resources in the submerged lands off the coasts. Passed.
491
Norwegians Execute Nazi Collaborator Quisling The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
October 24, 1945

Norwegians Execute Nazi Collaborator Quisling
Norwegians who collaborated with their Nazi occupiers and eight other charges. Quisling was charged with trea-
were tried for treason and often executed. Norway’s son for encouraging Norwegians to fight in the German
puppet leader Vidkun Quisling, who was installed by military, attempting to recall the elected government’s
Adolf Hitler’s regime, was convicted of high treason mobilization order, and announcing a coup. He also was
and executed. “Quisling” became a general term for a charged with murder (of resistance fighters, deported
traitor who collaborates with an occupying government. Jews, and others), illegally bearing arms against Nor-
way, attempting to change the Norwegian constitution,
Locale: Norway
bringing Norway under a foreign jurisdiction, and taking
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; World
properties for personal gain. Quisling was found guilty
War II; laws, acts, and legal history
of all the charges, except one of the property charges. His
Key Figures October 24, 1945, death by firing squad marked Nor-
Vidkun Quisling (1887-1945), Nazi collaborator during way’s condemnation of Quisling’s five years of traitor-
the German occupation of Norway ous activities, including two meetings with Adolf Hitler,
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933-1945 the German chancellor, in December of 1939 and a radio
Haakon VII (1872-1957), king of Norway, r. 1905- announcement of a coup on April 9, 1940.
1957, who was exiled during the Nazi occupation Based on impressive accomplishments in his early
and who condemned Quisling as a traitor years, Quisling did not seem to be headed for this igno-
Josef Terboven (1898-1945), Nazi official who ran the miny. Although very shy, he was a child prodigy with
Norway occupation great mathematical abilities. He graduated with highest
marks from the top Norwegian military academy and
Summary of Event held posts as military attaché in Petrograd (now St. Pe-
In August and September, 1945, the nine-judge high tersburg) and Helsinki from 1918 to 1920. He served
court of Oslo held the trial of Vidkun Quisling for treason ably as the aide to Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and
organized humanitarian famine relief
in Ukraine during the 1920’s. From
1931 to 1933, he was Norway’s minis-
ter of defense in the elected agrarian
party government.
Quisling became obsessed with and
had paranoid fears of communism and
Jews. His anticommunist crusade re-
sulted possibly, at least in part, from his
traumatic memories of Stalinist purges.
In 1933, he cofounded the Nasjonal
To view image, please refer to print edition Samling (national union), a fascist po-
litical party that had little public sup-
port. It garnered a mere 2 percent or
less of the vote in the 1933 and 1936
elections. Few Norwegians agreed with
the party’s anti-Semitic and extreme-
right-wing views.
Observing the breakout of war be-
tween Germany and Allied forces,
Quisling became convinced that the
British were about to occupy Norway in
Vidkun Quisling shakes hands with Adolf Hitler in January, 1945. (AP/Wide World violation of Norway’s wartime neutral-
Photos) ity. Using distorted and paranoid logic,
492
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Norwegians Execute Nazi Collaborator Quisling
he surmised that British occupation would lead to a Quisling’s Philosophy

Soviet invasion of his country. He sought German
assistance to prevent this, meeting with Hitler in Although Vidkun Quisling was a man of action—a soldier
Germany on December 14 and 18, 1939. Quisling and politician—he saw himself first of all as a philosopher and
warned Hitler that the British planned an imminent political prophet. He formulated his own philosophy as early
as 1917, a combination of Norwegian nationalism, primitive
occupation of Norway, and he pointed out to Hitler
Christianity, and spirituality. Called Univerism, it called upon
that Norway was strategically important to the
people to become responsible for their own freedom and salva-
Allies. He believed that the British could use Nor- tion by discovering these for themselves. They were to do so
wegian occupation to control Sweden and the Bal- by meditating upon truth, worshiping God, and participating
tic and prevent the flow of Swedish iron ore to Ger- in society.
many. Quisling also described plans for a coup by In fact, this third element, societal activism, moved Quisling
his party and requested German assistance. (Quis- to cofound the Nasjonal Samling (NS) in 1933. He insisted
ling was not the first to suggest an invasion. High- that the NS had nothing to do with the German Nazi Party,
ranking Nazi officials had also been urging a Ger- Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP). He
man invasion of Norway, as well as Denmark.) He once claimed that his philosophy inspired Adolf Hitler to create
told Hitler not to expect much Norwegian resistance his own ideology, a claim that apparently annoyed Hitler.
As leader of the NS, Quisling kept himself apart from con-
to a German invasion. Hitler promised financial
frontations, debates, and discussions as much he could. He pre-
support for the party and agreed that the party would
ferred to inform others of his thinking in writing. This had an
have responsibility for domestic policy in the event unfortunate consequence for the NS. The absence of strong, in-
of German occupation. Hitler asked Quisling for volved leadership opened the party to power struggles among
further updates about signs of British invasion. rivals and reduced its efficacy. Historians have blamed this in-
Hitler soon became preoccupied with plans for fighting for NS’s disastrous showing in the 1936 elections.
a western offensive. Nevertheless, he ordered a Quisling’s long-range plan was to found a World Univerism
preliminary plan, called Studie Nord, to be devel- League, an organization combining philosophy, religion, and
oped by all German forces about the possible occu- party. He hoped it would replace the League of Nations as the
pation of both Norway and Denmark. On January venue for international cooperation. It is difficult to believe
20, 1940, Hitler formed secret special staff for that, had the Nazis prevailed in World War II, Hitler would
have permitted such an organization. In any event, Quisling’s
planning a possible invasion (the contingency be-
idealism came to an abrupt end in 1945.
ing British occupation).
The Altmark incident raised the urgency of
Hitler’s Nordic invasion plans. The Altmark, a
German supply ship, sailed into the Jøssingfjord
(nominally neutral Norwegian waters) in February, 1940, VII and his family, elected prime minister Johan Ny-
to escape a British destroyer, the Cossack. Sailors from gaardsvold, and other ministers. The Norwegian gold sup-
the Cossack, which had followed the Altmark, boarded ply also was secreted away. The country’s leaders took
the supply ship and freed more than three hundred British refuge in various secret locations north of Oslo. Contacted
merchant seaman who were being held as prisoners of by German diplomats, Haakon refused to appoint Quis-
1945
war. The incident convinced Hitler that the British would ling and his chosen ministers to form an interim govern-
not comply with Norwegian neutrality. ment. The king said that Quisling did not have the support
The German invasion of Norway and Denmark, called of the people and compared him to the Finnish traitor Otto
Operation Weserübung, began on April 9 at 5:15 a.m. Kuusinen. The legally elected Storting (parliament) mem-
Quick naval strikes succeeded in all the port cities of the bers also refused to comply with Quisling’s demands.
west coast. Troop landings began as well. The invasion Haakon would later take refuge in Great Britain.
of Oslo was delayed by more than twenty-four hours, Quisling met with Nazi officials on April 9 and agreed
however, because of strong Norwegian coastal defenses, to appoint a cabinet. That evening, Quisling spoke
which the Germans had not anticipated. Torpedoes sank publically, telling the country that his party would head
the heavy cruiser Blücher in the Oslofjord. The ship car- the new government and that the Norwegian people
ried many of the high-command personnel who were should obey its orders. He named his cabinet ministers
supposed to administer the occupation. The delayed Oslo and said that Norwegians should not resist the German
invasion allowed the escape of Norwegian king Haakon occupiers.
493
Norwegians Execute Nazi Collaborator Quisling The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
For six days Quisling headed the so-called Q governing Serbia, Russia, Israel, and Holland, were stigmatized
ment. The Nazi authorities quickly realized that Quisling with the derogatory name.
could not be used in a genuine leadership position. They Quisling’s role in the occupation government ironi-
demoted Quisling to a position as a demobilization ad- cally had a critical effect not intended by Quisling or Hit-
ministrator with the title “minister-president.” In this ca- ler. Quisling’s actions strengthened the Norwegian re-
pacity, Quisling served as puppet head for the remaining sistance movement. The majority of Norwegians had
years of occupation. The true leader of Norway was disdain for his personality and political views. They
Reichskommissar Josef Terboven, who administered the viewed him as a laughingstock. Hitler misguidedly used
country in an especially brutal manner. Terboven initiated Quisling as his puppet, which galvanized the Norwegian
Gestapo spying in Norway, which led to the arrest and ex- people and helped them resist the Nazis. Hitler once
ecution of thousands of resisters. Quisling did not agree commented that of the nations and peoples he conquered,
with Terboven’s policies, but nevertheless he abetted the the Norwegians had been the hardest people to subdue.
occupation. He acquiesced to the deportation of Norwe- —Nancy Conn Terjesen
gian Jews and to the execution of resistance fighters. He
Further Reading
encouraged Norwegians to volunteer in the German army.
Barth, Else Margarete. A Nazi Interior: Quisling’s Hid-
After the German surrender in May, 1945, the occupa-
den Philosophy. New York: Peter Lang, 2003. A phi-
tion was over. In August, Quisling was tried by the high
losopher’s scholarly analysis of Quisling’s philo-
court in Oslo. The court considered several arguments,
sophical thinking. The first book of its kind.
and Quisling participated actively in his defense, saying
Dahl, Hans Fredrik. Quisling: A Study in Treachery.
that he was a misunderstood prophet. He and his charac-
Translated by Anne-Marie Stanton-Ife. New York:
ter witnesses testified that he had acted out of love for his
Cambridge University Press, 1999. A detailed study
country. His lawyer argued that Quisling had not thirsted
of Quisling using material from Norwegian and Ger-
for power, did not cause the German invasion, and had co-
man archives.
operated with Nazi orders out of duress. The guilty verdict
Hewins, Ralph. Quisling: Prophet Without Honour.
included a determination that Quisling was not mentally
New York: John Day, 1965. A British journalist ar-
impaired, nor did he have an organic brain disorder, de-
gues that Quisling made errors of judgment but was
spite psychotic paranoia symptoms (his obsession about
not a traitor.
communist conspiracies). His punishment was the death
Hoidal, Oddvar K. Quisling: A Study in Treason. New
penalty, in addition to a large monetary fine.
York: Oxford University Press, 1989. In a work of
On appeal to the Norwegian supreme court, the ver-
more than nine hundred pages, Hoidal emphasizes the
dict was affirmed. The court found that trial procedures
historical context of Quisling’s story, based on archi-
were legal, the law had been correctly applied, and the
val documents.
death penalty was not too strict. Capital punishment,
Kersaudy, François. Norway, 1940. Lincoln: University
very rarely used in Norway, was deemed constitutional
of Nebraska Press, 1990. A detailed description of the
in this case. Quisling was executed on October 24, 1945.
unsuccessful attempt by Norway and the Allies to re-
sist the Nazi invasion. Includes discussion of Quis-
Significance
ling.
Quisling was angrily condemned in British, U.S., and
Mann, Chris. Hitler’s Arctic War: The German Cam-
Swedish newspapers immediately after his coup. The
paigns in Norway, Finland, and the USSR, 1940-
term “quisling” would soon become a common reference
1945. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2003. Includes a
to a traitor, similar to the term “fifth columnist,” which
chapter on Norway that describes Quisling’s treachery.
originated in the Spanish Civil War. Although “fifth col-
umnist” is often used more generally, a “quisling” is a See also: Mar. 1, 1941: Bulgaria Joins the Tripartite
particular kind of traitor, one who collaborates with an Pact; Aug. 9, 1942: Stein Is Killed by the Nazis; Sept.
occupying power and operates a puppet government. 30-Oct. 1, 1943: Citizens Rescue Danish Jews from
The word, which connotes extreme societal condemna- Germans; Apr. 9, 1945: Bonhoeffer Is Executed by
tion and vilification, exists in many languages. During the Nazis; May 8, 1945: V-E Day Marks the End of
the Norwegian occupation, the term was used to refer- World War II in Europe; Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1, 1946:
ence other collaborators (in addition to Quisling). Later, Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg; 1963:
persons viewed as collaborators in other nations, includ- Arendt Speculates on the Banality of Evil.
494
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japanese General Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes
October 29, 1945-February 23, 1946

Japanese General Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes
The case of General Tomoyuki Yamashita established to try Yamashita for war crimes as quickly as possible.
the principles that commanders are responsible for On October 29, 1945, Yamashita’s trial opened. The
their troops’ actions and that captured soldiers are not charge against him was that troops under his command
protected by the U.S. Constitution even after hostilities had committed atrocities. These were of three kinds. In
end. the first category were atrocities committed in Manila
during February of 1945, just before the Americans took
Also known as: Yamashita case the city. The troops in Manila were naval forces placed
Locale: Manila, the Philippines under Yamashita’s tactical command in January, 1945;
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; World they remained under the administrative command of the
War II; laws, acts, and legal history navy. Although Yamashita ordered them to abandon the
Key Figures city twice, the admiral in Manila chose to obey a naval
Tomoyuki Yamashita (1885-1946), Japanese general order to stay and destroy the harbor facilities. This deci-
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), supreme commander sion doomed the troops, and they knew it. About twenty
of Allied forces in the Southwest Pacific, 1942- thousand soldiers ran berserk, raping and pillaging until
1945, and military governor of Japan, 1945-1951 American artillery destroyed central Manila at point-
Russel B. Reynolds (1894-1970), U.S. Army major blank range.
general A second group of atrocities occurred outside Manila,
mainly in the district commanded by Colonel Masatoshi
Summary of Event Fujishige. Fujishige was proud there were no rapes in his
General Tomoyuki Yamashita, nicknamed the Tiger of area, but he did order the destruction of villages in an at-
Malaya, had a distinguished career before World War II tempt to stop guerrilla actions. He stated that he ordered
that became even more distinguished during the war. The his troops to kill anyone who opposed them, including
most brilliant of his achievements was a ten-week cam- women and children. In defense of this policy, he told how
paign down the Malay Peninsula that led to the fall of a child had thrown a hand grenade at him. He said the pol-
Britain’s “invincible” fortifications at Singapore on Feb- icy was his, and that he had not reported his actions.
ruary 15, 1942. Despite Yamashita’s success and im- The defense wanted to remind the commission of the
mense popularity in Japan after this event, General case of American brigadier general Jacob H. Smith, who
Hideki Tfjf, Japan’s prime minister, sent Yamashita into had ordered his troops to conduct a punitive expedition
virtual exile in Manchuria. The reason for Tfjf’s animos- against Philippine guerrillas in 1901. Smith had said, “I
ity is unknown, but it may have resulted from Yama- want no prisoners. . . . The more you kill and burn, the
shita’s reputation as a moderate and his opposition to be- better you will please me.” Everyone over ten years old
ginning the war. In 1929, Yamashita had gone so far as to was to be killed. A court-martial for breach of discipline
suggest that the Japanese army should be reduced to a sentenced Smith merely to be reprimanded by his supe-
size adequate only for defense. rior. No such allusions were allowed, however, as the
1945
In October, 1944, new rulers in Tokyo sent Yamashita commission specifically warned the defense lawyers not
to command the Fourteenth Army Group in the Philip- to present any cases of misconduct by American troops.
pines. By that time, the Japanese situation in the Philip- A third category of offenses was the mistreatment of
pines was desperate. Ten days after Yamashita arrived, prisoners of war in violation of the Third Geneva Con-
American troops landed at Leyte, and Yamashita had lit- vention of 1929 requiring that prisoners receive the same
tle choice but to retreat to the mountains of Luzon. Allied rations as their captors. Many witnesses testified that
naval victories and air supremacy cut off Japanese sup- they received insufficient food, but it was fairly easy for
plies and communications, placing the Japanese in a the defense to establish that Japanese soldiers were no
hopeless situation. Upon hearing a radio broadcast from better fed because of the American blockade and poor
Japan announcing defeat, Yamashita ordered his troops transportation. The prosecution concentrated on the so-
to surrender unconditionally and surrendered himself on called Palawan Incident of December 14, 1944, in which
September 3, 1945. General Douglas MacArthur, in To- a local Japanese commander had 142 American prison-
kyo, appointed a commission of five U.S. Army generals ers killed. Yamashita did not take command until three
495
Japanese General Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
weeks after this incident occurred, MacArthur on the Crimes of General Yamashita
but the prosecution argued that he
should have known about it and done U.S. general Douglas MacArthur, after the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the
something about it. conviction of Japanese general Tomoyuki Yamashita for war crimes, reviewed
In general, the defense contended the case and then released a statement in February, 1946, confirming that
that Yamashita knew nothing of these Yamashita should indeed be hanged for his crimes.
incidents and could have done noth- I have reviewed the proceedings in vain search for some mitigating circum-
ing about them had he known. By the stances on his behalf. I can find none. Rarely has so cruel and wanton a record
time he took command, communica- been spread to public gaze. Revolting as this may be in itself, it pales before the
tions were so bad that he was isolated sinister and far reaching implication thereby attached to the profession of arms.
from the troops he nominally com- The soldier, be he friend or foe, is charged with the protection of the weak and
manded. His lawyers argued that he unarmed. It is the very essence and reason for his being. When he violates this
sacred trust, he not only profanes his entire cult but threatens the very fabric of
was being tried for who he was rather
international society. The traditions of fighting men are long and honorable.
for than anything he did. There was
They are based upon the noblest of human traits—sacrifice. This officer, of
no proof that he ordered any atroci- proven field merit, entrusted with high command involving authority adequate
ties or knew of them. The prosecu- to responsibility, has failed this irrevocable standard; has failed his duty to his
tion argued that he must have heard troops, to his country, to his enemy, to mankind; has failed utterly his soldier
about some atrocities, because there faith. The transgressions resulting therefrom as revealed by the trial are a blot
had been so many. upon the military profession, a stain upon civilization and constitute a memory
Conduct of the trial by General of shame and dishonor that can never be forgotten.
Russel Reynolds bore only faint re-
semblance to normal courtroom pro-
ceedings. The commission, none of
whose members were lawyers, ignored rules of evidence the sole responsibility of the United States, and U.S. law
and law by allowing hearsay testimony, unsupported af- applied. Eight justices of the Supreme Court heard the
fidavits by absent witnesses—despite an act of Congress case and gave their opinions on February 4, 1946. Six
prohibiting them—and propaganda films to be submitted of them declared in the majority opinion that the mili-
as evidence. They cut short defense cross-examination tary commission did have the right to try Yamashita, be-
for the sake of speed and threatened the defense attorneys cause the war was not technically over until a treaty
with retribution for slowing down the proceedings with was signed. They dismissed the case against the irregu-
objections. larities in procedure by saying that it was up to the mili-
It was not much of a surprise to anyone when the com- tary authorities to review the case and make any correc-
mission found Yamashita guilty on December 7, 1945, tions. Justice Frank Murphy and Justice Wiley Rutledge
and sentenced him to hang. The defense lawyers feared dissented strongly. Both delivered scathing denuncia-
that MacArthur would order Yamashita’s execution be- tions of the commission and the “vacuity” with which
fore the U.S. Supreme Court could agree to hear the case. it handled the case. They also agreed that Yamashita
MacArthur did refuse a suggestion to delay the execution was being punished for who he was and not for anything
and announced his intention to proceed on the grounds he had done.
that the Supreme Court had no jurisdiction over him, but President Harry S. Truman denied an appeal by the
the secretary of war ordered him to delay the execution. defense attorneys. Yamashita was hanged on February
Yamashita’s appeal noted that the Commonwealth of 23, 1946.
the Philippines was not an occupied territory like Ger-
many or Japan, and that he should be tried in civilian Significance
courts. His attorneys also said that the unusual circum- Even at the time of Yamashita’s trial and execution,
stances of war had passed with the surrender of Japan, many people saw the dangers of the precedent being set.
making military courts unnecessary. Their strongest ar- In his dissenting minority opinion, Justice Murphy
gument was probably that the trial had been conducted in warned that future U.S. leaders and soldiers might suffer
an improper manner. the consequences of the United States’ actions in this
Unlike the Nuremberg Trials, the Yamashita trial case. Justice Rutledge ended his dissenting opinion with
was not in the hands of an international tribunal. It was a quotation from Thomas Paine: “He that would make his
496
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japanese General Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes
own liberty secure must guard even his enemy from op- Popularized account of Yamashita’s trial. Presents
pression; for if he violates this duty he establishes a pre- him as a victim.
cedent that will reach himself.” Reel, A. Frank. The Case of General Yamashita. Chi-
The fate of no U.S. leader has yet been sealed by cago: University of Chicago Press, 1949. Reel was
the Yamashita decision, but it has caused considerable one of Yamashita’s defense lawyers. This is one of the
embarrassment for some. During the war in Vietnam, more useful books on the topic, as it gives a firsthand
several opponents of U.S. policy suggested that the var- account of the trial. The organization is confused,
ious atrocities committed by U.S. troops were the re- however, and the book is written in an anecdotal style.
sponsibility of their commanders, up to and including No reference features or illustrations, but a valuable
the commander in chief. Bertrand Russell and Ralph appendix containing the Supreme Court decision and
Schoenman conducted the International War Crimes dissenting opinions in full.
Tribunal in 1967 and 1968 in an attempt to convince the Swinson, Arthur. Four Samurai: A Quartet of Japanese
world that the United States was guilty of war crimes Army Commanders in the Second World War. Lon-
in Vietnam. don: Hutchinson, 1968. Brief accounts of Yamashita
These hearings in Stockholm came to nothing, be- and three other Japanese generals of World War II.
cause the proceedings were biased, but accusers based The author makes some attempt to use Japanese
their contention that President Lyndon B. Johnson was sources but offers little information about Yamashita
responsible for atrocities in Vietnam on the Yamashita that is not available in the other sources listed here.
precedent. One historian of these events wrote, “While Taylor, Lawrence. A Trial of Generals: Homma, Yama-
collective guilt, like the notion of original sin, may have a shita, MacArthur. South Bend, Ind.: Icarus Press,
place in theology, it is not part of Anglo-American juris- 1981. Despite the title, there is little in this book about
prudence. Here guilt is always personal, and if all are MacArthur’s involvement with the case. Lael’s book
guilty then in effect nobody is guilty.” The Yamashita is much better for an account of the events and their
case introduced another principle into American juris- significance by a nonparticipant. Index, bibliography,
prudence: Someone, preferably the highest-ranking per- and photographs.
son, must pay even if all are guilty. Yamashita, Tomoyuki. Before the Military Commission
—Phillip Dwight Jones Convened by the Commanding General, United
States Army Forces, Western Pacific: United States of
Further Reading
America vs. Tomoyuki Yamashita. 34 vols. Manila,
Connaughton, Richard M. MacArthur and Defeat in the
1945. The proceedings of the trial and, therefore, the
Philippines. Woodstock, N.Y.: Overlook Press, 2001.
ultimate source for information on the trial itself. Its
The author argues that MacArthur’s mistakes led to
size makes it difficult to use for any but the most inter-
defeat in the Philippines. Illustrated and includes bib-
ested and determined reader.
liography.
Lael, Richard L. The Yamashita Precedent: War Crimes See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
and Command Responsibility. Wilmington, Del.: cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Japan Begins Attacks on
Scholarly Resources, 1982. Short, useful account of Southeast Asia; Oct. 25, 1943: Thai-Burma Railway
1945
the case, with details of the arguments that went on Is Completed with Forced Labor; Oct. 20, 1944: Ja-
between the Supreme Court justices before their deci- pan Orders Kamikaze Attacks; Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1,
sion. Contends that MacArthur and other leaders were 1946: Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg;
not “black-hearted villains” but merely “made ques- 1946: British and Australian Tribunals Impose Death
tionable decisions.” Fully documented, with a bibli- Sentences for War Crimes; 1946: Jaspers Examines
ography and index. Germany’s Collective Responsibility for War
Perret, Geoffrey. Old Soldiers Never Die: The Life of Crimes; Dec. 9, 1948: United Nations Adopts Con-
Douglas MacArthur. New York: Random House, vention on Genocide; Sept. 8, 1951: Treaty of Peace
1996. A comprehensive, definitive one-volume biog- with Japan Is Signed in San Francisco; Apr. 11-Aug.
raphy of MacArthur. 14, 1961: Eichmann Is Tried for War Crimes; Nov.
Potter, John Deane. The Life and Death of a Japanese 26, 1968: Statutes of Limitations Are Rendered Inap-
General. New York: New American Library, 1962. plicable to War Crimes.
497
Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
November 20, 1945-October 1, 1946

Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg
The Nuremberg Trials of twenty-two Germans Nazi war criminals would be placed before an interna-
accused of war crimes resulted in the conviction tional tribunal.
of nineteen of the defendants and provided Much of the responsibility for designing the mecha-
thorough documentation of Nazi crimes against nism and procedure that would eventually result in the
humanity. Nuremberg tribunal rested on American shoulders. The
U.S. secretaries of war and state initiated plans for a trial.
Also known as: International Military Tribunal at They faced the opposition of the U.S. secretary of the
Nuremberg; Nuremberg Trials Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, Jr., and the British leaders
Locale: Nuremberg, Germany Winston Churchill and Anthony Eden, who demanded
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; laws, acts, the summary execution of Nazi war criminals. In Octo-
and legal history; World War II ber, 1944, Joseph Stalin expressed his support of a trial,
Key Figures and by January, 1945, U.S. president Franklin D. Roose-
Robert H. Jackson (1892-1954), chief American velt had also become convinced of the necessity of a judi-
prosecutor at Nuremberg cial process. After Roosevelt’s death, President Harry S.
Geoffrey Lawrence (1880-1971), president of the Truman appointed Robert H. Jackson, an associate jus-
Nuremberg tribunal tice of the U.S. Supreme Court, as chief of counsel for the
Hermann Göring (1893-1946), creator and head of the prosecution of Axis criminality. Jackson worked out the
German Gestapo details for the trial in collaboration with other Allied rep-
Albert Speer (1905-1981), German minister of resentatives in London. On August 8, 1945, the Charter
armaments of the International Military Tribunal was issued in Lon-
Wilhelm Keitel (1882-1946), chief of Hitler’s high don, providing the legal basis for the prosecution of Nazi
command, 1938-1945 war criminals.
Hans Frank (1900-1946), governor-general of Poland Nuremberg was selected as the site for the trial. The
after 1939 city was able to provide the essential facilities, since its
Ernst Kaltenbrunner (1903-1946), head of the Reich palace of justice had survived Allied air attacks. In addi-
Main Security Office tion, Nuremberg had a symbolic significance, since it
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- had hosted yearly Nazi Party rallies. A tribunal of eight
1945 judges was created, representing the United States, Great
Britain, France, and the Soviet Union and presided over
Summary of Event by the British judge Geoffrey Lawrence. Only the four
The war that Adolf Hitler launched in 1939 was not sim- senior judges were permitted to vote on sentences and on
ply another military conflict involving territorial and guilt or innocence.
economic disputes growing out of traditional interna- Each of the four Allied countries provided a prosecut-
tional conflicts. In addition to serving those goals, it rep- ing team in charge of specific tasks. Twenty-two Nazi
resented an attempt by the Nazi leadership to exploit leaders, including both civilian and military officials,
or exterminate a large number of religious and ethnic were indicted. The defendants faced either all or a com-
groups in Europe classified as “racially inferior.” By bination of the following four major charges: crimes of
1942, the Allied leaders had decided that the Nazis’ conspiracy, crimes against peace, crimes against the rule
crimes demanded retribution. The next year, the Allies of war, and crimes against humanity. In addition, six or-
formed a United Nations war crimes commission to col- ganizations were charged: the Gestapo, the Schutzstaffel
lect evidence of the activities of war criminals. After (SS), the Nazi Party leadership corps, the Reich Cabinet,
reconquering Kharkov in 1943, the Soviet army tried and the Sturm Abteilung (SA), and the military high com-
executed several German officers for committing war mand. Based on a massive amount of documentation that
crimes against the Soviet population. The Moscow Dec- came primarily from Nazi sources—the Nazis were
laration of 1943 stated that after the conflict, Germans among the best bureaucratic record keepers in world his-
accused of war crimes would be returned to the countries tory—the prosecution presented its case between No-
in which their crimes had been committed and that major vember 20, 1945, and March, 1946. The defense was
498
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg
faced with the difficult task of hav- Nuremberg Trials: Statement of the Offense
ing to refute documentary evidence
that frequently had been created by The Nuremberg court, in its Statement of the Offense in 1945, issued the follow-
the various defendants themselves. ing “count” against the war criminals on trial:
On October 1, 1946, the judges
All the defendants, with divers other persons, during a period of years pre-
rendered their verdicts, pronouncing
ceding 8 May 1945, participated as leaders, organizers, instigators, or accom-
twelve death and seven prison sen- plices in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to com-
tences. Three of the defendants were mit, or which involved the commission of, Crimes against Peace, War Crimes,
freed. Three organizations, the SA, and Crimes against Humanity, as defined in the Charter of this Tribunal, and, in
the Reich Cabinet, and the military accordance with the provisions of the Charter, are individually responsible for
high command, were found not to be their own acts and for all acts committed by any persons in the execution of
criminal organizations, while the SS, such plan or conspiracy.
the Nazi Party leadership corps, and The common plan or conspiracy embraced the commission of Crimes
the Gestapo were found guilty of a against Peace, in that the defendants planned, prepared, initiated, and waged
variety of crimes. Hermann Göring wars of aggression, which were also wars in violation of international treaties,
agreements, or assurances. In the development and course of the common plan
escaped execution by committing
or conspiracy it came to embrace the commission of War Crimes, in that it con-
suicide, and nine other war criminals
templated, and the defendants determined upon and carried out, ruthless wars
were hanged on October 16, 1946. against countries and populations, in violation of the rules and customs of war,
The written and oral record of the including as typical and systematic means by which the wars were prosecuted,
trial revealed a shocking history of murder, ill-treatment, deportation for slave labor and for other purposes of ci-
Nazi crimes against Jews, Gypsies, vilian populations of occupied territories, murder and ill-treatment of prisoners
Poles, Russians, and numerous other of war and of persons on the high seas, the taking and killing of hostages, the
segments of European society de- plunder of public and private property, the indiscriminate destruction of cities,
fined as inferior by the Nazis. Most of towns, and villages, and devastation not justified by military necessity.
the individuals tried and convicted at The common plan or conspiracy contemplated and came to embrace as typi-
Nuremberg represented major crim- cal and systematic means, and the defendants determined upon and committed,
Crimes against Humanity, both within Germany and within occupied territo-
inal organizations that carried out
ries, including murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation, and other in-
these crimes. Göring, Hitler’s desig-
humane acts committed against civilian populations before and during the war,
nated successor until late April, 1945, and persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds, in execution of the
and the creator of the Gestapo in plan for preparing and prosecuting aggressive or illegal wars, many of such
1933 in Prussia, was the leading sur- acts and persecutions being violations of the domestic laws of the countries
viving representative of the Nazi hi- where perpetrated.
erarchy. Although he held a number
of official titles, as plenipotentiary
for the Nazi Four-Year Plan he had
been responsible for the brutal exploitation of Europe for ing from mental and physical abnormalities were mur-
Nazi economic gains. dered by medical technicians. After the conquest and
1945
In addition, in the summer of 1941, Göring had dele- partition of Poland, Hans Frank was appointed governor-
gated to Reinhard Heydrich the task of preparing a plan general of that country. His diary reveals the full horror
for the “final solution” of the Jewish problem that re- of German occupation that affected both Jews and Poles.
sulted in the infamous Wannsee Conference in Berlin in The Nazis made every effort to exterminate the Polish in-
January, 1942. Albert Speer, the minister of armaments, tellectual and cultural elite.
played a key role in increasing German military produc- Before the invasion of Russia, the chief of the German
tion after 1942 by exploiting European slave labor. Per- high command, Wilhelm Keitel, agreed to issue orders to
haps as many as four million workers from Eastern Eu- the troops that authorized the extermination of captured
rope perished in German factories and work camps. Soviet commissars. As a result of the neglect of the Ger-
Nazi war crimes and crimes against humanity ex- man army, millions of Soviet prisoners of war perished
panded exponentially after the invasion of Poland in in German camps. The total of Poles, Russians, and other
1939 and particularly after the attack on Russia in June, Eastern Europeans who died as a result of starvation,
1941. Beginning in 1939, thousands of Germans suffer- shootings, and physical exertion may have reached nine
499
Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
million. In addition, 40 percent of Europe’s Gypsies vividly described the brutal process during the Nurem-
were murdered in extermination camps. berg Trials. On April 18, 1946, the defendant Hans Frank
Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the head of the Reich Main Se- declared that a thousand years would not erase German
curity Office, represented the SS organization at Nurem- guilt for these crimes.
berg. After assuming office in early 1943, Kaltenbrunner
became responsible for the Nazi police and extermina- Significance
tion forces. The most notorious Nazi crimes against hu- The most immediate impact of the Nuremberg Trials was
manity involved the systematic murder of six million the punishment of at least some leading Nazis and Ger-
Jews. Beginning with the invasion of Russia, SS security man military leaders for crimes committed by the Third
forces executed thousands of Jews in Eastern Europe. By Reich. Subsequent trials by the American military au-
the spring of 1942, extermination camps with gas cham- thorities between December, 1946, and March, 1949, re-
bers were in operation. Jews were rounded up in all parts sulted in the conviction of 150 additional war criminals
of Europe and sent to extermination camps in Eastern and ranging from industrialists to medical doctors. After
Central Europe, particularly the Auschwitz-Birkenau West Germany regained much of its autonomy in the
complex. The commander of that extermination camp mid-1950’s, German courts continued their own legal
Accused German war criminals at the Nuremberg Trials, left to right: Front row, Hermann Göring, Rudolf Hess, Joachim von
Ribbentrop, and Wilhelm Keitel; back row, Karl Dönitz, Erich Raeder, Baldur von Schirach, and Fritz Sauckel. (Digital Stock)
500
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg
proceedings against war criminals. In 1958, the West Conot, Robert E. Justice at Nuremberg. New York:
Germans established a special investigative center in Harper & Row, 1983. Based on a large variety of pri-
Ludwigsburg in order to bring war criminals to trial. mary sources including papers of Francis Biddle and
Seven years later, the German statute of limitations for Robert Jackson, this work is valuable for the detailed
murder was extended. biographies of the defendants and other participants in
The trial produced an immense amount of documen- the trial. The author stresses the impact the trial had on
tation of German military and civilian war crimes. It Jackson during the United States Supreme Court deci-
clearly demonstrated to the German public and the world sion to desegregate schools in 1954 and argues that the
at large the full extent of Nazi war crimes. In an effort to world cannot afford to ignore the lessons of the trial.
atone for German crimes against European Jews, Konrad Gerhart, Eugene C. America’s Advocate: Robert H. Jack-
Adenauer, the West German chancellor after 1949, con- son. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1958. A laudatory
cluded an agreement with representatives from Israel biography of Jackson, focusing on his roles as both
that provided for sizable German payments to that state. United States Supreme Court justice and chief Ameri-
However, Gypsies and former slave laborers from East- can prosecutor at Nuremberg. One-third of the book is
ern Europe had much less success in obtaining compen- devoted to Jackson’s role at the Nuremberg Trials.
sation from the German state. In addition, before its Unlike many other scholars, the author enthusiasti-
demise as an independent state in 1990, the German cally praises Jackson’s performance at Nuremberg.
Democratic Republic (East Germany) refused to accept Göring, Hermann, defendant. Trial of the Major War
any responsibility for crimes committed during the Third Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal,
Reich. Nuremberg, 14 November 1945-1 October 1946. 42
The long-term impact of the Nuremberg Trials has vols. Nuremberg: International Military Tribunal,
been mixed. On one hand, the principles it espoused were 1947-1949. This is the official trial record in English.
subsequently integrated into the modern laws of war, be- Includes the text of the trial and eighteen volumes of
ginning in 1946, when the General Assembly of the supporting documents. Most of the documents came
United Nations passed a resolution that accepted the from the prosecution, not the defense. Essential for
principles of international law produced by the Nurem- any serious examination of the trial. Available in most
berg Trials. Many subsequent instruments, including major university libraries.
Geneva Conventions under the supervision of the Inter- Harris, Whitney R. Tyranny on Trial: The Trial of the
national Committee of the Red Cross, promulgated and Major German War Criminals at the End of World
expanded upon the Nuremburg principles. The 1948 War II at Nuremberg, Germany, 1945-1946. Dallas,
Genocide Convention outlawed such egregious viola- Tex.: Southern Methodist University Press, 1999.
tions of human rights and decency as those manifested by Newly revised and expanded, this book written by a
the Holocaust. In addition, article seven of the United former staff member at Nuremberg details the evi-
Nations charter called for an international court of law. dence supplied at Nuremberg. Bibliography.
The United Nations, however, was unable in the near Marrus, Michael Robert. The Nuremberg War Crimes
term to produce an acceptable code of crimes against Trial, 1945-1946: A Documentary History. Boston:
peace and security. It has also been repeatedly demon- Bedford Books, 1997. This concise volume recounts
1945
strated in subsequent years that international laws out- the indictments of twenty-two Nazi leaders. Includes
lawing genocide are not themselves sufficient to prevent a chronology, a bibliography, and an index.
genocide. Persico, Joseph E. Nuremberg: Infamy on Trial. New
—Johnpeter Horst Grill York: Viking, 1994. A dramatic retelling of the
Nuremberg trials written for a general audience. The
Further Reading author draws on many primary sources. Includes bib-
Biddiss, Michael. “The Nuremberg Trial: Two Exercises liography and appendixes.
of Judgment.” Journal of Contemporary History 16 Ratner, Steven R., and Jason S. Abrams. Accountability
(December, 1981): 597-615. An excellent, short re- for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law:
view of the major issues of the trial that concludes that Beyond the Nuremberg Legacy. 2d ed. New York:
the trial helped reveal the real nature of Nazism. The Oxford University Press, 2001. Detailed, scholarly
author’s notes and his evaluation of the trial’s value examination of the impact and application of laws
for historians are helpful for further research. punishing international crime.
501
War Brides Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Smith, Bradley F. Reaching Judgment at Nuremberg. fense case of each accused, which takes up half of the
New York: Basic Books, 1977. Based on thorough re- book. Although well balanced on the whole, a British
search and relying heavily on the Francis Biddle pa- bias surfaces on occasion. Maintains that the Ameri-
pers, this volume offers a fascinating insight into incan arguments and methods “lacked intellectual clar-
ternal deliberations of the tribunal. Although the ity and forensic sharpness.”
author questions some verdicts and procedures, he
praises the tribunal’s performance. Smith notes that See also: Sept. 3, 1939-May 7, 1945: World War II:
class bias, ideological preferences, and personal dis- European Theater; Oct. 29, 1945-Feb. 23, 1946: Japa-
likes of defendants or their lawyers influenced the nese General Yamashita Is Convicted of War Crimes;
judges on the tribunal. 1946: Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective Re-
Tusa, Ann, and John Tusa. The Nuremberg Trial. New sponsibility for War Crimes; Dec. 9, 1948: United
York: Atheneum, 1984. The most reliable survey of Nations Adopts Convention on Genocide; 1956:
the trial, based on a thorough use of published and un- Wiesel’s Night Recalls the Holocaust; Apr. 11-Aug.
published primary sources and interviews. Particu- 14, 1961: Eichmann Is Tried for War Crimes; 1963:
larly valuable for the detailed discussion of the de- Arendt Speculates on the Banality of Evil.
December 28, 1945

War Brides Act
In the aftermath of World War II, immigration herence and the waiting period was waived rarely, with a
regulations were waived to allow foreign-born spouses possible exception for the pregnancy of the bride-to-be.
and children of U.S. military personnel to settle in the Usually, permission to marry was granted; however, cer-
United States. tain couples, for example U.S.-German, U.S.-Japanese,
and those of different races, either encountered longer
Also known as: U.S. Code Title 8, sections 232 waiting periods or were denied permission completely.
et seq. Many of those couples who had been granted permis-
Locale: United States sion and had married were separated for two to three
Categories: World War II; laws, acts, and legal years. In October, 1945, the Married Women’s Associa-
history; immigration, emigration, and relocation tion picketed for transport to allow their families to re-
Key Figure unite. Evidently, the voices of the association’s three
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United thousand members were heard, for on December 28,
States, 1945-1953 1945, Congress passed the War Brides Act to expe-
dite the admission to the United States of alien spouses
Summary of Event and alien minor children of U.S. citizens who had served
Between 1939 and 1946, more than 16 million U.S. ser- in or were honorably discharged from the armed forces
vicemen, primarily single and between eighteen and during World War II. These spouses had to meet the
thirty years of age, were deployed to war theaters in for- criteria for admission under the current immigration
eign lands. Although the U.S. government discouraged laws, including a thorough medical examination, and
servicemen from marrying at all—believing the single the application had to be filed within three years of the
soldier, without distractions, would be of more value to date of the act.
the war effort—one million marriages to foreign nation- Following passage of the War Brides Act, thirty ves-
als occurred during and shortly after the war. Aware of sels, primarily hospital ships and army troopships, were
the potential for these romantic liaisons, the U.S. War selected to transport the women, children, and a few men
Department had issued a regulation requiring personnel (“male war brides”) to the United States. Even the Queen
on duty in any foreign country or possession of the Elizabeth and the Queen Mary were recruited for the
United States to notify their commanding officer of any task, because of their capacity to carry large groups of
intention to marry at least two months in advance. En- people. Transportation requests were prioritized by the
acted in June, 1942, the regulation demanded strict ad- military as follows: dependents of personnel above the
502
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 War Brides Act
fourth enlisted grade, dependents of

personnel already placed on orders to
the United States, wives of prisoners of
war, wives of men wounded in action,
and wives of men hospitalized in the
United States. At the bottom of the pri-
ority pool were fiancés and spouses in
interracial marriages.
Before debarking, the spouse (usu-
ally a woman) had to present her pass-
port and visa, a sworn affidavit from her
husband that he could and would sup-
port her upon arrival, two copies of her To view image, please refer to print edition
birth certificate, two copies of any po-
lice record she might have, any military
discharge papers she might have, and a
railroad ticket to her destination from
New York. The families who saw them
off knew they might never see their
children and grandchildren again. The
American Red Cross was officially re-
quested by the War Department to func-
tion as a clearinghouse for the brides,
and many of their volunteers served as
“trainers” for the women in how to be-
come American wives. Since many did
not speak English, the Red Cross also
offered classes to aid in practical com-
munication skills. In 1953, a group of British war brides and their children prepares to return home
On January 26, 1946, the first war- to the United States after attending Queen Elizabeth II’s coronation. (Hulton Ar-
bride ship, the SS Argentina, left South- chive/Getty Images)
ampton, England, with 452 brides, 173
children, and 1 groom on board. Lauded
as the “Pilgrim Mothers” or the “Diaper Run,” the voy- divinity by Emperor Hirohito. As the U.S. soldiers and
age was highly publicized. Many of the brides, upon ar- Japanese women worked together, romantic relation-
riving in the United States on February 4, were greeted ships often developed, and because official permission to
by the U.S. press. In Germany and Japan, permission to marry could not be obtained, many such couples were
1945
marry had not easily been attained and often was not wed in secret in traditional Japanese ceremonies.
granted at all. The ban on marriage to Germans was lifted Although as many as 100,000 Japanese brides were
on December 11, 1946, with twenty-five hundred appli- deserted, others sought immigration to the United States.
cations submitted by the end of the year; in Japan, the ban However, one proviso of the War Brides Act was that
lingered much longer. brides could not immigrate if they were excluded under
During the first months of occupation, a half-million any other provision of immigration law. The Oriental
U.S. soldiers had been stationed in or near Yokohama. Exclusion Act of 1924 was still in place, and although
Many young women, fearing for their lives, hid from Public Law 199 of the 78th Congress had overridden the
these “barbarians,” but since the U.S. military was often act to allow Chinese immigration, the Japanese were still
the only source of employment, the women were forced excluded. Many were not allowed admission to the
to venture out. The country was in a cultural flux result- United States until July, 1947, when President Harry S.
ing from economic deprivation, matriarchal predomi- Truman signed the Soldier Brides Act, a thirty-day re-
nance and female enfranchisement, and the abjuration of prieve on race inadmissibility.
503
War Brides Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970

In many cases, life for the war brides in the United States Hibbert, Joyce. The War Brides. Toronto, Ont.: PMA
was not what they had expected. Many were treated Books, 1978. Discussion of the mobilization and ac-
poorly by isolationists who placed personal blame on all climation of war brides.
foreigners for U.S. involvement in the war, and many Kubat, Daniel, et al. The Politics of Migration Policies.
had to tolerate the scorn of former sweethearts who had New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1979. Dis-
jilted them. Because of the influx of soldiers returning to cusses immigration laws and the political control be-
the civilian population, available housing and jobs were hind them.
limited. Often the brides found themselves in the middle Lawson, Liz. Memoirs of a French War Bride. Santa
of a family-run farm, with some as sharecroppers. Fre- Cruz, Calif.: n.p., 1998. Biography of a Frenchwoman
quently, when adjustment to civilian life was difficult for who immigrated to Santa Cruz as a war bride follow-
the former military man, he would rejoin his outfit, leaving World War II.
ing the bride behind with his family—strangers who Shukert, Elfrieda Berthiaume, and Barbara Smith Sci-
were sometimes hostile to the foreigner in their midst. betta. War Brides of World War II. Novato, Calif.:
Many of the marriages made in haste soured just as Presidio Press, 1988. The definitive work on the
quickly through homesickness, promises unkept, or topic; includes interviews with the brides.
abuse. War brides who were unhappy or abused often Winfield, Pamela. Melancholy Baby: The Unplanned
stayed in their marriages, however, from fear of losing Consequences of the G.I.s’ Arrival in Europe for
their children or of being deported. World War II. Westport, Conn.: Bergin & Garvey,
Marriage did not confer automatic citizenship on for- 2000. Focuses mainly on British war brides and dis-
eign brides. They were required to pass exams to be natu- cusses them alongside other effects of the influx of
ralized, and many were still incapable of communicating American G.I.’s in Britain and the Continent.
in any but their native tongue. Public assistance was un- Yuh, Ji-Yeon. Beyond the Shadow of Camptown: Korean
available for these women. Within one year of the mass Military Brides in America. New York: New York
exodus from Europe and Asia, one out of three of the war University Press, 2002. Study of the war brides result-
marriages had ended in divorce, and it was predicted that
ing from the Korean War in the mid-1950’s. A useful
by 1950, the statistics would be two out of three. This
point of comparison to the experience of the women
prediction proved incorrect, however, as the majority of
who immigrated as World War II war brides one de-
the marriages that lasted through the first year continued
cade earlier.
to last. Many of the war brides not only preserved their
marriages but also became valuable members of their
communities and contributors to American culture, See also: June 22, 1944: Roosevelt Signs the G.I. Bill;
which became even more diverse as a result. June 27, 1952: McCarran-Walter Act; Oct. 3, 1965:
—Joyce Duncan Hart-Celler Act Reforms U.S. Immigration Law.
504
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 British and Australian Tribunals Impose Death Sentences for War Crimes
1946
British and Australian Tribunals Impose Death Sentences
for War Crimes
British and Australian military tribunals sat in General Douglas MacArthur to win the war in the Pacific,
judgment over accused Japanese defendants, imposing there were many Japanese garrisons in the Pacific Islands
hundreds of death sentences on those found guilty of that had been leapfrogged for strategic reasons. These
war crimes. Some of the trials took place on formerly forces, still in place at the end of the war, had never been
Japanese-occupied islands in the South Pacific on conquered when they surrendered, so in many cases it was
which battles had been fought during the war, easier to administer justice in the localities where they had
although the main trials occurred in Japan itself. surrendered than to bring the soldiers in question back to
Japan. Furthermore, it was easier to obtain testimony from
Locale: Tokyo, Japan; Melanesia; China; Burma
civilians and other witnesses in these locales.
(now Myanmar)
Trials were held on Manus (Admiralty Island), just to
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; World
the north of New Guinea, as well as in Hong Kong and
War II; laws, acts, and legal history
Singapore; in Darwin, capital of Australia’s Northern
Key Figures Territory; in Rabaul, on New Guinea’s New Britain Is-
William Webb (1887-1972), Australian judge sitting on land; and in Morotai, Wewak, and Labuan on New
the war crimes tribunals Guinea itself. These trials covered only breaches of con-
Sir Arthur Strettell Comyns-Carr (1882-1965), British duct that occurred in the trials’ locations, whereas the To-
prosecutor at the Tokyo trials kyo trials covered the entire gamut of the Pacific war, in-
Alan Mansfield (1902-1980), Australian judge who cluding Japanese atrocities committed in China long
served as a prosecutor at the Tokyo trials before the English-speaking Allies had begun fighting
Hyotaro Kimura (1888-1948), Japanese military against Japan.
commander in Burma The local trials were conducted under far looser pro-
Kenji Doihara (1883-1948), Japanese military cedures than was the norm in Western justice systems.
commander in Manchuria For instance, written evidence, not backed up by oral tes-
Summary of Event timony, was permitted—the rationale being that many of
It is sometimes forgotten that, after World War II, tribu- the actual witnesses to the atrocities had been killed in
nals investigated atrocities committed by Japanese the war or had died subsequently. In 1944, for example,
troops and administrators during the conflict, because the Kaifeng Massacre had occurred, in which, it was
these trials have been overshadowed in the historical said, a whole shipload of Australian prisoners of war
imagination by the Nuremberg Trials, which scrutinized aboard the merchant vessel Kowa Maru had been killed
the conduct of the German leaders. Although the postwar by Japanese troops. The Japanese were about to evacuate
occupation of Japan was largely an American concern, New Guinea under Allied pressure, and they wanted to
the British and Australians also presided over trials of dispose of the captured personnel they held. Although
Japanese soldiers accused of complicity in wartime hu- there was no testimony from any Australian survivors, a
man rights violations. sufficient number of Japanese witnesses, by that point
The main trials were presided over by an international themselves prisoners of the Allies, gave evidence for
panel of judges and held in Tokyo. Many trials of junior several officers to be sentenced to death.
officers, however, were held in locales in the Pacific Is- William Webb, a former chief justice of Queensland,
lands where armed engagements had taken place. There was involved in drafting provisions for punishing Japa-
had been fierce fighting between Japanese and Austra- nese officers for their mistreatment of Australian prison-
lian troops in 1942 and 1943 in the Territory of Papua ers of war. Webb also advised the British army on its
1946
and the Trust Territory of New Guinea, League of Na- treatment of captured Japanese. In 1946, Webb was ap-
tions mandates administered by Australia that would be pointed justice of the High Court of Australia and simul-
united into Papua New Guinea in 1949. The British col- taneously served as the president of the International
ony of the Solomon Islands had also seen intense action. Military Tribunal for the Far East. He was the most visi-
Because of the island-hopping strategy employed by ble non-American involved in the tribunals.
505
British and Australian Tribunals Impose Death Sentences for War Crimes The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Even though the tribunals’ prosecutors were an inter- justice.” Others pointed out, however, that justice is im-
national team, including Canadian and Filipino repre- perfect and that the war crimes tribunals not only brought
sentatives as well as Alan Mansfield, an Australian, and the guilty to account while giving them a reasonable fac-
Sir Arthur Strettell Comyns-Carr, a renowned British simile of due process but also permitted a kind of cathar-
lawyer, the fact that the prosecution operated as one unit tic ventilation of wartime injuries that would enable the
meant that American attitudes dominated. Also, unlike Japanese and their former adversaries to progress in a
the Nuremberg Trials, where Soviet prosecutors played a postwar Pacific where Japan, Britain, Australia, and the
powerful role, the late entry of the Soviet Union in the United States were all allies.
war against Japan meant that the Soviets, though repre- — Nicholas Birns
sented on both the panel of judges and the prosecutorial
ensemble, did not carry much weight in the Pacific trials. Further Reading
(Separate trials, conducted purely by the Soviet military, Brackman, Arnold C. The Other Nuremberg: The Untold
were held in Khabarovsk for those Japanese who had sur- Story of the Tokyo War Crimes Trials. New York:
rendered to the Soviets in Manchuria.) Morrow, 1987. Brackman, who manifests a less po-
Trials were also held in the theaters on the Asian lemical perspective than some of the other scholars,
mainland, such as Burma, where Japanese forces were provides a thorough and balanced overview of the war
still fighting the British when Japan announced a general crimes trials; intended for the general reader.
surrender in August, 1945. Hyotaro Kimura, who was Dower, John. Embracing Defeat. New York: Norton,
still holding out in the Burmese capital of Rangoon, was 1999. Touches only tangentially on the war crimes tri-
arrested and tried in Tokyo, though Kimura’s subordi- als themselves, but is important to the student of the
nates were tried in Burma. Similarly, Kenji Doihara, tribunals for its portrait of the political relationship of
most of whose crimes were committed in Manchuria, the victors and defeated in the wake of the war in the
was not tried locally but in Tokyo, thereby putting him Pacific.
under the aegis of the international tribunal and not the Maga, Tim. Judgment at Tokyo: The Japanese War
local, Soviet-sponsored one presiding in Khabarovsk. Crimes Trials. Lexington: University Press of Ken-
tucky, 2001. Maga, using as sources primarily works
Significance published in English, contends that the war crimes tri-
The Australian participation in both the local and inter- als were generally fair and conducted according to
national war crimes tribunals—like the role played by sound legal principles.
Australian foreign minister Herbert Vere Evatt at the ini- Minear, Richard H. Victors’ Justice: The Tokyo War
tial United Nations conference in San Francisco as an ad- Crimes Trial. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
vocate for small- and medium-sized nations—was a sig- Press, 1971. Miner’s controversial book is skeptical
nal that Australia intended to play a broader role on the of the legal integrity of the tribunals, which it sees as a
postwar world stage. At the time, the war crimes trials manifestation of Western imperialism that punished
were not particularly controversial. Outrage at Japanese the Japanese more for having lost the war than for any
behavior during the war was still high in the Asia-Pacific specific atrocities.
region. The Japanese public, ashamed of what had been Moffitt, Athol. Project Kingfisher. Sydney: Angus &
revealed about its government’s wartime policies, was Robertson, 1989. Written by an Australian war crimes
sufficiently disaffected with the wartime regime to quell prosecutor, this book covers both the specific prose-
any potential expressions of dissatisfaction with the judi- cutions in which he was involved and Japanese war
cial process. crimes tribunals in general. Although lacking full his-
In the early 1970’s, amid skepticism about the United torical distance, it is still the most thorough chronicle
States’ involvement in the Vietnam War, historians be- of Australian involvement in Japanese war crimes
gan to reexamine the Japanese war crimes trials, seeing prosecution.
them as essentially a Western attempt to interfere with Thorne, Christopher. Allies of a Kind: The United States,
Asian national aspirations. It was pointed out that the Britain, and the War Against Japan, 1941-1945. New
United Nations, the body that tried the accused war crim- York: Oxford University Press, 1978. Thorne’s de-
inals, was created by the alliance that had opposed Japan. tailed examination of the diplomatic interaction
Therefore, true impartiality, it was alleged, had been among the anglophone Pacific Allies sheds light on
lacking, and the trials had constituted a kind of “victors’ the differing anterior circumstances affecting the war
506
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective Responsibility for War Crimes
crimes tribunals conducted by Britain and Australia victed of War Crimes; Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1, 1946:
and those presided over by the United States. Nazi War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg; Aug.
12, 1949: Geneva Conventions Establish Norms of
See also: Oct. 25, 1943: Thai-Burma Railway Is Com- Conduct in War; Aug. 22-Sept. 3, 1955: United Na-
pleted with Forced Labor; Oct. 24, 1945: Norwegians tions Sets Rules for Treatment of Prisoners; Nov. 17,
Execute Nazi Collaborator Quisling; Oct. 29, 1945- 1970-Mar. 29, 1971: Calley Is Court-Martialed for
Feb. 23, 1946: Japanese General Yamashita Is Con- My Lai Massacre.
1946
Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective Responsibility for
War Crimes
Through his analysis in Die Schuldfrage of various talented students including Hannah Arendt (later a re-
kinds of guilt, Jaspers espoused the individual and nowned philosopher and writer in her own right). Jaspers
collective responsibility of the German people for the was making progress in discovering a middle way be-
Holocaust and other crimes against humanity. Jaspers tween science and religion at the time Adolf Hitler came
hoped that this atonement would contribute toward the to power in 1933. Jaspers, an ardent anti-Nazi with a
rebirth of a new Germany. Jewish wife, was eventually forced from his administra-
tive posts, denied the right to teach, and forbidden to pub-
Also known as: Die Schuldfrage: Ein Beitrag zur
lish (his previous books were also banned). Since he was
deutschen Frage; The Question of German Guilt
not allowed to leave Germany, the couple had to spend
Locale: Heidelberg, West Germany (now Germany)
the war years “hiding in plain sight.” Nevertheless, they
Categories: Philosophy; atrocities and war crimes;
were scheduled to be sent to an extermination camp on
World War II; religion, theology, and ethics
April 14, 1945, but this never happened, because U.S.
Key Figures troops occupied Heidelberg on April 1.
Karl Jaspers (1883-1969), German physician, No longer an outcast, Jaspers quickly became a mem-
psychiatrist, and existentialist philosopher ber of a commission whose responsibility was the re-
Gertrud Mayer (1879-1974), German intellectual opening of universities. He served as a liaison between
Hannah Arendt (1906-1975), German-born American U.S. military officials and German academics, and he
historian and philosopher played a valuable role in the denazification of various in-
Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), German philosopher stitutions. During the winter semester of 1945-1946 he
gave a series of lectures on Nazi crimes against human-
Summary of Event ity, as well as German complicity in these atrocities. He
As one of Germany’s most important existentialists, Karl exhorted Germans to repent their offenses, and he hoped,
Jaspers was no stranger to the idea of an isolated individ- through acts of expiation, that vibrant and free universi-
ual estranged from a hostile world characterized by ties could be created within a rebuilt and moral nation.
struggle, suffering, guilt, and death. His life in twentieth These lectures produced passionate responses among
century Germany meant that these ideas became realities academics, students, and the public. Some Germans
for him. As a doctor he saw patients in borderline situa- wanted to forget as expeditiously as possible all that hap-
tions between life and death, and as a psychiatrist he saw pened under the Nazis, whereas others protested their
individuals agonizing between sanity and madness. In innocence as powerless pawns in a totalitarian system.
his intellectual odyssey from psychopathology to philos- However, Jaspers also found listeners who shared his be-
ophy, he used the methods of phenomenology to under- lief that Germans, in one way or another, shared the guilt
1946
stand the anguished inner life of troubled humans. for Nazi barbarities.
During his distinguished career as a philosopher at the In 1946, Jaspers published his lectures as Die Schuld-
University of Heidelberg, he was aided in his work by frage: Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Frage (The Question
Gertrud Mayer, a gifted intellectual who was also his of German Guilt, 1947). His lectures and book were
wife, and by colleagues such as Martin Heidegger and discussed during the time of the Nuremberg Trials, when
507
Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective Responsibility for War Crimes The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
The Guilt of War Eden, but Jaspers considered each human choice to be
made in the light of accumulated burdens from previous
Karl Jaspers challenged the German people in his con- decisions. In The Question of German Guilt he showed
troversial work The Question of German Guilt (1946) to how the decisions made by Germans in the past contrib-
come to terms with their own complicity, and the com- uted to the atrocities of the Nazi period.
plicity of Germany as a nation, in the atrocities of World Jaspers also argued in The Question of German Guilt
War II. that the Germans are individually but also collectively
Almost the entire world indicts Germany and the responsible for Nazi crimes. He wrote that different lev-
Germans. Our guilt is discussed in terms of outrage, hor- els of guilt (he makes several distinctions) existed among
ror, hatred and scorn. Punishment and retribution are de- Germans. For example, he analyzed criminal guilt as a
sired, not by the victors alone but also by some of the consequence of legitimate courts. This was the sort of
German emigres and even by citizens of neutral coun- guilt being determined by the judges in the Nuremberg
tries. . . . trials. Jaspers believed that the children of the many Na-
We Germans are indeed obliged without exception to zis who were found guilty of committing despicable
understand clearly the question of our guilt, and to draw crimes against human beings were not guilty because of
the conclusions. What obliges us is our human dignity. their parents’ offenses. In other words, criminal guilt did
First, we cannot be indifferent to what the world thinks
not carry on through the generations because the guilt
of us, for we know we are part of mankind—are human
before we are German. More important, however: our
was determined by the courts.
own life, in distress and dependence, can have no dignity Political guilt, for Jaspers, is the result of the heinous
except by truthfulness toward ourselves. The guilt ques- deeds of statesmen and citizens. This guilt can be called
tion is more than a question put to us by others, it is one collective. German citizens were responsible for electing
we put to ourselves. . . . It is a vital question for the Ger- Nazi politicians, and they had to live with the conse-
man soul. quences of their deeds. Citizens, merely by voting, were
part of the creation of a totalitarian state. Jaspers states
that “everybody is co-responsible for the way he is gov-
erned.” He was aware of many Germans who, during the
graphic evidence of war crimes helped to convict many war, rejoiced in Nazi victories and who tacitly tolerated
Nazi leaders, several of whom were executed. The book the sufferings of the many victims of the Nazi regime.
was also directed against academics like Heidegger, Their postwar response to justify themselves—that they
who had supported the National Socialist regime and did not wish to become victims of the Nazis—failed to
who had remained conspicuously silent about Nazi vitiate their political guilt, because they were free to
atrocities both during and after the war. Because so choose martyrdom.
many professors had cooperated with the Nazis, it was In The Question of German Guilt, Jaspers also dis-
difficult for universities to find qualified people for the cussed moral guilt, which is rooted in a person’s con-
many administrative and teaching positions open after science. Humans, according to Jaspers, cannot act except
the war. Jaspers addressed these and other problems as individuals, which means that each human is morally
in Die Idee der Universität (1946; The Idea of the Uni- responsible for every action, including whether to obey
versity, 1959). or disobey an order from a military or political official.
A central theme of his critical work The Question of Jaspers attacked the Prussian penchant for obeying or-
German Guilt is guilt, an issue that Jaspers confronted in ders, stating that every deed, even one resulting from an
his earlier writings as well. He believed that guilt is an in- order, remains subject to moral judgment. Consequently,
evitable consequence of the human condition because every German who participated in the preparation or exe-
humans have free will. For example, by adopting one cution of war crimes was morally guilty, even though
child, a couple, in effect, rejects other children (a reason they may have been obeying superiors.
for guilt). Because of the complexities of human interre- Jaspers hoped that by realizing their collective guilt,
lationships, whenever humans act (or fail to act) they are the German people could transform their society from its
both free and guilty. Raised a Protestant, Jaspers was state of physical and moral collapse into a highly devel-
aware of the doctrine of original sin, which informed his oped and morally responsible democracy. However, Jas-
philosophical analysis of guilt. Protestants consider orig- pers was not a utopian; he also realized that no ideal
inal sin a result of Adam’s free choice in the Garden of moral humans exist and that the idea of a perfect society
508
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective Responsibility for War Crimes
is a myth. Nevertheless, humans are free to make good so that they might live, communicate, and work for the
decisions, and Jaspers’s writings after The Question of betterment of humanity in freedom and peace.
German Guilt were full of his prescriptions for how to — Robert J. Paradowski
create a good German society and avoid constructing an-
other evil one. Further Reading
Jaspers, Karl. The Question of German Guilt. New York:
Significance Fordham University Press, 2002. This English trans-
Although The Question of German Guilt eventually be- lation by E. B. Ashton is part of the Perspectives in
came recognized as one of Jaspers’s best political works, Continental Philosophy series. Includes a helpful in-
he was disappointed by the popular response from those troduction by Joseph W. Koterski.
to whom the work was primarily intended. Germans Kirkbright, Suzanne. Karl Jaspers: A Biography—
seemed to be more concerned with improving their mate- Navigations in Truth. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Uni-
rial well-being, and the postwar West German economic versity Press, 2004. By drawing on his diaries and
miracle created a complacency that had little room for correspondence, this extensive biography emphasizes
the analysis of guilt from an increasingly distant past. Jaspers’s life over the details of his philosophy.
Jaspers, disappointed with West Germany’s direction, Rabinbach, Anson. In the Shadow of Catastrophe: Ger-
left his native country for Basel, Switzerland, where he man Intellectuals Between Apocalypse and Enlighten-
spent most of the rest of his life. ment. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
During the 1960’s the questions raised in The Ques- Argues that The Question of German Guilt is a critical
tion of German Guilt became part of the debate over the part of the history of how German intellectuals dealt
fate of the captured war criminal Adolf Eichmann. In her with critical moral issues raised by two world wars.
book Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality Schilpp, Paul, ed. The Philosophy of Karl Jaspers. 2d ed.
of Evil (1963), Hannah Arendt argued that the immoral- Chicago: Open Court, 1981. Still considered the most
ity of Eichmann’s deeds came not from the monstrous significant publication on Jaspers in English, these
nature of their perpetrator but from his thoughtless in- twenty-four essays analyze various aspects of his phi-
ability to realize their moral import (importantly, how- losophy, with an introductory autobiography and a
ever, Arendt did not mean that the mass murder of Jews concluding critical response to the essays by Jaspers
was banal, or commonplace). The phrase “banality of himself. This updated edition includes a new section
evil” became well known and controversial, and some on Heidegger.
evidence exists that Jaspers may have originated it. Wallraff, Charles F. Karl Jaspers: An Introduction to His
Whether the term was invented by Arendt, Jaspers, or Philosophy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University
someone else, Jaspers defended Arendt’s use of it, be- Press, 1970. Intended to give students a survey of the
cause she was probing the moral guilt of an individual. principal themes of Jaspers’s philosophy.
Arendt was unhappy about Jaspers’s attacks on West Ger-
many and his advocacy of an over-idealized Wilhelmine See also: Feb., 1942: Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil
state. Other scholars thought that Jaspers’s treatment of in The Screwtape Letters; Aug. 9, 1942: Stein Is
guilt did not really come to terms with the depth of in- Killed by the Nazis; Nov. 20, 1945-Oct. 1, 1946: Nazi
volvement of the German people in Nazi crimes and the War Criminals Are Tried at Nuremberg; Sept., 1947:
unique horror of the Holocaust. German Writers Form Group 47; Sept. 10, 1952: Ger-
In his final writings on German rearmament and the many Agrees to Pay Reparations to Israel; 1956:
proliferation of nuclear weapons, Jaspers returned to some Wiesel’s Night Recalls the Holocaust; 1959: Grass
of the themes of The Question of German Guilt. Just as he Publishes The Tin Drum; 1961: Catch-22 Illustrates
advocated a postwar Germany whose people had repudi- Antiwar Sentiment; Apr. 11-Aug. 14, 1961: Eich-
ated the moral errors of their past, so, too, did he want a mann Is Tried for War Crimes; 1963: Arendt Specu-
postwar world in which countries were sufficiently united lates on the Banality of Evil.
1946
509
Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1946-1960
Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed
During the late 1940’s and early 1950’s, the American cisely when millions of Americans stopped going to the
film industry was transformed, as the studio system movies regularly.
was gradually replaced by a collection of independent More fundamental causes came into play. Millions of
producers. returning veterans looked for an ideal life, a new Ameri-
can Dream, taking the money they had saved during the
Locale: Hollywood, California war and spending it on new cars and other big-ticket items
Categories: Motion pictures and video; that had been unavailable during the war. What postwar
manufacturing and industry; business and labor Americans wanted most were new homes in the suburbs,
Key Figures free from city congestion and noises and close to good
Spyros Skouras (1893-1971), head of Twentieth schools. Americans moved in record numbers to new
Century-Fox suburban subdivisions. Home ownership in the first five
Howard Hughes (1905-1976), owner of Radio-Keith- years after World War II increased by 50 percent, then by
Orpheum (RKO) another 50 percent during the following five years.
Barney Balaban (1887-1971), head of Paramount There were other distractions from cinema. Ameri-
Pictures cans filled their new homes with children in record num-
Herbert Kalmus (1881-1963), inventor of Technicolor bers. The birthrate increased to unprecedented levels.
Women married at younger ages and had more children.
Summary of Event Better-educated people had larger families than they had
During the 1930’s and 1940’s, eight studios controlled had in the past. The typical filmgoer of the past (a better-
Hollywood film production. The five major studios educated, richer, middle-class citizen) was a member
owned the theaters in which most Americans saw their of precisely the demographic that most embraced the
favorite stars on screen, while the three minor studios surburban ideal, including a substantial mortgage and a
produced and distributed films but did not exhibit them. family with four or five children.
During the height of the studio system, actors, directors, These two factors, suburbanization and the baby
and writers were under contract to a particular studio. boom, dampened moviegoing and would have done so
They drew weekly salaries whether they worked or not, even without the coming of television. The waves of
and they were required to work on any project the stu- suburbanization took moviegoers far away from down-
dio assigned them. These contracts were exclusive: An town movie palaces. Poor public transportation from the
actor under contract to one studio could not appear in suburbs made it difficult to journey downtown routinely.
any film produced by another studio. In the decade af- In any case, families had fled the city and its attractions for
ter World War II, the Hollywood studio system was a new world of Little League and backyard barbecues.
transformed into a system of independent filmmakers Hollywood had other problems that aggravated the
allied with an industry of television series producers. situation. At precisely the time that suburbanization and
The Hollywood studios did not go away, but their ba- the baby boom were fundamentally altering the way
sic functions were altered, as creators and performers Americans lived, the United States Supreme Court
signed contracts for specific projects, rather than the all- forced the Hollywood studios to sell their theaters. An
encompassing, exclusive contracts that had been the antitrust suit against the eight major studios had begun in
norm. July, 1938. After numerous decisions and appeals, the
Weekly attendance in movie theaters in the United Court ruled in 1948 in United States v. Paramount Pic-
States crested in 1946, then began to fall steadily to half tures, Inc. that the major film studios would have to sell
of what it had been. The cause of this decline is generally their chains of movie theaters. The Court stated that own-
believed to have been television, but this blame is falsely ership of both film production facilities and theaters con-
placed, for it ignores the fact that in most parts of the stituted restraint of trade. The Court’s decision, however,
United States television signals did not become available was by that time almost irrelevant, as declining audi-
until long after the decline in moviegoing was well under ences already were forcing an end to the large theater
way. In the late 1940’s and early 1950’s, only about one- chains, as well as to the huge studios. Howard Hughes
third of the nation had television sets, but this was pre- had just purchased Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO) and
510
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed
embraced the forced sale of theaters. He wanted the cash. lost its legal monopoly. As a result, during the early
Barney Balaban, the chief executive officer of Para- 1950’s, giant Eastman Kodak surged into the market.
mount Pictures, also went along; he planned to use the Suddenly, it became inexpensive to shoot color fea-
proceeds of the sales to invest in television. Both these tures, and gradually through the 1950’s more and more
powerful businessmen reasoned that selling theaters films would be made in color. “New” color systems pro-
might in the long run prove beneficial. liferated. For example, Trucolor was developed by Con-
The very basis of film technology changed as well in solidated Film Laboratories for Republic Pictures, both
the 1950’s. Hollywood looked to new film technologies owned and controlled by Herbert J. Yates. Trucolor
to tempt patrons back to the theaters. First the studios em- never was able to become the dominant system, but its at-
braced color. The best-known name in that field was tempted innovation demonstrated that the universal use
Technicolor, first used for The Gulf Between (1917). De- of color was inevitable.
veloped by Herbert Kalmus, Technicolor became known Hollywood went one step further and made its films
through the popularity of such spectacles as Gone with “bigger” and thus hopefully even better. In 1952, Cine-
the Wind (1939). Through the 1940’s, Technicolor was rama initiated wide-screen movies by melding images
limited to a select group of feature films, principally his- from three synchronized projectors. At first business was
torical epics and lavish musicals. In 1950, Technicolor brisk; This Is Cinerama (1952), a travelogue-type film,
grossed more than twenty million dollars. However, the
significant additional costs of the process (three full-time
Oscars for Best Picture, projectionists, a new screen, and more) doomed Cine-
1941-1970 rama.
Other entrepreneurs tried three-dimensional (3-D)
Year Film Title films. The process for creating three-dimensional effects
1941 How Green Was My Valley
had been around since the 1920’s, so few were surprised
1942 Mrs. Miniver
1943 Casablanca when Bwana Devil, a crude African adventure story star-
1944 Going My Way ring Robert Stack, came out in November of 1952. Dur-
1945 The Lost Weekend ing 1953 and into 1954, 3-D was hailed as the savior of
1946 The Best Years of Our Lives the American film industry. Warner Bros. issued what
1947 Gentleman’s Agreement was to remain the most successful of the 3-D efforts,
1948 Hamlet House of Wax, in April of 1953. By mid-1954, though, it
1949 All the King’s Men had become clear that the added expense involved did
1950 All About Eve not lead to greater box-office revenues.
1951 An American in Paris The premiere of the most famous wide-screen pro-
1952 The Greatest Show on Earth
cess, CinemaScope, came on September 16, 1953.
1953 From Here to Eternity
Twentieth Century-Fox’s president, Spyros Skouras,
1954 On the Waterfront
1955 Marty praised this technology, because it expanded the image
1956 Around the World in Eighty Days merely by attaching anamorphic lenses to the camera and
1957 The Bridge on the River Kwai the projector, thus requiring only a small investment.
1958 Gigi Fox’s first film using the technology, The Robe (1953),
1959 Ben-Hur was a spectacular biblical tale costing four million dol-
1960 The Apartment lars. Its success implied that Skouras had found the an-
1961 West Side Story swer to bringing back the suburban audience.
1962 Lawrence of Arabia The Robe so impressed audiences and other studios
1963 Tom Jones that by the final day of 1953, every major studio, except
1964 My Fair Lady
for Paramount with its rival Vista Vision process, had
1965 The Sound of Music
jumped on the CinemaScope bandwagon. By November,
1966 A Man for All Seasons
1946
1967 In the Heat of the Night 1954, it was reported that nearly half the existing theaters
1968 Oliver! in the United States had facilities to show CinemaScope.
1969 Midnight Cowboy In the long run, however, equipping theaters proved ex-
1970 Patton pensive and limited them to showing only CinemaScope
films. Something different was needed. The full impact
511
Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
of the transformation of the studio system would not RKO’s profit figure on the deal impressed even the
come until that technical solution was found. most recalcitrant movie moguls. Within the space of the
The technological solution to standardized wide- following twenty-four months, all the remaining major
screen images in color came with the merging of two companies released their pre-1948 titles to television.
product offerings: Panavision lenses and Eastman Color Pre-1948 titles were chosen, because they were free from
film stock. Panavision was a small Hollywood company. paying out residuals to performer and craft unions; post-
Owner Robert Gottschalk had developed innovations 1948 titles were not. For the first time in the history of
that encompassed not only anamorphic attachments, so film, a national audience was able to access, at its leisure,
one could use CinemaScope, but nearly all other needed a broad cross-section of the best and worst of Hollywood
lens adjustments. By the late 1950’s, Panavision attach- talkies. The concomitant infusion of cash came precisely
ments became the industry standard. Panavision pro- at a time when Hollywood needed money to support
vided a superior but standardized product for making and technological innovation.
showing wide-screen images. The television networks, however, wanted to show
Eastman Color negative and color-print film stock post-1948 Hollywood features in prime time. This re-
had been introduced by the Rochester photographic quired agreements from the Hollywood craft unions. In a
equipment giant in 1950 to compete with Technicolor. precedent-setting action, the Screen Actors Guild, led by
Eastman Color was easier to handle and seemed to pro- its president, Ronald Reagan, went on strike and won
duce colors as vibrant as those of Technicolor. It was guaranteed residuals for televised airings of post-1948
cheaper to use, so by the 1950’s Eastman Color also had films. Soon thereafter, the National Broadcasting Com-
become an industry standard. pany (NBC) premiered “Saturday Night at the Movies.”
With its technological concerns settled, the American Ratings were high, and soon all three television networks
film industry struggled to deal with suburbanization and were awash with feature films playing in prime time. A
the increasingly popular medium of television. During zenith was achieved in 1968, when Alfred Hitchcock’s
the early 1950’s, a wave of auto-oriented theaters, or The Birds (1963) was watched by more than one-third of
drive-ins, offered a pleasant open space where parked all Americans.
cars filled with families watched triple features on a mas- The studios survived, but no longer were there a “Big
sive screen. In 1960, the number of drive-ins in the Five” and “Little Three.” The remaining seven studios
United States crested at five thousand. The peak movie- (Hughes took RKO out of the game) were equal, distrib-
going season shifted to summer from fall and winter. uting films and finding independent producers to make
Moreover, the breakup of the theater market caused by the films. All expanded into television production.
the Paramount case meant that the drive-in market was United Artists led the way, showing that a new studio
open to independent exhibitors. form could succeed by distributing independently made
Film studios had to find a way to deal with television. films. United Artists had entered the 1950’s so awash in
At first, the major studios ignored the new medium. Mi- red ink that founders Charles Chaplin and Mary Pickford
nor studios such as Monogram and Republic jumped in agreed to sell the studio. Two New York entertainment
and began producing for television, at first offering lawyers, Arthur Krim and Robert Benjamin, took charge
Westerns (such as those starring Gene Autry and Roy in February, 1951. The new United Artists, within its
Rogers from Republic) and thrill-a-minute serials. first year, picked up High Noon (1952) and John Hus-
Younger television viewers loved these action adven- ton’s The African Queen (1951). Krim and Benjamin
tures, but crude production values served to remind sought out and attracted such stars as Burt Lancaster,
longtime film fans of the extraordinary number of trea- Gregory Peck, and Robert Mitchum and directors such as
sures still resting comfortably in the vaults of Metro- Billy Wilder, John Sturges, Otto Preminger, William
Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), Paramount, Twentieth Cen- Wyler, and Joseph Mankiewicz.
tury-Fox, and Warner Bros. The audiences for the films of the 1950’s differed
Billionaire Hughes by late 1953 again was in need of from those of the so-called Golden Age of Hollywood.
cash. Few were surprised when, in 1954, Hughes agreed People over the age of thirty now stayed at home; teens
to sell RKO’s film library to General Tire and Rubber for and young adults became the loyal core audience for
twenty-five million dollars. General Tire wanted the films shown in theaters. For Hollywood, the good news
RKO titles to present on its independent New York tele- was that this core audience of young, well-educated peo-
vision station. ple seemed willing to pay more to go to the movies. It
512
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed
was not until 1956 that the film industry began to exploit Bordwell, David, Janet Staiger, and Kristin Thompson.
this new market effectively. Once the success of Rock The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and
Around the Clock (1956) demonstrated that there was Mode of Production to 1960. New York: Columbia
money to be made from this new audience, Hollywood University Press, 1985. Extremely comprehensive
courted young viewers aggressively. discussion of all aspects of film production and style
To recapture filmgoers, Hollywood loosened censor- under the studio system. Discusses the history, devel-
ship standards. The strict code of censorship so power- opment, fall, and stylistic consequences of the studio
fully self-enforced during the 1930’s and 1940’s broke system.
down. On May 26, 1952, the U.S. Supreme Court de- Davis, Ronald L. Just Making Movies: Company Direc-
cided in Burstyn v. Wilson that motion pictures should be tors on the Studio System. Jackson: University Press
treated as a significant medium for the communication of of Mississippi, 2005. Detailed studies of twelve Hol-
ideas. This decision led to the eventual end of the Hays lywood directors working under the studio system.
Code in 1966. Even before then, United Artists defied the Includes index and filmography of each director’s
Hays Code with The Moon Is Blue (1955) and The Man work.
with the Golden Arm (1955). The former film featured Gomery, Douglas. The Hollywood Studio System: A His-
repeated references to virginity; the latter openly de- tory. New ed. London: BFI, 2005. Book-length his-
picted drug abuse. A rating system implemented in 1968 tory of the studio system, with profiles of each studio
classified films by suitability for young audiences rather plus analysis of the gestation and transformation of
than prohibiting material that might be unsuitable. the system. Useful bibliography. Aimed at a general
audience.
Significance
_______. Shared Pleasures. Madison: University of
In the end, the Hollywood studios never fully relin-
Wisconsin Press, 1992. A history of how Americans
quished their core economic power. They no longer con-
watched films, from the nickelodeon to the videocas-
trolled creative and performing talent to the extent that
sette recorder. Covers in detail the changing nature of
they had in their heyday, but it remained impossible for
the audiences for films in the United States during the
decades to produce a feature film of any quality and dis-
late 1940’s and early 1950’s.
tribute it through mainstream channels without the finan-
Kindem, Gorham, ed. The American Movie Industry.
cial backing of one of the major studios. Thus, although
Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982.
they were no longer self-sufficient, they continued to act
A collection of articles about the history of the Ameri-
as the gatekeepers of cinematic production. Because the
can film industry. Should be read in conjunction with
studios continued to be the only effective route to world-
Balio’s The American Film Industry. Contains an es-
wide distribution, moreover, they captured the largest
sential bibliography.
profits. Thus, Hollywood was not broken by the Para-
Lev, Peter. Transforming the Screen, 1950-1959. His-
mount decision, or by television or suburbanization.
tory of the American Cinema 7. New York: Charles
Smaller independent companies, however, found niches
Scribner’s Sons, 2003. Discusses the state of the mo-
in the new order that arose. These companies created a
tion picture industry throughout the 1950’s in pains-
wider range of offerings and gave newcomers a chance to
taking detail. Explains how and why cinematic style
enter the film industry. They also made possible a new
and production changed during the decade.
relationship between creators and their films, beginning
Mast, Gerald, ed. The Movies in Our Midst. Chicago:
the rise of the self-conscious cinematic “auteur.”
University of Chicago Press, 1982. A collection of
—Douglas Gomery
documents and essays about the changing social im-
Further Reading pact of the American film. Covers all phases of the
Balio, Tino, ed. The American Film Industry. Rev. ed. impact of the changing studio system. Massive bibli-
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. A col- ography.
lection of articles about the history of the American
1946
film industry. This should be read in conjunction with See also: May 3, 1948: Antitrust Rulings Force Film
Kindem’s The American Movie Industry. Useful bib- Studios to Divest Theaters; June 16, 1960: Psycho
liography. Becomes Hitchcock’s Most Famous Film.
513
Westerns Dominate Postwar American Film The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1946-1962
Westerns Dominate Postwar American Film
The classic Western films produced during the postwar where justice often triumphed after a thrilling and fre-
era reflected major concerns of the time while quently deadly struggle.
revealing significant American values. The Western None of these conditions would have been sufficient
thus became an arena in which debates over the nature for a revival of Westerns without the presence of men
and meaning of those values could find compelling, like John Ford. Aside from his skill as a filmmaker, his
widely circulated narrative representations, helping to vision of a stable community of interesting, eccentric,
shape a developing American culture. and basically decent people fit perfectly the Western
mold of an isolated settlement surrounded by hostile
Locale: United States forces. His belief in the necessity of a strong man to lead
Categories: Motion pictures and video; trade and the citizenry with courage, modesty, and principle corre-
commerce sponded to the Western ideal. Other directors modified
Key Figures or challenged some of Ford’s ideas, but they knew how
John Ford (1895-1973), American director important his work was. No one escaped his influence,
Howard Hawks (1896-1977), American director either as a positive force or as an ideological or stylistic
Anthony Mann (1906-1967), American director presence to be reckoned with.
John Wayne (1907-1979), American actor The era of the classic Western could be said to begin
with Ford’s first postwar film, My Darling Clementine
Summary of Event (1946), in which Wyatt Earp (Henry Fonda), much like
From the earliest days of the American film industry, the many soldiers returning from combat, marries and be-
Western has been an important genre. In his first year as a gins a family following his defeat of the evil Clanton
director in 1917—also often thought of as the first year of gang. The end of the era can be marked by The Man Who
the Hollywood studio system—John Ford, the great mas- Shot Liberty Valance (1962), Ford’s meditation on the
ter of the classic Western, directed silents titled Chey- Western genre and historiography in which he depicts
enne’s Pal and Straight Shooting, among other films. Af- the open West of Tom Doniphon (John Wayne) giving
ter some initial enthusiasm, the genre began to decline way to the “civilized” Eastern ideas of the greenhorn
during the Great Depression and was largely ignored lawyer Rance Stoddard (Jimmy Stewart).
during World War II, although Ford made Stagecoach, Between these two films, Ford made his noted cavalry
one of his most famous films, in 1939. (Orson Welles is trilogy—Fort Apache (1948), She Wore a Yellow Ribbon
said to have screened Stagecoach forty times while pre- (1949), and Rio Grande (1950)—which describes and
paring to make Citizen Kane, in order to learn the con- celebrates service to one’s country as valorous and satis-
ventions of Hollywood cinema.) Then, in the late 1940’s, fying while showing the military as a kind of mobile uto-
a Western revival began. pian society. In the same year that he completed the tril-
Aside from the Western’s capacity for rendering and ogy, Ford also made Wagonmaster (1950), in which two
examining essential elements in American cultural life, young, directionless cowhands join a Mormon wagon
there were several crucial factors contributing to this train and become involved in the responsibilities of the
resurgence. First, the uncertainty, angst, and anomie group. Then, after a period of five years in which his vi-
generated by the Cold War, the revelation of an almost sion of the West perceptively darkened, Ford made The
unfathomable evil spawned by the Nazis, and the uneasi- Searchers (1956), a highly acclaimed, complex psycho-
ness caused by the threats of nuclear destruction, interna- logical adventure story in which Ethan Edwards (John
tional tension, and internal paranoia left many people Wayne) is involved in the relentless, obsessive pursuit of
groping for some basic values in the fabric of an older, the Indians who have abducted his niece.
more tradition-bound time in American history. In addi- Ford returned to the cavalry Western with The Horse
tion, the rise of urban centers on the Pacific shore marked Soldiers (1959), transposing the setting to the Civil War in
the closing of the frontier and thrust the vision of a fron- a return to the style of his earlier, more authoritative de-
tier into the mythic plane of artistic imagination. Finally, pictions of the necessity of resisting evil. He concluded
technological advances provided an opportunity for a his contribution to the classic Western with two films that
wide-screen transportation into a realm of adventure anticipated the elegiac, almost tragic mood of The Man
514
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Westerns Dominate Postwar American Film
against a natural moral order, but his deci-

sion always is difficult and his actions
rarely are completely conclusive. On the
other hand, while Howard Hawks con-
ceived of a Western hero who was much
more isolated than Stewart in Mann’s
films, he also suggested in Red River
(1948), The Big Sky (1952), and Rio Bravo
(1959) that a certain completeness and ma-
ture dignity was possible. The comic ele-
ment in his work extended and humanized
his protagonists.
No other director of the era brought the
To view image, please refer to print edition cinematic competence of Ford, Mann, and
Hawks to more than a few Westerns, al-
though Budd Boetticher developed a dis-
tinct style and outlook in a group of lesser-
known B-films. Many directors whose
primary achievements were in other gen-
res made noteworthy Westerns during the
period. Among the most prominent were
George Stevens, perhaps best known for
his serious social dramas, who made
Shane (1953) and Fred Zinnemann, a ver-
satile and politically astute director who
made the first definitive anti-Western,
High Noon (1952), a film in which the vil-
lain is the only cowboy wearing a white
hat. William Wyler, whose work ranged
Jimmy Stewart in a publicity photo from Winchester ’73, the first of five West- from the epic Ben Hur (1959) to the feath-
erns he made with director Anthony Mann in the early 1950’s. (AP/Wide World ery Roman Holiday (1953), made The Big
Photos) Country in 1958. Arthur Penn, who went
on to make the revisionist Little Big Man
(1970) began his career with The Left-
Who Shot Liberty Valance. Sergeant Rutledge (1960) was Handed Gun in 1958. Samuel Fuller, an inventive mav-
a tentative consideration of the trials of the African Ameri- erick with a singular style ventured twice into Western
can Westerner, while Two Rode Together (1961) con- territory with I Shot Jesse James (1949) and the idiosyn-
trasted Jim Gary’s (Richard Widmark) idealistic sense of cratic but prophetic Forty Guns (1957).
moral action with Guthrie McCabe’s (Jimmy Stewart) In a demonstration of the relevance and flexibility of
somewhat more worldly and self-protective position. the genre, lesser-known directors also found the Western
Even during his most pessimistic moments, Ford congenial ground for some of their better work. Among
rarely moved into the almost film noir vision of the West them were Delmer Davis with 3:10 to Yuma (1957),
embraced by Anthony Mann. The prolific Mann cast Henry King with The Gunfighter (1950), and Robert
Jimmy Stewart against his boyish image in five consecu- Aldrich with Apache (1954) and Vera Cruz (1954). John
tive Westerns: Winchester ’73 (1950), Bend of the River Sturges united serious character study with superb action
1946
(1952), The Naked Spur (1953), The Far Country (1955), sequences in Bad Day at Black Rock (1955), Gunfight at
and The Man from Laramie (1955). In each film, the pro- the O.K. Corral (1957), and his worthy adaptation of
tagonist is presented as a man possessed with obsessions, Akira Kurosawa’s masterpiece Shichinin no samurai
self-doubt, and emotional eccentricity. The reluctant (1954; The Seven Samurai), rendered as The Magnificent
hero eventually is moved to correct human violence Seven (1960).
515
Westerns Dominate Postwar American Film The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Significance chivalric concept of not drawing first, stems from the

One of the primary reasons that the classic Western had idea of honor. In a larger sense, one of the most enduring
such an impressive impact on American cultural life was aspects of the Western involves a man’s (heroes were al-
that the original West identified America as it existed in most exclusively male) attempt to define himself and live
the minds of Europeans. That West was a dream of space, by a code he has developed and must follow to maintain
freedom, wilderness, and plenty. At its most inviting, the personal integrity.
myth of the West is the equivalent of the myth of Amer- High Noon, for example, pitted a lawman (Gary Coo-
ica itself, and from the beginning, the Western film has per) against an outside menace to his town, in which peo-
reflected the aspirations of people attempting to build a ple were too complacent or frightened to assist him. The
new society on a huge, open continent and has expressed film has been perceived as allegory to communism and
the desires of people determined to escape the influence McCarthyist red-baiting. Carl Foreman, the blacklisted
of “kings and priests,” the powermongers Thomas Jef- writer of the screenplay, maintained that it was written as
ferson warned against. just such an allegory. At the core of the conflict, the sher-
During the 1950’s, Western films gave this vision its iff must balance his individual responsibilities with his
most vivid and complete expression; the devastating dis- social obligations. John Wayne disliked the film because
appointments of the late 1960’s were still a part of an un- he thought it betrayed the “frontier spirit.”
foreseen future. In its most optimistic form, Shane of- The theme of a man “torn ’twixt love and duty” suffer-
fered Alan Ladd riding out of a pure mountain mist, ing the internal debate of a troubled conscience was also
dressed in golden deerskin perfectly tailored to his
lithe and powerful physique, arriving in time to
rescue the decent, humble farmers from the corpo- Major American Westerns of the
rate villainy of the corrupt cattle barons. Before Postwar Period, 1946-1962
killing the reptilian Wilson (Jack Palance), Shane
• 1946 • 1956
is a perfect brother to Van Heflin, ideal lover for
My Darling Clementine The Searchers
Jean Arthur, and athlete/hero for Brandon deWilde.
• 1948 • 1957
Their life on the farm appeals to him, but like most Fort Apache Forty Guns
Westerners, he is defined ultimately by the neces- Red River Gunfight at the O.K. Corral
sary use of his gun, and he knows that he cannot • 1949 3:10 to Yuma
settle down. The resonance in the story enabled I Shot Jesse James • 1958
Clint Eastwood to repeat its basic structure in Pale She Wore a Yellow Ribbon The Big Country
Rider (1985) without much alteration. • 1950 The Bravados
Shane and the earlier Ford films were made The Gunfighter The Left-Handed Gun
with such skill and conviction that their somewhat Rio Grande • 1959
unrealistic conceptions of frontier life created a Wagonmaster The Horse Soldiers
Winchester ’73 Rio Bravo
fantasy West that overwhelmed historical fact. A
• 1952 • 1960
large audience ready to accept the legendary con-
Bend of the River The Magnificent Seven
figuration matched the filmmakers’ conception The Big Sky Sergeant Rutledge
was the key to the films’ popularity. Even later High Noon The Unforgiven
Westerns of the 1960’s such as Sam Peckinpah’s • 1953 • 1961
The Wild Bunch (1969), which undercut many of The Naked Spur Two Rode Together
Ford’s (and Stevens’) assumptions, still had to re- Shane • 1962
spond to such archetypal motifs as the grandeur of • 1954 How the West Was Won
the landscape and the personal honor of the heroic Apache The Man Who Shot Liberty
participants. Johnny Guitar Valance
In Shane, one of the conflicts is between North Vera Cruz Ride the High Country
• 1955
and South, with Wilson the gunfighter described as
Bad Day at Black Rock
a “Yankee” and Shane, like many cowboys, as a
The Far Country
displaced Southerner seeking a new start after the The Man from Laramie
Civil War. The ridiculous and inaccurate idea of
the “showdown” on Main Street, with its bizarre
516
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Westerns Dominate Postwar American Film
a part of Mann’s films with Stewart and was epitomized Further Reading
by Peckinpah’s Ride the High Country (1962), another Bogdanovich, Peter. John Ford. Berkeley: University of
film from the conclusion of the Western era, ending that California Press, 1978. An affectionate and knowl-
era on a note of nostalgia as the Western code was re- edgeable tribute by an accomplished filmmaker, com-
called one last time by two old friends. The value of the bining anecdotes and factual material with interviews
code also was stressed by Henry King in his presentation and analysis.
in The Bravados (1958) of an aging gunfighter, Jimmy Fenin, George, and William K. Everson. The Western.
Ringo (Gregory Peck), who has outgrown his wild days New York: Grossman, 1973. A comprehensive his-
but cannot find an escape from the destiny he has previ- tory of the genre. Detailed and thorough, with intelli-
ously created. In each case, a hero must sacrifice per- gent commentary and many illustrations.
sonal safety in order to act properly. French, Philip. “Westerns: Aspects of a Movie Genre”;
Similarly, somewhat offbeat films such as Arthur and “Westerns Revisited.” Manchester, England:
Penn’s The Left-Handed Gun, which told the story of Carcanet, 2005. One of the first studies to consider the
Billy the Kid (Paul Newman) from an almost existential- Western in a totally political and sociological per-
ist perspective; Samuel Fuller’s Forty Guns, which an- spective. Reprinted along with the author’s second
ticipated television’s The Big Valley by placing Barbara work, reconsidering his conclusions from the orig-
Stanwyck at the head of a line of riders; or Sturges’s Bad inal.
Day at Black Rock, which put a disabled stranger (Spen- Kitses, Jim. Horizons West: Directing the Western from
cer Tracy) amid the unreasoning bigotry of a small town, John Ford to Clint Eastwood. New ed. London: BFI,
depended upon the implicit acknowledgment by the 2004. Intellectually provocative and lucidly ex-
filmmaker and audience of a series of shared values and plained, Kitses’s theories tend toward rigid categori-
moral principles. Being out of step with a limited society zations that are useful in developing an overview of
did not make the protagonist unsympathetic but instead the genre.
made him (or her) a version of the antihero whose rejec- Lenihan, John. Showdown: Confronting Modern Amer-
tion by a flawed social order contributed to an admirable ica in the Western Film. Chicago: University of Illi-
posture of singular strength. Even Howard Hawks, who nois Press, 1979. Contains a strong chapter on the
shared Wayne’s dislike for High Noon, used humor 1950’s as well as a list of Westerns from 1939 to 1978,
when the conventions of the Old West began to seem a bibliographical guide to collections, and a lengthy
strained for a modern audience, gently undercutting the bibliography.
most rigid formulations as well as casting for contrast by Tusca, Jon. The American West in Film. Westport,
pairing the sensitive, introspective Montgomery Clift Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985. A very solid study,
with John Wayne in Red River (1948) and teen idol Ricky with critical and analytical commentary on films,
Nelson with Wayne in Rio Bravo (1959). plentiful inside data on directors, many interesting
Both its range of possibility and its potential for politi- photographs, notes, an extensive bibliography, and an
cal parallels with the present were significant reasons for index with film dates.
the predominance of the Western in the postwar era, but See also: 1946-1960: Hollywood Studio System Is
the paucity of other useful forms, with the exception of Transformed; July 24, 1952: Premiere of High Noon;
film noir, was also a factor. The rise of the New Wave in Apr. 23, 1953: Shane Premieres; Sept. 10, 1955: Debut
Europe, the revisionism inevitable in the turmoil of the of Gunsmoke Launches the Adult Western Drama;
1960’s, and the maturing of American films were all as- Mar. 13, 1956: Premiere of The Searchers; Sept. 12,
pects of changes after 1962 that took the focus away from 1959-Jan. 16, 1973: Bonanza Becomes an American
Westerns. Television Classic; 1964-1969: Leone Renovates the
—Leon Lewis Western Film Genre.
1946
517
First U.N. Secretary-General Is Selected The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
February 1, 1946
First U.N. Secretary-General Is Selected
Norwegian diplomat Trygve Lie was selected the first trade and industries (July-September, 1939), and, with
proper secretary-general of the United Nations. His the outbreak of World War II, as minister of supply and
tenure was both rocky and diplomatically successful. shipping.
His most enduring contributions include a ten-point Lie’s selection as secretary-general placed him in the
program for lasting peace and his work in building spotlight of global politics and it established the five-
U.N. headquarters in New York City. year term as the standard period of service for the posi-
tion. He had originally been interested in the presidency
Locale: New York, New York of the General Assembly, which had held its election two
Categories: United Nations; diplomacy and weeks earlier, and was disappointed with his selection as
international relations; organizations and secretary-general. In the last days of 1945 he was led to
institutions; Cold War; government and politics believe that he had solid American support and that he
Key Figures would be approved universally as the assembly presi-
Trygve Lie (1896-1968), Norwegian politician and dent. Adlai E. Stevenson, acting head of the U.S. delega-
diplomat who served as the first proper secretary- tion to the United Nations, had a telegram delivered to
general of the United Nations, 1946-1952 Lie on Christmas Day, 1945. The telegram asked Lie if
Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (1909-1989), Soviet he intended to run for the assembly presidency, to which
politician and diplomat who served as Soviet Lie responded affirmatively. Stevenson made clear to
minister of foreign affairs Lie that the Americans were supportive and, in fact, that
Paul-Henri Spaak (1899-1972), Belgian socialist the United States would present his name to the United
politician who served as Belgian minister of foreign Nations for consideration.
affairs At the General Assembly meeting in London a few
weeks later, however, the U.S. contingent did not express
Summary of Event solid support for Lie and was unclear in its position. To
Norwegian diplomat Trygve Lie was forty-nine years complicate things, Great Britain and Belgium promoted
old when he was selected unanimously by the eleven- Belgian foreign minister Paul-Henri Spaak for the as-
member U.N. Security Council and General Assembly sembly presidency and encouraged the Americans to
as the first secretary-general of the United Nations. A support their choice. The British and the Americans did
Norwegian candidate was to everyone’s liking, given not plan nominating speeches and anticipated a vote by
that Norway was a neutral country and not powerful secret ballot. Soviet ambassador Andrei Andreyevich
enough militarily to be a threat to any global superpower. Gromyko, however, surprised the participants by speak-
American representatives had not supported Lie’s candi- ing to the issue, first to laud Norway’s wartime perfor-
dacy, however, preferring instead Canada’s ambassador mance and, second, formally to nominate Lie for the
to the United States, Lester B. Pearson. In turn, the Soviet presidency. The head of the U.S. delegation, Secretary of
Union openly opposed Pearson as a candidate, because State James Francis Byrnes, did not speak openly in sup-
Canada was a close ally of both the United Kingdom and port of Lie, making it appear that Lie was the candidate of
the United States. the Soviet Union only. The Ukrainian representatives
Lie, who was experienced in Norwegian politics but called for approval by acclamation, but the effort failed.
not well known in world political circles, was accepted The General Assembly proceeded with a secret ballot
by all sides as a compromise candidate. He was also a election as planned. The vote was 28 for Spaak and 23 for
war hero. During World War II he served as Norway’s Lie, with U.S. support reportedly for Lie.
foreign minister in London and is credited with bringing Article 99 of the U.N. charter accords the secretary-
the Norwegian merchant fleet to England in 1940, away general power to bring matters to the attention of the Se-
from Nazi control and into active resistance for the curity Council that may threaten the peace and security
Allies. Active in the Norwegian Labor Party for years, of the world. Lie did not intend to follow in the footsteps
Lie had a range of experience in Norwegian political life of James Eric Drummond, first secretary-general of the
that served as a prelude to work at the United Nations. He League of Nations. Drummond had been characterized
served as minister of justice (1935-1939), minister of as a quiet, invisible leader. Lie preferred to express his
518
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First U.N. Secretary-General Is Selected
views publicly, engage the opposition in debate, and stay mend a candidate to the General Assembly for final
at the forefront of U.N. affairs by making regular state- approval. The assembly voted 46-5 (8 abstentions) to ex-
ments on political and substantive matters. As secretary- tend Lie’s tenure as secretary-general. The Soviets re-
general, he struggled with the question of the proper fused to work with him, however, and set in place an
power and procedure of the position, that is, he was not uncompromising political and social boycott. This cir-
clear how far his position could reach into the realm of cumstance greatly reduced Lie’s political authority with
global politics. In essence, Lie believed that the office of the global community. Lie realized his political position,
secretary-general should evolve slowly. He was not a and so, to the delight of Moscow, resigned in November,
prolific speechwriter, nor did he issue an extraordinary 1952. The Lie era at the United Nations was a tense, un-
number of memoranda. certain time that set the stage for many more years of
Cold War acrimony. His tenure also helped foster a dan-
Significance gerous perspective among Americans that the United
Lie led the United Nations during the difficult first years Nations was strongest when the United States was in the
of the Cold War, a time when tensions were heightened lead.
by the paranoia of McCarthyism. He was opposed to the Largely because of Lie’s initiative, the United Na-
employment of American communists at the United Na- tions found a new home in New York City. Lie had ap-
tions and cooperated with the Federal Bureau of Investi- proached New York mayor William O’Dwyer and city
gation (FBI) looking into the lives of American citizens planner Robert Moses about using New York land as
working at the United Nations during the McCarthy the site for a new U.N. headquarters. After John D.
years. Rockefeller, Jr., offered to buy land in the Turtle Bay
Shortly after Lie’s election as secretary-general, Jo- neighborhood of midtown Manhattan, the General As-
seph Stalin set forth a new five-year plan for the Soviet sembly accepted the New York plan. The United Nations
Union and announced that military preparedness would opened its new headquarters on the site in 1952.
have priority over consumer production. The Cold War —Ann M. Legreid
became even more tense. Acrimony between the United
States and the Soviet Union took the spotlight in discus- Further Reading
sions at the United Nations. Throughout his tenure there, Barrows, James. Trygve Lie and the Cold War: The U.N.
Lie was criticized both by the Americans, who accused Secretary-General Pursues Peace, 1946-1953. De
him of communist sympathies, and by the Soviets, who Kalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1989. An
regarded him as a puppet of the Americans. analysis of Lie’s strengths and shortcomings in pre-
His most ambitious and enduring contribution was the siding over the United Nations.
preparation of a program for lasting peace, a ten-point Browne, Marjorie Ann. United Nations Secretary-
program that was carried to the capital cities of the chief General: The Appointment Process. Washington,
member states and subsequently considered by the Gen- D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Library of
eral Assembly. By many accounts, Lie built a reputation Congress, 1996. A brief twelve-page document cov-
as a pragmatic and capable diplomat, who was outspoken ering the selection and appointment of the secretary-
and temperamental; at times he misjudged situations. His general of the United Nations.
intervention in the Iranian case, insisting on the evacua- Gaglione, Anthony. The United Nations Under Trygve
tion of Soviet troops, was not well received by the United Lie, 1945-1953. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press,
States or by Britain. The U.S. government strongly op- 2001. Discusses the events and personalities associ-
posed his belief that communist China should be seated ated with the creation of the United Nations during
in the United Nations. He opposed North Korea’s inva- Lie’s tenure.
sion of South Korea in 1950, a position that drew the Gordenker, Leon. The U.N. Secretary-General and Sec-
wrath of the Soviet Union and ultimately led to his down- retariat. New York: Routledge, 2005. Outlines the
fall as the Soviets became intent on blocking his reelec- roles and responsibilities of secretary-general and
1946
tion as secretary-general. secretariat of the United Nations. Part of the Global

The Cold War was manifest in these reelection pro- Institutions series.
ceedings, with the United States staunchly supporting Meisler, Stanley. United Nations: The First Fifty Years.
him and the Soviets leading the charge to oust him. By New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1995. Includes a
U.N. charter, the Security Council is required to recom- chapter on Lie’s efforts to evacuate Soviet forces
519
Establishment of the International Court of Justice The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
from Iran in the early stages of his career as secretary- See also: Apr. 25-June 26, 1945: United Nations Char-
general. ter Convention; Feb. 5, 1946: Establishment of the In-
Thakur, Ramesh. “The Political Role of the United Na- ternational Court of Justice; Nov. 9-Dec. 15, 1946:
tions Secretary-General.” In The United Nations, United Nations Admits Its First New Member States;
Peace, and Security: From Collective Security to the Dec. 12, 1946: Spain Is Denied Entrance into the
Responsibility to Protect. New York: Cambridge United Nations; Apr. 10, 1953: Hammarskjöld Is
University Press, 2006. Examines the secretary- Elected U.N. Secretary-General; Sept. 18, 1961:
general’s responsibilities in the theater of world poli- United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammar-
tics. skjöld Dies in a Plane Crash.
February 5, 1946
Establishment of the International Court of Justice
The establishment of the International Court of Justice nated in the post-World War I period with the creation
just after the end of World War II underscored a of the Permanent Court of International Justice (1922-
renewed hope that an international judicial tribunal 1946) under the auspices of the League of Nations.
could inaugurate a new era in which international The League’s Permanent Court of Justice had deliv-
tensions and concomitant threats of war would be ered fifty-six judgments and advisory opinions in
peaceably averted. twenty-four years. Since the creation of the League’s
Permanent Court had been regarded as a notable, if less
Also known as: World Court than perfect, achievement, the war-weary Allied Powers
Locale: London, England of World War II—the United States, the United King-
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; diplomacy dom, the Soviet Union, and China—were open to de-
and international relations; laws, acts, and legal mands for a new international judicial body as the blood-
history; United Nations iest conflict in human history was coming to an end.
Key Figures The human costs of this war ensured that U.S. presi-
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the dent Franklin D. Roosevelt, British prime minister Win-
United States, 1933-1945 ston Churchill, and Soviet general secretary Joseph Sta-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United lin were quick to formally support the creation of a new
States, 1945-1953 international court. Thus, in 1944, at Dumbarton Oaks, a
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), British prime minister, committee made up of representatives of the four major
1940-1945 and 1951-1955 Allied powers formally recommended that at the termi-
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; nation of hostilities a new international court should be
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central created. The new court was to follow standards similar to
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet those that had guided the Permanent Court of Interna-
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 tional Justice.
At the United Nations Conference held in San Fran-
Summary of Event cisco in 1945, fifty nations agreed to the United Nations
On February 5, 1946, the election of the first judges of Charter, wherein it was formally decreed that the Inter-
the International Court of Justice was held at the initial national Court of Justice Statute would be based on the
meeting of the United Nations General Assembly and rules that had governed the Permanent Court of Interna-
Security Council in London, England. The International tional Justice. The San Francisco Conference also de-
Court of Justice, also known as the ICJ or the World clared that the jurisdiction of the latter court would be
Court, evolved through a long history of international at- transferred to the new World Court.
tempts to regulate disputes between nations in a civilized As if to underscore the nexus between the two interna-
and controlled way. Though this movement began in Eu- tional judicial bodies, the original seat of the League’s
rope as early as the sixteenth century, its modern mani- Court, the Peace Palace, in the Hague, the Netherlands,
festation took shape in the nineteenth century and culmi- would also be the seat of the new International Court of
520
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Establishment of the International Court of Justice
Justice. After the judges of the former court resigned, the arena in which international disputes can be addressed
election of International Court of Justice judges was held and, if possible, resolved peaceably. An analysis based
in February 5, 1946, at the initial meeting of the United simply on the number of disputes the World Court has
Nations and Security Council in London. Reflecting the been called to address from 1946 to the present would
influence of tradition from the League of Nations’ court, give an incomplete assessment of the court’s role in mod-
as well as the realities of the postwar world, the World ern international affairs. While the court has handled
Court judges were to sit in the Hague and issue their more than one hundred cases and delivered scores of
judgments and opinions in French and English. It had judgments since its creation, the court’s authority has not
been determined that the World Court’s fifteen elected always been respected, and its holdings, at times, have
judges would hold office for a nine-year term. To ensure not been honored.
continuity of office, the U.N. General Assembly and Se- The court has proven to be most ineffective when in-
curity Council were to elect one-third of the judges every ternational conflicts have involved major powers that are
three years. unwilling to risk allowing the court the right to adjudi-
Since the World Court is the principal judicial body of cate definitive resolutions regarding their perceived sov-
the United Nations, voting for the
court’s judges is held in New York
City at the General Assembly and the International Court of Justice, The Hague
Security Council, where a candidate
must receive a majority of votes from
both bodies. The ICJ judges’ princi-
pal function is to adjudicate conflicts North
between nations and thus under Arti-
cle 34 of the ICJ Statute, only states Sea
may be parties before the court. Leeuwarden
Groningen
Therefore, the World Court holds no
particular jurisdiction over disputes Assen
involving individual persons, but in-
ternational organizations may peti-
tion the court for advisory opinions.
nds
In a similar recognition of na- Court of
tional sovereignty, no nation may be Justice
la
Lelystad Zwolle
brought before the court without its Haarlem
er
consent. However, nations that ac-

Amsterdam
th
cept the court’s jurisdiction grant the

court binding authority to interpret
e
The Hague
N
Utrecht
treaties, adjudicate issues regarding e
international law, judge violations of Rotterdam h Arnhem
T
international obligations, and order
reparations for breaches of those obli-
gations. Acting under its international s Hertogenbosch
authority, the World Court dealt with

Middleburg
some thirty-nine contentious cases
and delivered numerous judgments
between its founding and 1970. Germany
1946
Significance
Born out of the most costly war in Belgium
history, the International Court of Maastricht
Justice has both failed and fulfilled

its promise to act as an objective
521
Establishment of the International Court of Justice The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ereign national interests. In a case brought by Nicaragua Law International, 2003. Although Amr’s main focus
in 1984, for example, the government of Nicaragua ac- is on the legal implications of the International Court
cused the United States of violating international law by of Justice’s role as the official organ of the United Na-
funding and training an army of insurgents that engaged tions, some attention is paid to the court’s original
in acts of terrorism against the civilian population. function and evolution. In addition, this monograph
After hearing arguments from both parties, the World has an extensive bibliography for the serious student
Court rejected the justification of collective self-defense of the World Court.
made earlier by the United States and declared that the Eyffinger, Arthur. The International Court of Justice,
United States had committed acts that violated interna- 1946-1996. The Hague, the Netherlands: Kluwer
tional law and was under a duty to cease all such activi- Law International, 1996. The author’s thorough de-
ties and make reparations for all injuries to Nicaragua. scription of the establishment and evolution of the
Notwithstanding the court’s judgment, the United States World Court makes this a valuable work for students
refused to accept both the jurisdiction of the court in this of the International Court.
matter and the court’s conclusions, citing as justification Rosenne, Shabtai. The Law and Practice of the Interna-
provisions in the World Court’s Statute that Washington tional Court, 1920-2005. 4th ed. Boston: Martinus
interpreted as negating the jurisdiction of the court in this Nijhoff, 2006. This seminal work, originally published
matter. in 1965, offers a four-volume analysis of the Interna-
However, there have also been many international tional Court of Justice from its origins in the League
disputes that the World Court has adjudicated success- of Nations through its restructuring under the United
fully, thus averting the possibility of more serious con- Nations. Of particular significance are the assessment
flicts between particular nations. In 1998, for example, of the World Court and the United Nations in volume 1
Malaysia and Indonesia brought to the court a heated dis- and the documents reproduced in volume 4.
pute about sovereignty over two island territories that Schulte, Constanze. Compliance with Decisions of the
each state claimed as its own. After considering complex International Court of Justice. New York: Oxford
arguments put forth by both nations, the World Court University Press, 2004. In addressing the issue of
concluded that the islands belonged to Malaysia. Al- when nations decide to comply or not with the deci-
though this decision was limited to two islands, the fact sions of the World Court, the author notes the adjudi-
that it did involve a dispute about sovereignty over two cation of a number of interesting and seminal legal
contested territories proved that the court could play an cases in the court’s evolution.
important role in resolving difficult and possibly danger-
See also: Apr. 25-June 26, 1945: United Nations Char-
ous international tensions.
ter Convention; Dec. 9, 1948: United Nations Adopts
—Pietro Lorenzini
Convention on Genocide; Dec. 2, 1949: United Na-
Further Reading tions Convention Suppressing Human Trafficking Is
Amerasinghe, Chittharanjan F. Jurisdiction of Interna- Adopted; Dec. 14, 1950: United Nations High Com-
tional Tribunals. The Hague, the Netherlands: Klu- missioner for Refugees Statute Is Approved; Aug.
wer Law International, 2003. Concerned with the 22-Sept. 3, 1955: United Nations Sets Rules for Treat-
comparative study of varied international tribunals, ment of Prisoners; July, 1960: United Nations Inter-
this work assesses the jurisdiction of the International venes in the Congolese Civil War; Sept. 20, 1965-
Court of Justice as it was originally established and as Mar. 22, 1966: India-Pakistan Conflict Prompts U.N.
it has been interpreted since its creation. Peacekeeping Response; Dec. 16, 1966: United Na-
Amr, Mohamed Sameh. The Role of the International tions Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Is
Court of Justice as the Principal Judicial Organ of the Adopted; Nov. 26, 1968: Statutes of Limitations Are
United Nations. The Hague, the Netherlands: Kluwer Rendered Inapplicable to War Crimes.
522
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Employment Act
February 20, 1946

Employment Act
The Full Employment Bill of 1945 was intended to covery after the Great Depression. Americans therefore
create a partially planned economy, in which the recognized a possibility that the sudden end of wartime
federal government would modify its own spending spending could plunge the nation back into depression.
patterns each year in order to compensate for By early 1945, many economists were predicting that
projected shortfalls or surpluses in U.S. employment. eight to ten million Americans would be unemployed
The bill was drastically changed, however, and the when the returning troops were released from service.
Employment Act of 1946 merely instituted a general However, the levels of production, income, and employ-
policy of preventing depressions and high inflation ment reached during the war had given the United States
levels whenever possible. a taste of a full-production economy. After the sacrifices
of war, people were determined to settle for nothing less
Also known as: Public Law 304, 79th Congress; than the prosperity that they believed the economy was
U.S. Code Title 15, sections 1021 et seq. capable of generating. In 1944, the Democratic Party
Locale: Washington, D.C. platform included a guarantee of full employment af-
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history; business ter the war; the Republicans made virtually the same
and labor; economics promise.
Key Figures On January 22, 1945, Senator James Edward Murray
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United introduced a full-employment bill in Congress. The bill
States, 1945-1953 asserted that “all Americans able to work and seeking
James Edward Murray (1876-1961), U.S. senator from work have the right to useful, remunerative, regular, and
Montana, 1933-1960 full-time employment. . . .” Furthermore, it was the gov-
Edwin Griswold Nourse (1883-1974), chairman of the ernment’s responsibility “to provide such a volume of
CEA, 1946-1949 Federal investment and expenditure as may be needed to
Leon Hirsh Keyserling (1908-1987), vice chairman of assure continuing full employment. . . .” The bill directed
the CEA, 1946-1949, and later chairman, 1950- the president to present a forecast of aggregate demand
1953 for goods and services throughout the economy, com-
John D. Clark (1884-1961), member of the CEA, pare it with the level needed for full employment, and
1946-1950, and later vice chairman, 1950-1953 recommend changes in federal spending to remedy any
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), British economist shortfall or excess.
Murray’s Full Employment Bill passed the Senate
Summary of Event (with amendments) on September 28, 1945, by a vote of
During the last months of World War II, people in the 71 to 10 and was endorsed by President Harry S. Truman.
United States looked ahead anxiously to the nation’s Over the next year, however, the Murray bill underwent a
postwar economy. Their gravest worry was the possibil- drastic metamorphosis. Congressional conservatives cut
ity of a catastrophic depression. When the war ended, the out any federal guarantee of the right to a job or of full
nation would face the immediate task of demobilizing employment. They also reduced the force of the govern-
eleven million members of the armed forces and convert- ment’s commitment to forecasting and eliminated spe-
ing from a wartime to a peacetime economy. As soon as cific mention of public works and other kinds of compen-
possible, a war-weary nation hoped to scrap price con- satory spending. The final version of the bill passed both
trols and rationing, cut taxes, and turn industry back to houses of Congress as the Employment Act of 1946—
the production of consumer goods, such as automobiles. tellingly, since the original bill would have been named
Still, the memory lingered of the Great Depression of the the Full Employment Act. It was signed into law by Pres-
1930’s, with its mass unemployment, farm foreclosures, ident Truman on February 20, 1946.
1946
bank failures, and idle factories. The final law contained two main provisions. The
It was commonly recognized that the shift to a war- first committed the government “to promote maximum
time economy, which had channeled billions of dollars employment, production, and purchasing power.” In
into manufacturing and other sectors of the U.S. econ- practice, this strange wording came to be seen as a man-
omy, had been largely responsible for the economic re- date to avoid significant depression or inflation. Second,
523
Employment Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
two agencies were established to carry out the commit- to research on managing the economy under renewed
ment. Congress set up the Council of Economic Advisors war conditions. Their influence helped persuade Con-
(CEA), consisting of three economists, to assist the presi- gress to increase tax rates so the war would not lead to
dent in drawing up an annual report on the state of the large federal deficits.
economy. In Congress, a Joint Committee on the Eco- Experience soon demonstrated some problems inher-
nomic Report—later renamed the Joint Economic Com- ent in the workings of the Employment Act. The first
mittee (JEC)—was to review the president’s report and chairman, Edwin Nourse, visualized the CEA as a rela-
make recommendations of its own. President Truman tively nonpolitical body reflecting the technical exper-
soon appointed Edwin Griswold Nourse, Leon Hirsh tise of professional economists. Realistically, however,
Keyserling, and John D. Clark as the first members of the the CEA had no clientele or constituency of its own, and
Council of Economic Advisers. therefore no real political power, except in relation to the
The Employment Act was a statutory expression of president; therefore, CEA members have generally been
what the United States had learned during the Great chosen based on their conformity with the outlook of the
Depression and World War II. The act’s spiritual father president. This has meant that the likelihood that the
was British economist John Maynard Keynes. In 1936, CEA will shape the president’s economic views is not
Keynes had published his landmark work The General great. A second issue arises because the Federal Reserve
Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money. Keynes did System, which potentially has a large influence on de-
not endorse fashionable proposals for nationalization or mand management policies, is relatively independent of
economic planning of specific industries. Rather, he ar- the president and therefore of the CEA.
gued that government could help a free market to work In 1978, the Employment Act was significantly ex-
well if it used monetary and fiscal measures to help stabi- tended by the Full Employment and Balanced Growth
lize the aggregate demand for goods and services. A na- Act (also known as the Humphrey-Hawkins Act), which
tion, Keynes argued, could actually pull itself out of a established nonbinding targets of 4 percent unemploy-
depression if the government stimulated the economy ment and 3 percent inflation, to be achieved by 1983.
through deficit spending for public works and other pur- The unemployment target has generally been recognized
poses. as unrealistic, however. The inflation target has been
As evidence in support of Keynes’s theories, many achieved fairly consistently, although inflation has at
people pointed to the rapidity with which the U.S. econ- times risen as high as 13.3 percent during the economic
omy was restored to full employment when federal de- crisis of the late 1970’s. The Humphrey-Hawkins Act di-
fense spending skyrocketed beginning in 1940. The am- rectly addressed the issue of Federal Reserve Board pol-
bitious provisions of the original Full Employment Bill icy, instructing the Federal Reserve to report directly to
assumed that government economists could accurately Congress concerning the relationship between its policy
forecast undesirable declines or increases in aggregate targets and the goals articulated by the act.
demand and that government could easily offset these —Donald Holley and Paul B. Trescott
economic oscillations with fiscal measures, such as
spending increases or tax-rate changes. Skepticism about Further Reading
both of those propositions lay behind the scaling down of Bailey, Stephen K. Congress Makes a Law: The Story
the bill’s scope. Behind the Employment Act of 1946. New York: Co-
lumbia University Press, 1965. Very few pieces of
Significance congressional legislation have been so meticulously
From the end of World War II through the end of the documented. Captures the personalities and interest-
twentieth century, every president employed the philos- group infighting, and discusses the role of economic
ophy and machinery of the Employment Act to keep the analysis.
economy from falling into a dangerous boom-and-bust Canterbury, E. Ray. The President’s Council of Eco-
cycle. In the immediate postwar years, Truman faced a nomic Advisors: A Study of Its Functions and Its Influ-
confusing economic situation that was just the reverse of ence on the Chief Executive’s Decisions. New York:
what experts had predicted—shortages instead of sur- Exposition Press, 1961. Describes the council’s grow-
plus and inflation instead of depression and deflation. ing importance during the 1950’s and 1960’s.
These problems became acute during the Korean War, De Long, J. Bradford. Keynesianism, Pennsylvania Ave-
and both the CEA and the JEC contributed significantly nue Style: Some Economic Consequences of the Em-
524
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Perón Creates a Populist Political Alliance in Argentina
ployment Act of 1946. Cambridge, Mass.: National ideas on the management of government financial
Bureau of Economic Research, 1996. Pamphlet eval- policies.
uating the Employment Act and the theories of John Walton, Gary M., and Hugh Rockoff. History of the
Maynard Keynes that informed it. American Economy. 8th ed. Fort Worth, Tex.: Dryden
Flash, Edward S. Economic Advice and Presidential Press, 1998. Massive, comprehensive study of Amer-
Leadership: The Council of Economic Advisors. New ican economic history includes sections on the post-
York: Columbia University Press, 1965. A political war growth of the federal government and changes in
scientist examines both the structure of the CEA U.S. labor and employment since 1946.
within the government and the personal roles of Key- See also: Apr. 8, 1943-June 23, 1947: Inflation and La-
serling, Arthur Burns, and Heller. bor Unrest; Mar., 1944: Hayek Opposes Centralized
Nourse, Edwin G. Economics in the Public Service: Ad- Economic Planning; Jan. 17, 1961: Eisenhower
ministrative Aspects of the Employment Act. New Warns of the Military-Industrial Complex; June 10,
York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1953. The first chair- 1963: Congress Passes the Equal Pay Act; Oct. 31,
man of the CEA explains the conflict between de- 1963: People with Mental Disabilities and Illnesses
tached expertise and political partisanship and de- Assisted by Federal Act; Feb. 26, 1964: Kennedy-
scribes conflicts within the CEA between himself and Johnson Tax Cuts Stimulate the U.S. Economy; Sept.
Keyserling. 24, 1965: Affirmative Action Is Expanded; Dec. 15,
Stein, Herbert. The Fiscal Revolution in America. Chi- 1967: Congress Enacts the Age Discrimination in
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1969. Stein, a Employment Act; Aug. 12, 1968: Congress Passes the
member of the CEA under President Richard M. Architectural Barriers Act; Dec. 29, 1970: Nixon
Nixon, effectively describes the impact of Keynesian Signs the Occupational Safety and Health Act.
February 24, 1946

Perón Creates a Populist Political Alliance in Argentina
Juan Perón was elected president of Argentina by a rule the country by fraud and fear. Political rights were
coalition of labor and nationalist military voters, restricted, and elections were rigged in favor of the gov-
ending more than a decade of conservative rule. ernment’s candidates. Throughout the 1930’s, which
came to be known as the Decade of Infamy, labor legisla-
Also known as: Argentinian presidential election of tion was ignored or unenforced, and many workers be-
1946 lieved that their rights to safe working conditions and im-
Locale: Argentina
partial arbitration were not being upheld.
Category: Government and politics
The election of Roberto María Ortiz in 1937 brought
Key Figures hope for better relations between labor and the govern-
Juan Perón (1895-1974), president of Argentina, 1946- ment. The concordancia, as the ruling conservative co-
1952, 1952-1955, and 1973-1974 alition was called, allowed only token opposition, but
Eva Perón (Eva Duarte; 1919-1952), second wife of President Ortiz made an effort to institute political re-
Juan Perón forms by overturning dishonest elections in Buenos Ai-
Ramón S. Castillo (1873-1944), acting president of res. Ortiz resigned because of deteriorating health, and
Argentina, 1940-1942, and president, 1942-1943 Vice President Ramón S. Castillo took power. Castillo
Roberto María Ortiz (1886-1942), president of soon demonstrated that he had no sympathy for the right
Argentina, 1938-1942 of the people freely to choose their elected officials or for
the rights of labor.
1946
Summary of Event Argentina’s working class had grown and changed

Argentina’s last constitutionally elected president before since the early days of the century, when most workers
World War II, Hipólito Irigoyen, was overthrown by a were immigrants employed in meat-packing plants or in
military coup in September, 1930. For the next sixteen the ports. Local manufacturing had become more impor-
years, a coalition of conservative political leaders would tant as Argentina’s dependence on agricultural exports
525
Perón Creates a Populist Political Alliance in Argentina The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ment. At a rally for earthquake victims in

the provincial city of San Juan in 1944,
Perón met Eva Duarte, then a young radio
personality, who would become his wife.
Perón became a powerful force for
change in the new military government.
He took a relatively insignificant post as
head of the Department of Labor and used
it to address the grievances of workers and
the poor. Perón’s increasing influence in
the government led to the creation of an in-
dependent Secretariat of Labor and Social
Welfare, from which he granted benefits
and rights hitherto denied the lower classes
in Argentina. Labor leaders, many work-
ers, and the masses of the poor came to see
Perón as the key figure in their search for
dignity and human rights. The income of
workers had declined in the 1930’s and, as
urban employment grew, villas miserias
Juan Perón and his wife, Eva Perón. (National Archives) (miserable towns)—shantytowns of tin-
roofed huts—sprang up around the city of
Buenos Aires. Thanks to Perón, workers in
declined during the worldwide Great Depression of the 1943 got a 40 percent wage increase and the legal right to
1930’s. The governments of the 1930’s encouraged ex- organize and negotiate.
pansion of local industry. This led to a shift in employ- By 1944, workers were getting paid holidays, the gov-
ment opportunities away from agriculture and toward in- ernment had negotiated more than two hundred agree-
dustry, creating a larger urban working class. ments between workers and employers, and benefits
When new elections were scheduled in 1943, one of were extended to two million workers. The key to getting
the issues was Argentina’s response to the United States’ the government to grant workers’ demands was obedi-
pressure to enter World War II on the side of the Allies. ence to Perón. Organized labor and Juan Perón were be-
The biggest domestic issue, however, was the continua- coming an important political coalition. Perón’s power
tion of government by fraud, since Castillo had hand- in the government increased. When General Farrell took
picked an archconservative political boss from the inte- over as president, Perón became vice president in addi-
rior as his successor. The lack of meaningful suffrage tion to his duties as minister of war and secretary of labor
was a growing burden to the many Argentines who and social welfare.
wanted their votes to count. This situation led to a politi- Perón had his opponents. Liberals, along with repre-
cal opposition that brought disparate groups together. sentatives of the United States, suspected him of sympa-
Many Argentines were willing to support a military coup thy with fascist regimes during World War II. Students
against the government of Castillo, believing that a new were upset with the continuation of military regimes.
regime instituted by such a coup would be an improve- Some in the military were offended by Perón’s alliance
ment. with Eva Duarte (known as Evita). This opposition led
The soldiers struck on June 4, 1943. Under the leader- President Farrell to force Perón’s resignation in October,
ship of a secret lodge, known as the Group of United Of- 1945, so that he could not use his influence to gain the
ficers (GOU), a new military government was estab- presidency in the following year’s elections. Perón was
lished with General Pedro Ramírez as president. One of detained and taken to an island in the Río de la Plata.
its first laws called for government control of the press When word of his arrest reached working-class sub-
and broadcast media. This control was given to Juan urbs, strikes were called and a march to the center of Bue-
Perón, assistant to General Edelmiro Farrell. Perón would nos Aires began. Hundreds of thousands of workers
use his position to create a power base in the new govern- marched on October 17, cheering their support for Perón.
526
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Perón Creates a Populist Political Alliance in Argentina
Middle-class Argentines, always dressed in suit and tie, himself. This last provision paved the way for Perón’s re-
would mockingly refer to these people as the “shirtless election in 1951.
ones” after enthusiastic followers of Perón waved their
shirts as banners. The people in the street that day were Significance
giving their support to someone who had promised to up- The first presidency of Juan Perón was a turning point,
hold their right to organize. The power of their numbers because it offered new hope for human rights for the peo-
overwhelmed security, and President Farrell was forced ple of Argentina. The coalition of labor and the govern-
to bring Perón to address the throng. Perón happily re- ment under Perón brought improved living standards,
ceived their cheers and would later claim the “shirtless political freedom, protection from abuse, and a sense of
ones” as his special people. dignity to the working class. Conditions would soon
The political realignment of workers was nearly com- change, however, as it became apparent that Perón saw
plete. Their leader was now Juan Perón. Perón volun- these policies not as ends in themselves but as means to
tarily stepped down from his positions in the govern- increased power for himself.
ment, only to declare his candidacy for the presidency. The relationship between labor and government had
He received the support of the newly formed Labor long been one of opposition and denial of many labor
Party, as well as that of a splinter group from the middle- rights. Perón co-opted labor in Argentina and used it to
class Radical Party. Among Perón’s supporters were gain power. He also gave labor a voice in government.
military colleagues from the now-disbanded GOU. In Juan Bramuglia, a lawyer for the railroad union, was
addition, the Catholic Church approved of Perón’s call foreign minister in Perón’s administration, and Angel
for religious instruction in the schools and supported his Borlenghi, from the Confederation of Commercial Em-
candidacy indirectly. ployees, became minister of the interior. Even after
On February 24, 1946, in one of the most open and Perón’s downfall, organized labor remained an arbiter in
honest elections ever held in Argentina, Perón received national politics. Many workers still consider Perón’s
nearly 54 percent of the vote and was inaugurated as administration as the most sympathetic to their problems
president in June of that year. The coalition that elected and the most helpful in bringing improvements to their
Perón was fragile. As president, Perón attempted to lives.
strengthen his power over these groups. Benefits for la- Perón’s concept of social justice, or justicialismo,
bor continued as the real wages of industrial workers in- brought benefits to Argentina’s working class. New
creased by 20 percent between 1945 and 1948. schools, hospitals, and hundreds of thousands of low-
In 1947, the government took control of a private cost apartments were built. The National Mortgage Bank
charity that eventually became the María Eva Duarte de was funded to increase home construction, and by 1951
Perón Social Aid Foundation. Headed by the First Lady, more than 200,000 houses were built. Women in Argen-
this foundation constructed schools, funded hospitals, tina also benefited from the policies of the Perón admin-
and aided the poor and the orphans. “In the New Argen- istration. Evita established a women’s branch of the
tina the only privileged ones are the children,” stated one Peronist Party and pushed successfully for voting rights
of the Twenty Truths of the official Peronist doctrine. for women. Hostels were built for women who needed
Juan Perón and Evita came to be adored by millions of shelter. At the end of Perón’s first administration, there
Argentines. They called him “Argentina’s first worker,” was talk of making Evita his running mate, but political
and the paid holidays he enacted were called Saint Perón opposition and her illness led her to withdraw.
days. Evita received adulation as well, especially from Perón also provided Argentina’s working class with a
women, who were given the vote in 1947, largely sense of pride. Model vacation resorts were constructed,
through Evita’s insistence. The capstone of Perón’s po- and workers, many for the first time, could afford to take
litical power, arising from the alliance of labor, women, family vacations to the mountains or the beach. Perón
nationalist military, and even many of the middle class, preached about the dignity of work and pushed for a
came in March, 1949, when a new constitution was pro- transformation of Argentina from an economy domi-
1946
mulgated. nated by wealthy landowners to an industrializing soci-

The constitution of 1949 guaranteed social justice for ety. Perón’s administration became increasingly authori-
workers and stipulated that they had the right to work, tarian by the early 1950’s. There were accusations that
fair pay, good conditions in the workplace, dignity, and opponents were arrested arbitrarily and even tortured.
health. It also permitted a sitting president to succeed Opposition newspapers were harrassed and, for a time,
527
Perón Creates a Populist Political Alliance in Argentina The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the prestigious newspaper La Prensa was closed by the study goes beyond the myths and looks at the woman
government. who was both loved and hated. The authors make ex-
Perón’s legacy is difficult to evaluate. He was an au- tensive use of interviews and bring out the complex
thoritarian leader who controlled the labor movement for personalities of both Evita and Juan Perón.
his own purposes, but he made organized labor a political Hodges, Donald C. Argentina, 1943-1976: The National
power. He ignored the human and political rights of his Revolution and Resistance. Albuquerque: University
opponents, shutting down newspapers, closing unions, of New Mexico Press, 1976. Hodges updates the his-
and arresting politicians, but he extended voting rights to tory of Perón’s early years in power by continuing the
women and was elected in honest and open elections. story after his downfall. Some of the unusual sources
There is agreement among his supporters and enemies, used by Hodges include interviews with Peronist
however, that Juan Perón’s election to the presidency in leaders in exile. The strength of this book is its ability
February of 1946 changed Argentina forever. to describe the variations within the Peronist move-
—James A. Baer ment that began to tear it apart when Perón returned to
power in the 1970’s.
Further Reading
Page, Joseph A. Perón, A Biography. New York: Ran-
Alexander, Robert J. Juan Domingo Perón: A History.
dom House, 1983. An easily readable book. Page uses
Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1979. Alexander
many sources but has focused on the many diplomatic
provides an excellent short account of Perón’s career.
sources available to him in Washington. This book
His interpretation reflects extensive travel to the re-
emphasizes Perón’s foreign policy and the view of
gion and interviews with many of the participants, in-
United States administrations.
cluding Perón.
Plotkin, Mariano Ben. Mañana Es San Perón: A Cultural
Barager, Joseph R., ed. Why Perón Came to Power: The
History of Peron’s Argentina. Wilmington, Del.:
Background to Peronism in Argentina. New York:
Scholarly Resources, 2002. History of Argentinian
Alfred A. Knopf, 1968. The essays in this book trace
culture and Perón’s effects upon it and place within it.
the background of Perón and his rise to power. Part 2
of the book focuses on the years 1945 and 1946, with
Rock, David. Argentina, 1516-1982. Berkeley: Univer-
essays specifically on Perón and the labor movement,
sity of California Press, 1985. A comprehensive his-
the events of October 17, 1945, and the election of
tory of Argentina from its founding as a Spanish col-
February, 1946.
ony. Attempts to give the reader the broad scope of
Crowley, Eduardo. Argentina: A Nation Divided, 1890-
history. Chapters 7 and 8 deal specifically with the
1980. London: C. Hurst, 1984. Eduardo Crowley is an
period of Perón, although Rock’s perspective is polit-
Argentine writer who brings a native perspective to
ical and economic.
the story of Perón. He quotes from many pamphlets of
the era. Anecdotes help bring the people alive. See also: Apr. 9, 1948: La Violencia Begins in Colom-
Foss, Clive. Juan and Eva Perón. Stroud, Gloucester- bia; Apr., 1952: Revolution Grips Bolivia; May,
shire, England: Sutton, 1999. Study of the Peróns sep- 1954: Military Coup Begins Thirty-Five Years of
arately and together and the contribution of Evita to Dictatorship in Paraguay; Aug. 12-18, 1959: Inter-
Perón’s presidency and legacy. Bibliographic refer- American Commission on Human Rights Is Created;
ences. Nov. 3, 1964: Reformist Bolivian President Paz
Fraser, Nicholas, and Marysa Navarro. Eva Perón. New Estenssoro Is Toppled; Dec. 13, 1968: Brazil Begins
York: W. W. Norton, 1980. Biographies about Eva Era of Intense Repression; Sept. 4, 1970: Allende
Perón often have been biased and polemical. This Wins a Close Election in Chile.
528
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech
March 5, 1946
Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech
Winston Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech was one of their Eastern partner’s occupation policy.
the inaugural moments of the Cold War. In it, the Although Great Britain’s primary enemy, Germany,
former prime minister sounded an alarm to Great was virtually defeated at the time of Churchill’s dispatch,
Britain about Soviet encroachments in Eastern Europe the United States was still fighting Japan in the Pacific.
and the Middle East. The speech reflected a Truman was suspicious of the Soviet Union, but he was
simultaneous change in U.S. foreign policy toward the advised to hope for a settlement by exercising restraint. If
Soviet Union. he had pursued a hard line, the Soviet Union might have
responded with an equally tough line and shut the West
Also known as: 1946 John Findley Green Founda- out of Berlin and Vienna. Since the atomic bomb had not
tion Lecture; “The Sinews of Peace” yet been tested, Truman’s advisers stressed the need for
Locale: Fulton, Missouri cooperation with the Russians to ensure that the Russians
Categories: Cold War; diplomacy and international would keep the promises they had made at Yalta to enter
relations the Pacific war and to work toward the establishment of a
Key Figures world organization (the United Nations). Thus, Chur-
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of chill’s top-level wartime dispatch was rejected in Wash-
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 ington. When Churchill used the phrase “Iron Curtain”
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United publicly a year later, the context had greatly changed.
States, 1945-1953 In the winter of 1946, Churchill was visiting Wash-
James Francis Byrnes (1879-1972), U.S. secretary of ington, D.C., and was invited to deliver the John Findley
state, 1945-1947 Green Foundation Lecture at Westminster College in
Fulton, Missouri. Since Truman assured Churchill that
Summary of Event he would preside at the lecture, the occasion assumed an
When Winston Churchill delivered his historic Iron Cur- official character. U.S. foreign policy still reflected con-
tain speech, he uttered a phrase that may be considered fidence in the United Nations, faith in the cooperation of
the first rhetorical shot of the Cold War. The Soviet the Soviet Union, and a belief in the idea that power poli-
Union’s postwar posture was condemned, and the former tics was an obsolete diplomatic procedure. Although tra-
ally of the West was portrayed as the arch-aggressor. The ditional American isolationism supported this policy of
dramatic character of the speech is intensified when one restraint and hope, the State Department was actually ex-
recalls that the United States, fresh from victory, was periencing the severe limitations of the policy, particu-
sighing with profound relief; war-torn Western Europe larly in Poland and Iran.
was on the brink of economic collapse; and Great Britain Secretary of State James Francis Byrnes’s agreement
had recently rejected its wartime prime minister, Chur- with the content of Churchill’s preparatory notes for the
chill, preferring instead Clement Attlee’s Labour Party speech seems to indicate that the Truman administration
with its bold social democratic schemes. was groping for new directions in foreign policy. Indeed,
The phrase “Iron Curtain” was first used by Joseph the transition in the United States’ foreign policy toward
Goebbels, Adolf Hitler’s propaganda minister, but Chur- the Soviet Union actually began in mid-February of
chill had also used it in a dispatch sent to President Harry 1946, as it moved from a position of accommodation to a
S. Truman on May 12, 1945, exactly one month after position of firmness. On February 12, 1946, Byrnes initi-
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s death. With Ger- ated a reorientation of U.S. foreign policy by taking
many’s defeat imminent, Churchill tried to persuade firmer actions in Eastern Europe. The secretary refused
Truman to disregard the occupation zones arranged at the to recognize a Soviet-inspired accommodation in Bul-
Quebec Conference in August of 1943 and to continue to garia, and he took the position that the Soviet-dominated
1946
hold firmly the Anglo-American positions in Yugosla- Romanian government was not in compliance with ear-
via, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, and Denmark. lier Allied agreements. Moreover, he formally com-
Churchill concluded his message by advising Truman plained of harassment of U.S. officials in Albania, and he
not to move his armies until the three chiefs of state had threatened to withhold U.S. recognition of their govern-
met and the Western Allies had reached agreement about ment. Likewise, he charged the Russians with holding up
529
Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
economic recovery in Hungary, and he complained vig- umnist for The New York Post wrote on March 1, “A stiff-
orously about noncompliance with the Potsdam Declara- ening American attitude toward Russia is in prospect. . . .
tion in Eastern Europe. evidence will soon be forthcoming.” Prior to the Chur-
As part of this reorientation, Byrnes went to Miami chill speech, President Truman read it with approval. Be-
for a February 17 meeting with Churchill, where the for- ginning in late 1945, The New York Times had buttressed
mer prime minister’s upcoming speech was discussed. support for a change along these lines by stepping up its
On February 22, Byrnes initiated a change in policy to- own anti-Soviet stance.
ward Iran, which encouraged that government to resist Churchill’s speech, entitled “The Sinews of Peace,”
Soviet pressure, a move that thrust the United States into was delivered on March 5, 1946, to an audience of forty
confrontation with the Soviet Union in the eastern Medi- thousand people. He opened with an urgent reminder to
terranean and the Middle East. In a speech delivered on the American people that victory in war had left them at
February 28 in New York, Byrnes announced a new pol- the pinnacle of power, where they must be sensitive to
icy of “patience and firmness” toward the Soviet Union. the demands of peace. He urged all nations to cooperate
He even called for universal military training in the with the United Nations and to add to its effectiveness by
United States. Finally, he appointed Bernard Baruch to establishing an “International Armed Force.” Churchill
the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission to pre- argued that the secrets of atomic weaponry, still re-
serve the atomic monopoly for the United States. A col- stricted to the United States, Canada, and Great Britain,
Winston Churchill (left) and President Harry S. Truman aboard the train to Fulton, Missouri, where Churchill was to deliver his Iron
Curtain speech. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
530
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech
must remain safely guarded in their hands until “the es- “An Iron Curtain Has Descended
sential brotherhood of men is truly embodied and ex- Across the Continent”
pressed in a world organization.”
Speaking again in general terms, he warned the British prime minister Winston Churchill’s “Iron Cur-
American people that, while they must be vigilant tain speech” denounced the Soviet Union and marked
against any threat of war, they should beware of another the beginning of the Cold War:
“world marauder”—tyranny—and join with all liberty-
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an
loving people, particularly their British cousins, in pro- iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind
claiming “in fearless tones the great principles of free- that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central
dom and the rights of man.” As a complement to the and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna,
United Nations, Churchill specifically called for a “fra- Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest, and Sofia . . . lie in what I
ternal association of English-speaking peoples,” which must call the Soviet sphere and all are subject in one form
would include a permanent defense agreement whereby or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high
British and American military forces would pursue a mu- and increasing measure of control from Moscow.
tual security policy. A strong Anglo-American pact was
needed to stabilize the foundations of peace.
Before the rising action of this dramatic speech
reached its climax, Churchill eased into his attack upon of his remarks immediately following the speech, Elea-
the Soviet Union’s bellicose behavior by stating his ad- nor Roosevelt, Henry Wallace (a former vice president
miration for the Russian people and his wartime com- under Roosevelt and Truman’s secretary of commerce),
rade, Joseph Stalin. As if he were talking directly to the and The New York Herald Tribune openly disagreed with
Kremlin, Churchill acknowledged their right to be se- the tone and content of Churchill’s Fulton address. Eight
cure on their western frontiers against the possibility of days after the speech, Pravda published a bitter condem-
German aggression and assured them of the Anglo- nation of the speech, expressing Stalin’s indignation that
American resolve to establish lasting friendship with the Churchill’s remarks were sowing discord among the
Soviet Union in spite of “the many differences and re- Allied governments. When Prime Minister Clement Att-
buffs.” He noted, however, that it was his duty “not to lee of Great Britain was asked to comment on the speech,
misstate the facts . . . about the present position in Eu- he diplomatically retreated with a “no comment” re-
rope.” Churchill then uttered his famous warning against sponse to Churchill’s warnings.
the “Iron Curtain” that threatened to separate central and Despite Truman and Byrnes’s earlier reorientation of
Eastern Europe from the West. their Soviet policies, the Truman administration publicly
Churchill was convinced that while the Soviet Union greeted Churchill’s speech with ambivalence. Although
did not want war, it did aim at the indefinite expansion of privately respecting the former prime minister’s vision,
its power and doctrine. Because Churchill contended that both Truman and Byrnes publicly responded to the Rus-
the Soviet Union admired strength and scoffed at military sian rejoinder and the rift in public opinion by dissociat-
weakness, his response to the descent of the Iron Curtain ing American policy from Churchill’s belligerence to-
was to propose the establishment of Western military and ward the Soviet Union. Iran, Manchuria, and the Balkans
moral unity. The first step toward such unity was to ce- were points of conflict in U.S.-Soviet relations, but the
ment an Anglo-American defense pact. As a sign of soli- Truman administration continued to pursue a coopera-
darity, on the day of Churchill’s speech, Byrnes sent tive policy. During the transition from “cooperation” to
three strong messages to the Soviet Union, questioning “containment,” public opinion appeared to be capricious
their actions in Eastern Europe, China, and Iran. in the extreme. The public opinion polls indicated a shift
In a United States seeking postwar tranquillity, the from a rejection of Churchill’s attitude to agreement with
Soviet Union’s military occupation of Eastern Europe it in a matter of a few weeks.
did not clearly reveal its political design. Confidence
1946
in the United Nations bolstered American hopes for a Significance

cooperative policy with the Soviet Union. In general, Churchill’s dramatic Iron Curtain speech set forth the
Churchill’s speech was considered shocking in its bold rhetorical terms that would guide Western foreign policy
references to Russian bellicosity. Although Churchill re- for decades. By 1947, Churchill’s Fulton utterances had
called that Truman and Byrnes indicated their approval worked their way into diplomatic realities when certain
531
Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Cold War facts became clearly visible. The Soviet Union protagonist of a joint Anglo-American political front
was exerting greater political pressure in Central and against the Soviet Union” during and after World
Eastern Europe, was uncooperative in the joint occupa- War II.
tion of Berlin, was threatening to secure bases in Turkey, Muller, James W., ed. Churchill’s “Iron Curtain”
and was interfering in a guerrilla war in Greece. When Speech Fifty Years Later. Columbia: University of
Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Greece, Missouri Press, 1999. Anthology of essays reconsid-
President Truman responded in March, 1947, with his ering the speech from a post-Cold War perspective.
Truman Doctrine, promising military and economic aid Bibliographic references and index.
to Greece and Turkey. The development of the Marshall Robertson, David. Sly and Able: A Political Biography
Plan in 1948 and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization of James F. Byrnes. New York: W. W. Norton,
(NATO) in 1949 further cemented the American com- 1994. This work places the Iron Curtain speech and
mitment to European stability. By that time, the phrase Byrnes’s role in context.
“Iron Curtain” was a common term in the diplomatic Taylor, A. J. P., ed. Churchill Revised: A Critical Assess-
rhetoric of the day, as American foreign policy gradually ment. New York: Dial Press, 1969. This collection of
emphasized containment of the Soviet Union, which was essays from four historians and one psychiatrist at-
increasingly perceived as a global menace to freedom in tempts to bring into focus one of the major figures of
the West. the period.
—Christopher J. Kauffman and Tropp, Sandra Fehl, and Ann Pierson-D’Angelo, eds. Es-
Robert Franklin Maddox says in Context. New York: Oxford University Press,
2001. Reprints the text of Churchill’s speech, “The
Further Reading
Sinews of Peace.”
Churchill, Winston S. Memoirs of the Second World
Truman, Harry S. Memoirs of Harry S. Truman. Vol. 2:
War. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1959. This volume is
The Years of Trial and Hope. New York: Doubleday,
an abridgment of the six-volume The Second World
1956. Truman’s account of his administration pro-
War. In this work, Churchill recalls events surround-
vides an interesting contrast to Churchill’s vision.
ing his famous speech.
Ferrell, Robert H. Harry S. Truman: A Life. Columbia: See also: 1943-1948: Soviets Take Control of Eastern
University of Missouri Press, 1994. Ferrell concludes Europe; Mar. 12, 1947: Truman Doctrine; Apr. 3,
that Churchill’s speech “embarrassed” the president, 1948: Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe; Jan. 25,
who backed away from it. 1949: Soviet Bloc States Establish Council for Mu-
Halle, Louis J. The Cold War as History. London: Chatto tual Economic Assistance; Apr. 4, 1949: North Atlan-
& Windus, 1967. Halle views the Fulton speech as a tic Treaty Organization Is Formed; Oct. 22, 1951:
lesson in the foreign policy education of the American United States Inaugurates Mutual Security Program;
people. Oct. 23, 1954: Western European Union Is Estab-
Harburt, Fraser J. The Iron Curtain: Churchill, America, lished; Jan. 17, 1961: Eisenhower Warns of the Mili-
and the Origins of the Cold War. New York: Oxford tary-Industrial Complex; Nov. 12, 1968-Dec., 1989:
University Press, 1986. This work focuses attention Brezhnev Doctrine Mandates Soviet Control of Satel-
on the role of Winston Churchill as “the most active lite Nations.
532
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 France Launches the Monnet Plan
March 17, 1946

France Launches the Monnet Plan
With the adoption of Jean Monnet’s economic Although there was agreement that some sort of plan
plan, France moved toward a mixed economy, was necessary, groups disagreed about the type of plan to
engaging in consensual, cooperative economic be adopted. Maintenance of political consensus was im-
planning to promote growth and modernization, portant, and planning could not appear to be inspired pri-
while maintaining the independence of the private marily by socialist principles, as such an appearance
sector. While the details of the system were debated would alienate the middle class. For that reason, de
and modified afterward, the basic concept of a mixed Gaulle, head of the provisional government at the end of
economic model became a permanent feature of the the war, endorsed the scheme put forth by Jean Monnet.
French postwar economy. Monnet’s plan had the virtue of maintaining consensus
and driving away any fears of an impending socialization
Also known as: First French four-year plan; Plan de of the French economy. Monnet moved France toward a
Modernisation et d’Equipement mixed economy, that is, one in which the government en-
Locale: France gaged in central planning while still maintaining private
Categories: Economics; government and politics enterprise.
Key Figures Monnet had started out as a businessman and had a
Jean Monnet (1888-1979), French businessman, businessman’s appreciation of the practical conduct of
technocrat, and first head of the Commissariat business affairs. During the war, he had witnessed both in
Général du Plan Great Britain and in the United States how government-
Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), head of the French led wartime mobilization could be organized in the con-
provisional government, 1944-1946, and later text of a market system. He had become convinced that
president of France, 1959-1969 the same methods could be applied in peacetime to chan-
Étienne Hirsch (d. 1994), French businessman, nel resources and capital for French modernization.
technocrat, and second head of the Commissariat From the Americans in particular, Monnet had absorbed
Général du Plan an optimistic belief in continued economic growth, a
view that stood in stark contrast to prewar France’s pessi-
Summary of Event mistic attitudes about the growth potential of the French
At the end of World War II, most political groups in economy.
France blamed the rapidity of the nation’s 1940 defeat Monnet surrounded himself with a youthful team of
by Germany on France’s economically backward posi- economic experts including Étienne Hirsch, who had
tion in the 1930’s. Both among Vichy collaborationist been a chemical industry manager in the 1930’s. This
groups and within the Free French movement headed team began work in the fall of 1945 and prepared a docu-
by General Charles de Gaulle, there grew a convic- ment that described the most immediate needs of the
tion that the social and political divisions of the 1930’s French economy. The report emphasized the need to
should be mended in order to rebuild a new and stronger modernize industrial plants during the reconstruction
France. Both groups saw economic overhaul as the key process. De Gaulle approved the Monnet team’s work
to French renovation. Only if France modernized its and in early 1946 created, through a decree, the Commis-
economy could it become again a leader in Europe and sariat Général du Plan (CGP), an agency reporting di-
the world. rectly to the head of the government that would direct the
Economic planning by the government was proposed preparation of a Plan de Modernisation et d’Equipement
as the means to promote modernization. During the Ger- (PME; modernization and equipment plan). The plan
man occupation, Vichy and Resistance planners alike was the first government effort to utilize the econometric
drew up plans for postwar modernization. At the end of technique of input-output analysis.
1946
the hostilities, a political will to plan was clearly present. A first draft of the PME was prepared hastily in early
The only potentially hostile group was the business com- 1946 and was presented March 17 so that it could be of
munity, but at the end of the war it was on the defensive, immediate use to the French government as a basis for
as accusations of businesses’ collaboration with the Ger- negotiating a loan from the United States. French eco-
mans gained credence. nomic experts were well aware that France’s moderniza-
533
France Launches the Monnet Plan The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
tion plans could not be carried out without substantial cient use possible. France’s plan was praised by the U.S.
foreign credit. France lacked necessary raw materials government and used as an example for other European
and equipment, and it did not have the financial means to countries.
import them. Monnet was one of France’s first policy
makers to realize that the United States would be the pri- Significance
mary financial resource for French modernization. For The Monnet Plan had a major impact on French recon-
that reason, Monnet took care to prepare a plan that struction. At a time when private capital was scarce, the
would address American concerns about France’s ability plan managed effectively to channel public resources to-
to put American loans to profitable use. Monnet’s efforts ward breaking production bottlenecks in sectors such as
in aiding his government to obtain loans succeeded. electricity, coal, and steel. In turn, increased production
Later, he helped France to obtain large shares of Mar- and productivity in those sectors aided the recovery of
shall Plan aid. private investment. The plan prevented, through its con-
The first completed plan was ready by the end of sensual system, waste of scarce resources that might
1946. It called for massive investment in basic sectors of have occurred without an overall sense of direction had
electricity, coal, steel, transportation, and agricultural ministries and the private sector competed with one an-
machinery. Investment in consumer-goods industries other. The ministries and the private sector, moreover,
was postponed. The plan’s first goal was to eliminate might have opted to finance outdated plants rather than
bottlenecks in the basic sectors, thus increasing produc- investing in new equipment and facilities, had the plan
tion and productivity. The planners argued that inflation not guided them to do so.
would abate as consumer demands were satisfied. Full Some errors certainly were made. Some of the plan’s
employment would be achieved, and standards of living targets were unrealistic and had to be modified. The pri-
would rise. Inflation, however, failed to respond appre- mary error by planners lay in the assumption that once
ciably. production bottlenecks had been eliminated and produc-
Monnet had to provide a planning formula that would tivity increased, inflation would be checked through the
maintain a consensus favoring planning. He and Hirsch plan’s ability to satisfy demand. Such a situation never
found such a formula by forming modernization com- materialized; the capital requirements of the plan instead
missions. These were large committees composed of probably worsened inflation. The governmental budget
representatives from different areas. The representatives ran into periodic crises and had to be rescued through in-
included businesspeople, trade union representatives, jections of Marshall Plan aid throughout 1948-1950. In-
administrators, farmers, and consumers. They would vestment expenses played an important part in keeping
discuss what needed to be done concerning each sector of France’s finances under pressure.
the economy, then reach an agreement. The consensus for planning that Monnet skillfully
Because of the consensual nature of this planning, built in 1946 and 1947 began to falter toward the end of
Monnet believed that each segment of French society 1947. International political circumstances had changed.
would be committed to carrying out the plans formulated French leftists, who had dominated the political scene at
at modernization commission meetings. This approach liberation, were now losing ground. France’s Cold War
served the purpose of maintaining political consensus choice to join the Western camp played an important part
and eliminating the coercive features that economic in this transition. The business community, which had
plans can present. The system also allowed for effective been on the defensive between 1945 and 1947, reorga-
coordination of programs that had been prepared by vari- nized and became more vocal in support of its interests.
ous French ministers without creating the impression Old links between business and government circles were
that Monnet and his team were infringing upon the min- reestablished. As a consequence, business leaders began
isters’ work. Moreover, with this system, Monnet man- to feel free to attack Monnet’s plan. The business com-
aged to bypass politically risky parliamentary discus- munity as a whole, however, never adamantly opposed
sions of France’s economic plans. Monnet’s brand of planning.
The Monnet Plan was later adapted in 1948 to fit cri- Initially, the business community had expressed ap-
teria for economic expansion all across Europe, accord- proval of the Monnet Plan, realizing that private business
ing to American requests. The adaptations were part of alone could not drive the country toward rapid recon-
Marshall Plan requirements that aid recipients devise struction and modernization. Beginning late in 1947,
economic plans to put American aid to the most effi- however, business began openly to attack aspects of the
534
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 France Launches the Monnet Plan
plan. First, private business expressed concern that too France’s economic policymaking, helping to maintain
many PME resources were channeled to the nationalized France as a major international industrial competitor.
sectors of the economy, particularly electricity and coal. — Chiarella Esposito
Second, the plan drew criticism for promoting excessive
levels of investment that endangered the country’s finan- Further Reading
cial position. Several business representatives advocated Baum, Warren C. The French Economy and the State.
a balanced budget. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1958.
Finally, there were pointed references to the PME as Still the most detailed and informative account of all
temporary. It served the purpose of setting the French aspects of French state intervention in economic af-
economy on the right track after the war, but many busi- fairs after World War II. Describes how the Monnet
ness leaders perceived that it should disappear once “nor- Plan was elaborated, its investment targets, and its
mal” conditions had returned. Conservative provincial methods of execution.
businesspeople still saw their needs in terms of 1938 pro- Ehrmann, Henry W. Organized Business in France.
duction levels, in stark contrast to the plan’s expansion- Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1957.
ary aims. At times, such conservatism worked to the Still the most thorough and informative book on the
advantage of more dynamic entrepreneurs. As one exam- French business community from the 1930’s to the
ple, the steel group USINOR was assigned more PME mid-1950’s that has appeared in the English lan-
funds at the expense of the Wendel group, because the guage.
latter was unwilling to risk investing in the latest technol- Fransen, Frederic J. The Supranational Politics of Jean
ogies. Monnet: Ideas and Origins of the European Commu-
Despite criticisms from the business community, nity. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2001. Ana-
however, there never was an outright attempt to undo the lyzes Jean Monnet’s economic and political policies
plan itself. It appears that business criticism was often and explains how they became the model for the de-
motivated by envy of the nationalized sector. The entre- velopment of the European Community and the Euro-
preneurs wanted a larger portion of PME funds and pean Union.
wanted French planners generally to use market criteria Kuisel, Richard F. Capitalism and the State in Modern
in allocating those funds. The latter desire was granted, France: Renovation and Economic Management in
as the focus of the PME shifted. In the early years of the the Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge Uni-
PME, the primary focus was on investment in the basic versity Press, 1981. The best, most comprehensive
sectors. By the early 1950’s, the focus of the second four- study of twentieth century French capitalism. Kuisel
year plan, the Hirsch Plan, had shifted to lighter and more traces the evolution of French state-capital relations
consumption-oriented industries. By then, the basic sec- from the late nineteenth century to the early 1950’s,
tors were well on their way to recovery and, in many explaining in masterly fashion how France arrived at
cases, self-sufficiency. its postwar mixed economic model.
Underlying business criticism of the plan was a fear Lynch, Frances M. B. France and the International Econ-
that some political groups in France, particularly the omy: From Vichy to the Treaty of Rome. New York:
Left, might try to transform the planning mechanism into Routledge, 1997. Comprehensive account of postwar
an instrument of what entrepreneurs considered to be ex- French economic development, includes discussions
cessive governmental intervention in the economy. In of the Monnet Plan as it relates to the Marshall Plan
other words, although it was acceptable to plan when de- and as it affected French agriculture in particular.
cisions were made in a collegial fashion and with the par- Shennan, Andrew. Rethinking France: Plans for Re-
ticipation of business leaders, planning would antago- newal, 1940-1946. Oxford, England: Clarendon
nize businesspeople if it became a form of strict business Press, 1989. Part 1 offers a general introduction on the
regulation. The Monnet Plan never sought to drive the spirit of renewal present in France during and after
French economy toward socialization, however. To the World War II. Chapters 10 and 11 of part 2 tackle
1946
contrary, French planners managed to create a type of economic issues directly and offer an interpretation
planning compatible with free enterprise. French plan- different from Kuisel’s Capitalism and the State in
ning was born as, and continued to be, a flexible mecha- Modern France. Shennan sees fewer elements of con-
nism that could adapt itself to changing market circum- tinuity between pre- and postwar state intervention in
stances. Planning remained as a permanent feature of the economy.
535
Parker’s Playing Epitomizes Bebop The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Wall, Irwin M. The United States and the Making of economic policy. Gives a well-documented account
Postwar France, 1945-1954. New York: Cambridge of France’s 1946 negotiations for a loan from the
University Press, 1991. Chapter 6 of this comprehen- United States to cover modernization expenses.
sive survey of Franco-American relations after World
See also: Mar. 15, 1944: France Grants Suffrage to
War II offers an analysis of the implementation of the
Women; Apr. 3, 1948: Marshall Plan Provides Aid to
Marshall Plan in France and its links with France’s
Europe.
March 28, 1946

Parker’s Playing Epitomizes Bebop
Charlie Parker’s first 1946 recording session for Dial In 1937, Parker spent the summer playing with a band
Records produced some of the finest jazz recordings of in the Ozarks. He spent all of his free time that summer
the bebop era and helped to define a style that would practicing the saxophone and studying the records of the
prove influential in jazz history. Count Basie band, a Kansas City mainstay. Lester Young
(known as Prez, or the President), the featured tenor sax-
Also known as: “Moose the Mooche”; “Yardbird ophonist in the Basie band, was one of Parker’s favorite
Suite”; “A Night in Tunisia”; “Ornithology” musicians, and he memorized all of Young’s recorded
Locale: Los Angeles, California solos. When Parker came back to Kansas City, he was a
Category: Music changed musician. He played with a new confidence, an
Key Figures improved technique, and a greater understanding of mu-
Charlie Parker (Bird; 1920-1955), American alto sic than he had had only a few months earlier.
saxophonist, composer, and bandleader From that point on, Parker’s musical ability increased
Dizzy Gillespie (1917-1993), American trumpeter, rapidly and dramatically. He played in various bands, in-
composer, and bandleader cluding that of Jay McShann, and traveled to Chicago
Miles Davis (1926-1991), American trumpeter, and New York. All the while, he worked to increase his
composer, and bandleader knowledge and understanding of music. His relentless
Billy Eckstine (1914-1993), American singer, desire to become a better musician stood him in good
musician, and bandleader stead; he demonstrated in his playing a discipline that
was lacking in his personal life. Like many musicians of
Summary of Event his era, he fell victim at an early age to drug and alcohol
There was nothing in the early life of Charlie Parker to in- abuse. This proclivity to indulge himself to excess ulti-
dicate the remarkable achievements he was to make. Born mately contributed to his early death, but his fierce deter-
in Kansas City, Kansas, he began his musical career by mination enabled him to achieve musical greatness de-
playing the baritone horn in high school. He gained some spite it.
musical knowledge playing the horn, but he had another In 1943, in New York, Parker joined the band of pia-
instrument in mind. When he was fifteen years old, he per- nist Earl Hines. He met a number of other fine young mu-
suaded his mother to buy him an alto saxophone. From sicians who were, like him, open to experimentation.
then on, Parker neglected school to concentrate on play- These musicians, who included trumpeter Dizzy Gilles-
ing music. Initially, however, his efforts bore little fruit. pie, trombonist Benny Harris, and singer and bandleader
Parker was fortunate in being able to play profession- Billy Eckstine, were tired of playing the same old music
ally early on, and he gained valuable experience both on and wanted to find a new way to play. They, and other
the bandstand and by asking questions of the more expe- musicians, were experimenting with new harmonies,
rienced musicians with whom he worked. After having new rhythmic patterns, and new approaches of all kinds.
played for only one year, he joined the band of Lawrence Parker became particularly close to Gillespie, who was
Keyes (bassist Gene Ramey later recalled that Parker as restless an innovator as himself. In 1944, Gillespie,
was the worst player in the band), and later he played fre- Parker, and a host of superb young musicians joined the
quently with alto saxophonist Buster Smith, who became newly formed Billy Eckstine band, which became a kind
his mentor. of incubator for the music that came to be called bebop
536
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Parker’s Playing Epitomizes Bebop
(the word is derived from a rhythmic pattern that oc- After he left the Eckstine band, Parker played and re-
curred frequently in the music). corded in New York in a small band with Dizzy Gilles-
Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie, along with such pie, after which he organized a band of his own that in-
musicians as pianists Thelonious Monk and Bud Powell, cluded the young trumpeter Miles Davis, who received
pianist and arranger Tadd Dameron, and drummer the schooling of his life trying to keep up with Parker’s
Kenny Clarke, revolutionized the world of jazz. The blazing tempi. It was partly the experience of trying (and
style that they developed featured harmonies more com- being unable) to play as cleanly and rapidly as the virtu-
plex than those that had previously been heard in popular osic Parker and Gillespie that led Davis to develop the
music, a tendency to rework standard songs to create en- style that made him famous, which involved playing
tirely new musical entities, and a new approach to drum- only what he considered the essential notes—the fewer
ming that rejected the usual straightforward four-to-the- the better.
bar approach in favor of less regular accents. In addition, Parker was involved in a number of recording ses-
they often played this complex music at fast tempi that sions in 1946 that yielded classic jazz recordings, but one
intimidated all but the very best players. Within a rela- of the finest took place in Los Angeles, where Parker had
tively short period, these players were lionized by many traveled with Gillespie’s band. Although their music,
young musicians. They were also reviled by many oth- which was quite popular in New York, was not well re-
ers, particularly those who could neither understand nor ceived in Los Angeles, and although Parker struggled fi-
play their music. Both attitudes served to increase the no- nancially there and had difficulty procuring the heroin
toriety of the music. and other drugs he required, he remained in Los Angeles
when the rest of the Gillespie band returned to New
York.
Parker’s recording date for Dial Records, a company
that had just been founded by Ross Russell, previously a
record-shop owner, began inauspiciously. Pianist Joe
Albany and bassist Red Callender left Parker’s band just
before the session. Replacements were found at the last
minute, however, and the session, which took place on
March 28, 1946, included Miles Davis on trumpet,
To view image, please refer to print edition Lucky Thompson on tenor sax, Dodo Marmarosa on pi-
ano, Arv Garrison on guitar, Vic McMillan on bass, and
Roy Porter on drums.
The four pieces recorded for Dial on March 28 in-
cluded two tunes by Parker, “Moose the Mooche”
(named for Parker’s local drug dealer) and “Yardbird
Suite”; one by Dizzy Gillespie, “A Night in Tunisia”; and
a piece by Benny Harris, “Ornithology,” which was de-
rived from a solo Parker had played with Jay McShann.
Parker’s playing throughout the session was superb, and
all the recordings made that day are still studied and ap-
preciated by jazz musicians and aficionados. A few of the
recordings were truly remarkable.
Parker’s four-bar solo on the first take of “A Night in
Tunisia” was an astounding example of bebop playing
that jazz critic Gary Giddins has called a “break of ba-
roque complexity and numbing speed” and Ira Gitler has
1946
described as “a miniature history of modern jazz.” Un-

Charlie Parker’s bebop style brought him international recog- fortunately, the rest of the band had difficulty with the
nition. Here he plays the saxophone on May 8, 1949, opening piece, and the take was unsuccessful and incomplete.
day of the International Jazz Festival in Paris. (AP/Wide The solo was so remarkable, however, that Dial released
World Photos) it in incomplete form as “Famous Alto Break.” The three
537
Parker’s Playing Epitomizes Bebop The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
recorded versions (four were made, but the second was playing completely different notes over a particular
lost) of “Ornithology” were also excellent, and the final chord gives the music an entirely different sound. It was
(and fastest) version contained a solo by Parker that this sound that beboppers enjoyed and certain other play-
would stand as one of the finest of his career. The two ers and listeners despised.
versions of “Yardbird Suite” were notable for the “cool” Another area in which bebop differed from earlier
style of Parker’s playing (as opposed to his frequent “fi- forms of jazz was that of drumming. During the swing
ery” style), and the three takes of “Moose the Mooche” era, it was common for drummers to play the bass drum
contained some fine playing by Miles Davis on trumpet, on every beat, or every other beat, of the bar, which
as well as excellent playing by Parker. tended to give the music a predictable sound. Bebop
Parker signed over half of his proceeds from the ses- drummers such as Kenny Clarke and Max Roach, how-
sion to Moose the Mooche to cover his drug debts. Not ever, began to keep time on the cymbals, reserving the
long after, as a result of drug abuse, lack of money and bass drum for punctuation at irregular intervals. Using
acceptance, and stress, Parker wound up in a mental in- the bass drum in this way was called “dropping bombs.”
stitution in Camarillo, California. After six months in the In addition, bebop drummers tended to play in a some-
hospital, however, he emerged healthy and ready to play, what softer, more legato style that made it possible to use
and he went on to make many more classic recordings a wider range of sounds and play more flexibly. In con-
before his premature death in 1955. trast, swing drummers were required to adhere more rig-
idly to the specific role of keeping the beat. Although
Significance bebop drummers also kept the beat, they tended to imply
Parker’s March 28, 1946, recording session for Dial Rec- it rather than to mark it explicitly.
ords was significant because it produced recordings that It was not only bebop drummers who took a new ap-
would come to be considered essential by musicians, proach to rhythm. Saxophonists, trumpeters, trombon-
critics, and fans. The body of Parker’s best work was im- ists, pianists, and bassists also experimented with new
portant, because his music, more than that of any other ways of accenting notes and phrases, and they sought to
artist, defined bebop. The influence of bebop changed use in their solos and compositions rhythmic patterns
popular music in general, and jazz in particular, forever. that had not been commonly used up to that time. Parker
One indication of the influence of bebop is the fact that was a master of rhythmic phrasing, as even the most cur-
certain aspects of the music that shocked at least some sory exposure to his music will demonstrate. Many well-
listeners in the 1940’s sound perfectly normal to modern known swing musicians had difficulty learning to “feel”
ears. The innovations of Parker, Gillespie, Monk, and this new rhythmic approach. One common practice in
many others are now heard commonly not only in jazz bebop (it had also been used by earlier musicians) was
but also in rock and pop music, film and television that of soloists playing in such a way that they seemed to
scores, and even in Muzak. be slightly behind (slower than) the rhythm section. This
One of the most important influences of bebop had to practice gave the music a particular kind of swing feeling
do with its use of harmonic structures that were more that is difficult to define but easy to hear.
complex than those that had been used in earlier jazz. It Another important contribution of beboppers was that
was common practice in jazz playing to use the harmonic they raised the standards of musicianship. Musicians
structure of a recognizable song as a jumping-off point such as Parker and Dizzy Gillespie were so technically
for improvisation, but a bebop player would play, when a skilled that they could play music that many established
particular chord was called for, notes that were different musicians simply could not play. One feature of bebop
from those that a swing player would use. For example, was that it was frequently played at extremely fast tempi,
when a swing player was improvising over a piece of mu- which meant that in order to play the music effectively, a
sic that called for a C dominant seventh (C7) chord, he or musician had to have a high level of technical ability. It
she would be likely to play the notes that are part of that often happened that when musicians who were not com-
chord: C, E, G, and B-flat. A bebop player, however, pletely grounded in bebop attempted to play with bebop-
would be likely to play the notes D, F-sharp, and A over pers, they found that they simply could not keep up. The
the same chord, actually playing a thirteenth chord in- high level of musicianship exhibited by the beboppers
stead of a seventh chord. This practice is known as play- performed a tremendous service to jazz, because it pro-
ing the extensions of the chords that are specified. One vided young musicians with an extremely high level of
does not need to have musical training to understand that skill to which to aspire.
538
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Parker’s Playing Epitomizes Bebop
Parker’s Dial Records recording session of March 28, ton: Northeastern University Press, 1999. Focuses on
1946, provides a superb example of the features of bebop Parker’s music, analyzing his recordings session by
playing. In addition, it should be noted that Parker’s session. Musically knowledgeable individuals will
playing here, as elsewhere, demonstrates an extremely find it particularly useful, but it can be read profitably
unusual combination of tremendous creativity, passion- by those who do not have a strong background in mu-
ate emotional intensity, and remarkable technical skill. sic. Includes an “analysis section” that is particularly
Many musicians exhibit one or two of these qualities, but useful. Also includes numerical and alphabetical list-
only the greatest possess all three. Charlie Parker was ings of Parker’s recordings. Highly recommended.
certainly one of the finest musicians in the history of jazz, Komara, Edward M., comp. The Dial Recordings of
and his music continues to inspire players and listeners. Charlie Parker: A Discography. Westport, Conn.:
—Shawn Woodyard Greenwood Press, 1998. Complete discography of the
ten Parker Dial recording sessions, including com-
Further Reading
mentary and analysis. Bibliographic references and
Feather, Leonard. Inside Jazz. Reprint. New York: Da
indexes.
Capo Press, 1977. Originally published in 1949 as In-
Reisner, Robert George. Bird: The Legend of Charlie
side Bebop, when bebop was at its peak, this is per-
Parker. Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, 1977. A
haps the finest book available on the subject. An ex-
sourcebook made up of reminiscences about Parker
tremely important and influential book.
by those who knew him: musicians, friends, and rela-
Giddins, Gary. Celebrating Bird: The Triumph of Char-
tives. Includes a chronological chart of Parker’s life
lie Parker. New York: Beech Tree Books, 1987. An
and a useful discography.
excellent study of Parker’s life and music by a fine
Russell, Ross. Bird Lives! The High Life and Hard Times
contemporary jazz critic. Particularly interesting for
of Charlie (Yardbird) Parker. New York: Charter-
its examination of Parker’s early years, based on the
house, 1973. This fascinating and informative book
reminiscences of his first wife. Includes a selected bib-
was written by the owner of Dial Records, who knew
liography and many fine black-and-white photographs.
Parker well. This is a useful source, although it should
Gitler, Ira. “Charlie Parker and the Alto and Baritone
not be viewed as accurate in every detail. Best used in
Saxophonists.” In Jazz Masters of the Forties. New
combination with other sources. Includes an index
York: Collier, 1974. This chapter provides a rela-
and a discography.
tively brief but surprisingly comprehensive study of
Parker’s life, music, and influence. An excellent place See also: Jan. 21, 1949-Mar. 9, 1950: Davis Develops
to begin a study of Parker. 1950’s Cool Jazz; July 17-18, 1954: First Newport
Haydon, Geoffrey. Quintet of the Year. Toronto, Ont.: Jazz Festival Is Held; Spring, 1955: Berry’s “Maybel-
MacFarlane, Walter & Ross, 2002. The story of a per- lene” Popularizes Rock and Roll; 1956-1957: Presley
formance often regarded as the greatest jazz concert Becomes a Rock-and-Roll Sensation; Sept. 26, 1957:
in history, featuring Parker, Gillespie, Powell, Roach, Bernstein Joins Symphonic and Jazz Elements in
and Charles Mingus. Bibliographic references, discog- West Side Story; Mar. 15, 1966: Brown Introduces
raphy, and index. Funk Music; May 12, 1967: Hendrix Releases Acid
Koch, Lawrence O. Yardbird Suite: A Compendium of Rock Album Are You Experienced?; Aug., 1969: Da-
the Music and Life of Charlie Parker. Rev. ed. Bos- vis Introduces Jazz-Rock Fusion. 1946
539
Truman Orders Seizure of the Railroads The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
May 17-25, 1946

Truman Orders Seizure of the Railroads
Amid the crises of U.S. postwar economic the workplace were only a few of the factors that exacer-
reconversion, President Harry S. Truman ordered bated labor leaders’ growing discontent with the postwar
seizure of the railroads, accelerating a reconsideration world.
of relations among government, business, and labor. The strikes of 1945 and 1946 affected about 1 percent
of the total labor force. In many respects, industrial recon-
Also known as: Executive Order 9727 version was proceeding satisfactorily, if not smoothly.
Locale: Washington, D.C. At the peak of these stoppages, nearly 550 strikes were in
Categories: Government and politics; business and progress, constituting a loss of more than 3 percent of
labor; transportation available workers’ time and directly involving about 1.4
Key Figures million men and women. Statistics, however, can ob-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United scure the critical economic importance of the industries
States, 1945-1953 that were being struck: steel, automobiles, petroleum,
John Roy Steelman (1900-1999), a Truman meatpacking, and—most important, because the nation’s
administration aide and negotiator with the railroad power was so dependent upon it—coal mining. Addi-
unions tional threats of a nationwide railroad strike, one capable
Alvanley Johnston (1875-1951), president of the of paralyzing nearly all economic activity, further aggra-
Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers vated President Harry S. Truman.
Alexander Fell Whitney (1873-1949), president of the Until the spring of 1946, Truman had been a model of
Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen patience in dealing with the nation’s labor problems.
Clark Clifford (1906-1998), a Truman administration From the beginning of his political career in Missouri
aide, and later U.S. secretary of defense, 1968-1969 through his days in the U.S. Senate, Truman had been a
Clifford Case (1904-1982), U.S. representative from trusted friend of organized labor and had enjoyed its
New Jersey, 1945-1954 staunch support in all of his elections, including his run
for the vice presidency during Franklin D. Roosevelt’s
Summary of Event fourth and last presidential campaign. In addition, during
The year following the end of World War II was filled his years in the Senate, Truman had earned high repute as
with a succession of crises in the United States attending an expert in railroad affairs.
domestic readjustments to peace. Organized labor had Consequently, at the first hint of a rail strike in early
fared well between 1939 and 1945 relative to the Depres- 1946, Truman invoked the Railway Labor Act of 1926,
sion years of the 1930’s, but the swift demobilization of which called for a sixty-day mediation period while the
13 million service personnel, the lasting effects of many principal issue, a wage hike, was negotiated. To oversee
wartime economic restrictions, and the destabilizing re- negotiations between railroad management and repre-
sults of industrial reconversions, rising prices, and un- sentatives of twenty rail unions, Truman appointed
slaked consumption provoked an unprecedented erup- Secretary of Labor Lewis Schwellenbach. Negotiations
tion of labor unrest. languished for months despite the passage of Schwel-
During the spring and summer of 1946, the United lenbach’s responsibilities as mediator to economist and
States was paralyzed by a record wave of strikes, and still White House staffer John Roy Steelman.
more and worse strikes were feared. Despite full employ- In April, although eighteen of the disaffected unions
ment during wartime, comparatively high wages, and had agreed to an accommodation, two of them, each es-
much overtime work, organized labor felt restrained by sential to railroad operations, notified the Truman ad-
the imposition of many wartime regulations and by the ministration of a strike to begin on May 18. Together, the
results of its wartime cooperation with management. The two unions—the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers
consolidations and mergers of many industries—that is, and the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen—were capa-
what appeared to be a continuing trend toward monop- ble of pulling 280,000 railroad workers from their jobs.
oly—and suspicions that management had used patrio- This potentially disastrous situation was further compli-
tism to garner exorbitant shares of profits while abusing cated by the fact that Alvanley Johnston, president of the
labor’s voluntarism as a means of regaining control of Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, and Alexander
540
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Truman Orders Seizure of the Railroads
Fell Whitney, president of the Brotherhood of Railroad strike settlement. The conscription of railroad workers
Trainmen, were longtime political allies of Truman. he was recommending was rendered unnecessary.
Both were distinguished veteran union men whose quar-
rels with railroad management were venerable. Both had Significance
supported Truman in his 1940 Senate race, as well as in The deep issues involved in the strike conflict reasserted
his run for the vice presidency. themselves over the following months and years. One
On May 17, the president summoned Whitney and such issue concerned the extent of and limitations on
Johnston to the White House. There, the union leaders ar- presidential powers. The issue had surfaced regularly
gued that their men were demanding a work stoppage. during each of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administrations.
Truman responded by signing an executive order autho- Truman’s proposal to use federal authority not only to
rizing government seizure and operation of the railroads. break a strike but to do so by drafting strikers into the
Under this pressure, Whitney and Johnston agreed to a armed forces dramatically revived that issue. Although
strike delay of five days. In the interim, troops seized the management and a majority of the public praised Tru-
railroads and Truman called upon other political figures man’s toughness and his forceful display of public char-
to urge compromise upon the union leaders. He proposed acter, many of his associates, aides, and friends believed
an 18.5-cent-per-hour pay raise for railroad workers, that his radio and congressional addresses were patently
more generous than the raise recommended by a fact- unconstitutional, as well as intemperate.
finding commission. Whitney and Johnston remained in- Stronger denunciations came from Truman’s former
tractable. friends, Whitney and Johnston. Their views were echoed
Media attention focused on the White House as the loudly by virtually every major U.S. labor leader. These
strike deadline approached. An hour before the sched- leaders variously depicted the president as a dictator, a
uled strike, on May 23, Truman addressed nearly nine fascist, or a communist, vowing a complete withdrawal
hundred wounded veterans on the South Lawn, con- of their support. This was a predictable reaction, consid-
scious of the contrast between their sacrifices and the ering that labor’s battles against hostile uses of federal
dangers posed to the country by two union leaders. Be- authority were integral parts of labor history. Unions, at
hind him, inside the White House, negotiations remained least until the mid-1930’s, not only had had to contend
stalemated. At five o’clock, as scheduled, the strike be- with antilabor legislation but also had been obliged to
gan. Its impact was immediate. Neither the great rail fight for their existence against the government’s em-
strike of 1877 nor the American Railway Union’s strike ployment or support of strikebreaking court injunctions,
of 1894 had so completely paralyzed rail traffic. Of the judicial repression of organizing and strike tactics
nation’s nearly 200,000 freight and passenger trains, through dubious applications of the Sherman Antitrust
about 400 remained operative amid the vast disruption. Act, federal resort to the Army to quell labor distur-
The White House at once came under fire for its apparent bances, and government prosecution and imprisonment
failure to steer negotiations to a successful conclusion. of labor leaders. Reforms embodied in the National La-
Truman’s reaction—one opposed by many of his cab- bor Relations Act (1935) and other prolabor legislation
inet members, friends, and aides—was a public expres- during the 1930’s were of too recent vintage in 1946 to
sion of rage. The following day, he drafted a blistering erase such memories.
radio speech. In its original version, the speech bitterly Broader than the issue of presidential power, there-
denounced the unions’ leaders, sharply and inaccurately fore, was the issue of what role government should play,
contrasting their pay with his own and, with equal inac- if any, in critical disputes between management and la-
curacy, comparing the pay of railroad workers with that bor. This in turn was just one part of a more general and
of soldiers. It simultaneously vilified other labor leaders, widely discussed question about the role of government
along with Congress, and virtually called for vigilantism in the economy as a whole. Immediately after settlement
against those who jeopardized the nation’s welfare. Al- of the rail strike, there were two related matters before
though it remained tough, the speech was materially re- Congress: One was Truman’s earlier proposal for a man-
1946
fined and softened by White House aide Clark Clifford datory cooling-off period and specified fact-finding
before its 10:00 p.m. delivery. As negotiations resumed procedures before strikes occurred. The counterpoint to
on May 25, Truman delivered an extended version to Truman’s proposal was a conservative bill authored in
Congress, urging approval to draft strikers. Even as Tru- February, 1946, by Representative Clifford Case of New
man spoke, however, he was handed a note confirming a Jersey. The Case bill called for a thirty-day cooling-off
541
Truman Orders Seizure of the Railroads The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
period before a strike could take effect, the use of injunc- strike included, during the Truman administration.
tions—particularly in regard to boycotts—and provi- Needs to be supplemented, but useful. Many photos,
sions to make both labor and management liable for useful index.
breaching labor contracts. Each of these provisos Donovan, Robert J. Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency
sounded alarms in labor’s camp. of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948. New York: W. W.
The flow of the Case bill through Congress coincided Norton, 1977. Accurate and detailed. Written by a na-
with a series of national emergencies caused by conflicts tional columnist. Superior to most academic works.
between workers and management. Nationwide coal Many photos, chapter notes, splendid index.
strikes and two seizures of that industry by presidential Gosnell, Harold F. Truman’s Crises: A Political Biogra-
fiat were followed by Truman’s seizure of the country’s phy of Harry S. Truman. Westport, Conn.: Green-
major meatpacking plants, oil producing and refining fa- wood Press, 1980. The author is a noted political sci-
cilities, and tugboat and towing company equipment. entist. The prose is uninspired but well organized.
Truman coped simultaneously with major steel, electri- Chapter notes, useful bibliography, good index. Chap-
cal, and auto industry strikes. These crises and responses ter 22 pertains to the railroad strike and its context.
exhausted patience—and often judgment—in all quar- Halpern, Martin. Unions, Radicals, and Democratic
ters. Reflecting popular sentiments, the congressional Presidents: Seeking Social Change in the Twentieth
stance toward labor hardened. As might have been ex- Century. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003. Study of
pected, the Case bill was sharper by the time it came un- the twentieth century relationship between organized
der Senate consideration. It struck Truman as so antilabor and Democratic presidential administrations.
labor that he vetoed the bill. The veto was sustained, but Bibliographic references and index.
Truman did not regain the favor that he had lost among McCullough, David. Truman. New York: Simon &
labor leaders by his handling of the railroad strike. Schuster, 1992. Overwritten and duplicative of many
The notion persisted inside and outside Congress that other works on Truman and his presidency. The writ-
the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (also known as ing falls below the standard of McCullough’s usually
the Wagner Act) had tipped the bargaining scale too far exciting prose. A weighty synthesis worth reading by
to labor’s side. For decades before, lawmakers and the those who previously knew little of Truman’s presi-
country at large had cried out for curbs on business trusts dency. Many photos, source notes, fine bibliography,
and would-be monopolies, pleas in time sanctified in leg- and index.
islation and eventually in judicial interpretations. Justifi- Miller, Merle. Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of
ably or not, what presidents and Congress sought were Harry S. Truman. New York: Berkley, 1974. Miller’s
viable formulas by which to right this apparent imbal- observations are acute and affectionate. Much on Tru-
ance, which now appeared overly favorable to labor. man’s special knowledge of railroads. Good index.
The Labor-Management Relations Act of 1947 (the Miller, Richard Lawrence. Truman: The Rise to Power.
Taft-Hartley Act), coming hard on the labor tumult of New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986. Excellent reading,
1946, appeared to be the most politic solution, although it accurate and informative. Fine background on Tru-
would soon be contested bitterly as a “slave labor law,” man’s experience and character, including his under-
and become a burning issue in the 1948 and 1952 presi- standing of railroad labor problems in pre-White
dential elections. The Taft-Hartley Act retained labor’s House days. Photos. Excellent notes replace bibliog-
rights under the Wagner Act, but it juxtaposed to the list raphy.
of prohibited “unfair” practices of management a corre- Robertson, Paul L., ed. Authority and Control in Modern
sponding list of “unfair” labor practices of unions, seek- Industry: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives.
ing to establish a stable balance between the two sides. New York: Routledge, 1999. Collection of case stud-
—Clifton K. Yearley ies of the relations between labor and management
through history. Bibliographic references and index.
Further Reading Truman, Harry S. Year of Decisions. Vol. 1 in Memoirs.
Ayers, Eben A. Truman in the White House: The Diary of Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1955. Inimitable Tru-
Eben A. Ayers. Edited by Robert H. Ferrell. Colum- man, pithy and deceptively straightforward. Good
bia: University of Missouri Press, 1991. Edited by a perspectives on the strike wave, the railroad strike,
leading authority on Truman, this is a literate, intelli- and presidential reactions. Good index. Refreshing
gent, abbreviated account of the flow of events, rail and invaluable.
542
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Canada’s Citizenship Act Is Passed
See also: Nov. 2, 1948: Truman Is Elected President; Pont to Disburse GM Holdings; Apr. 11, 1967: Su-
Apr. 8, 1952: Truman Orders Seizure of Steel Plants; preme Court Rules Against a Procter & Gamble
Dec. 5, 1955: AFL and CIO Merge; Dec. 5, 1957: Merger; July 5, 1967: AT&T Is Ordered to Reduce
AFL-CIO Expels the Teamsters Union; Sept. 14, Charges; Oct. 30, 1970: Congress Creates Amtrak to
1959: Landrum-Griffin Act Targets Union Corrup- Save Passenger Rail Service.
tion; May 22, 1961: U.S. Supreme Court Orders Du
July 1, 1946
Canada’s Citizenship Act Is Passed
The Citizenship Act established Canada’s first legal the climate or requirements of Canada. Although the
definition of citizenship. It reflected a growing 1952 act would substitute “ethnic group” for “race,” not
Canadian nationalism, sparked largely by Canada’s until 1962 would Canada finally end racial discrimina-
participation, separate from Great Britain, in World tion in admissions.
War II. Unlike the United States, which set numerical quotas
designed to limit or exclude nationalities deemed unde-
Locale: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada sirable, Canada left it to ministerial and bureaucratic dis-
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history; civil cretion to reject or approve individual applicants for
rights and liberties admission. Pre-World War II immigration policy en-
Key Figures couraged immigration from Great Britain, the United
John G. Diefenbaker (1895-1979), Canadian member States, and the countries of Western Europe. Italians,
of Parliament, 1940-1979, and prime minister, Slavs, Greeks, and Jews were thought of as less assimila-
1957-1963 ble and less desirable; their access to Canada was limited
William Lyon Mackenzie King (1874-1950), Canadian or denied. Asians were barred. By government policy, all
prime minister, 1921-1926, 1926-1930, 1935-1948 blacks appearing at Canada’s border with the United
Paul Joseph James Martin (1903-1992), Canadian States were refused admission on medical grounds, a de-
member of Parliament, 1935-1968, secretary of cision from which there was no appeal.
state, 1945-1946, and minister of national health Non-British subjects lawfully admitted to permanent
and welfare, 1946-1957 residence in Canada who were more than twenty-one
years of age and had resided in Canada for five years
Summary of Event could apply to the nearest court for naturalization. They
Before passage of the 1946 Canadian Citizenship Act would be asked to produce evidence that they were of
there were, in the strict legal sense, no Canadian citizens. good character and met the requirements of the immigra-
Legally, Canadians were British subjects. British sub- tion laws. If the court agreed, the candidate would, upon
jects born outside Canada, unless specifically prohibited, renouncing all foreign allegiances and taking an oath of
became Canadians upon establishing permanent resi- allegiance to the monarch of Great Britain, be natural-
dence in Canada without need of any further formalities. ized as a British subject and a Canadian national.
This situation, however, failed to satisfy the growing na- Canadian nationalism had been growing as a cultural
tionalism of twentieth century Canada. and political force from the time Canada became a self-
The only legislation defining Canadian nationality governing dominion in 1867, and it intensified as Canada
before 1946 was contained in various immigration and began to develop its own foreign policy and sent an army
naturalization acts. Under these acts, non-British immi- to fight in World War II. Nationalists wanted a definition
grants were regulated in order to implement a “white of Canadian nationality that expressed the country’s
1946
Canada” policy. Canada’s Chinese Exclusion Act of uniqueness and removed all vestiges of the colonial past.
1885 barred immigration from that country. The Immi- Paul Joseph James Martin, the son of an Irish father and a
gration Act of 1910 continued and extended that policy, French Canadian mother, had been powerfully affected
by authorizing the cabinet minister responsible for immi- by the sacrifices of Canadian troops during World War II.
gration control to exclude any race deemed unsuitable to When he became secretary of state in the Liberal Party
543
Canada’s Citizenship Act Is Passed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
administration of William Lyon Mackenzie King in 1945,

the first piece of legislation Martin undertook to move
through Parliament was a law that would define Cana-
dian citizenship specifically.
Martin hoped that a Canadian citizenship separate
from that of Great Britain would serve as a unifying sym-
bol for the nation, one that would overcome sectional dif-
ferences among the provinces and bring together French-
and English-speaking Canadians. John G. Diefenbaker
led the Progressive Conservative Party opposition to the
bill, arguing that distinguishing Canadian citizens from
other British subjects would lead to dissension and an un-
desirable split in the British Commonwealth of Nations.
With the strong support of King, however, the objections
of opponents were overcome, and the bill became law on
July 1, 1946, to take effect on January 1, 1947.
Under the act, all persons who had been born in Can-
ada or on a Canadian ship, except children of foreign dip- Canadian secretary of state Paul Joseph James Martin (left)
lomats, were declared to be natural-born citizens of Can- and Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King at the open-
ada, entitled to a certificate to that effect. King proudly ing session of the United Nations General Assembly in October,
accepted the first such certificate on January 3, 1947, in 1946. (Library and Archive Canada)
an elaborate ceremony inaugurating the act. Children
born outside Canada before January 1, 1947, to fathers
who had been born in Canada, who were British subjects sponsibilities and privileges of Canadian citizenship. A
with permanent residences in Canada, or who had been certificate of citizenship would be issued when an appli-
naturalized under Canadian law, also would be consid- cant, in open court, renounced all conflicting allegiances
ered to be natural-born Canadian citizens. A person born and took an oath to bear true allegiance to the monarch of
outside Canada after December 31, 1946, would be a Great Britain, to uphold faithfully the laws of Canada,
natural-born citizen if the father were a Canadian citizen, and to fulfill all duties of a Canadian citizen.
the child’s birth were registered with the appropriate au- Other provisions permitted persons to apply for natu-
thorities by the age of two years, and the child either ralization after they had been resident legally for at least
established residency in Canada or filed a declaration three of the previous four years and as early as eighteen
of retention of Canadian citizenship before reaching years of age. Applications were heard by a citizenship
twenty-one years of age. court that judged whether a candidate met the require-
The act provided that all who had been included in a ments on language proficiency and knowledge of Can-
certificate of naturalization before January 1, 1947, as ada. If accepted, the candidate took a prescribed oath of
well as all British subjects with a permanent residence in citizenship, promising allegiance to Canada’s monarch,
Canada, were Canadian citizens. It treated citizenship as pledging respect for Canadian laws, and promising to
a personal and individual right of women. A woman who fulfill all duties of a citizen. There were no special privi-
was a Canadian citizen would no longer lose her nation- leges for British subjects, and the law spoke of Canadi-
ality upon marriage to an alien, nor would marriage to a ans as also “citizens of the Commonwealth” rather than
Canadian citizen confer Canadian nationality. Previ- British subjects.
ously, women had gained or lost nationality by marriage.
Aliens, as well as British subjects who were not al- Significance
ready Canadian citizens, had to fulfill certain require- The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 was the first of a
ments to be naturalized. They had to be twenty-one years set of developments that both responded to and strength-
of age, have been lawfully admitted to permanent resi- ened the sense of Canadian national identity. Canada’s
dency, have lived in Canada for at least five years, be of participation independent of Great Britain in the United
good character, have an adequate knowledge of either Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
English or French, and demonstrate knowledge of the re- (NATO), the appointment from 1952 on of Canadians
544
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Canada’s Citizenship Act Is Passed
rather than British aristocrats as governors-general of Brubaker, William Rogers, ed. Immigration and the Pol-
Canada, the change in the royal title to Queen of Canada itics of Citizenship in Europe and North America.
in 1953, and the adoption of the red maple leaf Canadian Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1989. Ar-
flag in 1964 all helped reinforce and confirm belief in ticles compare the impact of postwar mass immigra-
Canadian uniqueness. tion on citizenship policies on both sides of the At-
The main challenge to this idea of nationality came lantic.
from the province of Quebec, where belief in the special Cairns, Alan, and Cynthia Williams. Constitutionalism,
character of French Canadian culture led to demands, Citizenship, and Society in Canada. Toronto, Ont.:
first for autonomy and then for establishment of a sepa- University of Toronto Press, 1985. Explores the rela-
rate sovereign nation to protect that culture. Many resi- tionship among citizenship, social change, and the
dents of Quebec think of themselves primarily as Qué- evolution of political communities in Canada.
bécois rather than Canadian. Referenda in the province Hawkins, Freda. Canada and Immigration: Public Policy
in 1980 and 1995 indicated that those residents were still and Public Concern. 2d ed. Kingston, Ont.: McGill-
in the minority, as they failed to carry the vote to separate Queen’s University Press, 1988. Examines changes
from the rest of Canada. The relationship between Que- in immigration regulations that reflect changing con-
bec and Canada, however, remains unsettled. cepts of who is acceptable as a Canadian.
Not until the Citizenship Act of 1976, which came Kernerman, Gerald, and Philip Resnick, eds. Insiders
into effect on February 15, 1977, was the 1947 act re- and Outsiders: Alan Cairns and the Reshaping of Ca-
placed. Distinctions between the citizenship status of nadian Citizenship. Vancouver: University of British
men and women were eliminated, so children born Columbia Press, 2005. Anthology evaluating the Ca-
abroad to Canadian mothers, as well as Canadian fathers, nadian citizenship theories of Cairns and the nature
would count as natural-born Canadian citizens. Persons and importance of Canadian nationalism. Biblio-
born outside Canada to a Canadian mother and a non- graphic references and index.
Canadian father between January 1, 1947, and February Martin, Paul. Far from Home. Vol. 1 in A Very Public
14, 1977, who had not been able to claim Canadian citi- Life. Ottawa, Ont.: Deneau, 1983. The autobiography
zenship under the previous act, could apply for citizen- of the 1947 Canadian Citizenship Act’s sponsor con-
ship certificates under the 1976 act. tains a detailed description of the passage of the act.
— Milton Berman
See also: Dec. 7, 1941: Canada Declares War on Japan;
Further Reading Dec. 29-31, 1941: Churchill Visits Canada as World
Beiner, Ronald. Liberalism, Nationalism, Citizenship: War II Ally; Feb. 19, 1942-1945: United States In-
Essays on the Problem of Political Community. Van- terns Japanese Americans; Nov. 22, 1944: Canada
couver: University of British Columbia Press, 2003. Implements Conscription After Months of Crisis;
Astudy of three models of political community opera- Nov. 15, 1948: St. Laurent Becomes Canadian Prime
tive in Canada. Discusses the importance of citizen- Minister; Mar. 31, 1949: Newfoundland Becomes
ship and nationalism to the functioning of the Cana- Canada’s Tenth Province; Feb. 28, 1952: Massey
dian political sphere. Bibliographic references and Becomes Canada’s First Native-Born Governor-
index. General; June 10, 1957-Feb. 5, 1963: Diefenbaker
Bothwell, Robert, Ian Drummond, and John English. Serves as Canadian Prime Minister; Apr. 22, 1963:
Canada Since 1945: Power, Politics, and Provincial- Pearson Becomes Canada’s Prime Minister; June 25,
ism. Rev. ed. Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto 1968-June 30, 1984: Trudeau Serves as Canadian
Press, 1989. Includes valuable information on the de- Prime Minister; July 9, 1969: Canada’s Official Lan-
velopment of Canadian nationalism and Quebec sep- guages Act; Oct. 16, 1970-Apr. 30, 1971: Canada In-
aratism. vokes War Measures Act Against Quebec Separatists.
1946
545
Philippines Regains Its Independence The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
July 4, 1946
Philippines Regains Its Independence
On July 4, 1946, the United States granted the vantageous Philippine-American association flourished
Philippines complete independence after having over time.
controlled for a half century following its victory in the Upon assuming the presidency of the United States in
Spanish-American War the colonial government it 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt sided publicly with the Phil-
established in 1898. ippine people in their quest for independence. After
1935, the year in which the Philippines became a com-
Locale: The Philippines monwealth, Filipinos became eligible to serve in the
Categories: Colonialism and occupation; government. Manuel Quezon was elected president of
government and politics; independence movements the commonwealth, and legislators drew up a constitu-
Key Figures tion modeled after that of the United States.
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), American army The United States government continued to control
general matters relating to the commonwealth’s national defense
Jonathan Wainwright (1883-1953), American army and foreign affairs, but local government became in-
general creasingly autonomous. The economy of the Philippine
Manuel Quezon (1878-1944), exiled president of the Republic was inextricably linked to that of the United
Philippines States, which gave substantial economic assistance to the
Sergio Osmeña (1878-1961), Philippine vice president Republic in exchange for an agreement that permitted the
and Quezon’s successor United States to establish two military bases in the coun-
Manuel Roxas (1892-1948), first president of the try, Clark Air Force Base and the Subic Bay Naval Sta-
independent Philippine Republic, 1946-1948 tion.
Ferdinand Marcos (1917-1989), Philippine dictator, The road to independence was blocked for the four
1965-1986 years during which the United States was at war with Ja-
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the pan following the Japanese bombing, on December 7,
United States, 1933-1945 1941, of Pearl Harbor and the simultaneous bombing of
Clark Air Force Base. General Douglas MacArthur had
Summary of Event served in the Philippines upon his graduation from West
On July 4, 1946, the citizens of the Philippines achieved Point in 1903. He returned there in 1935 as a high-ranking
an independence of which they had been deprived for military officer in the Philippine army, but, with the on-
over three and a half centuries. This nation, consisting of set of World War II, was pressed back into military ser-
7,170 volcanic islands, 2,000 of which are inhabited, vice in the United States Army to lead the defense of the
came under Spanish control in 1565 when Spanish ex- Philippines, a position in which he served until March,
plorers claimed the country for Spain and established 1942.
permanent settlements there. The United States surrendered the Philippines to the
Spanish domination ended in 1898 when United Japanese in 1942. MacArthur was reassigned to lead
States forces defeated Spain in the Spanish-American United States forces in the southwest Pacific during the
War. Emilio Aguinaldo led a Philippine independence Japanese occupation of the Philippines. On his departure
movement beginning in 1897, and in 1899, the Philip- from Manila, he vowed emotionally and dramatically
pine Republic was established under his leadership. The that he would return. General Jonathan M. Wainwright
United States, however, soon took control of the Philip- assumed command of the United States-Philippine army
pines, after paying Spain twenty million dollars to cede on MacArthur’s departure but on June 9, overwhelmed
the territory to the United States. From 1901 until 1946, by the size of the Japanese opposition, he ordered his
the Philippine Republic was a United States possession. troops, some thirty-five thousand all told, to surrender.
At first, the Filipinos engaged in guerrilla warfare MacArthur returned as he had promised on October
against the Western invaders. In time, however, as the 20, 1944, after leading military offenses that resulted in
United States helped to build the nation’s economy liberating the Philippines from the Japanese occupiers.
and strengthen its infrastructure, a symbiotic relation- There were more than ten thousand casualties in the Phil-
ship developed between the two nations. A mutually ad- ippines on the much-publicized Bataan Death March
546
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Philippines Regains Its Independence
alone. For every American that died, twenty Filipinos United States and a new constitution, modeled after the
perished. During the Japanese occupation, some 120,000 constitution of the United States, was adopted. Public
Filipinos died just within the city limits of Manila. elections were held, and Manuel Roxas, with significant
During this period, Quezon left the Philippines to support from Douglas MacArthur, became the first presi-
form and preside over a government-in-exile in Wash- dent of an independent Philippines. During the five years
ington, D. C. from which he conducted all of the Repub- immediately following Philippine independence, the
lic’s relevant business. His eight-year term in office ex- United States poured more than two billion dollars in fi-
pired in 1943, but the United States Congress extended nancial aid into the country.
his tenure until the end of the war, an event Quezon did
not live to witness. In 1944, he died in Washington and Significance
his vice president, Sergio Osmeña, succeeded him. Os- It was the hope and expectation of the American govern-
meña accompanied General MacArthur on his victorious ment that the Philippines would develop into a demo-
return to the Philippines in October, 1944. cratic state. The nation embarked on the path to democ-
During World War II, in which a total of more than racy with the election of Roxas, but when he succumbed
one million Filipinos died, the people of the Philippines to a heart attack in 1948, he was replaced by his vice pres-
amply proved their loyalty and devotion to the United ident, Elpidio Quirino, who served the remainder of
States. On August 14, 1945, following the United States’ Roxas’ term of office and, in 1949, was reelected. Al-
bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Japanese sur- though it was alleged that one out of every five ballots
rendered. By the time the peace treaty between Japan and cast in his favor was illegitimate, Quirino was sworn in.
the United States was enacted on September 2, 1945, the By 1950, his administration was so rife with fraud and
Philippines’ largest city, Manila, had suffered a devasta- corruption that runaway inflation swept the country and
tion second only to that suffered by Warsaw, Poland, foreign trade fell off significantly.
during World War II. The city was virtually flattened as Leftist Hukbalahap forces, called Huks for short,
the result of aerial attacks, artillery fire, and exploding sought to gain the support of oppressed tenant farmers,
hand grenades. The Philippine economy was a shambles. arguing for a redistribution of land that would benefit
By this time, Philippine independence was long over- them. President Quirino sought aid from the United
due. It was achieved officially on July 4, 1946, when an States to control the Huks, inviting a U.S. economic mis-
official declaration of independence was accepted by the sion to assess his country’s problems. As a result, the
United States released another quar-
ter of a billion dollars in aid to the
Quirino administration, but much of
this money disappeared into the
pockets of corrupt politicians.
From that time until the regime
of Ferdinand Marcos, massive cor-
ruption weakened any democratic
aspirations Filipinos might have har-
bored. Although Marcos helped
strengthen the Philippine economy,
his regime was marked by personal
excesses. He and his wife Imelda
siphoned off much of the foreign aid
being given to the country. Marcos,
who ruled as a ruthless dictator from
1965 until 1986, imprisoned a major
1946
political opponent, Benigno Aquino,

Jr., for seven years and is thought
to have engineered Aquino’s assas-
Manuel Roxas, first president of the independent Philippines, observes a U.S. Air sination in 1983. Aquino’s widow,
Force air show at Clark Air Base, Luzon, on April 15, 1948. Corazon Aquino, ran against Marcos
547
Bikini Swimsuit Is Introduced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
in 1986 and defeated him. Marcos was exiled to Hawaii, from an historical perspective. This beautifully illus-
where he died in 1989, marking the end of a ruthless re- trated book is intended for at a young adult audience
gime. and contains helpful features such as a time line and a
—R. Baird Shuman section entitled “Fast Facts.” Chapter 4, “The Long
Struggle for Independence,” is especially relevant.
Further Reading
Sullivan, Margaret. The Philippines: Pacific Cross-
Green, Carl R. The Spanish-American War. Berkeley
roads. New York: Dillon Press, 1993. A valuable
Heights, N.J.: Enslow, 2002. Well-written account of
study of the strategic position the Philippines holds in
how Spain lost control of the Philippines and of how
southeast Asia.
the United States acquired the territory by paying
Venzon, Anne Cipriano, ed. America’s War with Spain:
Spain twenty thousand dollars to cede its rights to the
A Selected Bibliography. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow
country.
Press, 2003. Venzon devotes sixteen pages to the Phil-
Karnow, Stanley. In Our Image: America’s Empire in
ippines and lists a broad variety of useful sources.
the Philippines. New York: Random House, 1989.
One of the most comprehensive studies of the Philip- See also: Mar. 8, 1949: Vietnam Is Named a State;
pine-United States relationship by an author who has Aug. 17, 1950: Indonesia Regains Its Independence;
published extensively on Southeast Asia. Nov. 9, 1953: Cambodia Gains Independence from
Lieurance, Suzanne. The Philippines. Berkeley Heights, France; Sept. 8, 1954: SEATO Is Founded; Jan. 1,
N.J.: Enslow, 2004. A brief, accurate presentation of 1962: Western Samoa Gains Independence from New
the history of the Philippines aimed at juvenile read- Zealand; Sept. 30, 1965: Indonesia’s Government
ers. Excellent illustrations, valuable supplementary Retaliates Against a Failed Communist Coup; Dec. 4,
features. 1965: Asian Development Bank Is Chartered; Aug. 8,
Olesky, Walter. The Philippines. New York: Children’s 1967: Association of Southeast Asian Nations Is
Press, 2000. A comprehensive view of the Philippines Formed.
July 5, 1946
Bikini Swimsuit Is Introduced
The most meager bathing suit yet, the bikini was He called his new style the Atome because of its minus-
exhibited for the first time by a French fashion model cule size and advertised it with a skywriting plane that
at a Parisian poolside fashion show, but the European spelled out his slogan “Atome—the world’s smallest
fashion would not become popular on American bathing suit” in the sky over the crowded beaches in the
beaches for at least a decade. south of France. This daring new beach attire began,
then, as a very localized phenomenon, but it was not des-
Locale: Paris, France tined to remain that way for long.
Category: Fashion and design Just three weeks later, Louis Réard, a mechanical en-
Key Figures gineer turned swimwear designer, hired his own skywrit-
Louis Réard (1897-1984), French mechanical engineer ing aircraft in order to advertise his newest creation to
and swimsuit designer sun worshipers basking along the same stretch of the
Jacques Heim (1899-1967), French couturier French Riviera. With Réard’s slogan, “Bikini—smaller
Micheline Bernardini (fl. mid-twentieth century), than the smallest bathing suit in the world,” the tiny
French striptease artist and model swimsuit was given the name by which it would soon be
known throughout the world.
Summary of Event Although two-piece swimwear that exposed a little bit
Separately but nearly simultaneously, two daring French of the midriff was nothing new and had been seen on the
fashion designers released the tiny two-piece bathing beaches and in Hollywood since the mid-1930’s, no
suit that would become known as the bikini. During the swimsuit had come close to revealing as much female
summer of 1946, Jacques Heim, a couturier, designed a flesh as Réard’s bikini. Seen for the first time at a pool-
style of swimwear to be sold in his beach shop in Cannes. side fashion show at the Piscine Molitor in Paris on
548
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Bikini Swimsuit Is Introduced
July 5, 1946, the bikini caused a shock wave, especially

among the American reporters who covered the fashion
show for The International Herald Tribune. That paper
alone ran nine bylined stories on the bikini, thus intro-
ducing the concept of the tiny bathing suit to the Ameri-
can public with a definite undertone of amused disap-
proval. The lead story was written by bureau chief Tex
O’Reilly, who reported that “all of a sudden, a blonde
named Micheline Bernardini ambles out in what any
dern fool could see was the smallest bathing suit in the
world.”
When arranging for his bikini to be displayed in the
fashion show, Réard had difficulty finding someone
willing to exhibit his creation. Not one of the traditional
French fashion models would consent to wear this first
bikini, which exposed the wearer’s navel, back, and up-
per thigh. Consequently, Micheline Bernardini, a blond
striptease dancer, was hired to parade around the pool in
Réard’s swimwear.
The Herald Tribune correspondents did not take the
bikini seriously, and neither would their readers for some
time to come. The 1940’s American fashion writers
would not soon come to accept the navel-exposing bikini
and considered the fashion to be particularly suited to
naughty European beachgoers rather than to their con-
servative American counterparts. For more than a de- Micheline Bernardini models Louis Réard’s bikini in July,
cade, bikinis were strongly discouraged from American 1946. The entire swimsuit can fit in the small box she holds in
public beaches and banned by most private clubs. Only her hand. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
in the privacy of one’s own backyard could an American
woman dare to wear the fashion that was being worn
openly on beaches in France, Italy, Spain, and Brazil. Although the bikini is thought of as a twentieth cen-
Réard never made public his reasons for calling the tury phenomenon, it appears that such swimwear was
tiny swimwear creation a “bikini”; however, world merely reinvented during the twentieth century. In fact,
events provide bikini enthusiasts with a likely theory as Minoan wall paintings dating from 1600 b.c.e. are the
to the origin and popularity of the name. During the sum- earliest known evidence of women wearing bikini-type
mer of 1946, the United States conducted a series of nu- coverings. Other depictions of early bikini wearers were
clear tests on a tiny atoll in the Pacific Ocean. These were later found in 1952 by an Italian archaeologist excavat-
the first nuclear bombs to be detonated since the devasta- ing a luxurious fourth century c.e. Roman villa on the is-
tion at Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended World War II land of Sicily. In the villa’s gymnasium, a mosaic depict-
and shocked the world. The rumors of these postwar nu- ing eight female gymnasts, each wearing a diaper-like
clear tests caused a panic among some Parisians, who panty and a strapless bandeau, proved that bikinis were
speculated that the tests might go out of control and cause invented long before the 1946 Parisian poolside fashion
a chain reaction that would destroy the world. When the show.
bombs were set off, such fears proved to be unfounded,
but one of the tiny islands, Bikini, gained a considerable Significance
1946
notoriety as it was smashed by the explosions. Related The bikini received plenty of media attention and stirred
theories abound that the label “bikini” became popular up enormous controversy in the fashion world, yet it re-
because of the devastating effects the fashion had on any- mained marginal throughout the decade following its in-
one who saw a woman wearing it. The bikini was a fash- vention. In the United States, the bikini was initially little
ion bombshell, so to speak. more than a symbol of the contrast between American
549
Bikini Swimsuit Is Introduced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
conservatism and European liberalism. In the late Mediterranean folk have in their bodies. We city people
1950’s, however, the bikini became a catalyst for the lib- forget that the elements take up more space than people,
eralization of American beaches. The bikini did not thank God.”
make a sudden and dramatic entrance into popular cul- The summer of 1960 was a watershed one in the bi-
ture, but it certainly was a means for the public and the kini’s acceptance. Although American designers leaned
media to test the likely degree of acceptance of such a slightly toward more modest designs than the Europeans,
challenge to American conservatism. Clues abound as to the new decade provided the final impetus to dramatically
the bikini’s subtle incursion; a 1958 issue of Newsweek break the monopoly of the one-piece swimsuit, and the bi-
magazine reported that this variety of beachwear “had a kini was seen for the first time as a popular choice. In July,
record of bans and secret sales second only to Lady 1963, Newsweek asserted that “the bikini, long the scarlet
Chatterley’s Lover,” a reference to D. H. Lawrence’s woman of the $200 million-a-year U.S. swimwear indus-
controversial 1928 novel. try, is unmistakably moving toward respectability.”
Boutique owners and major department stores Teenagers, whose figures were generally best suited
stocked the two-piece bathing suit despite its risqué repu- to the minute fashion, created the largest demand for the
tation, and much to their surprise, the bikinis sold each bikini in the United States. The designers knew that these
season and so were reordered for the next summer sea- youths were still under the fashion thumb of their conser-
son. Against the predictions of the outraged swimsuit de- vative parents and were quite innovative in creating
signers, the bikini did sell to the American populace, al- the “convertible” or “modified” bikini. These two-piece
though it was not commonly seen in public swimming novelties had drawstrings or bows on the sides of the bot-
and sunning venues. At least two factors seem to have toms and in the middle of the tops. If a teenage daughter
sustained the bikini throughout one of the more conser- wanted to appear modest when saying good-bye to her
vative periods in American history. First, there was a dra- parents before her day at the beach, she could simply ad-
matic increase in the number of private swimming pools just the amount of skin exposed to a quite demure level.
in the United States; the number rose from approxi- Once at the beach and out of sight of disapproving par-
mately twenty-five hundred in 1949 to more than eighty- ents, she could readjust and display as much skin as she
seven thousand just ten years later. Women may not have dared.
been wearing their bikinis on the beaches, but they were Largely because of Hollywood’s influence, during
wearing them in the privacy of their own backyards. the 1960’s the bikini became a major cultural symbol of
The second factor that may have sustained the bikini America’s youth. In 1960, the pop song “Itsy Bitsy
in the American market was the notable increase in inter- Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka-Dot Bikini” made the
national travel. As evidenced by the increase in the num- charts, and Where the Boys Are, a film about college stu-
ber of U.S. passport holders—from fewer than 25,000 in dents on the beaches of Fort Lauderdale, Florida, inaugu-
1946 to more than 675,000 during the 1950’s—Ameri- rated a wave of beach films that would help entrench the
cans were clearly enjoying their postwar prosperity. As bikini as the summer uniform of the teenaged girl.
international airlines flourished, more formerly land- Ever since the late nineteenth century, swimwear fash-
locked Americans began to travel to the European ions have continually vacillated. Therefore, it is no sur-
beaches from which the bikini had emerged, and there prise that each year since the success of the bikini, some
they were exposed to the revealing fashion. designers have predicted that the fad, at last, is over, that
In the late 1950’s, a small but significant stamp of ap- women do not want to have that much skin exposed, that
proval came when Harper’s Bazaar and Esquire pub- revealing less is more provocative. Others have predicted
lished color photographs of America’s first supermodel, that topless suits would become the fashion staple. Some
Suzy Parker, wearing a bikini. By 1960, wearing a bikini seasons models have paraded down the fashion runways
was akin to making a cultural statement. Diana Vreeland, in suits with skirts that have been added to bikini bottoms
the fashion editor at Harper’s Bazaar, began advocating for more modesty, while other years so-called dental-floss
the demise of the one-piece and the success of the skimpy bathing suits that reveal virtually all have been seen on
two-piece, equating fashion choice to attitude. “Bikini the most fashionable beaches. Nevertheless, when Réard
says to me the best things in life are free,” she wrote. died in 1984 at the age of eighty-seven, the bikini was re-
“The world of the Bikini is the normal world, a world sponsible for nearly 20 percent of all American swimsuit
completely consumed by the elements. It makes me think sales—far more than any other model.
of boats, of a lonely South African beach, of the pride —Jeremy K. Pearl
550
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Mother Cabrini Is Canonized as a Saint
Further Reading book printed on high-quality paper. Features a fine

Alac, Patrik. The Bikini: A Cultural History. New York: collection of photographs of men’s and women’s
Parkstone Press, 2002. Covers the history and effects swimsuits, including the first bikini. An excellent
of the bikini within the fashion world, in the larger study in style that discusses fashion icons, designers,
cultural arena, and even upon fitness and the condi- and photographers. Lacks a bibliography, but all pho-
tioning of the body to wear the revealing swimsuit. tos have excellent references and are cross-referenced
Bibliographic references. in the index of illustrations.
Leerhsen, Charles, Meggan Dissly, Elizabeth Bradburn, Panati, Charles. “Bathing Suit: Mid-Nineteenth Century,
and Mac Margolis. “A Brief History of the Bikini: Europe.” In Extraordinary Origins of Everyday
Women Are Observing Its Birthday by Covering Things, by Charles Panati. New York: Harper & Row,
Up.” Newsweek 108 (July 7, 1986): 50. A concise, 1987. A well-written, concise history of the evolution
fact-filled tribute to the then-forty-year-old bikini. of bathing suits into swimming suits, then into the
Explores the social impact of the bikini through a dis- shockingly small bikini. Ties in the beginning of the
cussion of music and films that it inspired. Docu- nuclear age with the explosive impact of the bikini.
ments the firm initial resistance American women had Contains an illustration of a prototype bikini as de-
to the fashion and notes that the commitment to the bi- picted in a fourth century Roman mosaic.
kini has continued to waver as prominent designers Probert, Christina. Swimwear in Vogue Since 1910. New
have continued to promote one-piece styles. York: Abbeville Press, 1981. A fully illustrated book
Lencek, Lena, and Gideon Bosker. Making Waves: covering seven decades of primarily American swim-
Swimsuits and the Undressing of America. San Fran- wear fashions as represented in Vogue magazine.
cisco: Chronicle Books, 1989. An oversized volume Gives a chronological portrayal of swimwear fashion
that studies the design and manufacture of swimwear, development from the 1920’s through the 1970’s. Of
chronicles the evolution of swimsuits from the nine- particular interest is the discussion of the beginning of
teenth century through the 1980’s, and explores the midriff-exposure swimwear, the predecessor to the
bikini.
psychological and social roots of swimsuit styles and
their appeal. Has hundreds of photographs, litho- See also: Spring, 1947: Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps
graphs, and drawings of swimwear worn by Holly- Europe and America; Mar. 19, 1954: Laura Ashley
wood stars and Sports Illustrated models. Fashion Company Is Founded; Early 1960’s: Quant
Martin, Richard, and Harold Koda. Splash! A History of Introduces the Miniskirt; Oct. 18, 1968: Lauren Cre-
Swimwear. New York: Rizzoli, 1990. An oversized ates the Polo Clothing Line.
July 7, 1946
Mother Cabrini Becomes the First U.S. Citizen Canonized
as a Saint
In 1946, Pope Pius XII canonized Italian immigrant Leo XIII (Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci; 1810-1903),
Maria Francesa Cabrini of the Missionary Sisters of Roman Catholic pope, 1878-1903
the Sacred Heart of Jesus, who had founded dozens of Pius XII (Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli;
orphanages, convents, and hospitals throughout the 1876-1958), Roman Catholic pope, 1939-1958
United States and the world. She was the first U.S.
citizen to be canonized a Roman Catholic saint. Summary of Event
Maria Francesa Cabrini gained the recognition of the
Locale: Vatican City
world by helping alleviate the suffering of the poor. By
Categories: Humanitarianism and philanthropy;
1946
founding the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart, she

religion, theology, and ethics
put into place a system of schools, hospitals, orphanages,
Key Figures and convents in the United States, Latin America, Eu-
Maria Francesca Cabrini (Saint Frances Xavier rope, and other parts of the world. Described as the
Cabrini; 1850-1917), Italian American nun Mother Teresa of the 1800’s, Mother Cabrini was the
551
Mother Cabrini Is Canonized as a Saint The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
formally recognized the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred

Heart, which had at that time plans to work in China. The
pope, however, approached Mother Cabrini and asked
instead that she go to the United States to help emigrants
from her homeland living in the slums of New York.
During the late nineteenth century, Italian immigrants
in the United States had a particularly difficult time. Al-
though Bishop Giovanni Battista Scalabrini attempted to
make their lives easier, working with the immigrants’
children proved especially difficult. Consequently, his
voice was added to the pope’s, as he called upon Mother
Cabrini to supervise an orphanage in New York. The
young Italian nun had to overcome her intense fear of
water to cross the ocean with six other sisters in 1889.
Mother Cabrini would become renowned for her work
among newly arrived American immigrants from Italy
who, desperately poor and heartsick for their home, were
cruelly castigated for being Roman Catholics. Upon her
initial arrival, however, she found to her chagrin that the
archbishop of New York opposed her orphanage and rec-
ommended instead that she return immediately to Italy.
Incredibly, she disregarded the archbishop’s sugges-
Maria Francesca Cabrini. tion—an amazing event in an era when women unques-
tioningly obeyed men, especially within the auspices of
the Catholic Church, where women had little power.
first citizen of the United States to be named a saint in the The delicate Italian woman decided to stay in Amer-
Roman Catholic Church. ica and established a school in New York’s extremely
Cabrini, later to be known popularly as Mother poor Little Italy neighborhood. In a very short time, she
Cabrini and officially as Saint Frances Xavier Cabrini, established an orphanage where girls were warmly wel-
was born prematurely on July 15, 1850, in Sant’Angelo comed and protected. Almost immediately, she opened a
Lodigiano, in the Lombardy region of Italy. The tiny second orphanage. Much of Mother Cabrini’s time was
baby was not expected to live, so she was quickly bap- spent petitioning for donations of food and money,
tized on the day of her birth. Her delicate health, how- cleaning, and teaching. Her efforts were effective, and
ever, never stopped Cabrini from becoming one of the soon orphanages had been established in New York’s
most beloved Roman Catholic saints. Even as a child, the other buroughs, as well as in nearby New Jersey.
youngster was interested in devoting her life to mission- Mother Cabrini was not satisfied with inner-city loca-
ary work, and she became a teacher at the age of eighteen. tions for her orphanages. When she learned that the Jesu-
In 1874, Cabrini was asked to take charge of an or- its were relocating from their 450-acre New York estate
phanage in Codogno, Italy, a job that would influence the on the Hudson River, she raised the money to relocate her
rest of her life. She embraced her decision to become a orphans there from the city. Shortly after, she returned to
nun with even more fervor and took her vows in 1877. Italy and established a teachers’ college in Rome. By
After the orphanage was closed in 1880, she established 1891, with the pope’s support, she established similar in-
her own religious order along with seven orphans she had stitutions in Central America. She was also drawn to the
trained. They called themselves the Missionary Sisters of American South, where Italian immigrants found social
the Sacred Heart. It was at this time that Maria Francesca acceptance especially difficult, much in the manner of
Cabrini became Mother Cabrini. African Americans.
In a very few years, Mother Cabrini went on to found Mother Cabrini arrived in the South, where she
convents in other areas of Italy, including Rome. In 1888, opened an orphanage and a school, in addition to a facil-
Pope Leo XIII recognized her missionary work, which ity to help the sick. In fact, clinics for the sick became just
specialized in establishing orphanages. He consequently as important as orphanages to the Missionary Sisters of
552
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Mother Cabrini Is Canonized as a Saint
the Sacred Heart. After a hospital in her charge was Mother Cabrini and her sisters helped Italian immi-
forced to close in 1892, Mother Cabrini moved the pa- grants succeed in America. She also helped this particu-
tients to a temporary facility and persuaded doctors to lar population gain greater acceptance by representing
treat the patients free of charge. Italian immigrants do- them in a more positive light, because her orphanages,
nated funds, and in time the temporary clinic became Co- schools, and hospitals—funded by the Italian people—
lumbus Hospital, which treated the victims of a typhoid helped the poor of every nationality. Although Mother
epidemic when other hospitals told them to leave. Cabrini’s body was weak, her mind was powerful. She
Mother Cabrini constantly battled New York arch- spent her life laboring among immigrants and the poor,
bishop Michael Corrigan, who maintained that she was not only in the United States but also around the world. In
in over her head and suggested that she return to Italy. In 1917, the year of her death, the Missionary Sisters of the
time, Corrigan was succeeded by Archbishop John M. Sacred Heart comprised two thousand sisters. In all,
Farley, who supported the Italian nun. Mother Cabrini Mother Cabrini, her sisters, and those who supported her
also opened two other Columbus hospitals in Chicago financially contributed to a global network of at least
(1905) and Seattle (1916). seventy institutions—orphanages, schools, convents and
In 1909, while in Seattle, Mother Cabrini became a hospitals throughout the world, where all were welcome.
naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1910, she was — M. Casey Diana
named superior general of the order of the Missionary
Sisters of the Sacred Heart for life. By then, she could list Further Reading
among her accomplishments the founding of numerous Di Donato, Pietro. Immigrant Saint: The Life of Mother
schools, orphanages, and medical facilities in New York, Cabrini. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990. Com-
New Jersey, Seattle, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Chi- prehensive biography that details the early life of
cago, Denver, London, Panama, Peru, Argentina, Brazil, Francesca Cabrini in Italy, her journey to New York,
and elsewhere. She could list among her battles a small- and her life’s work helping poor immigrants in Amer-
pox epidemic in Rio de Janeiro, a yellow fever outbreak ica and ultimately the poor of the world.
in New Orleans, and malaria in Latin America. The latter Logan, John. Cycle for Mother Cabrini. Berkeley, Calif.:
illness resulted in Mother Cabrini’s demise in her own Cloud Marauder Press, 1971. Logan’s volume of po-
Columbus Hospital, in Chicago in 1917. Less than thirty etry pays tribute to the life and work of the inspira-
years later, on July 7, 1946, Pope Pius XII canonized tional Roman Catholic saint. Illustration is provided
Mother Cabrini, making her the first American citizen to by the woodcuts of James Brunot.
attain sainthood in the Roman Catholic Church. Provenzano, Philippa. To the End of the Earth: The Mis-
Significance sionary Travels of Frances Cabrini. Quezon City,
Saint Frances Xavier Cabrini became the patron saint of Philippines: Claretian Communications, 1996. Pro-
immigrants, and her feast day was made December 22. vides insights into the religious vocation of Mother
Between 1880 and 1920, four million Italian people Cabrini, who decided as a young girl to become a mis-
crossed the Atlantic Ocean seeking a better life in Amer- sionary. Describes how she overcame her fear of
ica. They were attempting to avoid the poverty rampant water to cross the oceans of the world in her efforts to
in Italy and desired more than anything to live out the help the world’s poor.
American dream. Most settled in New York and Chi-
cago, in neighborhoods that in time came to be called Lit- See also: Dec. 26, 1948: Hungary’s Communist Gov-
tle Italys. Many worked on the docks or in construction ernment Arrests Cardinal Mindszenty; Oct. 7, 1950:
jobs, while some worked on sugar and cotton plantations Mother Teresa Founds the Missionaries of Charity;
in the South. Sadly, many found that America was also Nov. 1, 1950: Pius XII Proclaims the Doctrine of the
filled with poverty, and there were no social agencies at Assumption; Dec. 10, 1951: Jouhaux Is Awarded the
the time to help. In addition, the American Catholic Nobel Peace Prize; Dec. 10, 1953: Schweitzer Is
Church seemed to have a preponderance of Irish Catholic Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize; Mar. 1, 1961: Peace
1946
priests, who neither spoke nor wrote Italian. Also, the Corps Is Founded; May 15, 1961, and Apr. 11, 1963:
shadow of the Italian Mafia cast Italian immigrants in a Pope John XXIII Issues Mater et Magistra and Pacem
negative light. in Terris.
553
Truman Creates the Bureau of Land Management The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
July 16, 1946

Truman Creates the Bureau of Land Management
President Harry S. Truman combined the Taylor In 1937, a review commissioned by Roosevelt recom-
Grazing Service with the General Land Office to form mended reorganizing the Department of the Interior as a
the Bureau of Land Management, a resource agency to department of conservation that would include the U.S.
oversee federal land. The new bureau represented an Forest Service. Interior Secretary Harold Ickes actively
increase in federal oversight of grazing lands, but it sought to expand his department by reacquiring jurisdic-
lacked the political clout to remain independent of tion over the national forests, which it had lost in 1905 as
powerful business interests and became coopted by the a result of the perception that the department’s adminis-
very people it was designed to regulate. trators were inefficient and corrupt.
For their part, the U.S. Forest Service and the Depart-
Locale: Washington, D.C. ment of Agriculture had long sought administrative re-
Categories: Government and politics; organizations sponsibility for the grazing districts established under the
and institutions; natural resources Taylor Grazing Act (1934). Both agencies had cultivated
Key Figures the political support of the cattle industry and its congres-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United sional allies as it became apparent that the Taylor Act
States, 1945-1953 would pass.
Frederick William Johnson, (b. 1881), director of the Ickes’s attempt to reacquire the Forest Service
Bureau of Land Management, 1946-1948 brought Gifford Pinchot, a conservation icon and first
Patrick Anthony McCarran (1876-1954), U.S. senator chief of the Forest Service, into the fray as a vocal oppo-
from Nevada, 1933-1954 nent, and a noisy controversy followed. The Forest Ser-
Harold Ickes (1874-1952), U.S. secretary of the vice sought administration of the grazing districts when
interior, 1933-1946 the Taylor Act was amended in 1936 but was rebuffed by
Marion Clawson (1905-1998), director of the Bureau Congress. The result was a draw. The Forest Service
of Land Management, 1948-1953 stayed in the Department of Agriculture, no conservation
department was created, and the grazing districts stayed
Summary of Event under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior.
In July, 1946, President Harry S. Truman merged the De- However, the infighting occupied the interests of conser-
partment of the Interior’s General Land Office (GLO) vationists who paid relatively little heed to the events oc-
with the financially wounded Taylor Grazing Service to curring in local grazing districts.
create the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). The The Taylor Act had authorized the secretary of the in-
Grazing Service had been caught in a bruising struggle terior to cooperate with cattle industry associations in
between the House Appropriations Committee and U.S. implementing the law. Farrington Carpenter, the first di-
Senator Patrick Anthony McCarran over grazing fees. rector of grazing, established a system of grazing advi-
As a result, its budget and staff were reduced to the point sory boards through administrative action. In fact, estab-
that it could barely operate. Creation of the BLM was the lishing grazing permits and regulations would have been
result of the intense rivalry between the Departments of impossible without the cattle industry’s assistance. In
the Interior and Agriculture during Franklin D. Roose- 1939, Senator McCarran introduced amendments to the
velt’s administration, the power of local grazing advi- act that legally established boards composed of five to
sory boards in rangeland policy, the continuing contro- twelve stockmen and one wildlife representative. Many
versy over grazing fees, and the influence of Senator members of the advisory boards were prominent stock-
McCarran. men, including several leaders of national livestock or-
The rivalry between the Departments of the Interior ganizations. Creation of interconnected state and na-
and Agriculture was intense during the 1930’s and tional boards soon followed. The boards grew in power,
1940’s. An expanding National Park Service (which was eventually coming to control local decision making and
housed in the Interior Department) was adding to its land to heavily influence Grazing Service policy.
base largely by acquiring lands that were once national In his attempt to woo the stockmen away from the
forests under the administration of the U.S. Forest Ser- U.S. Forest Service, Ickes had originally asserted that the
vice (an agency within the Department of Agriculture). Department of the Interior could administer the Taylor
554
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Truman Creates the Bureau of Land Management
program for $150,000 per year and that grazing fees both houses was required to block the merger. As a re-
would reflect the costs of program administration. Nec- sult, the Bureau of Land Management came into exis-
essary administrative expenses increased rapidly, and it tence on July 16, 1946.
became apparent that Ickes’s estimate was severely low.
Grazing fees for use of federal lands had originated on Significance
the national forests in 1906 and would continue to be the Although creation of the BLM marked the beginning of a
subject of much controversy. Shortly after passage of the new period in the management of the public domain,
Taylor Act, Nevada stockmen challenged the right of the there was still significant congressional opposition to ac-
secretary of the interior to charge grazing fees. A state tive federal management of grazing districts. The BLM
court upheld their claim, but the decision was reversed in was not formed by legislative mandate, and many ob-
1941 by the Supreme Court. In 1941, the Grazing Service servers believed that its creation illustrated how the con-
proposed tripling the fee from five cents per animal unit servation of natural resources could be influenced by
month (aum), the amount of forage required to feed a one- interest groups that sought to “capture” the agencies re-
thousand-pound animal or its equivalent for one month, sponsible for their regulation.
to fifteen to eighteen cents per aum. The average Forest Frederick William Johnson, commissioner of the
Service fee at the time was thirty-one cents per aum. General Land Office, was named as the bureau’s first di-
Partly because of strong opposition to the fee in Ne- rector. Johnson proposed to decentralize the cumber-
vada, McCarran called for an investigation of the Graz- some bureaucracy of the new agency through a set of na-
ing Service in 1940. McCarran was concerned about sev- tional, regional, and district offices. The seven proposed
eral issues, including withdrawal of large areas from regional offices each had jurisdiction over more than
grazing districts for military reservations, the apparent one state, making the administrators less subject to local
end of the policy of turning the public domain over to pri- interests and congressional influence. Congress, still an-
vate parties for development, the growth of the adminis- gered at the Grazing Service, forbade transfer of func-
trative costs of the Grazing Service, and the assurance tions to regional offices in the 1947 Interior Appropria-
that the federal agency was responsive to local interests. tions Act.
Among other things, McCarran was successful in ex- Marion Clawson succeeded Johnson in 1948 and
tracting a promise from the service that there would be no achieved the congressional approval of the regional ad-
grazing fee increase until his investigation was complete. ministrators the same year. Clawson brought the concept
McCarran’s investigation of the Grazing Service contin- of multiple-use management to the bureau and increased
ued until 1947 and resulted in greatly increased power of the rate of land classification and disposal authorized
the stockmen over public rangelands. by the Taylor Act. Grazing fees were increased to 12
In 1944 and 1945, the House Appropriations Com- cents per aum in 1951, and additional employees were
mittee had requested higher grazing fees from the hired to supervise fence-building and water develop-
Grazing Service. The director proposed implementing ment necessary for better grazing management. Clawson
the 15 to 18 cent fee first suggested in 1941. McCarran also extended more active management to the bureau’s
blocked the proposal. In the spring of 1946, he gathered extensive forest lands in western Oregon and began
support from fellow senators to cut the service’s 1947 ap- management of minerals on public lands. With the inau-
propriation for salaries and expenses from $980,000 to guration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953,
$550,000. House members were angry that no fee in- Clawson was perceived as unfriendly to development in-
crease had been implemented as requested and agreed to terests, and he was fired by incoming Secretary of the In-
the Senate recommendations. The cut reduced the num- terior Douglas McKay.
ber of service employees from 250 to 86. The stalemate The last decade of the Grazing Service and the first
continued after the BLM was organized, and 1948 appro- decade of the BLM illustrate how the agency had been
priations were even smaller. “captured” by the livestock industry. The advisory board
As the Grazing Service’s relations with Congress de- system had allowed livestock interests to formulate pol-
1946
teriorated, Ickes recommended merging it with the Gen- icy, make rules to implement those policies, and oversee
eral Land Office in January, 1946. In May, President their enforcement. McCarran’s investigation of the
Truman forwarded the recommendation to Congress. Grazing Service, and related hearings in the House of
The House of Representatives opposed the plan, and the Representatives led by Representative Frank Barrett of
Senate, led by McCarran, concurred. The opposition of Wyoming, fueled the first “sagebrush rebellion.” Such
555
Truman Creates the Bureau of Land Management The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
congressional action emboldened Western states’-rights Foss, Phillip O. Politics and Grass. Seattle: University of
advocates and greatly increased the power of stockmen Washington Press, 1960. A detailed analysis of the in-
in implementing the Taylor Grazing Act. Sensing their fluence of grazing advisory boards and the capture of
increased political power, the stockmen also pushed for the Grazing Service and BLM by the livestock in-
transfer of Forest Service rangelands to the grazing dis- dustry.
tricts and the sale of the federal lands in the districts to the Muhn, James, and Hanson R. Stuart. Opportunity and
grazing permittees. The last proposal finally raised the Challenge: The Story of the BLM. Washington, D.C.:
ire of conservationists, particularly Bernard De Voto, Bureau of Land Management, 1988. A detailed, un-
who devoted several of his “Easy Chair” columns in critical chronology of the BLM and its predecessor
Harper’s Magazine to the subject. organizations.
Capture of the Grazing Service and the newly formed Peffer, E. Louise. The Closing of the Public Domain.
BLM was possible, because few other organized interest Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1951. The
groups were active in rangeland conservation. Wildlife principal and authoritative history of the public do-
interests had been unenthusiastic about the Taylor Act. main in the first half of the twentieth century.
Jay N. Darling, a leader of the wildlife interests in the U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Man-
1930’s, had asked rhetorically, “Where were the agement. Public Land Statistics, 1992. Washington,
11,000,000 sportsmen and 36,000 groups (of conserva- D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1993. A basic sta-
tionists) when 3,000 cattle and sheepmen captured the tistical document on the BLM’s accomplishments
public domain?” As the number of deer, elk, antelope, and programs.
and predators on the public lands began to increase in the U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Man-
1930’s and 1940’s, it became more apparent that live- agement. Rangeland Reform ’94. Washington, D.C.:
stock and wildlife would compete for the forage re- Government Printing Office, 1993. The secretary’s
source. By the time of the McCarran and Barrett hear- proposals for reform of the BLM’s rangeland pro-
ings, it became apparent that postwar interests in grams.
recreation and wildlife would prevent the sale of grazing Vincent, Carol Hardy. “Bureau of Land Management.”
district lands to the livestock industry. In Federal Land Management Agencies, edited by
At the time of the Taylor Act and the creation of the Pamela D. Baldwin. New York: Novinka Books,
Bureau of Land Management, many conservationists 2005. Profile of the bureau, placing it in the context of
were involved in the Interior-Agriculture feud and the other U.S. land management agencies. Bibliographic
protection of national parks and monuments. In many re- references and index.
spects, rangelands did not have the aesthetic appeal and
See also: Oct. 22, 1951: Nature Conservancy Is
popular support available for forests and mountains. The
Founded; Nov., 1952: Brower Becomes Executive
fact that few people outside the livestock industry cared
Director of the Sierra Club; June 12, 1960: Congress
for the rangelands made co-optation of the bureau rela-
Passes the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act; 1964-
tively easy, for no resource-management agency can fare
1969: Lady Bird Johnson Begins the America Beauti-
well in the legislative and executive branches without
ful Program; Sept. 3, 1964: Wilderness Act Is Passed;
popular political support.
Sept. 19, 1964-Dec. 31, 1970: Congress Establishes
—Donald W. Floyd
the Public Land Law Review Commission; Sept.,
Further Reading 1967: Environmental Defense Fund Is Founded; Oct.
Clawson, Marion. “Reminiscences of the Bureau of 2, 1968: Wild and Scenic Rivers and Trails System
Land Management, 1947-1948.” In The Public Acts Are Passed; Jan. 1, 1970: National Environmen-
Lands, edited by Vernon Carstensen. Madison: Uni- tal Policy Act of 1969 Is Signed; Feb., 1970: Natural
versity of Wisconsin Press, 1963. Focusing on the ad- Resources Defense Council Is Founded; Dec. 2, 1970:
ministration of the new agency, Clawson reviews the Environmental Protection Agency Is Created; Dec.
inefficiency of the GLO and Grazing Service opera- 31, 1970: Congress Approves the Mining and Min-
tions. erals Act.
556
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 World Health Organization Proclaims Health a Basic Human Right
July 22, 1946

World Health Organization Proclaims Health a Basic
Human Right
In 1946, the World Health Organization’s constitution promote uniformity in quarantine procedures. The con-
declared that “the enjoyment of health is one of the vention was well ahead of its time and was not ratified.
fundamental rights of every human being.” This The next major international efforts concerning
declaration significantly broadened the notion of health and health care came with the founding of the
natural and human rights and shaped the global Health Organization of the League of Nations in 1923
discussion of social justice for the rest of the century. and the International Office of Public Health in 1909.
These organizations helped in healing the wounds left by
Also known as: Constitution of the World Health
World War I and in creating a better world through po-
Organization
tent new health care weapons such as penicillin. The
International Office of Public Health continued to oper-
Categories: Organizations and institutions; health
ate after the League of Nations’ collapse during World
and medicine; human rights; United Nations
War II. These preliminary global health systems evolved
Key Figures into the World Health Organization in 1946.
Brock Chisholm (1896-1971), secretary-general of the In 1945, fifty nations attending the San Francisco Con-
WHO, 1948-1953 ference created and adopted the United Nations Charter.
Pierre Marie Dorolle (1899-1980), deputy director- It was also decided, on June 26, to establish a world health
general of the WHO, 1950-1973 body. The International Health Conference held in New
Trygve Lie (1896-1968), Norwegian secretary-general York City from June 19 to July 22, 1946, approved the cre-
of the United Nations, 1946-1953 ation of WHO, with the organization’s constitution being
Paul-Henri Spaak (1899-1972), president of the United finalized on July 22. An interim commission ran WHO
Nations General Assembly, 1946 until it formally came into existence on April 7, 1948.
Summary of Event WHO was to be the medical body of the United Na-
The World Health Organization (WHO) was born be- tions. It was to direct and coordinate everything related
tween the end of World War II and the beginning of the to international health issues, assisting governments in
Korean conflict. World War II set the stage for decoloni- strengthening their national health services and provid-
zation, as the war weakened the major European colonial ing emergency and technical assistance as needed. Some
powers and Japan demonstrated to colonized countries of the other goals and functions stipulated in its constitu-
that European powers could be defeated. The formal ad- tion were to educate all peoples (the general public as
vent of the nuclear age, with the dropping of atomic well as health care providers) about health issues; to fos-
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August, 1945, and ter and promote work (applied and research) to eradicate
the Korean conflict in 1950 further destabilized the old diseases, especially those of epidemic, endemic, or so-
international power system. The system that emerged cial natures; to advocate and advance maternal and child
was one with two superpowers, the United States and the health; and to promote mental health.
Soviet Union. WHO was designed to be a decentralized umbrella or-
Europe and Japan were being rebuilt, largely with ganization with six regional offices, operating indepen-
American aid, and the new technologies of the era began dently within the larger framework of the United Na-
to have a global impact. The world’s attention, given tions. WHO was to establish regional centers that would
such turbulence, was not on health issues. Nevertheless, conduct research and collect health data. The cancer re-
WHO proclaimed that its prime objective was to raise the search center in Lyon, France, is one such center de-
standard of health care for all persons. This idea’s institu- signed to operate independently. The Center for Disease
1946
tional ancestry can be traced back to 1851, when the first Control in Atlanta, Georgia, was established as a joint ef-
International Sanitary Conference convened in Paris. fort with WHO to collect data on influenza and other
Physicians and diplomats representing twelve countries communicable diseases. WHO also works with other
met for the first time to discuss health problems and draw U.N. agencies, such as the Food and Agriculture Organi-
up the first international convention on health rules to zation, on topics of mutual concern.
557
World Health Organization Proclaims Health a Basic Human Right The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Article 1 of the WHO constitution states that attain- goals and activities. One example of such difficulties
ment of the best possible health care by all peoples is a concerns the World Health Assembly (the WHO’s major
basic human right. The constitution also states that “the body) and how it forms policy regarding health stan-
enjoyment of health is one of the fundamental rights of dards. If a policy becomes a “regulation,” it is difficult to
every human being.” WHO intended to promote these monitor. Another difficulty is that regulations are bind-
rights through education, through restructuring and ing on each member state, unless a state expresses some
training government agencies and service providers at reservations or rejects the regulation. WHO has no au-
the national level, and by providing comprehensive ser- thority to enforce its regulations. Another type of policy,
vices (for example, technical assistance, standardized di- less binding and stringent than a “regulation,” is a “rec-
agnostic procedures, environmental hygiene and sanita- ommendation.” Recommendations are more common
tion research and assistance, and conferences on various than regulations because reservations and rejections are
topics). avoided. Recommendations are more likely to promote
The major innovation of the WHO constitution, rein- consensus among WHO’s members.
forced by specific articles in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (adopted on December 10, 1948), was to Significance
define health as a universal human right for the first time. In spite of such problems, WHO has made considerable
Furthermore, by expanding the definition of health to progress. Smallpox has been wholly eradicated. Global
cover all aspects of health-related well-being (including birthrates began to decrease in the 1990’s, in part be-
food, housing, and clothing), responsibility for well- cause of WHO-sponsored family planning programs that
being was placed squarely on the shoulders of individual are one leg of its larger program in family health. WHO,
governments. Maternal and child welfare, as well as so- in conjunction with other agencies and groups, has been
cial security for the unemployed, the elderly, the sick, trying actively to improve the quality of the environ-
and the widowed, were also included. The constitution ment. To this end, international reference systems have
also stated that health is connected to international poli- been established that study, monitor, and gather data on
tics, in that health is necessary for the attainment of peace community water supplies, waste disposal, air and water
and security. pollution, and radiation protection.
Initially, this statement in the WHO constitution was The medical research programs overseen by WHO
ignored while WHO established its fundamental activi- are engaged in ongoing efforts to control communica-
ties and organized the necessary frameworks and net- ble diseases, including the Human Immunodeficiency
works to achieve its prime directive. Short-term needs of Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/
the developed and less developed countries, especially AIDS). WHO is also engaged in efforts to prevent nutri-
concentrated disease eradication programs for smallpox tional disorders, which can cause permanent brain dam-
and malaria, were the initial action areas. Over time, as age in infants and children and contribute to high infant
WHO gained more resources and influence, its constitu- and maternal death rates; to study cancer and cardiovas-
tion’s declaration of a right to health became more im- cular diseases, which are on the rise in South America as
portant on the international stage. well as in other parts of the world; and to study the inci-
Not all has run smoothly for WHO. For example, the dence, treatment, and causation of mental disorders. By
definition and categorization of human rights in the U.N. September, 1970, WHO’s malaria eradication program
Charter do not include health as a human right. This right had improved living conditions for about 80 percent of
is listed in Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Hu- almost two billion people in 145 targeted countries and
man Rights, but it has never been given high priority. The territories. Even as older health scourges are gradually
basic question of what constitute human or natural rights brought under control, new health threats emerge, but
forms the context of many debates within the United Na- WHO continues to monitor these threats and to work to
tions, especially when these rights clash with traditional defeat them. With WHO funds, fellowships are provided
values and ways of life. Such debates also occur within to train and educate people; specifically targeted are
WHO and its various agencies, on topics such as popula- medical officers in key positions in governments.
tion control and family planning. In spite of its wobbly beginnings, WHO has become
This lack of consensus over the meanings of “human the global symbol of international health care. Increas-
rights” and “health as a human right” has created prob- ingly, as countries recognize that primary health care, at
lems in the implementation and coordination of WHO’s a minimum, is essential to a country’s economic well-
558
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 World Health Organization Proclaims Health a Basic Human Right
being as well as its future, more countries will come to child health through improved basic health care, nu-
define health care as a basic human right. This defini- trition, and sanitation.
tional shift must occur within each country, however, be- Henderson, Donald A. “Smallpox: Never Again.” World
fore WHO can begin to achieve this ultimate goal. The Health (August/September, 1987): 8-11. WHO
general economic development of countries is increas- launched a concerted and collaborative effort in 1967
ingly being seen as closely tied to the health of human to eliminate smallpox globally. This is a good discus-
populations, and thus WHO will continue to serve as a vision of this time-limited, focused approach.
tal specialized agency within the U.N. system. Lambo, Thomas A., and Stacey B. Day, eds. Issues in
—Dixie Dean Dickinson Contemporary International Health. New York: Ple-
num Press, 1990. Good selection of readings on inter-
Further Reading
national health issues. Authors of the various articles
Beaglehole, Robert, Alec Irwin, and Thomson Prentice.
are experts but write for general readers.
Changing History. Geneva, Switzerland: World
Senderowitz, Judith, and John M. Paxman. Adolescent
Health Organization, 2004. Statement of the accom-
Fertility: Worldwide Concerns. Population Bulletin
plishments, priorities, and ongoing programs of the
2. Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau,
WHO. Bibliographic references and index.
April, 1985. Good demographic analysis of global
Berting, Jan, et al., eds. Human Rights in a Pluralist
teenage fertility patterns. Issued in concert with the
World. Westport, Conn.: Meckler, 1990. A collection
International Youth Year. Covers laws, access to in-
of papers delivered at two international conferences
formation, behavioral patterns, and programs.
on human rights in concert with the United Nations’
fortieth anniversary of the Universal Declaration of See also: Oct. 5, 1942: Oxford Committee for Famine
Human Rights. Papers discuss the achievements, Relief Is Founded; May 18-June 3, 1943: United Na-
problems, and difficulties in defining and implement- tions Holds Its First Conference on Food and Agricul-
ing “human rights.” ture; Summer, 1945: Duggar Develops the First Tet-
Burci, Gian Luca, and Claude-Henri Vignes. World racycline Antibiotic; Dec. 11, 1946: UNICEF Is
Health Organization. Frederick, Md.: Aspen, 2004. Established; July 2, 1952: Salk Develops a Polio Vac-
Profile and analysis of the WHO and its contributions cine; July 10, 1954: Eisenhower Begins the Food for
to world health. Bibliographic references and index. Peace Program; Feb., 1962: United Nations World
Chandler, William U. “Investing in Children.” In State of Food Programme Is Established; May 18, 1965: Head
the World, 1986, edited by Lester R. Brown. New Start Is Established to Aid Poor Children; 1967:
York: W. W. Norton, 1986. Discussion of the efforts World Health Organization Intensifies Its Campaign
of WHO, UNICEF, and other United Nations agen- to Eradicate Smallpox; July 1, 1967: United States
cies in concert with local governments to improve Joins the International Biological Program.
1946
559
Hiroshima Recounts the Story of Surviving a Nuclear Explosion The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
August, 1946
HIROSHIMA Recounts the Story of Surviving a Nuclear
Explosion
John Hersey’s factual retelling of the experiences of early on August 6 to help move a friend’s belongings,
six residents of Hiroshima, Japan, who survived the had studied theology in the United States, spoke excel-
explosion of the first atomic bomb used against lent English, and kept in touch with American friends up
civilians was the most eye-opening, and the most to the time World War II broke out, making his loyalty to
devastating, documentation of its time. The story Japan somewhat suspect. To prove that he was loyal to
remains a profound reminder not only of human evil Japan, he had been active in the community, taking re-
but also human hope and perseverance in the face of sponsibility for organizing air-raid defense for twenty
unimaginable chaos and trauma. families.
Tanimoto was about 3,500 yards from the center of
where the atomic bomb would soon explode: then it did.
Categories: Literature; World War II; disasters;
Scores of Japanese soldiers ran out of hillside dugouts
atrocities and war crimes
that had been deemed safe, but blood was running from
Key Figures their heads, backs, and chests. He soon was busy helping
John Hersey (1914-1993), journalist and writer others, so his own terror subsided, but fear for his family
Kiyoshi Tanimoto (1909-1986), pastor of the was growing. As he ran toward the city, those fleeing had
Hiroshima Methodist Church burns, torn skin, and images of clothing patterns burned
Hatsuyo Nakamura (fl. mid-twentieth century), mother into their skin. All were silent and expressionless. Soon,
of three young children radiation sickness was evident.
Masakazu Fujii (d. 1974), physician who owned a Tanimoto finally found his family, unhurt. His wife
private hospital had worked her way out of the debris and freed the chil-
Terufumi Sasaki (fl. mid-twentieth century), surgeon at dren, just before the parsonage collapsed over them.
Hiroshima’s Red Cross Hospital Tanimoto tirelessly aided victims all around him who
Toshiko Sasaki (fl. mid-twentieth century), clerk at the were crying out for water and food, and he transported
East Asia Tin Works several loads of people to safety across the river in a bor-
Wilhelm Kleinsorge (d. 1977), priest devoted to rowed boat. When he received word that a Mr. Tanaka,
helping bomb victims chief among those who said that he was a spy, was asking
Summary of Event for him, he arrived just in time to read a psalm as Tanaka
In late 1945, The New Yorker assigned journalist John lay dying.
Hersey a story about the effects of the atomic bomb When he was able, Tanimoto built a makeshift
dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, by the United States on church. About a year later, he toured the United States to
August 6 of that year. Hersey was free to choose how to raise money to rebuild his church and to build a peace
report the tragedy, and The New Yorker published his center. On a 1950 tour, he was invited to deliver the
striking report, all thirty-one-thousand words, in one edi- opening prayer for a session of the U.S. Senate. Later,
tion (August, 1946), virtually unaccompanied by other Tanimoto became active in finding homes for orphaned
articles. Within a few months, “Hiroshima” the article children. In 1982, he retired from his pastorate.
was published in book form and has remained in print as Hatsuyo Nakamura, a widow, took in sewing to eke
Hiroshima (1946). out a living. After the bomb fell, her house collapsed, but
After traveling throughout Hiroshima, interviewing she managed to free herself and her children. Within a
numerous victims, and gathering relevant statistics, he month, the family succumbed to radiation sickness. Re-
chose to follow six interviewees and document their ex- sources were dwindling, and soon she was destitute. She
periences from the time just before the “noiseless flash” finally received a modest house and found a job from
through the spring of 1946. His choice of subjects was which she retired at age fifty-five with a pension.
based on their having been good interviewees, and he fo- A wealthy, pleasure-loving doctor, Masakazu Fujii
cused on each person as a unique individual. owned a private hospital. Immediately after the flash, he
The Reverend Kiyoshi Tanimoto, who had arisen realized that he was in water and parts of the hospital
560
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Hiroshima Recounts the Story of Surviving a Nuclear Explosion
were all around him. Finally freeing himself, he rescued his glasses, however, which severely impeded his work.
two of his nurses. In severe pain, Fujii evaluated his With only eight doctors for ten thousand patients, he
wounds and found himself too badly wounded to care for worked for three days with only one hour’s sleep. One
other victims. After his recovery, he bought a clinic and month later and twenty pounds lighter, he slept six hours
built up a strong practice. He treated and befriended each night and still wore borrowed glasses. Much of his
many American occupation personnel. Years later, in work for the next five years was removing keloid scars,
1956, he oversaw a group of young women undergoing which resulted from burns. In 1951, he opened his own
keloid scar surgery in the United States. clinic. A physical examination revealed lung cancer, and
Father Wilhelm Kleinsorge was feeling the strain of after surgery, a severe hemorrhage brought him close to
the wartime diet and of being a foreigner in Japan during death. He later deemed this near-death experience the
the war. On the morning of the explosion, he was con- most important of his life, for it taught him the impor-
ducting Mass when a siren sounded. He dismissed the tance of compassion. After his wife died in 1972, he
group, but seeing nothing in the sky, went to his room to opened a geriatric practice. Although quite wealthy, he
read. After the flash, Kleinsorge never knew how he got lived what he lectured to his staff: to work not for money
out, but found himself in the garden. He rallied and re- primarily, but to put patients first.
sponded to innumerable calls for help. After a time, when At the East Asia Tin Works, Toshiko Sasaki, a per-
he was exhausted and thirsty, a Japanese woman offered sonnel clerk, had been taking a break when the bomb ex-
him some tea leaves, promising that they would alleviate ploded. Sixteen hundred yards from the epicenter, Sasaki
the thirst. He was almost moved to tears by this gesture, lost consciousness as she was covered with bookcases
since he had become increasingly aware of the growing and piles of debris. Many hours later, moving in and out
Japanese hatred of foreigners. of consciousness, she was taken outside into the rain. Af-
Terufumi Sasaki, a surgeon, was in a hospital labora- ter she had gone two days without food or medical treat-
tory, 1,650 yards from the epicenter, when the blast ment, friends notified her that her parents and brother
ripped through the hospital. He was the sole uninjured had died. Her crushed leg was now severely infected, and
staff person; he was probably saved by having taken a she overheard discussions about amputation, but no sur-
streetcar instead of his customary train to work. He lost gical equipment was available. Unable to set her frac-
1946
Panoramic view of Hiroshima after it was struck by an atomic bomb in August, 1945. (Library of Congress)
561
Hiroshima Recounts the Story of Surviving a Nuclear Explosion The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
tures because of the infection and having no cast materi- vors of Hiroshima, whose post-bomb lives he docu-
als, she only received aspirin for pain. Also, she was mented. Widely read in its original form, this work is
showing signs of radiation sickness. A year later and fi- probably the most moving story of individual human
nally at home, she was beginning to feel alive again when responses to the tragedy.
the man whom she was to marry backed out: his family Hogan, Michael J., ed. Hiroshima in History and Mem-
did not wish him to marry a “cripple” and a hibakusha, ory. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. A
a person with radiation sickness. Under Father Klein- work of memory and remembrance that focuses on
sorge’s ministry, Sasaki converted to Catholicism. Be- how Hiroshima and Nagasaki have remained poi-
cause she was unable to care for herself and her surviving gnant symbols in the national consciousness of not
siblings, the children went to an orphanage; she was hired only Japan but also the United States.
there as an attendant. In 1954, convinced that she would Sanders, David. John Hersey Revisited. Boston: Twayne,
never marry, she became a nun and was made director of 1991. Updates Sanders’s 1967 volume, John Hersey,
a home for the elderly. which profiles Hersey’s life and reports on the bomb-
ing and its aftermath by sharing six of his interviews.
Significance Chronology, notes, and bibliography.
John Hersey’s first-person accounts show how six resi- Sharp, Patrick B. “From Yellow Peril to Japanese Waste-
dents of the Japanese city of Hiroshima, the first city ever land: John Hersey’s Hiroshima.” Twentieth Century
to be destroyed by a single weapon, lived through an un- Literature 46, no. 4 (2000): 434-452. Discusses the
imaginable trauma. Hersey’s work tells how people— U.S. military’s official handling of the Hiroshima
regardless of country of origin, class, ethnicity, race, bombing, which named it a “historical moment.”
gender, age, or other background—cope with the horrific Hersey, in contrast, undermined the official rhetoric.
in their everyday lives. The understated stories of these Also compares Hersey’s treatment with the “waste
six ordinary people are remarkable. They made Hersey land” imagery of poet T. S. Eliot.
well known around the world, notorious among the U.S. Sollers, Werner. “Holocaust and Hiroshima: American
military-led government in Japan—where the book was Ethnic Prose Writers Face the Extreme.” PMLA: Pub-
banned until 1949—and respected among fellow jour- lications of the Modern Language Association of
nalists. America 118, no. 1 (2003): 56-61. Relates the Hiro-
—Victoria Price shima bombing event and the Holocaust in Europe to
modernism. Discusses the role of the “universal” in
Further Reading
world events.
Bataille, Georges. “Concerning the Accounts Given by
the Residents of Hiroshima.” Translated by Alan See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
Kennan. In Trauma: Explorations in Memory, edited cific Theater; June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945: United
by Cathy Caruth. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer- States Develops the First Nuclear Weapon; June 15,
sity Press, 1995. Examines, from medical and psy- 1944: Superfortress Bombing of Japan; Apr. 18,
chological standpoints, how victims of the Hiroshima 1945: War Correspondent Pyle Dies in Combat; July
disaster dealt with the nuclear disaster. 16, 1945: First Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated; Aug. 6
Hersey, John. Hiroshima. Rev. ed. New York: Alfred A. and 9, 1945: Atomic Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and
Knopf, 2002. Hersey’s classic work adds a chapter Nagasaki; Feb. 26, 1951: From Here to Eternity Wins
written forty years after the original article and re- Wide Readership; Sept. 8, 1951: Treaty of Peace with
counts the author’s search for the six original survi- Japan Is Signed in San Francisco.
562
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Atomic Energy Commission Is Established
August 1, 1946
Atomic Energy Commission Is Established
President Harry S. Truman signed a law establishing hard-driving engineer and expert in construction. Groves
the Atomic Energy Commission as the nation’s remained in command until the Atomic Energy Commis-
primary policy-making agency for the development of sion officially began operations.
nuclear energy. Although the results of the wartime nuclear program
are well known, the development of an atomic bomb was
Also known as: Atomic Energy Act of 1946; only one aspect of the new field of nuclear energy. Emi-
McMahon Act nent scientists believed that the United States needed to
Locale: Washington, D.C. be prepared to maintain leadership in nuclear research, to
Categories: Organizations and institutions; laws, develop the potential of nuclear energy as a source of in-
acts, and legal history; energy; government and dustrial power, and, if necessary, to stockpile fissionable
politics materials for both military and industrial use. Executives
Key Figures of corporations such as Union Carbide, Tennessee East-
Leslie Richard Groves (1896-1970), chief of the man (a subsidiary of Eastman Kodak), Du Pont, and
Manhattan Project, who remained involved with Westinghouse also participated in discussions about the
nuclear weaponry after the founding of the AEC future uses of nuclear energy.
Brien McMahon (1903-1952), U.S. senator from When World War II ended, scientists and others who
Connecticut, who was the prime mover in shaping perceived the unique nature of nuclear energy rallied to
the bill that established the AEC the idea that efforts should be made to secure mecha-
Andrew Jackson May (fl. mid-twentieth century), U.S. nisms for the international control of atomic energy. The
representative from Kentucky who cosponsored the failure of the resulting negotiations guaranteed that the
original bill providing for postwar management of United States and the Soviet Union would become rivals
nuclear facilities in atomic energy. With Cold War tensions already grow-
Edwin C. Johnson (1884-1970), U.S. senator from ing, the Soviet Union made every effort to move rapidly
Colorado who was the Senate sponsor of what was ahead in the field. The United Kingdom already had the
known as the May-Johnson Bill capability to progress in applications of nuclear energy,
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United and other nations were sure to become involved. Al-
States, 1945-1953, who signed the bill establishing though disputes over priorities and timing were inevita-
the AEC ble, there was considerable agreement among military,
scientific, and industrial leaders that the United States
Summary of Event needed to remain preeminent in nuclear energy.
Prior to 1942, the U.S. government, acting primarily As early as 1944, officials in the OSRD drafted a bill
through the Office of Scientific Research and Develop- establishing guidelines for postwar government control
ment (OSRD), had spent modest sums in underwriting of nuclear energy. The OSRD proposal envisioned a
some of the nuclear research being carried on at various twelve-member commission appointed by the president.
colleges, including Princeton University, Columbia Uni- The commission would have the power to regulate trans-
versity, the University of Chicago, and the University of fers of fissionable materials and to oversee the construc-
California, Berkeley. Since the actual production of tion and operations of all production plants and experi-
atomic weapons would require dedicated research labs ments involving significant amounts of fissionable
and large facilities where uranium of weapons-grade material, such as uranium 235 and plutonium. The issue
quality could be separated from uranium ore, construc- of postwar government involvement, however, was by
tion would be a major element in the development of nu- no means cut and dried; questions remained about nu-
clear weapons. merous issues, including security procedures, patents re-
1946
In 1942, the U.S. Army was therefore given the au- sulting from government-funded research, and the extent
thority to build the necessary facilities and direct the nu- of government control needed.
clear program that became known as the Manhattan En- On October 3, 1945, President Harry S. Truman sent a
gineer District, or simply the Manhattan Project. To head message to Congress setting forth the broad principles
it, the Army appointed General Leslie Richard Groves, a that the administration wished to pursue in its quest for
563
Atomic Energy Commission Is Established The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the domestic and international control of the atom. The nents of the May-Johnson Bill succeeded in transferring
ideas in Truman’s message were based on the plans pre- the hearings to the newly established Senate special com-
pared by the OSRD and modified in important ways by mittee chaired by Brien McMahon of Connecticut. Un-
Kenneth Royall and William Marbury, War Department der McMahon, who sympathized with the opponents of
lawyers. Following Truman’s announcement, the bill May-Johnson in important ways, the hearings continued
that the two attorneys drafted was directed to the military for several months. In response to mounting criticism of
affairs committees of the House and the Senate, chaired the May-Johnson Bill, Truman quietly withdrew his sup-
respectively by Andrew Jackson May of Kentucky and port of it and some months later endorsed the McMahon
Edwin C. Johnson of Colorado, both Democrats. The en- Bill instead.
abling legislation that the two men agreed to sponsor be- Compromises began to be made. The May-Johnson
came known as the May-Johnson Bill. Bill tilted toward military control, while the McMahon
Speedy passage of the bill was not forthcoming, how- Bill favored civilian control but was amended to allow
ever, for nuclear scientists and concerned members of the military ample influence in shaping weapons devel-
the media convinced Congress to hold careful hearings opment. There was, however, substantial agreement that
on a matter of such consequence. Much of the testimony the government should be authorized to control nuclear
called for limitations on military involvement in the con- facilities and to set nuclear policy in its civilian as well
trol and direction of nuclear energy. Scientists who had as military aspects. Paradoxically, as historians George
chafed under wartime regulations imposed by Groves la- Mazuzan and J. Samuel Walker have pointed out, many
bored to see security restrictions kept to a minimum, for of the most unyielding advocates of government monop-
they agreed that the free exchange of ideas was vital to oly during the congressional hearings were political con-
progress in their disciplines. Within Congress, oppo- servatives who had spent years railing against the New
Deal and government involvement in the
economy.
“A Problem More of Ethics Both bills therefore envisioned the estab-
than of Physics” lishment of a government agency to con-
tinue in peacetime what the Manhattan Proj-
Before the founding of the Atomic Energy Commission, U.S. president ect had begun in wartime. The new agency,
Harry S. Truman asked American financier Bernard Baruch to address which was named the Atomic Energy Com-
the United Nations on how atomic energy—namely its potential to effect mission (AEC), would also chart the future
both good and bad outcomes—must be controlled by all nations. course of nuclear policy.
Baruch spoke before the United Nations on June 14, 1946:
As differences were narrowed, the bill
We are here to make a choice between the quick and the dead. That is that took shape in the summer of 1946 gave
our business. the AEC exclusive authority over the de-
Behind the black portent of the new atomic age lies a hope which, velopment and applications of atomic en-
seized upon with faith, can work our salvation. If we fail, then we have ergy, ownership of all fissionable materials
damned every man to be a slave of fear. Let us not deceive ourselves, we (amended by the 1954 Atomic Energy Act)
must elect world peace or world destruction. and the facilities for producing them, and
Science has torn from nature a secret so vast in its potentialities that control of patents already owned by the
our minds cower from the terror it creates. The terror is not enough to in- government, in addition to any that might
hibit the use of the atomic bomb. The terror created by weapons has
be developed during research funded by the
never stopped man from employing them. . . .
government. There were also provisions
Science, which gave us this dread power, shows that it can be made a
giant help to humanity, but science does not show us how to prevent its for security checks on all individuals who
baleful use. So we have been appointed to obviate that peril by finding a worked for the AEC and its civilian con-
meeting of the minds and the hearts of our people. Only in the will of tractors.
mankind lies the answer. . . . Five commissioners appointed by the
Science has taught us how to put the atom to work. But to make it president for two-year terms (later changed
work for good instead of evil lies in the domain dealing with the princi- to staggered five-year terms) would deter-
ples of human duty. We are now facing a problem more of ethics than of mine AEC policy, while daily operations
physics. would be directed by a general manager,
also a presidential appointee. To ensure the
564
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Atomic Energy Commission Is Established
military’s continued involvement in policy decisions, the campuses. The actual testing and construction of reactors
bill called for a Military Liaison Committee that would would soon lead to the opening of a national reactor test-
have direct access to the civilian heads of the armed ser- ing site near Idaho Falls, Idaho.
vices. In addition, eminent scientists and engineers were The AEC empire would grow even larger as the 1940’s
to serve on the General Advisory Council (in practice, the drew to a close, for Cold War anxieties helped bring
AEC itself had one seat for a scientist). To maintain leg- about U.S. determination to expand its nuclear arsenal. A
islative oversight of the powerful new executive agency, fourfold increase in the AEC’s budget between 1947 and
the bill established an eighteen-member Joint Commit- 1952 revealed the extent of the nation’s alarm. Truman’s
tee on Atomic Energy. Each house of Congress would re- decision to authorize development of a hydrogen bomb
ceive nine seats on the committee. No more than five seats further increased the demand for fissionable materials
in each house could go to members of one party. and led to the building of additional AEC facilities. A
second weapons lab was constructed at Livermore, Cali-
Significance fornia. Moreover, hundreds of private corporations were
Although President Truman signed the enabling legisla- subcontracted to join the nuclear weapons program.
tion for the AEC on August 1, 1946, the commission did In 1950, the AEC and the Department of Defense
not begin operations until midnight of December 31, jointly selected a site in Nevada as the proving grounds
when it received from the Manhattan Project control of for the many tests that would be held as new types of nu-
the principal facilities developed during World War II. clear weapons were readied. (Thermonuclear weapons
Weeks, however, had already been devoted to preparing were tested at a Pacific Ocean site.) The magnitude of the
for the official transfer. The inherited facilities included AEC operations was described in 1952 by Time maga-
the bomb lab at Los Alamos, New Mexico, and large zine as a “land area half again as big as Delaware, grow-
sites and plants at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Hanford, ing more rapidly than any great U.S. business ever did.
Washington. The principal activity at Oak Ridge was the Its investment in plant and equipment . . . makes it bigger
separation of uranium so that U-235 (the fissionable iso- than General Motors.” Radioactive wastes were pro-
tope of uranium) could be made available for weapons duced at all the AEC sites; while it was AEC policy to
research and manufacture. Plutonium (an artificially pro- dispose of these wastes in accordance with the safety
cessed fissionable material) was produced at Hanford. standards that existed at the time, there was always the
The AEC began operations with about four thousand possibility that new findings would reveal these stan-
civilian employees, two thousand military personnel, dards to be inadequate or that something unforeseen
and thirty-eight thousand civilians working for it through could occur while wastes were being handled.
its prime contractors. Union Carbide and General Elec- From its beginning, the AEC had a complex and often
tric would manage the production plants at Oak Ridge contradictory mission. Originating at the dawn of the Cold
and Hanford, respectively, while the University of Cali- War, the agency emphasized research in nuclear weap-
fornia continued to direct the laboratory at Los Alamos. onry, testing of new designs, and production of fission-
Although the Manhattan Project had lost momentum able materials for the military. The agency’s charter also
in the demobilization that followed World War II, addressed the development of commercial applications
Groves had kept the project functioning and had even of nuclear power and dealt with the funding of research
committed funds to develop still more facilities, includ- into the health and environmental effects of radiation. By
ing laboratories at Argonne, Illinois, and Brookhaven, the early 1950’s, the growing output of nuclear warheads
New York. The AEC decided that Argonne would con- and the testing of new designs demonstrated that the AEC
centrate on the development of reactors for the genera- was fulfilling its mandate to design and help produce
tion of electricity and for submarine propulsion, while weaponry. Whether it could fulfill its other roles equally
Brookhaven’s mandate would be limited to peaceful well remained to be seen, but such progress would not be
uses of the atom and to basic research in such fields as ra- an unmixed blessing. The development of commercial
diation biology and medicine. nuclear power meant that more reactors would be con-
1946
Both Argonne and Brookhaven were designated as structed and placed at new locations throughout the
national laboratories. Several northeastern universities United States. Once commercial nuclear power plants
were authorized to form a consortium to manage Brook- became a reality, contractors would be charged with han-
haven, while the University of Chicago managed Ar- dling fissionable materials and nuclear wastes.
gonne. The AEC also funded research done at individual These developments and an increasing awareness that
565
Atomic Energy Commission Is Established The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the regulatory and promotional aspects of the AEC’s ergy Commission. Berkeley: University of California
work ought to be separated led to initiatives for legisla- Press, 1989. Much more concerned with safety issues
tive reform. In 1974, pursuant to the passage by Congress than the two previous volumes listed above. An “Es-
of the Energy Reorganization Act, the AEC ceased to ex- say on Sources” by Roger M. Anders will point the
ist, as the regulatory functions of the AEC were vested in way to many books dealing with nuclear topics.
a new Nuclear Regulatory Commission and its promo- Lilienthal, David Eli. Change, Hope, and the Bomb.
tional functions given to a new Energy Research and De- Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963. A
velopment Administration, which was later absorbed distinguished public servant, Lilienthal was the first
into the U.S. Department of Energy. chairman of the AEC. This extended essay presents
—Lloyd J. Graybar his thoughts on issues such as nuclear disarmament,
nuclear fuels versus fossil fuels, and peaceful uses of
Further Reading
the atom.
Anders, Roger M., ed. Forging the Atomic Shield: Ex-
_______. The Journals of David E. Lilienthal. Vol. 2 in
cerpts from the Office Diary of Gordon E. Dean. Cha-
The Atomic Energy Years, 1946-1950. New York:
pel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987. A
Harper & Row, 1964. Lilienthal’s journal describes
former law partner of Brien McMahon, Dean became
the pressures he felt from the military, the media, and
the AEC’s second chairman in 1950. The Cold War
congressional critics as the AEC’s first chairman.
was then at its height, and Dean’s diary provides in-
Mazuzan, George T., and J. Samuel Walker. Controlling
sight into the concerns of the AEC.
the Atom: The Beginnings of Nuclear Regulation,
Duffy, Robert J. Nuclear Politics in America: A History
1946-1962. Berkeley: University of California Press,
and Theory of Government Regulation. Lawrence:
1985. Complements the official history of the AEC by
University Press of Kansas, 1997. A study of govern-
analyzing government efforts to define radiation haz-
ment policy and regulation of the nuclear power indus-
ards and to provide safeguards.
try in the United States. Chapters include “Subgov-
Pfau, Richard F. No Sacrifice Too Great: The Life of Lewis
ernment Dominance, 1945-65,” “Redefining Nuclear
L. Strauss. Charlottesville: University Press of Vir-
Power,” and “The Demise of the AEC.”
ginia, 1984. A hard-driving, successful, and opinion-
Hewlett, Richard G., and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr. The New
ated businessman, Strauss worked in the Navy Depart-
World, 1939-1946. Vol. 1 in A History of the United
ment during World War II and later became involved
States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park:
in nuclear affairs as a member of the AEC and, later,
Pennsylvania State University Press, 1962. Based on
as its chairman. He often disagreed with Lilienthal.
research in archives, published sources, and numer-
Walker, J. Samuel. Containing the Atom: Nuclear Regu-
ous interviews, this book provides a reliable study of
lation in a Changing Environment, 1963-1971. Berke-
the wartime development of the Manhattan Project as
ley: University of California Press, 1992. Continues
well as the congressional maneuvers that resulted in
the story of government-sponsored research in radia-
the establishment of the AEC.
tion hazards and efforts to provide controls.
Hewlett, Richard G., and Francis Duncan. Atomic Shield,
_______. A Short History of Nuclear Regulation, 1946-
1947-1952. Vol. 2 in A History of the United States
1999. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Atomic Energy Commission. University Park: Penn-
Commission, 2000. A seventy-page history of the
sylvania State University Press, 1969. Begins with the
Atomic Energy Commission and the Nuclear Regula-
confirmation hearings of the original five appointees
tory Commission. Available at http://www.nrc.gov/
to the AEC and concludes with the detonation of the
who-we-are/short-history.html.
world’s first thermonuclear device at Eniwetok in the
Pacific late in 1952. See also: June 17, 1942-July 16, 1945: United States
_______. Nuclear Navy, 1946-1962. Chicago: Univer- Develops the First Nuclear Weapon; Nov. 4, 1943:
sity of Chicago Press, 1974. Provides a reliable over- World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated; July 16,
view of the U.S. Navy’s efforts to develop and utilize 1945: First Nuclear Bomb Is Detonated; Dec. 20,
nuclear reactors as a source of propulsion. Surveys 1951: World’s First Breeder Reactor Produces Elec-
the people involved in the Navy’s efforts. tricity; July 29, 1957: International Atomic Energy
Hewlett, Richard G., and Jack M. Holl. Atoms for Peace Agency Begins Operations; Aug., 1957: Price-An-
and War, 1953-1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic En- derson Act Limits Nuclear Liability.
566
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Congress Creates the Fulbright Program
August 1, 1946
Congress Creates the Fulbright Program
To foster mutual understanding among nations in the when nations appreciate and understand one another
wake of World War II, Congress passed the Fulbright could they exist in a peaceful world.
Act, which created the Fulbright program. The Fulbright’s original Senate bill was a short thirty-line
program, which awards one of the most prestigious amendment to the 1944 Surplus Property Act, earmarked
international fellowships, was established to last a few to authorize funds from the sale of surplus war property
years only, but its success prompted Congress to overseas for financing international student exchange. He
extend and expand the program. introduced a broader bill in November, 1945, and lined up
support from the executive branch, especially the State
Also known as: Fulbright Act Department, which was primarily responsible for foreign
Locale: Washington D.C. policy. Fulbright then skillfully moved the bill through
Categories: Education; diplomacy and international legislative committees and added clauses, including giv-
relations; organizations and institutions; laws, acts, ing preferences to U.S. veterans of World Wars I and II,
and legal history limiting the amount that could be spent in any one nation,
Key Figures and ensuring that foreign students could not deprive any
J. William Fulbright (1905-1995), U.S. senator from U.S. citizen of an educational opportunity. Both the
Arkansas, 1945-1974 House and the Senate approved the bill without debate,
Ronald Buchanan McCallum (1898-1973), historian and on August 1, 1946, Truman signed the Fulbright Act
and Oxford tutor of Fulbright, 1925-1928 into law, marking the creation of the Fulbright program.
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United The first U.S. citizen to receive a Fulbright fellowship
States, 1945-1953, who signed the Fulbright Act was Derk Bodde, a sinologist from the University of Penn-
into law sylvania, who spent his 1948-1949 fellowship year in
Derk Bodde (1909-2003), first recipient of a Fulbright China. Soon, exchange agreements were signed with the
fellowship Philippines, Greece, and Burma. The program’s Foreign
Scholarship Board was soon confronted with thousands
Summary of Event of persons applying for grants, but by the end of 1947 the
On August 1, 1946, President Harry S. Truman signed board established criteria for selecting individuals. The
into law what has become the biggest and most important new criteria stipulated that not only scholars and teachers
international educational exchange program, created would be eligible for the fellowship but also those work-
largely by the efforts of J. William Fulbright, then a ing in a variety of educational spheres—including librar-
young senator representing Arkansas. Senator Fulbright ies and museums—as well as writers, artists, and musi-
studied for four years (1925-1928) as a Rhodes Scholar cians. For applicants to be selected they also had to be
at Oxford University in England, and his experience approved by the planned host country and the institution
there led him to a lifetime interest in education (he was
named president of the University of Arkansas at the age
of thirty-four) and international affairs (he was chair of Global Educational Exchange
the Senate Foreign Relations Committee for fifteen
years). Fulbright’s tutor at Oxford, Ronald Buchanan In his foreword to The Fulbright Program (1965), Sena-
McCallum, would have a significant impact on the senator J. William Fulbright identified the importance of ed-
tor’s life and intellectual growth, and the two would re- ucational exchange between nations:
main close friends until McCallum’s death in 1973.
There is nothing obscure about the objectives of edu-
Fulbright’s experience at Oxford, the emergence of cational exchange. Its purpose it to acquaint Americans
the United States after World War II as a world leader, with the world as it is and to acquaint students and schol-
1946
and its new role in international affairs, convinced ars from many lands with America as it is—not as we
Fulbright that educational and cultural exchanges would wish it were or as we might wish foreigners to see it but
promote international understanding among peoples of exactly as it is—which by my reckoning is an “image” of
the world. Fulbright believed that isolationism and na- which no American need be ashamed.
tionalism had led to aggression and war, and that only
567
Congress Creates the Fulbright Program The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
with which they would be affiliated. To help screen po- instrumental to cultural knowledge. He believed strongly
tential fellowship recipients, the board turned to the In- that the United States must play an active role in promot-
stitute of International Education and U.S. Office of Edu- ing democracy throughout the world and in establishing
cation, among others organizations and institutions. the means to prevent global war in an atomic age.
Fulbright recipients have included well-known indi- —John Boyd
viduals such as actor John Lithgow, composer Philip
Further Reading
Glass, and opera singer Renée Fleming. Recipients in-
Apple, R. W., Jr. “J. William Fulbright, Senate Giant, Is
clude members of Congress, university presidents, and
Dead at 89.” The New York Times, February 10, 1995,
journalists. Most recipients, however, are scholars and
p. A1. A lengthy obituary of J. William Fulbright,
teachers from a variety of disciplines.
highlighting his career and his enormous influence on
The Fulbright program was expanded and more
U.S. foreign policy and global education.
clearly defined with the passage of the Fulbright-Hays
Arndt, Richard T., and David Lee Rubin, eds. The
Act (Mutual Educational and Cultural Exchange Act),
Fulbright Difference, 1948-1992. New Brunswick,
signed into law by President John F. Kennedy in 1961.
N.J.: Transaction, 1993. Acollection of essays by Ful-
The act encouraged other governments to finance partic-
bright scholars examining the influence of the pro-
ipation in the Fulbright program, and by 1966 ten foreign
gram during a period of four decades. Concludes with
governments were contributing directly, with many
a chapter on the future of the Fulbright program.
more providing indirect support through university
Dudden, Arthur Power, and Russell R. Dynes, eds. The
housing, tuition wavers, and salary support. The primary
Fulbright Experience, 1946-1986: Encounters and
financial support for the program is an annual appropria-
Transformations. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction,
tion by Congress. The Fulbright-Hays Act also sup-
1987. Firsthand reminiscences by Fulbright scholars,
ported efforts to increase foreign-language expertise
who share the stories of their experiences living and
among educators in the United States. The Bureau of Ed-
learning outside the United States.
ucational and Cultural Affairs within the U.S. Depart-
Fulbright, William J. “The Most Significant and Impor-
ment of State administers the Fulbright program, and the
tant Activity I Have Been Privileged to Engage in
J. William Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board, com-
During My Years in the Senate.” Annals of the Ameri-
prising twelve members appointed by the president of the
can Academy of Political and Social Science 424
United States, establishes policies and procedures and is
(March, 1976): 1-5. Fulbright discusses why he con-
authorized to select candidates for the award.
sidered the Fulbright program the most important
piece of legislation in which he engaged.
Significance
Glazer, Nathan, ed. “The Fulbright Experience and Aca-
After passage of the Fulbright Act in 1946, thousands of
demic Exchanges.” Annals of the American Academy
teachers, researchers, and students have traveled overseas
of Political and Social Science 491 (May, 1987): 10-
and thousands of foreign scholars and students have come
163. This special issue discusses the creation of the
to the United States for study and teaching. What began,
Fulbright program and its impact on participating in-
in part, as a reaction to the death and destruction of World
dividuals and countries.
War II has become a major educational program in pro-
U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Educational and
moting international understanding and cooperation.
Cultural Affairs. Fulbright Program. http://exchanges
The Fulbright program is considered a post-World
.state.gov/education/fulbright/. The program’s offi-
War II success along the lines of the Marshall Plan,
cial Web site.
which rebuilt Europe after the war; Fulbright is certainly
Woods, Randall Bennett. Fulbright: A Biography. New
the most successful international scholarship program. It
York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. An excel-
remains the flagship of international exchange programs
lent biography of Fulbright, with details of his politi-
with nearly 300,000 persons from the United States and
cal career and personal life.
other countries having participated. The program oper-
ates in more than 150 countries. Each year sees more than See also: July, 1947: Great Books Foundation Is Estab-
five thousand new exchanges. lished; Apr. 3, 1948: Marshall Plan Provides Aid to
J. William Fulbright’s experiences as a student in En- Europe; Nov. 2, 1948: Truman Is Elected President;
gland, traveling throughout Europe, and as a university Mar. 1, 1961: Peace Corps Is Founded; Nov. 3, 1961:
president convinced him that international exchange was Agency for International Development Is Established.
568
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Mahalia Jackson Begins Her Recording Career
October 3, 1946
Mahalia Jackson Begins Her Recording Career
Mahalia Jackson launched a influential recording can audiences. In the huge ghettos of Chicago’s South
career that included a contract with Columbia Records Side, New York’s Harlem, and Los Angeles’s Watts, she
and popularity that transcended racial lines. She was began to reign supreme.
one of several important African American performers Jackson was born poor in New Orleans in 1911. She
to bring gospel music into the mainstream of the U.S. grew up listening to the blues recordings of singers such
recording industry. as Bessie Smith and Ma Rainey but gravitated more to
the religious songs of the Baptist Church. Nevertheless,
Also known as: “I Want to Rest”; “(I’m Going to) she thought that the more passionate singing in the Sanc-
Wait Until My Change Comes”; “I’m Going to Tell tified and Holiness churches, where instruments were al-
God” lowed, matched better with the feelings she wanted to
Locale: New York, New York express. Hearing the local jazz musicians and their im-
Category: Music provising bands also inspired her at an early age. After
Key Figures moving to Chicago’s South Side ghetto in 1927, she be-
Mahalia Jackson (1911-1972), American gospel singer gan to sing in church choirs and joined a small gospel
Thomas A. Dorsey (1899-1993), American gospel song group committed to the newer up-tempo gospel songs
composer she admired. Singing at storefront churches and around
Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968), American the Chicago area, she started to develop the ecstatic and
preacher and civil rights leader freely embellished style of handling spirituals and
Studs Terkel (b. 1912), American radio personality hymns that became her trademark.
writer Through the 1930’s, Jackson survived by singing and
John Hammond (1910-1987), American record by running a series of small businesses including a flo-
producer rist’s shop, a hairdresser’s shop, and even a house-to-
house homemade cosmetics sales operation. She also
Summary of Event met Thomas A. Dorsey, a central figure in the creation of
On October 3, 1946, Mahalia Jackson made her first gos- modern African American gospel songs. Dorsey had by
pel recordings for the New York label Apollo. Her first this time turned away from his earlier blues performing,
singles for the label did not sell well, but in 1947 she re- recording, and songwriting career to write gospel blues
corded a song that went on to sell a million copies. songs. These religious songs with blues tonalities soon
“Move on Up a Little Higher,” recorded September 12, caught on among the new migrants to Chicago from the
1947, covered both sides of the record. It had been writ- Deep South who had grown up with the older African
ten by the Reverend W. Herbert Brewster, a well-known American religious song styles. Dorsey recaptured much
Memphis preacher and songwriter. The song put Jackson of that style in his songs and slowly won over the more
on the path to national prominence. staid mainline church choirs and pastors—as well as
Other Apollo recordings in the next eight years sold their congregations—to the new impassioned singing of
well, and Jackson became in demand nationwide as a the good news (the gospel).
leading exponent of the newer gospel songs. She became Teaming up with Jackson, Dorsey toured the Chicago
the official soloist of the National Baptist Convention, an area and the South, selling his songs on sheet music and
African American church, and was a popular figure on playing piano behind Jackson’s interpretations of his
Studs Terkel’s radio program in Chicago, where she songs. Jackson and Dorsey thus helped expose Northern
lived. Terkel had an ear for folk, blues, and gospel music African Americans to their folk-derived music. They
and found Jackson to be one of the finest singers and in- came to a parting of ways, however, over her freedom
terpreters, with her rich and strong contralto voice. Her with the printed music he wrote. Jackson had developed
1946
outgoing personality and deep knowledge of African her own style of decorating, embellishing, slowing
American culture and musical roots made her a local fa- down, or speeding up traditional spirituals and hymns,
vorite when she appeared on Terkel’s television show in and even the new songs, so that each of her performances
the early 1950’s. In the segregated United States of that was different. She had brought the old oral tradition,
time, her artistry was confined mainly to African Ameri- stemming from Africa, to the North. Her singing became
569
Mahalia Jackson Begins Her Recording Career The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
a testimony-in-song to joy and faith, to suffering and

loss, as she shouted and moaned or pushed her contralto
into falsetto. The musical assimilation of the mainline
churches, with formal music reading and stolidness, was
not for her.
Jackson made her very first recording—on the Decca
label—on May 21, 1937, but it went nowhere. The songs
were recorded with a combination of piano and organ
that she came to prefer for live performances throughout
her career. Undaunted by the failure of her Decca single,
she kept touring, singing in whatever church wanted her,
communicating with audiences through inviting them to
respond with hand clapping and sung responses in the
traditional call-and-response style.
Jackson’s piano accompaniment was most often in
the hands of Mildred Falls, who came to understand
Jackson’s style and simply provided backing triplets or a
percussive touch to Jackson’s improvisatory handling of
lines and phrases. The organ, likewise, played its role by
sustaining notes and chords while Jackson “worried”
words and phrases and frequently sang in a free rhythm
over the accompaniment. Using melisma (a group of
notes sung to the same syllable), she freely altered melo-
dies, repeated phrases, and marvelously reshaped old
spirituals and new songs in her own style. With her style
solidified and an audience clamoring for live perfor- Mahalia Jackson, photographed by Carl Van Vechten in 1962.
mances, she was on her way. (Library of Congress)
Significance
Jackson’s success with the Apollo label from 1946 sometimes overdubbed—and she thought that this some-
through 1954 made hers a household name among Afri- times compromised her music. As she became more
can Americans. She had a half-hour radio show in 1954 mainstream, some of her roots in folk traditions were
and 1955 and even broadened her repertoire to include lost.
pieces such as Brahms’s Lullaby and Silent Night. Net- A major turning point in her career came in 1951,
work television seemed afraid of her in this segregated when she appeared at the Music Inn in Lenox, Massachu-
era. Even on radio and local Chicago television, she setts. Singing her songs and explaining their roots before
found pressures that bothered her and that she would en- an audience of jazz experts and musicologists, Jackson
counter for the rest of her career. was surprised to find a fan in John Hammond, a famous
Jackson never sang a song the same way twice. As she talent scout and record producer. He soon worked to get
moved into the world of recordings, radio and television her a contract with Columbia Records, a mainstream la-
broadcasts, and the mass media, she found producers, di- bel that had earlier, under Hammond’s guidance, re-
rectors, and musicians who did not know black culture or corded such important artists as Bessie Smith, Billie Hol-
religious music and who pressured her to limit the length iday, Benny Goodman, and Count Basie. Hammond had
of her performances to fit into time slots or the limits of organized the famous 1938 and 1939 Spirituals to Swing
singles recordings. Studio musicians and orchestras concerts in New York and would later in his career help
worked from written parts and scores; she was used to get Bob Dylan and Bruce Springsteen signed to Colum-
improvising and establishing her own pulse with Mil- bia. He had a great ear for traditional and indigenous
dred Falls. This difference created conflicts in her re- American music. In Jackson, he saw an important Amer-
cording career. Later in her career, strings, horns, guitars, ican talent with folk roots.
drums, and large choirs were added to her recordings— From 1954 until her death from heart failure in 1972,
570
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Mahalia Jackson Begins Her Recording Career
Jackson recorded for Columbia. She recorded many al- lap exists between the repertoires of white and black reli-
bums of spirituals, hymns, and gospel songs. Although gious song, Ford’s efforts added further to the accep-
producers urged her to appeal to pop audiences by re- tance of the gospel in song. Singers such as Elvis Presley
cording pallid inspirational songs and Christmas carols, and Johnny Cash also fostered a mass acceptance of reli-
she largely resisted. Some recordings were overpro- gious songs. It was Presley who sang Dorsey’s “Peace in
duced with orchestral accompaniment, but she now had the Valley” on Ed Sullivan’s television show in January,
the opportunity to record her songs without restrictive 1957, and then saw his recording of it become a pop hit.
time limits. Most of her recordings were albums; some In 1971, Jackson sang the classic folk spiritual “Amazing
featured live performances such as those at the presti- Grace” on Johnny Cash’s network television show. Jack-
gious Newport Jazz Festival and on foreign tours. Two son set an example of service to her music and her peo-
singles reached the pop charts: “He’s Got the Whole ple. Her influence crossed racial lines and helped immea-
World in His Hands” in 1958 and “Silent Night, Holy surably to ensure the emergence of one of America’s
Night” in 1962. great musical forms.
In the late 1950’s and through the 1960’s her fame —Frederick E. Danker
spread across the world. She was acclaimed in Germany,
France, Sweden, England, Japan, and India, among other Further Reading
countries. She met presidents and royalty and sang at Cusic, Don. The Sound of Light: A History of Gospel Mu-
John F. Kennedy’s inaugural. Utilizing the William sic. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State Uni-
Morris booking agency, she appeared at better venues, versity Popular Press, 1990. A good general survey of
from Carnegie Hall to Constitution Hall. In the 1960’s, the history and roots of religious music in America,
she also became a favorite guest on network television both black and white. A chapter discusses Mahalia
shows including those of Dinah Shore, Ed Sullivan, and Jackson and Sam Cooke together. Good bibliography.
Steve Allen. Church benefits and one-night stands con- Indexed fully.
tinued, but Jackson now had a wider choice. Goreau, Laurraine. Just Mahalia, Baby: The Mahalia
One of the most important aspects of her life was her Jackson Story. Gretna, La.: Pelican, 1984. The most
deep and lasting friendship for and active support of comprehensive biography to date. Goreau, a friend
Martin Luther King, Jr. She shared with him the Chris- and intimate in later years, offers six hundred pages of
tian message of love and tolerance and a sharp sense of anecdotal coverage of Jackson’s professional and
the injustices that they and all African Americans had to personal life. The writing is often awkward. No notes
endure. After meeting King in 1955, Jackson immedi- as such. Many photos and an index. Valuable for its
ately took to singing for his rallies. Risking her safety, insights and sense of the milieu and the tensions of
she journeyed to Montgomery, Alabama, in 1956 to sing Jackson’s life.
gospel songs for the civil rights demonstrators. She Harris, Michael W. The Rise of Gospel Blues: The Music
walked with King and thousands of others through the vi- of Thomas Andrew Dorsey in the Urban Church. New
olent streets of Chicago in 1966 in a demand for open York: Oxford University Press, 1992. A fine and de-
housing. As a preacher, King shared with Jackson a love tailed study not only of Dorsey’s career but also of the
of spirituals and gospel song. For him, she sang the spiri- whole Chicago scene in the 1930’s, with reference to
tual “I Been ’Buked and I Been Scorned” before thou- the new gospel style of singing. Dorsey’s work with
sands in front of the Lincoln Memorial at the great March Jackson is discussed. Good and comprehensible (for
on Washington in August, 1963, just before he delivered a general readership) musical analysis. Notes and
his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. Most poignantly, index.
she sang his favorite gospel song at his funeral in April, Heilbut, Tony. The Gospel Sound: Good News and Bad
1968: Dorsey’s “Take My Hand, Precious Lord.” Times. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971. The best
Jackson’s example of finding a mass audience for re- popular history of black gospel music. Well written
ligious music ran parallel to the popularity of white sing- and engaging. Includes a chapter on Jackson. Illus-
1946
ers such as Tennessee Ernie Ford, whose network televi- trated. Indexed by names and songs, with discog-
sion show in the 1950’s and 1960’s featured his singing raphy.
of gospel songs. His best-selling spiritual albums also Jackson, Mahalia, with Evan McLeod Wylie. Movin’ On
brought the old spirituals, hymns, and new gospel songs Up. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1966. A short auto-
to a mainstream audience. Because a considerable over- biography, but useful and insightful, especially con-
571
Physicists Develop the First Synchrocyclotron The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
cerning Jackson’s feelings about civil rights and Mar- Piquant, 2002. Relates Jackson’s contributions to mu-
tin Luther King, Jr. Complements Goreau in capturing sic history to those of New Orleans jazz singers and
the strongly held views Jackson had but kept some- musicians and compares and contrasts the aesthetics
what private. of the two styles of music. Bibliographic references.
Lovell, John. Black Song: The Forge and the Flame, the Schwerin, Jules. Got to Tell It: Mahalia Jackson, Queen
Story of How the Afro-American Spiritual Was Ham- of Gospel. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
mered Out. New York: Macmillan, 1972. The long A short anecdotal memoir by a documentary film-
subtitle captures the focus of this long book. A fully maker who worked with Jackson. Illustrated, discog-
comprehensive overview. Indexed thoroughly, with raphy, no index.
good source notes.
Orgill, Roxane. Mahalia: A Life in Gospel Music. Cam- See also: Sept., 1943: Sinatra Establishes Himself as a
bridge, Mass.: Candlewick Press, 2002. Biography Solo Performer; Mar. 28, 1946: Parker’s Playing
emphasizing the “rags-to-riches” aspect of Jackson’s Epitomizes Bebop; Jan., 1949: Brecht Founds the
life and career, as well as her contributions to the Berliner Ensemble; Jan. 21, 1949-Mar. 9, 1950: Davis
struggle for civil rights. Bibliographic references and Develops 1950’s Cool Jazz; Spring, 1955: Berry’s
index. “Maybellene” Popularizes Rock and Roll; Jan., 1959:
Rookmaaker, Hendrik R. New Orleans Jazz, Mahalia Gordy Founds Motown Records; Aug. 28, 1963: King
Jackson and the Philosophy of Art. Edited by Marleen Delivers His “I Have a Dream” Speech; Aug., 1969:
Hengelaar-Rookmaaker. Carlisle, Cumbria, England: Davis Introduces Jazz-Rock Fusion.
November, 1946
Physicists Develop the First Synchrocyclotron
Theoretical advances by Edwin Mattison McMillan naturally in such sources as cosmic rays and the radioac-
and Vladimir Iosifovich Veksler led to the practical tive decay of elements. Abundant as these sources may
development of the first synchrocyclotron, a powerful be, they allow the scientist no means of controlling the
particle accelerator that overcame problems of its properties of the particles. By the early 1920’s, the exper-
predecessor, the cyclotron. imental work of physicists such as Ernest Rutherford and
George Gamow demanded that an artificial means be de-
Locale: Berkeley, California veloped to generate streams of atomic and subatomic
Categories: Engineering; physics; science and particles at energies much greater than those occurring
technology naturally. Both Gamow’s and Rutherford’s initial fail-
Key Figures ures to bombard the nuclei of atoms with subatomic par-
Edwin Mattison McMillan (1907-1991), American ticles led Ernest Orlando Lawrence to develop the cyclo-
physicist tron, the prototype for most modern accelerators. The
Vladimir Iosifovich Veksler (1907-1966), Soviet synchrocyclotron was developed in response to the limi-
physicist tations of the early cyclotron.
Ernest Orlando Lawrence (1901-1958), American In September, 1930, Lawrence, together with a group
physicist of his graduate students at the University of California
Hans Albrecht Bethe (1906-2005), German American Radiation Laboratory, announced the basic principles
physicist behind the cyclotron: Ionized—that is, electrically
charged—particles are admitted into the central section
Summary of Event of a circular metal drum. The drum is actually divided
The synchrocyclotron is a large electromagnetic appara- into two semicircular D-shaped segments, known as
tus designed to accelerate atomic and subatomic parti- “dees.” A strong oscillating electrical field, known as the
cles at high energies. Therefore, it falls under the broad “rf source,” is applied across the gap between the dees,
class of scientific apparatuses known as particle acceler- while a magnetic field is applied in the vertical direction
ators. Accelerated subatomic and atomic particles occur perpendicular to the electrical field.
572
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Physicists Develop the First Synchrocyclotron
Edwin Mattison McMillan at the controls of the synchrocyclotron in 1948. (Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Courtesy AIP Emilio
Segrè Visual Archives)
Particles are given their initial energy by the rf source, generated protons, which are subatomic particles, with
which sends them across the gap, where the magnetic energies in excess of 1.2 million electronvolts. By mid-
field forces them into circular paths, or orbits, bringing 1934, the Lawrence cyclotron was producing deuterons
them into the gap once again. This time, when the parti- at 5 million electronvolts. Deuterons are the positive ions
cles enter the gap, the rf source has been reversed. Be- of deuterium, a radioactive form of hydrogen.
cause it is an oscillating source, it sends them into the op- Although Lawrence was interested in the practical ap-
posite dee, increasing their energy and orbital radii. This plications of his invention in medicine and biology, the
process continues until the particles reach the desired en- cyclotron also was applied to a variety of experiments in
ergy and velocity and are extracted from the outer rim of a subfield of physics called “high-energy physics.”
the dees for use in experiments ranging from particle-to- Among the earliest applications were studies of the sub-
particle collisions to the synthesis of radioactive ele- atomic, or nuclear, structure of matter. The energetic par-
ments. ticles generated by the cyclotron made possible the very
1946
Particle energy is measured in units called electron type of experiment that Rutherford and Gamow had at-
volts, which are defined as the amount of energy a parti- tempted earlier. These experiments, which bombarded
cle of unit charge, such as an electron, receives when it is lithium targets with streams of highly energetic acceler-
passed through an electrical field with a strength of 1 ated protons, attempted to probe the inner structure of
volt. Between 1931 and 1932, the Lawrence cyclotron matter.
573
Physicists Develop the First Synchrocyclotron The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Among other experiments was the confirmation of Sir tal test in 1945 in the older 94-centimeter cyclotron. The
James Chadwick’s 1932 discovery of the neutron, an new synchronous rf source overcame the relativistic
electrically neutral subatomic particle that, together with mass effect. With this test deemed a success, the Berke-
the proton, constitutes the atomic nucleus. These 1933 ley team decided that it would be reasonable to convert
experiments were made possible by the acceleration of the cyclotron magnet to one in a new synchrocyclotron.
deuterons. The apparatus was operational in November of 1946 and
Although funding for scientific research on a large produced deuterons at 190 million electronvolts and he-
scale was scarce before World War II, Lawrence never- lium ions, or alpha particles, at 380 million electronvolts.
theless conceived of a 467-centimeter cyclotron that These high energies combined with economic factors
would generate particles with energies approaching 100 to make the synchrocyclotron a major achievement for
million electronvolts. By the end of the war, increases in the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory. The synchrocyclo-
the public and private funding of scientific research and a tron required less voltage to produce higher energies than
demand for even higher energy particles created a situa- the cyclotron because the relativistic mass effects were
tion in which this plan looked as if it would become real- virtually nonexistent. In essence, the energies produced
ity, were it not for an inherent limit in the physics of cy- by synchrocyclotrons are limited only by the economics
clotron operation. of building them. These factors led to the planning and
In 1937, Hans Albrecht Bethe discovered a severe construction of other synchrocyclotrons in the United
theoretical limitation to the energies that could be pro- States and Europe. In 1957, the Berkeley apparatus was
duced in a cyclotron. Albert Einstein’s theory of special redesigned in order to achieve energies of 720 million
relativity had postulated that as any particle gains veloc- electronvolts, at that time the record for cyclotrons of any
ity relative to the speed of light, its mass increases. Bethe kind.
showed that this increase in mass would eventually slow The economic and scientific benefits of the synchro-
the rotation of the particle. Therefore, as the rotation of cyclotron were not without problems. When the change
each particle slows and the rf frequency of the cyclotron was made from cyclotrons to synchrocyclotrons, an im-
remains constant, particle velocity will decrease eventu- portant property of the generated particle beams was lost:
ally each time particles cross the gap between the cyclo- intensity. Beam intensity is directly related to the number
tron dees. This effect of “relativistic mass” set an upper of particles leaving the accelerator. Particles leave the
limit on the energies that any cyclotron could produce. synchrocyclotron at a much lower rate than the cyclotron
Edwin Mattison McMillan, a colleague of Lawrence because particles are essentially “held up” until the rf
at Berkeley, proposed a solution to Bethe’s problem in source comes into agreement with the reference particle,
1945. Simultaneously and independently, Vladimir Io- resulting in fewer particles per unit of time.
sifovich Veksler of the Soviet Union proposed the same Although physicists had higher energies with which
solution. They suggested that the frequency of the rf to experiment, beam intensity had dropped by a factor of
source be slowed to meet the decreasing rotational fre- one hundred. This greatly limited the number of nuclear
quencies of the accelerating particles, in essence, syn- and subatomic collisions, or “events,” which could be
chronizing the rf frequency to match the particle fre- observed in one experimental run. The synchrocyclotron
quency. In principle, the frequency of the rf source is to was, however, still a more powerful instrument than the
be matched to the frequency of a reference particle. This cyclotron in terms of the energies it could produce, and
reference particle sets the rf source so that particles at ei- the intensity problem was eventually solved in the
ther higher or lower frequencies, within a preset margin 1950’s, with the advent of the isochronous cyclotron.
of error, are restored to the reference frequency. This
process is called phase focusing. The synchrocyclotron Significance
was only one of a family of so-called synchronous accel- Previously, scientists had to rely on natural sources for
erators developed as a result of McMillan’s insight into highly energetic subatomic and atomic particles with
phase focusing. which to experiment. In the mid-1920’s, Robert An-
Prior to World War II, Lawrence and his colleagues drews Millikan began his experimental work in cosmic
had obtained the massive electromagnet for the new 100- rays, one natural source of energetic particles called
million-electronvolt cyclotron. This 467-centimeter mag- mesons. Mesons are charged particles that have a mass in
net became the heart of the new Berkeley synchrocyclo- excess of two hundred times that of the electron and are
tron. McMillan’s 1938 theory was first put to experimen- therefore of great benefit in high-energy physics experi-
574
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Physicists Develop the First Synchrocyclotron
ments. In February of 1949, McMillan announced the synchrotron, a direct descendant of McMillan and Law-
first synthetically produced mesons. rence’s early efforts.
The mesons were produced by exploiting the high —William J. McKinney
energies generated by the Berkeley synchrocyclotron.
Further Reading
Electrons are accelerated to an energy of 300 million
Lee, S. Y. Accelerator Physics. 2d ed. Hackensack, N.J.:
electronvolts. The synchrocyclotron’s ability to avoid
World Scientific, 2004. General survey of the use of
the pitfalls of its predecessor were evident in this experi-
particle accelerators in theoretical and practical phys-
ment. At such a high energy, electrons weigh six hundred
ics. Bibliographic references and index.
times more than they do before acceleration. The syn-
Livingston, M. Stanley. Particle Accelerators. Cam-
chronized rf source allowed the electrons to continue to
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969. This
gain energy while traveling around the chamber 480,000
small, technically concise volume presents the history
times, with each electron completing an average of six
of particle accelerators from their earliest conception
orbits per second.
in the early twentieth century to the 1967 Fermilab
Upon reaching this energy, the electrons are extracted
achievement of 200 to 400 billion electronvolts. It
and allowed to collide with a heavy metal target, which
traces many of the technical and economic difficulties
liberates a strong X-ray beam, which is responsible, in
faced in the construction and use of particle accelera-
turn, for the creation of muons. The production of such
tors. Livingston was involved in the early Lawrence
particles has a wide variety of experimental applications
groups at Berkeley and uses this experience to tell a
in high-energy physics. Muons exist in both positively
well-written story that has sufficient technical detail
and negatively charged varieties. The negatively charged
to remain useful.
meson, known as the mu meson, or muon, has been
Segrè, Emilio. From X-rays to Quarks: Modern Physi-
linked since the late 1950’s by physicists such as Luis
cists and Their Discoveries. San Francisco: W. H.
Walter Alvarez with the possibility of attaining con-
Freeman, 1980. Segrè was actively involved in nu-
trolled, low-temperature nuclear fusion.
clear physics during the 1930’s and 1940’s and pre-
Finally, McMillan’s theoretical development led not
sents an excellent history of the rise of high-energy
only to the development of the synchrocyclotron but also
physics, which was the impetus for particle accelera-
to the development of the electron synchrotron, the pro-
tor development.
ton synchrotron, the microtron, and the linear accelera-
_______. “Synchrotron Makes Mesons.” Science News-
tor. Both the proton and electron synchrotrons have been
letter 55 (February, 1949): 99. This is a very brief
used successfully to produce precise beams of muons
discussion of McMillan’s announcement of the pro-
and another species of meson, the pi-meson, or pion.
duction of mesons in the Berkeley synchrocyclotron.
The increased use of accelerator apparatus ushered in
Although it is written in a journalistic style, it includes
a new era of physics research, which became dominated
enough technical detail to make it an informative arti-
by the technical and economic magnitude of increasingly
cle for the layperson.
large accelerators and, subsequently, larger teams of sci-
entists and engineers required to run individual experi- See also: 1947: Lamb and Retherford Discover the
ments. As a rule, particle accelerators were run on the Lamb Shift; 1951: Hofstadter Discovers That Protons
joint funding of major research universities and national and Neutrons Have Structure; Feb.-Aug., 1957: Bar-
governments. This joint venture led to the generation of deen, Cooper, and Schrieffer Explain Superconduc-
energies in excess of 2 trillion electronvolts at the United tivity; Jan. 15, 1958: Esaki Demonstrates Electron
States’ Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, or Fer- Tunneling in Semiconductors; 1964: Gell-Mann and
milab, in Illinois. Part of the huge Tevatron apparatus at Zweig Advance Quark Theory; 1968: Friedman,
Fermilab, which generates these particles, was a proton Kendall, and Taylor Discover Quarks.
1946
575
Nationalist Vietnamese Fight French Control of Indochina The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
November, 1946-July, 1954

Nationalist Vietnamese Fight French Control of Indochina
Viet Minh forces defended the independence of had countered this promise and proposed a trusteeship
Vietnam against French forces that were seen as a for postwar Indochina, claiming that the French had mis-
vestige of colonial influence. managed the people and resources of the area. Still later
in the war, in 1945, Roosevelt tried to bargain with the
Also known as: First Indochina War; French-Indo- leader of the Nationalist Chinese, Chiang Kai-shek, by
china War offering him control of Vietnam and any other countries
Locale: North Vietnam in Indochina. The Chinese turned down the offer because
Categories: Colonialism and occupation; of the difficulty of trying to govern a nation that would
independence movements; wars, uprisings, and civil not conform to Chinese rule.
unrest In 1945, therefore, the fate of Vietnam was still unde-
Key Figures cided. During the war, Vietnam had been occupied by the
Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969), the president of the Japanese with French approval. France’s credibility con-
Republic of Vietnam, committed to the idea of cerning Japan was called into question as a result of this,
Vietnamese independence and at the Potsdam Conference (1945) the decision was
Vo Nguyen Giap (b. 1912), a Vietnamese patriot and made to allow neutral allied nations to oversee Japanese
the commander of Ho Chi Minh’s military arm, the disarmament in Vietnam. The British were to supervise
Viet Minh in the south and the Chinese were in charge of northern
Sir Douglas David Gracey (1894-1964), commander disarmament. The French high commissioner (governor)
of the Allied Land Forces in French Indochina, for Indochina, Admiral Georges Thierry d’Argenlieu,
1945-1946, who led 20,000 Indian troops to occupy was to coordinate between the areas. The new Republic
Saigon of Vietnam had no military institutions to protect its
Jean Sainteny (1907-1978), a French negotiator, who claim of independence and no political organization that
developed the blueprint for the recognition of the represented the nation as a whole. In 1945, the new re-
Republic of Vietnam public was led by communist-styled cadres known as
Georges Thierry d’Argenlieu (1889-1964), the French Viet Minh. These cadres were organized politically by
high commissioner for Indochina at the end of Ho Chi Minh and militarily by Vo Nguyen Giap, Ho’s
World War II trusted assistant.
Henri Navarre (1898-1983), commander of the French Within days of the landing of the British forces, con-
forces in Indochina, 1953-1954 flict broke out between the Viet Minh and the French
and British. The British officer in charge, General Sir
Summary of Event Douglas David Gracey, ordered to remain neutral, was
In September of 1945, while the eyes of the world were unquestionably in favor of French rule in the area. A
focused on the Japanese surrender in the Pacific follow- product of the British colonial system, Gracey did not be-
ing World War II, Vietnamese nationalist leader Ho Chi lieve that the Vietnamese were capable of self-govern-
Minh proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam. After nearly ment, nor that they should ever be allowed to threaten the
one hundred years of oppressive French domination, Ho control of their masters. As soon as rioting broke out in
believed that the United States would enforce the ideals Saigon, he released French legionnaires from their Japa-
articulated in the Atlantic Charter of 1941: the return of nese prisons and armed them with British weapons.
self-government to nations that had been forcibly denied Fearing the return of French rule, the Viet Minh contin-
this right. Ho and other Vietnamese nationalists did not ued rioting and increased attacks against French units as
realize that Vietnam had been used as a bargaining chip well as against the British. In Saigon, the fighting was
by the United States in several wartime political maneu- fierce at times and atrocities against civilians were com-
vers. In 1942, President Roosevelt had guaranteed the mitted by both sides. The British, fearing increased in-
Free French that they would be able to retain all of their volvement, turned over their weapons and supplies to the
overseas possessions, including Vietnam. This promise French and left the country.
had been offered as an inducement to encourage greater In the north, Vietnamese-Chinese relations went
efforts by the French military forces. In 1943, Roosevelt somewhat more smoothly. General Lu Han’s troops
576
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Nationalist Vietnamese Fight French Control of Indochina
were not of the caliber of the British units. The soldiers alone in the jungle. Usually without adequate weapons or
were starving, ill-equipped, and often tubercular, more supplies, they depended on local villages for support as
interested in ransacking the towns and countryside of well as additional recruits for Vo Nguyen Giap’s army.
Vietnam for food, clothing, and medicine than in French- Several nights a week, they moved into the villages and
Vietnamese politics. Ho feared the incursion of Chinese conducted classes in nationalism, communism, anti-
troops more than he feared the French and British, as French tactics, and basic reading and writing skills. They
China had been attempting to overrun Vietnam for one targeted the youth of these villages as the source of future
thousand years. He feared that the Potsdam Agreement independence guerrillas and a present spy network
had given China political gains in Southeast Asia that it against the French. Most of the peasants philosophically
had been unable to attain militarily. Because of this fear, believed in independence, but they had no stomach for
Ho made no effort to prevent French attempts to negoti- more warfare. Laboring to feed their families and to pre-
ate a deal with China to override the Potsdam design and serve their small plots of land, they became trapped in an
give France the control of all of Vietnam. On February untenable position. Harangued, threatened, beaten, and
28, 1946, a French-Chinese agreement was reached. The sometimes tortured and killed, the peasants of Vietnam
Chinese would remove their troops from North Vietnam, were pulled into a conflict that the Sainteny-Ho Agree-
to be replaced by an equal number of French. In return, ment was supposed to prevent.
France gave up all claims to the Kwangchowan region of Before the agreement could be signed officially in
China (held by France since the late nineteenth century). Paris, French president Charles de Gaulle sent one thou-
France also agreed to sell the Yunnan railroad to Chiang sand additional troops to Saigon. Ho Chi Minh appealed
Kai-shek’s nationalist government and to designate Hai- to Vo Nguyen Giap to redouble his military recruiting
phong as a free trade port for China. and training efforts. Colonial businesspeople, planters,
Ho, glad to be rid of the Chinese, was not yet ready to and state officials published strong complaints against
settle for the return of French domination. Vietnam, to the agreement. They cabled Paris with their complaints
Ho and his followers, was now an independent republic, and turned to the local governor, Admiral d’Argenlieu,
and he encouraged Vo Nguyen Giap to step up recruit- with their fears. D’Argenlieu, committed to the policy of
ment and training of more cadres of Viet Minh to ensure French colonialism in Vietnam, did not wait for orders
the protection of the country. The French, unable to sta- from Paris. He violated the March agreement and de-
bilize both halves of the country, allowed a French diplo- clared the Republic of Cochin China (South Vietnam), in
mat, Jean Sainteny, to attempt negotiations with Ho. The the name of France. Ho, in Paris for the official signing of
Sainteny-Ho Agreement was completed on March 6. the Sainteny Accords, was discredited as an impotent po-
France guaranteed the recognition of Vietnam as an inde- litical upstart by d’Argenlieu’s actions and returned to
pendent state within the French Union (Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam having failed to achieve recognition of Viet-
and Vietnam). In return, Ho agreed to allow twenty-five nam’s independence. Complaints from colonists in Viet-
thousand French troops to remain in the country for a nam put political pressure on the French cabinet to claim
period of five years to protect French interests. economic rights to both the north and south of Vietnam.
As each side stepped up its attempts to control the Fearing the loss of what little recognition he had gained
area, one situation became clear. The key to success was for his country’s right to political autonomy, Ho returned
going to be in the countryside. The rural villages and to Paris in October. Pressured by French intransigence,
peasant farm holdings were going to be needed as base Ho agreed to and signed a draft of an accord known as the
camps. The average villager, desiring neutrality, was Fontainebleau Agreement, a vague attempt to give joint
caught between the two opposing forces. By day, the vil- rule over North Vietnam to both the French and the Viet-
lagers were victims of French recruitment and commis- namese. Because of unstated lines of authority concern-
sary officers. Fear for their lives or those of their families ing the policing of cities and collection of customs, the
and the threat of losing the family farm, more than a com- draft led to frustration and dissatisfaction for both sides.
mitted belief in the right of the French to control Viet- The confusion caused by the Fontainebleau Agree-
1946
nam, caused peasant farmers to join the French forces. ment can be argued as the direct cause of the French-
The French began to control the countryside around the Indochina War. Fighting broke out November 20, 1946,
major cities of Vietnam. By night, the countryside of when a French patrol boat apprehended Chinese smug-
Vietnam belonged to the cadres of the Viet Minh. The glers in the waterways of Haiphong Harbor. A Vietnam-
cadres were small, self-sufficient units that survived ese patrol, observing the French apprehension of the Chi-
577
nese smugglers and unsure of exact lines of authority, air strikes, and naval bombardment. The underequipped
considered the act as one more indication of French un- Viet Minh responded with mortar fire and guerrilla raids.
willingness to allow the republic to control itself. The Entire neighborhoods of flimsy houses in the poorest
Vietnamese approached and overtook the French boat sections of town were demolished, and thousands of Viet-
and arrested the three crewmen. Fighting broke out in the namese refugees poured out of the city. The official
city of Haiphong as soon as the French became aware of French reports at the time stated that six thousand civil-
the arrests. Throughout the day of November 20, French ians had been killed as they fled the area. Later, the fig-
tanks entered the city of Haiphong and overran Vietnam- ures were reduced to read that no more than several hun-
ese barricades. The Viet Minh cadres responded with dred had died. The fighting spread to the city of Hanoi
mortar fire. Acease-fire was called the next day, and both and lasted through most of December. On December 19,
sides began appealing to Paris for direction. Ho appealed at 9:00 p.m., Vo Nguyen Giap declared virtual war on the
to the French government to honor the signed accords. country of France and Ho called on the people of Viet-
He was ordered to cede French control of the city and nam to rise up and to defend Vietnamese independence
ports of Haiphong. When he refused, the battle resumed. and unification. Ho continued to appeal to the Western
The French attack on Haiphong utilized the gamut of powers to stop French aggression throughout the month
military technology of the day: infantry, tanks, artillery, of December. While not agreeing with the French poli-
cies, Europe and the United States
refused to step in.
The war between France and Viet-
nam lasted eight years and did not
go well for the French. A succession
of commanders—Philippe Leclerc de
Hauteclocque, Jean-Étienne Valluy,
d’Argenlieu, Jean de Lattre de Tas-
signy, and Raoul Salan—could not
overcome the guerrilla forces of the
Viet Minh and their peasant support.
The war finally ended with a dev-
astating rout of the French at the Bat-
tle of Dien Bien Phu (March-May,
1954). This decisive conflict—in
which French commander Henri Na-
varre attempted to defend Laos and
overwhelm the Viet Minh from an
air base near the village of Dien Bien
Phu, located in a ten-mile-long valley
in a remote portion of northwestern
Vietnam—failed in the face of Vo
Nguyen Giap’s unexpectedly strong
and sophisticated two-month siege.
Navarre assumed command after
de Lattre, in the spring of 1953, and
was shocked by the lack of an overall
plan and the deterioration of French
morale. His mandate at this point in
the war, although still the subject of
controversy, was primarily to con-
French troops fire against Viet Minh positions in July, 1954, in one of the last such ac- solidate southern support and, in the
tions before the French finally withdrew from Vietnam later that month. (AP/Wide north, create conditions that would
World Photos) allow an “honorable political solu-
578
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Nationalist Vietnamese Fight French Control of Indochina
tion” to the Indochina problem in preparation for peace Indochina War, which eventually involved U.S. forces
talks in Geneva. The strategy was to consolidate south- on the ground in the Vietnam War (1959-1975).
ern support and conduct offensives in the north in order French colonialism thus had widespread effects not
to negotiate from a position of strength. The issue of only in Southeast Asia but throughout Europe, China,
whether Navarre’s mandate included the defense of Laos, and the United States also. Unable to receive the aid and
which had been overrun by Viet Minh, is still debated but support needed to break French control of Vietnam, Ho
was understood by Navarre to be part of his mandate. Chi Minh reverted to seeking assistance from Commu-
Navarre’s task was overwhelming and his options few, nist China and Russia. This action placed Vietnam in the
and he settled on a strategy he hoped would reproduce an middle of Cold War politics and on a direct line of con-
earlier French victory at Nan Sanh. He did not, however, frontation with the United States. Vietnam paid a heavy
expect the Viet Minh to succeed in hauling heavy artil- price for Ho Chi Minh’s dream of independence. More
lery into the remote region, and he did not bank on Vo than three million Vietnamese were killed between 1946
Nguyen Giap’s willingness to wait until March, when his and 1976, as fighting shifted from the First Indochina
Viet Minh were entrenched with their weapons assem- War to the Second Indochina War, the latter now known
bled and well hidden in the hills above the French base as the Vietnam War.
and its seven satellite fortresses. After a two-month Thousands of children, along with women and sol-
siege, the satellites were defeated and, despite heavy ca- diers, were burned and maimed as a result of bombings,
sualties, the Viet Minh had won. In this battle alone, the mines, and enemy raids on villages. The civilians of Viet-
French suffered more than 2,200 dead, nearly 5,200 nam were all soldiers in the eyes of their enemies, and
wounded, and 11,800 captured (most of whom died on their elimination was often condoned as a way to prevent
the 250-mile march to the prison camps or of disease or future generations of resistance fighters. Without suffi-
brutal treatment at the camps). The Viet Minh suffered cient medical supplies or technology, the Vietnamese
more than three times the number of dead, 7,950, and victims were condemned to a lifetime of suffering and
15,000 wounded, but these numbers paled against their nonproductivity. The use of hundreds of thousands of
moral victory. gallons of defoliant and other chemicals imparted the
legacy of fear—fear of cancer and birth defects that will
Significance not cease with the passing of this generation.
The victory at Dien Bien Phu, as British historian Martin The physical human damage to the Vietnamese peo-
Windrow put it, represented “the first time that a non-Eu- ple was tremendous, but so was the fiscal damage. Thirty
ropean colonial independence movement had evolved . . . years of war not only prevented industrialization from
to defeat a modern Western occupier in a pitched battle.” occurring but also devastated the agricultural base, leav-
The victory not only put an end to French Indochina; it ing the country at times unable to feed its citizens ade-
remains a milestone today in the minds of people in all quately. An economically devastated and war-torn land,
so-called Third World nations, a symbol of colonialism’s Vietnam would continue to struggle for acceptance in
demise and the potential of developing nations. As one world trade and for economic assistance to rebuild indus-
World Bank official from India put it, “A small Asian na- try, farmland, and educational institutions into the
tion had defeated a colonial power, convincingly. It 1990’s.
changed history.” —Celia Hall-Thur, updated by Christina J. Moose
After Dien Bien Phu, the 1954 Geneva Accords di-
vided Vietnam into communist North Vietnam and Further Reading
French-administered South Vietnam. The United States, Asselin, Pierre. “New Perspectives on Dien Bien Phu.”
which had supplied significant equipment and techno- Explorations in Southeast Asian Studies 1, no. 2 (Fall,
logical support to the French during the First Indochina 1997). Identifies the Battle of Dien Bien Phu as more
War, supported South Vietnam after the French with- historically significant than previously recognized,
drew and after the failure of the two countries to reunite and aims “to clarify the historical record by highlight-
1946
in 1956, as mandated by the Geneva Accords. Accusa- ing some of the main misconceptions about the en-
tions that Ho’s forces were terrorizing both northerners gagement and providing more accurate descriptions
and southerners led the South’s Emperor Bao Dai and his of its origins and implications.” Chief among these
prime minister, Ngo Dinh Diem, to break with the ac- were Vo Nguyen Giap’s decision to delay engage-
cords. Thus began another long engagement, the Second ment from January 26 to March 13, when his troops
579
and their artillery were well entrenched in the high- French and the American involvements in Vietnam.
lands above the valley, and the timing of the Geneva The book, while highly researched and detailed, does
talks. not relate the history of the country prior to the eigh-
Boettcher, Thomas D. Vietnam: The Valor and the Sor- teenth century. Excellent photographs. Provides chap-
row. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985. One of the basic ter notes, sources, and an index.
overviews of the Vietnam war. While the emphasis is Troung, Tang Nhu, with David Chanoff and Doan Van
on American political and military involvement in the Toai. A Vietcong Memoir: An Inside Account of the
area, there is a cursory overview of the French colo- Vietnam War and Its Aftermath. San Diego, Calif.:
nial period and the French war. There is no consider- Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985. A personal ac-
ation given to the history of Vietnam prior to the late count of how and why Ho Chi Minh gained the hearts
eighteenth century. Contains pictures, chapter notes, of the Vietnamese people. Emphasis is on the author’s
and an index. experiences with French rule and why many Viet-
Davidson, Phillip B. Vietnam at War: The History 1946- namese were willing to work against it. Contains a
1975. Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1988. Presents a glossary of names and an appendix of Vietcong docu-
comprehensive history of the Vietnam War from a ments. No other reference material is listed.
military perspective. Windrow, Martin. The Last Valley. Cambridge, Mass.:
Fairbank, John King, Edwin O. Reischauer, and Albert Da Capo Press, 2004. Examines the French military
M. Craig. East Asia. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983. strategy at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, which was
Possibly the best text for an overview of the entire based on the successful one used at Nan Sanh but
Vietnamese-Chinese-European experience prior to which failed to take certain differences into account
1950. The emphasis is on political, social, and mili- and which could not anticipate the superior strategy of
tary developments in specified periods. Contains a Viet Minh commander Vo Nguyen Giap. A detailed
complete list of references and an index. account of the siege that also examines the full histori-
Fall, Bernard B. Hell in a Very Small Place: The Siege of cal impact of the event.
Dien Bien Phu. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1967. See also: May, 1941: Ho Chi Minh Organizes the Viet
Analysis both of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and of its Minh; Aug. 14, 1941: Atlantic Charter Declares a
global geopolitical consequences. Postwar Right of Self-Determination; Mar. 8, 1949:
Hayslip, Le Ly, and Charles Jay Wurts. When Heaven Vietnam Is Named a State; Nov. 9, 1953: Cambodia
and Earth Changed Places. New York: Doubleday, Gains Independence from France; Aug., 1954-May,
1989. A personal account of what it was like to live in 1955: Operation Passage to Freedom Evacuates Ref-
Vietnam under the rule of both the French and the ugees from North Vietnam; Sept. 8, 1954: SEATO Is
American armies. The emphasis is on the peasant Founded; Jan. 12, 1962-1971: United States Sprays
families and how they were controlled by the Viet Agent Orange in Vietnam; Aug. 7, 1964-Jan. 27,
Cong. Offers no references. 1973: United States Enters the Vietnam War; Sept. 3,
Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam, a History: The First Com- 1967: Thieu Is Elected President of South Vietnam;
plete Account of Vietnam at War. New York: Viking 1969: Halberstam Reflects on American Involvement
Press, 1983. Possibly the definitive history of both the in Vietnam in The Best and the Brightest.
580
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United Kingdom Passes the National Health Service Act
November 6, 1946
United Kingdom Passes the National Health Service Act
The National Health Service Act of 1946 provided a tistical information such as Seebohm Rowntree and
comprehensive, state-run health service for all British Charles Booth. That a solution should be provided by the
residents, regardless of their ability to pay. national government was argued by a number of groups,
including several with a philosophical commitment to
Also known as: National Health state socialism, such as the Fabian Socialists. Advocates
Locale: London, England of state welfare such as Beatrice Webb often had first-
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history; health and hand experience as social investigators.
medicine; government and politics In the Victorian era, however, private philanthropy
Key Figures also was advocated as a means of addressing issues of
Aneurin Bevan (1897-1960), British minister of health health care and poverty. Although there were tax-sup-
in 1946 and a leading socialist politician ported agencies such as the local poor authorities and
Lord Beveridge (1879-1963), author of the Beveridge medical care facilities such as municipal hospitals, vol-
Report, a blueprint for the national health service untary facilities abounded, with many private charity
published in 1944 hospitals having been founded during the first wave of
David Lloyd George (1863-1945), British chancellor of industrialization between 1750 and 1800. Many charita-
the exchequer, 1908-1915, and prime minister, ble health care institutions were not only hospitals for the
1916-1922 suddenly and critically ill, in the sense of more modern
Henry Burdett (1847-1920), health care reformer who hospitals, but were also designed for the long-term care
advocated private charity, especially for hospital of certain types of illness or disease. Such voluntary es-
care tablishments were fitting locations for medical study of
Beatrice Webb (1858-1943), Fabian Socialist and unusual cases such as contagious fevers and thus were
investigator of urban living conditions supported by medical schools and groups of physicians
and surgeons. Other private hospitals provided an oppor-
Summary of Event tunity for the moral redemption of patients as in the case
The British National Health Service Act, passed on No- of hospitals for female sufferers of sexually transmitted
vember 6, 1946, and designed to go into effect on July 5, diseases.
1948, was a watershed reform of the nation’s health care Several influential Victorian health care reformers
system. The legislation, although controversial while in such as Sir Henry Burdett saw the future of health care in
Parliament and especially within its first several years of Great Britain not in nationalization of services but in
implementation, eventually received the support of better coordination between essentially private and lo-
much of the British medical community as well as broad calized, but more scientifically managed, facilities. New
acceptance across partisan lines. The National Health impetus for reform of systems of public relief, including
Service (NHS), despite some enduring criticisms, be- health care, came on the eve of World War I. Ironically,
came the most popular feature of the British welfare one argument for state provision of medical services in
state. Great Britain arose from a defense-oriented stance. The
A commitment by the national government of Great health of potential recruits to the British armed services
Britain to the principle of medical assistance for the poor was poor, especially in comparison with German young
extended far back into British history. The Elizabethan people, who were much more physically fit as a result of
Poor Law of 1601, for example, exhibited concern for the Otto von Bismarck’s state provision of welfare. Britain’s
physical condition of the destitute. Wholesale reform of chancellor of the exchequer David Lloyd George was
the system of poor laws did not occur until poor relief ex- dedicated to the passage of several pieces of legislation
perienced severe stresses brought on by industrialization that established a minimum standard for physical and fi-
1946
and urbanization, particularly in the early nineteenth nancial welfare, including the National Health Insurance
century. The sheer size of the problems of poverty and Act of 1911, which assisted the very poor in receiving
disease seemed to demand a large-scale solution. The health benefits.
magnitude of poverty and disease were increasingly well A major feature of the National Health Insurance plan
documented by a generation of careful gatherers of sta- was its distribution of payments to employees who were
581
United Kingdom Passes the National Health Service Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
unable to work as a result of illness, through combined Health Service was to be organized through the ministry
contributions from the national government, employers, of health, which would coordinate activities in regard to
and employees. That method of financing was widely hospitals, general practitioners, and local health boards.
emulated in other countries, including the United States. The act provided for free medical service to all who
Additional pieces of early twentieth century British so- wished to participate. Both doctors and patients could
cial welfare legislation, such as old age pensions (which elect not to join.
were a precedent for the American social security pro- The most important figure in the passage and early
gram), were models for welfare schemes throughout implementation of the National Health Service Act was
Western Europe. Minister of Health Aneurin Bevan. Bevan’s key problem
The 1911 act was not a comprehensive measure, as in securing passage of the legislation and in enlisting
many middle-class Britons were excluded from its bene- support after its passage was the ambivalence of the Brit-
fits. By the end of the 1930’s, several major criticisms of ish medical establishment. Medical professionals, par-
health care in Great Britain were being expressed by not ticularly physicians, were committed in principle to the
only the uninsured but also medical professionals and ad- broad provision of health care, especially to the needy,
vocates of a more rational organization of state services yet they resisted the possibility that day-to-day decisions
and health care planning. The health services of the gov- on medical care might be made by bureaucratic officials.
ernment often overlapped or conflicted with those of pri- A powerful speaker and effective legislative leader,
vate organizations and working people’s groups. The Bevan and his parliamentary style were characterized as
benefits that were available were insufficient to meet the high-handed by some in the medical community.
entire medical needs of even those people who were cov-
ered. Dental services, for example, were not included. Significance
Many groups of persons, including the self-employed, Between the time of the passage of the act and its imple-
were not eligible for health insurance supported by the mentation about a year and a half later, two polls of the
state. Particularly during the unemployment and under- medical profession were taken. The first survey of opin-
employment crises of the 1920’s and 1930’s, gaps in ion indicated several fears by doctors, among them that
health care provision appeared widespread. In 1930, the NHS would diminish competition within medical
a British Medical Association report, Proposals for a ranks and that it would require physicians to move to cer-
General Medical Service for the Nation, advocated a tain areas of the country to provide health care. Despite
“planned” national health insurance program, despite his personal unpopularity with physicians, Bevan reas-
some disagreement within the medical profession about sured health care providers that within the NHS they
how comprehensive national health services should be. would have considerable scope for choosing how they
World War I and the Great Depression pointed to should be remunerated and would be allowed to retain
problems related to health care in Great Britain under the private patients. When a second poll was conducted, in
patchwork of offerings after 1911. World War II tested the spring of 1948, opposition to the NHS within the
the nation’s health care resources, as well as many other medical profession was significantly milder. By the mid-
social services, nearly to the breaking point. The heroic dle of the 1960’s, more than 98 percent of the general
efforts of the Emergency Medical Scheme in coordinat- practitioners in Great Britain were associated with the
ing the efforts of London hospitals during the Blitz con- NHS and only 5 percent of the population availed them-
vinced some politicians that state planning of even large selves of the right to consult private physicians.
medical projects could be successful. The NHS legislation itself was praised within a num-
A thorough investigation of state provisions for health ber of quarters as comprehensive, necessary, and well
care, in tandem with study of other existing state welfare written. The NHS appeared less a measure associated
services, was documented in the Beveridge Report of with socialism (after the massive state planning of World
1942. Echoing earlier conclusions by Fabian writers, War II made state coordination and even ownership a pa-
the report’s chief author, Lord Beveridge, advocated triotic feature) than a method of rationalizing and coordi-
“cradle-to-grave” protection for all British citizens who nating the provision of health care services. Such ratio-
desired it. The major recommendations of the Beveridge nalization already had existed on a more piecemeal basis.
Report were formally presented in a government white In the earliest years of the operation of the NHS, it
paper in 1944 and were evident in the National Health In- faced a pent-up demand for medical services, especially
surance Act of 1946. According to the act, the National as a result of the recent war, which had caused many peo-
582
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 United Kingdom Passes the National Health Service Act
ple to forgo nonemergency treatment. The NHS was Fox, Daniel M. Health Policies, Health Politics: The
overwhelmed, for example, with demands for dental British and American Experience, 1911-1965. Prince-
care, which previously had not been covered as a health ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986. A com-
care service. In its first years it had to revise scales for the parative study of health care politics in Great Britain
payment of dental services as well as trying to recruit and the United States, critical of the idea that the
more dentists. Despite a huge cost overrun of about one- United States ought to follow the British example.
third of estimated expenses in fiscal year 1949, even the Contains a detailed bibliographic essay.
Conservative opponents of Labour legislation extending Prochaska, F. K. Philanthropy and the Hospitals of Lon-
NHS funding decided not to voice their misgivings pub- don: The King’s Fund, 1897-1990. New York: Ox-
licly. The NHS did begin to make nominal charges, how- ford University Press, 1992. Written with the aim of
ever, for prescriptions, eyeglasses, and dentures. establishing the importance of voluntarism in British
The NHS was successful and popular largely because health care. Prochaska reviews the history of the
of its inclusion of a number of people who previously had King’s Fund, a major source of funding for London
been outside any health insurance scheme. Less than half hospitals in the early twentieth century, noting its
the British population had had any form of health insur- close connections with monarchy and its success de-
ance prior to 1946. In the 1950’s and 1960’s, major respite the nationalization of health services.
ports from Parliament and by the medical profession in- Sked, Alan, and Chris Cook. Post-War Britain: A Politi-
dicated general approval by physicians and the public of cal History. 4th ed. New York: Penguin Books, 1993.
the structure, goals, and administration of the NHS. A survey of modern British politics, including discus-
Several issues associated with the NHS remained di- sions about social services and the NHS that charac-
visive, including the question of the amount and type of terized periods of economic stress. Argues for the ef-
reimbursement for participating physicians and the lack ficiency of the NHS as an institution, especially in
of commitment to building new hospital facilities and contrast with health care systems in other nations.
clinics. The economic downturn in Great Britain in the Southwick, Arthur F. The Doctor, the Hospital, and
1970’s forced a reassessment of the NHS’s planning the Patient in England: Rights and Responsibilities
mechanisms. Despite a 1974 reorganization, the NHS Under National Health Service. Ann Arbor: Bureau
continued to struggle with rapidly escalating medical of Business Research, Graduate School of Business
costs and the problems that increased costs caused in ap- Administration, University of Michigan, 1967. A dis-
portioning health care. Although the Conservative gov- cussion of the legal basis of the NHS, the statutory
ernment of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher recom- and judicially imposed obligations on medical and
mended cutting social services, the number of physicians administrative personnel, and the legal rights of pa-
and nurses employed by the NHS increased, as did gov- tients.
ernmental expenditures on health during the Thatcher Webster, Charles. The National Health Service: A Politi-
years. cal History. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University
—Elisabeth A. Cawthon Press, 2002. A history of the National Health Service
in Great Britain from the time of its start in 1948 to the
Further Reading
attempts at reform near the end of the century.
Eckstein, Harry. The English Health Service. Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1964. A dis- See also: July 22, 1946: World Health Organization
cussion of the historical origins of the NHS, with em- Proclaims Health a Basic Human Right; July 30,
phasis on the twentieth century. Argues that the basis 1965: Johnson Signs the Medicare and Medicaid
of the NHS lay in a call for rationalization, rather than Amendments; Dec. 19, 1966: Canada Implements Its
a wish for socialism or statism, by the Labour Party. National Health Plan.
1946
583
United Nations Admits Its First New Member States The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
November 9-December 15, 1946

United Nations Admits Its First New Member States
The United Nations admitted Sweden, Iceland, land, and the United States of America) and six nonper-
Afghanistan, and Thailand to membership in the world manent members (Australia, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico, the
organization, even as Albania, Mongolia, Ireland, Netherlands, and Poland).
Transjordan, and Portugal faced delays in their The Security Council members had discussed and de-
acceptance because of objections from members of the bated applications for membership in the United Nations
Security Council. Admitting new members tested the submitted by Albania, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Trans-
admissions process and exposed its political character, jordan, Ireland, Portugal, Iceland, Siam, and Sweden in
including the tensions between two superpowers: the August. During the discussion, the American repre-
United States and the Soviet Union. sentative, Hershel V. Johnson, expressed the United
States’ reservations about admitting Albania and Mon-
Locale: New York, New York golia (then both under communist control) but proposed
Categories: United Nations; organizations and that all applicants be admitted, in keeping with the United
institutions; diplomacy and international relations; Nations’ principles of universality and the goal to admit
government and politics as many states as possible. This proposal was supported
Key Figures by China, Brazil, Egypt, Mexico, and the Netherlands.
Andrei Andreyevich Gromyko (1909-1989), Soviet The Soviet Union’s representative, Ambassador Andrei
politician, diplomat, and representative to the Andreyevich Gromyko, opposed the en bloc admission
United Nations and Security Council of states and eventually asked for the withdrawal of the
Hershel V. Johnson (fl. mid-twentieth century), U.S. proposal. In response, the United States requested a
American politician, diplomat, and acting delay in deciding about the admission of Albania and
representative to the United Nations and Security Mongolia. Gromyko also opposed the admission of Ire-
Council land, Portugal, and Transjordan on the grounds that these
Trygve Lie (1896-1968), Norwegian politician and states had no formal relationship with the Soviet Union.
diplomat, who was the first secretary general of the The recommendation to the General Assembly to ad-
United Nations, 1946-1952 mit Afghanistan, Iceland, and Sweden was made on
Paul-Henri Spaak (1899-1972), Belgian politician and August 29, with ten Security Council member votes in
diplomat, who was the first president of the U.N. support and one member abstaining (Australia). The rec-
General Assembly ommendation to admit Siam was made unanimously on
December 12.
Summary of Event
At the forty-seventh plenary meeting of November 9, Significance
1946, under the leadership of Secretary Trygve Lie and Sweden, Iceland, Afghanistan, and Siam became the first
General Assembly president Paul-Henri Spaak, the Gen- members of the United Nations admitted after the found-
eral Assembly adopted a resolution admitting Afghani- ing of the influential international body. Prior to their ad-
stan, the Republic of Iceland, and Sweden to membership mission, the United Nations comprised the original fifty-
in the United Nations. At the sixty-seventh plenary meet- one member states. These nations had participated in the
ing of December 15, the General Assembly adopted a res- San Francisco conference in 1945 or had signed the Dec-
olution admitting Siam (now Thailand) to membership laration of the United Nations in January of 1942.
in the United Nations. These new members comprised The process of admitting new members was impor-
only four out of nine that had applied for membership. tant because it tested the procedure for admission and ex-
Their admission was a result of recommendations posed the political character of the process. States wish-
made by the U.N. Security Council, which had the power ing to join the United Nations first needed to secure a
to discuss membership applications and make recom- recommendation from the Security Council, which re-
mendations to the General Assembly. In 1946, the Secu- quired seven affirmative votes. Any permanent member,
rity Council was composed of five permanent members however, could veto admission in cases of substantive is-
(China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, sues. The Security Council’s recommendation was to be
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ire- followed by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly.
584
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modification
The process of admission also exposed tension be- Hovet. A Chronology and Fact Book of the United
tween the world’s two ideological blocs, led by the two Nations, 1941-1976. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana,
superpowers: the communist states under the leadership 1976. Details U.N. events and activities, including
of the Soviet Union and the noncommunist states, led by those surrounding the 1946 membership debates.
the United States. The process of admission revealed Lists members, presidents of U.N. bodies, and dates
that the permanent Security Council members used veto of member states’ application for U.N. membership
power as a political tool despite the fact that there were along with dates of admission.
no substantive grounds to use it. For example, the Soviet Malone, David M., ed. The U.N. Security Council: From
Union hindered admission of Italy, which enjoyed sup- the Cold War to the Twenty-First Century. Boulder,
port of the United States and other Western members, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2004. A thorough history of
even though the Italian government had met all the con- the U.N. Security Council and its powers within the
ditions to be admitted. The United States did not use its international organization.
veto power during these proceedings, in part because ini- Rudzinski, Aleksander W. The Admission of New Mem-
tially it was able to secure a majority of countries on the bers. New York: Carnegie Endowment for Interna-
Security Council to vote for pro-Western candidates. tional Peace, 1952. Discusses the process of admitting
— Kasia Polanska new member states to the United Nations.
_______. “The So-Called Double Veto.” American Jour-
Further Reading
nal of International Law 45, no. 3 (July, 1951): 443-
Bailey, Sydney D., and Sam Daws. The Procedure of the
461. Explores the application of the veto power in the
U.N. Security Council. 3d ed. Oxford, England: Clar-
Security Council. Gives examples of how the veto has
endon Press, 1998. Examines the procedures of the
been used in cases of application for membership.
U.N. Security Council, including examples of discus-
sions about specific membership applications. See also: Apr. 25-June 26, 1945: United Nations Char-
Bishop, William W., Jr. “Conditions of Admission of a ter Convention; Feb. 1, 1946: First U.N. Secretary-
State to Membership in the United Nations.” Ameri- General Is Selected; Feb. 5, 1946: Establishment of
can Journal of International Law 42, no. 4 (October, the International Court of Justice; Dec. 12, 1946:
1948): 927-934. The text of the advisory opinion by Spain Is Denied Entrance into the United Nations;
the International Court of Justice dated May 28, 1948. Dec. 14, 1955: United Nations Admits Sixteen New
Chamberlin, Waldo, Thomas Hovet, Jr., and Erica Members.
November 13, 1946

First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modification
Vincent Schaefer made a flight near Schenectady, New Summary of Event
York, to perform the first scientific seeding of a On November 13, 1946, Vincent Joseph Schaefer made
supercooled cloud with dry ice, marking the first case the first cloud-seeding flight east of Schenectady, New
of weather modification. York. Curtis Talbot piloted the small plane, while Schae-
fer scattered three pounds of dry ice into a three-mile line
Locale: Schenectady, New York of supercooled stratus clouds. Cloud drops turned to ice
Categories: Science and technology; earth science; crystals within five minutes after the dry ice was scat-
environmental issues tered. Snow formed from the ice crystals fell about two
Key Figures thousand feet below the cloud bank before succumbing
Vincent Joseph Schaefer (1906-1993), scientist who to the heat of friction and evaporating. This first cloud-
conducted the first cloud-seeding experiment seeding experiment marked the beginning of scientific
1946
Irving Langmuir (1881-1957), leader of research weather modification.

projects relating to cloud physics Schaefer and his mentor, Irving Langmuir, had been
Bernard Vonnegut (1914-1997), scientist who closely involved with the icing research; initially, Schae-
discovered that silver iodide made a good nucleus fer had been Langmuir’s laboratory assistant. Schaefer’s
for precipitation formation and Langmuir’s investigations into the formation of ice
585
First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modification The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
crystals began in February, 1942, when Langmuir was seen from above, ice-crystal clouds produced a bright
commissioned by the U.S. Army to work on the develop- spot at a distance below the horizon equal to the height of
ment of a generator to produce smoke screens. The goal the sun above the horizon. When a plane flew through a
was to establish the nozzle size and proper pressure of oil water-drop cloud, droplets produced rime on the plane’s
vapor needed to generate the desired size of smoke parti- wings, an effect not produced by an ice-crystal cloud.
cles. Schaefer and Langmuir found that boiling oil with a Langmuir and Schaefer also discovered characteris-
pressure of five to fifteen pounds per square inch (psi) tics enabling differentiation between large and small
produced a jet of vapor that drew in large quantities of cloud drops or ice crystals. From above, light intensity
air, thereby almost instantly lowering the temperature so reflected from water drops is very intense at angles of 20
that the oil particles had no appreciable vapor pressure. to 30 degrees from the sun. From this point to about 138
The optimum nozzle size could be calculated from the degrees, light intensity decreases; at 138 degrees, it rises
vapor pressure of the oil, the dilution rate of oil in air, and again. With large drops present, a rainbow would be seen
the rate of temperature decrease. at 138 degrees. A so-called glory seen at 138 degrees in-
The next series of experiments leading to cloud seed- dicated that the diameter of the water drops was very
ing was conducted by Langmuir with Schaefer’s assis- small compared to the wavelength of light.
tance between 1943 and 1945. Working for the U.S. When the sun is viewed through a thin water cloud,
Army, Langmuir and Schaefer studied the formation of the edge of the sun’s disk is always sharp, no matter how
rime (ice) on aircraft using a set of slowly rotating cylin- small the drops. Experiments with smoke particles led to
ders of various sizes. They analyzed data on the rate of the conclusion that there is no sharp maximum in inten-
ice accumulation on the cylinders under a known wind sity of light scattered by diffraction through small angles,
velocity. This led to a method for determining the diame- hence the disk edge is sharp.
ter of water droplets in clouds. Conversely, when the sun is viewed through an ice-
In his evaporation-condensation theory, Langmuir as- crystal cloud sufficiently thick to protect the eyes, the sun
sumed that an excess of condensation nuclei was avail- disk has a fuzzy edge. When the sun’s intensity is reduced
able for cloud formation. When he applied that theory, he by a factor of ten thousand, the sun’s disk becomes fuzzy.
discovered that the number of nuclei initially present in This effect occurs only when the surfaces of reflection are
the air had little to do with the number of cloud drops very large compared to the wavelength of light. Hence,
present in any cloud. Instead, the number of droplets in a large cloud drops and snow crystals produce a fuzzy ef-
cloud was dependent on the rate at which air rose into the fect, whereas smaller drops or crystals never do.
cloud base. The culminating factor that led to Schaefer’s attempt
Langmuir and Schaefer postulated that ice-crystal nu- at cloud seeding came from his work with dry ice during
clei in clouds would be extremely rare. In clouds below the spring of 1946. Using a four-cubic-foot illuminated
the cirrus level, ice crystals in clouds, even at tempera- freezer lined with black velvet, he found that when he
tures of −20 degrees Celsius, number no more than 10 −9 breathed into the unit, moisture in his breath condensed
crystals per cubic centimeter. Supercooled water drop- and formed cloudlike particles. Even at a temperature of
lets, on the other hand, exist at concentrations of between −3 degrees Celsius, no ice particles formed. Schaefer ex-
100 and 1,000 crystals per cubic centimeter, yet snow perimented unsuccessfully with a variety of substances.
can fall from clouds at temperatures no lower than −5 de- Finally, wanting to lower the temperature, he inserted
grees centigrade. Clearly, factors other than temperature dry ice, whereupon the air in the freezer instantaneously
must affect the formation of ice crystals. Two questions filled with ice crystals. Later, Schaefer discovered that
occurred to the scientists: Which ice nuclei lead to snow even small pieces of dry ice, or a needle filled with liquid
formation? and How could nuclei be introduced into air pulled through the chamber, could accomplish the
clouds to produce snow? same results.
During the winter of 1945-1946, Langmuir and Schae- Further experimentation led to the discovery that the
fer established several cloud characteristics that enabled dry ice itself did not directly cause formation of ice crys-
them to differentiate between water clouds and ice- tals, but lowering the temperature did. Schaefer eventu-
crystal clouds. They found that when viewed at critical ally determined that a temperature of −39 degrees Cel-
angles, clouds containing snow produced coronas around sius was required for the spontaneous formation of ice
the sun; when the prisms were pointed downward along crystals. In an article published in Science, he outlined
their long axis, so-called sundogs became visible. When his experiments and announced his intent to drop dry-ice
586
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modification
particles from an aircraft into clouds to try to change an upward acceleration, which leads to turbulence. That
supercooled clouds to ice-crystal clouds on a large scale. turbulence in turn brings larger masses of air into the cir-
During August of 1946, Langmuir did a theoretical culation, ice nuclei will be carried away from the seeding
study of the increase of nuclei resulting from the drop- plane, and upward velocities will gradually increase.
ping of solid carbon dioxide pellets through supercooled These vertical air currents then carry the nuclei upward
water clouds. He concluded that an ice nucleus can have and spread them laterally. Nuclei will filter downward,
a diameter of no more than 10-6 centimeters, and the num- leading to more rapid spreading. In November, 1946,
16
ber of nuclei formed by a single pellet could be 10 . If Langmuir calculated that seeding a stratus cloud needed
−5
each nucleus could be made to grow to a weight of 10 to be done only in lines one to two miles apart, and that
grams, it would be possible theoretically to produce complete nucleation ought to occur in about thirty min-
100,000 tons of snow from 100 cubic kilometers of utes. With these research results in place, Schaefer was
cloud. Langmuir further calculated that as supercooled prepared to make his historic flight on November 13.
water drops evaporate and are deposited on ice crystals Another scientist, Bernard Vonnegut, who worked in
as ice, the quantity of frozen water will be greater than the General Electric laboratory and experimented with
the original quantity of liquid water, because vapor pres- lead iodide and silver iodide, concurrently discovered
sure is less over crystals than over water drops. Ice crys- that silver iodide also worked well as a seeding agent.
tals grow at the expense of water vapor content in the Schaefer contributed some assistance and equipment to
cloud. Langmuir determined that there are two sources of Vonnegut. On November 14, 1946, Vonnegut discov-
heat to warm air in a cloud: the heat of fusion and the heat ered that the smoke of silver iodide produces a good nu-
of deposition produced in the conversion of vapor to ice. cleus that is effective at −5 degrees Celsius and below.
Langmuir postulated that warmed air in a cloud causes In February, 1947, the U.S. Signal Corps began cloud-
seeding with experiments named Project Cirrus.
Later, the Office of Naval Research lent support,
the U.S. Air Force gave flight support, and the
Weather Bureau provided consultants.
The primary discovery made by Project Cirrus
was that seeding supercooled stratus clouds with
dry ice or silver iodide cleared paths through the
clouds, as the artificially nucleated snow swept all
visible particles out of the cloud. Moreover, eddy
diffusion from a narrow plane track spread the ef-
fect laterally for more than one mile.
Project Cirrus also tried to seed cumulus clouds,
without much effect. In 1948, scientists conducted
important cumulus-cloud-seeding experiments in
New Mexico. On October 24 of that year, when a
hurricane off the coast of Florida was seeded, Proj-
ect Cirrus personnel reported that seeding had pro-
duced a pronounced modification of the cloud deck.
Shortly after the seeding, the hurricane changed
course and struck the coast of South Carolina and
Georgia. Speculation that seeding the hurricane may
have caused its course change caused hurricane-
seeding experiments to be discontinued.
In August, 1947, the U.S. Weather Bureau de-
1946
cided to carry out its own experiments. The proj-

ect, which spanned two years, was carried out in
Ohio, California, and the Gulf states. The results of
Planes seed clouds over the Pacific Ocean near Sydney, Australia, in these investigations were in conflict with those of
1957. (National Archives of Australia) Langmuir and Schaefer.
587
First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modification The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
When Luna B. Leopold and Maurice H. Halstead bridge University Press, 1995. Examines the effect of
seeded cumulus clouds in Hawaii, rainfall resulted. Lang- humans on changes in weather patterns. The first
muir surmised that the cloud had actually been seeded by three chapters discuss cloud seeding in particular.
water, which coated the dry-ice pellets. This led to Fleming, James R. “Fixing the Weather and Climate:
Langmuir’s collision-coalescence theory of drop growth Military and Civilian Schemes for Cloud Seeding and
(a theory that had been postulated earlier by others), in Climate Engineering.” In the Technological Fix: How
which he speculated that warm clouds could be seeded People Use Technology to Create and Solve Prob-
with water to produce precipitation, and that giant hygro- lems, edited by Lisa Rosner. New York: Routledge,
scopic nuclei could be used as well as water. 2004. Part of a collection that examines the use and
In 1948 and 1949, Langmuir studied tropical clouds abuse of technology, this article looks at “climate en-
in Honduras and investigated the work of Joe Silver- gineering,” or cloud seeding, as practiced by the civil-
thorne, a commercial cloud seeder working for the ian and military sectors.
United Fruit Company. Silverthorne was interested in Halacy, Daniel S., Jr. The Weather Changers. New York:
controlling rainfall and downbursts from thunderstorms Harper & Row, 1968. A popular look at weather mod-
that destroyed stands of fruit trees. On a flight, Langmuir ification and cloud seeding. Good account for the
dropped one pellet into a cloud and two into another, nonspecialist.
causing both to dissipate. Hess, W. N., ed. Weather and Climate Modification.
In 1950, Langmuir proposed two methods of seeding New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1974. An excellent
cumulus clouds. He postulated that self-propagating history of weather and climate modification written
storms could be produced by dropping one pellet of dry for the nonspecialist. Some knowledge of math is
ice in a cloud, and that by overseeding a cloud, the drops helpful but not necessary. Presents differing opinions
or ice crystals that formed would be too small to fall to and the results of different studies.
the earth. Work with ground generators issuing silver- Kwa, Chunglin. “The Rise and Fall of Weather Modifi-
iodide smoke went on at the same time, but with mixed cation: Changes in American Attitudes Toward Tech-
results. Eventually, a more successful technique was de- nology, Nature, and Society.” In Changing the Atmo-
veloped that involved seeding clouds with silver iodide sphere: Expert Knowledge and Environmental
from planes rather than from ground generators. Governance, edited by Clark A. Miller and Paul N.
Edwards. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001. Part
Significance
of the Politics, Science, and the Environment series,
Following Langmuir’s and Schaefer’s research results,
this article examines public opinion on weather modi-
commercial operators continued to advance weather-
fication over time.
modification techniques. Cloud seeding was done more
Mason, B. J. Clouds, Rain, and Rainmaking. New York:
cautiously from then on because of the legal ramifica-
Cambridge University Press, 1975. A technical dis-
tions regarding rights to water in the atmosphere.
cussion of weather modification and cloud seeding.
Other long-term effects of the initial experiment in-
Some knowledge of meteorology is helpful.
cluded a knowledge of the downwind effect of cloud
“Project Cirrus: The Story of Cloud Seeding.” General
seeding—particularly inadvertent cloud seeding—on
Electric Review 55 (November, 1952): 8-26. An in-
precipitation, and the awareness that cloud seeding, in-
formative article outlining the major accomplish-
tentional or inadvertent, could reduce rainfall over cities
ments of Project Cirrus.
(overseeding of cumulus clouds was known to have re-
Suits, C. Guy, and Harold E. Way, eds. The Collected
duced rainfall over Florida). Furthermore, the experiment
Works of Irving Langmuir. Vol. 11. New York: Perga-
showed that it was possible to clear cold fog from airports.
mon Press, 1962. The entire twelve-volume set gives a
—Ralph D. Cross
good assessment of Langmuir’s work. A knowledge of
Further Reading math is helpful. A previously unpublished article pro-
Battan, Louis J. Harvesting the Clouds; Advances in vides a detailed look into cloud-seeding experiments.
Weather Modification. Garden City, N.Y.: Dou-
bleday, 1969. Discusses weather modification and See also: 1948-1953: Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for
cloud seeding for general readers. the Transformation of Nature; 1950’s-mid-1960’s:
Cotton, William R., and Roger A. Pielke. Human Im- Acid Rain Changes Lake and Riverine Ecology; May,
pacts on Weather and Climate. New York: Cam- 1967: Greenhouse Effect Is First Predicted.
588
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First Performance by Balanchine and Kirstein’s Ballet Society
November 20, 1946

First Performance by Balanchine and Kirstein’s
Ballet Society
George Balanchine and Lincoln Kirstein company was in 1934 with the American Ballet, a per-
organized the Ballet Society to cultivate an audience forming group of students from the school. Although it
for Balanchine’s innovative ballet choreography. was the resident ballet company at the Metropolitan Op-
Within two years, the enterprise had evolved into era House from 1935 to 1938, this group received mixed
New York City Ballet, which quickly became one reviews and had little financial success. Balanchine’s in-
of the United States’ preeminent ballet companies. novations exasperated the public, then accustomed to
classical ballet technique and subject matter. While he
Also known as: New York City Ballet
continued to run the school, Balanchine became better
known as a choreographer for the René Blum-Sergei
Categories: Dance; organizations and institutions
Denham and W. de Basil Ballet Russe companies and for
Key Figures Broadway musicals and Hollywood films.
George Balanchine (1904-1983), Russian-born In 1936, Kirstein organized another nationally oriented
American ballet choreographer company, the Ballet Caravan. Balanchine’s American
Lincoln Kirstein (1907-1996), American writer and Ballet dancers joined Kirstein’s group as American Ballet
ballet company manager Caravan on a tour to South America, but the company was
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971), Russian-born American afterward disbanded, its funds depleted. At this point,
composer World War II intervened. Following his service in the war,
Summary of Event however, Kirstein rejoined Balanchine and attempted to
The genesis of Lincoln Kirstein and George Balan- find a new project. Undaunted by mixed successes in the
chine’s Ballet Society in 1946 solidified the status of past, they decided to found Ballet Society in New York.
ballet in the United States. This organization, which pro- Ballet Society was ambitiously organized as a non-
moted a radical admissions policy and presented some profit membership organization that would present four
radical efforts in dance, was the forerunner of the unpar- evenings of dance each year in various locations around
alleled New York City Ballet. In its two-year existence, New York City. In return for their subscription fees,
Ballet Society nurtured dancers who would become members received theater tickets along with supplemen-
known as among the world’s best ballet technicians. tary literature that included Dance Index, a magazine ed-
Even more significant, the undertaking began to reveal ited by Kirstein. An annual yearbook, films, lectures, and
the great depths of Balanchine’s genius to increasingly phonograph records were also planned as subscription
sophisticated dance audiences. perks. An associate membership cost fifty dollars and
An avid lover of ballet and a prolific writer on art and was allotted two tickets for each performance; a “partici-
dance, Kirstein had brought Balanchine to the United pant” paid fifteen dollars and received one seat each
States. Kirstein dreamt of the establishment of a truly night. Modeled loosely after museum membership poli-
“American” ballet, on par with the companies of Europe cies, Kirstein’s admissions strategy was meant to elevate
and Russia and utilizing American-born and American- ballet to the status of visual art.
trained dancers. In 1933, he saw Balanchine’s Les Bal- Ballet Society’s mission was to present new choreog-
lets performed in London, and he recognized that this raphy, rather than the Franco-Russian ballet revivals that
was the choreographer who could make his dream possi- had dominated the 1930’s. Its elegant twelve-page an-
ble. Balanchine had choreographed for Sergei Diaghi- nouncement, distributed in early October, stated that the
lev’s Ballets Russes, and he was at loose ends following organization was incorporated “for the encouragement
the great impresario’s death. Kirstein was able to lure of the lyric theatre by the production of new works” with
1946
Balanchine away from Europe in order to direct a new the goal “to present a completely new repertory, consist-
School of American Ballet. This school would be the ing of ballets, ballet-opera and other lyric forms.”
training ground for the dancers in Balanchine’s subse- Kirstein and Balanchine hoped to create an environment
quent choreography. conducive to experimentation and collaboration among
Kirstein and Balanchine’s first attempt at beginning a dancers, choreographers, artists, and musicians. They re-
589
First Performance by Balanchine and Kirstein’s Ballet Society The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
fused to compromise artistic exploration for the sake of scription basis rather than individually or at the door. (He
large crowds or the pleasure of “the establishment.” even eliminated the theretofore sacrosanct press passes;
Some eight hundred people responded to the initial publications had to subscribe to the society to obtain
advertisement for Ballet Society. Unable to book a costly seats for their writers.) Critical acclaim was so over-
theater for a one-night stand, Kirstein and Balanchine whelming that the general public clamored to be invited.
chose New York’s Central High School of Needle Kirstein and Balanchine stood firm with their original
Trades for Ballet Society’s debut performance on No- idea, and subscription sales rose. Ballet Society was a
vember 20, 1946. Despite an ill-equipped auditorium success.
and the company’s half-hour delay in starting, the curtain The success of Ballet Society caused it to evolve into
eventually rose, and the audience was treated to the pre- a different organization, one that eventually became
miere of Balanchine’s The Spellbound Child. The ballet an international leader among dance companies: the
was set to music composed by Maurice Ravel between New York City Ballet. This evolution from an exclusive
1920 and 1925 and incorporated a poem by Colette, members-only club to a popular civic organization oc-
translated by Kirstein and Jane Barzin. curred over a two-year span. During that period, Balan-
Although the company encountered several technical chine refined his modern approach to ballet choreogra-
problems, The Spellbound Child proved an auspicious phy. Kirstein searched in vain for a permanent home for
first piece for Ballet Society. The evening’s main event, the group and wondered what should be done with all the
however, was the premiere of Balanchine’s The Four costumes and sets that had been constructed for one or
Temperaments. With music commissioned from Paul two performances and then packed away. Ballet Soci-
Hindemith and costumes and scenery by Kurt Selig- ety’s popularity mounted, and its founders waited for a
mann, it was widely hailed as the most exciting Balan- benefactor to appear.
chine ballet yet. Both the music and the dance created While it had a difficult time delivering on all member-
variations on a theme based upon the four humors of me- ship promises (particularly the phonograph records),
dieval folklore: “Melancholic,” “Sanguinic,” “Phleg- Ballet Society delighted audiences with other artistic en-
matic,” and “Choleric.” The original cast of The Four deavors. Gian Carlo Menotti produced his operas The
Temperaments included Beatrice Tompkins, José Marti- Medium (1946), a tragedy, and The Telephone (1946), a
nez, Lew Christensen, Francisco Moncion, William Dol- farce, with the company dancers. These performances
lar, Mary Ellen Moylan, Todd Bolender, and Tanaquil were so successful that a run on Broadway followed.
LeClerq. Dancer John Taras premiered his Minotaur (1947) on the
Dance critic Edwin Denby, writing in the December, third Ballet Society program; other young choreogra-
1946, issue of Dance News, proclaimed that “no chore- phers were given chances to experiment as well. Modern
ography was ever more serious, more vigorous, more dance was also represented in the Ballet Society reper-
wide in scope or penetrating in imagination.” He did, toire; in 1947, Merce Cunningham’s first ballet, The Sea-
however, question the ballet’s gaudy costumes. Because sons, was offered. This piece, with music by John Cage
they obscured the dance, the somewhat notorious outfits and decor by Isamu Noguchi, marked an auspicious be-
were later rejected in favor of black-and-white practice ginning for Cunningham, a young student of Martha
clothes—a look that would soon become a Balanchine Graham.
trademark. Works by Balanchine, though, were what audiences
Ballet Society’s next programs were presented at the most wanted to see. His style was unique. Typically em-
Hunter College Playhouse, the Ziegfeld Theater, and the phasizing structure and form over fantasy story or alle-
City Center of Music afnd Drama. The group continued gory, Balanchine perfected the plotless ballet (often re-
to present innovative choreography by Balanchine, youn- ferred to as “modern” or “abstract”). He changed the
ger company dancers, and guest artists. The New York image of the female dancer, in particular, from fragile
audience, though not enormous, grew. Primarily com- swan to vital athlete. He captured the daring and playful
posed of balletomanes and dilettantes willing to pay American spirit in the movements he designed, in es-
subscription prices, it was repeatedly excited by the sence redefining the classical dancer. Under Balan-
premieres of Balanchine’s “neoclassical” ballet master- chine’s direction, the craft of choreography—the ar-
pieces. rangement of human motion through space—became art
For his part, Kirstein startled the public and the press rivaling Michelangelo’s sculptures and Igor Stravin-
with the idea that sufficient tickets could be sold on a sub- sky’s compositions.
590
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First Performance by Balanchine and Kirstein’s Ballet Society
George Balanchine dances Don Quixote to Suzanne Farrell’s Dulcinea in 1965. (Library of Congress)
In addition to The Four Temperaments, Balanchine The premiere of Orpheus in April, 1948, signaled a
created significant works for Ballet Society that returning point for Ballet Society. Balanchine collaborated
mained in the repertory of the New York City Ballet. meticulously with Noguchi on the decor and with Stra-
Among them were Divertimento (January, 1947), which vinsky on the music. This powerful ballet treated the
allowed the male dancers to show off their skills. Wolf- mythical tale as a universal theme, weaving a story
gang Amadeus Mozart’s musical counterpoint was skill- through the intricate movement to a greater degree than
fully echoed in the choreography of Symphonie concer- the choreographer’s “plotless” ballets. Dancer Maria
tante (November, 1947), which employed more than Tallchief as Eurydice created a furor with her extraordi-
twenty female dancers and one male. Symphony in C nary technique; other dancers such as Nicholas Ma-
(music by Georges Bizet) was hailed as brilliant when it gallanes (Orpheus), Beatrice Tompkins, Francisco
premiered in New York in March, 1948 (it was first cre- Moncion, and Tanaquil LeClerq demonstrated the mas-
1946
ated for the Paris Opera in 1947). Dance News editor terful results of Balanchine’s coaching. (Eighteen-year-
Anatole Chujoy wrote, “If there ever was any doubt that old LeClerq was the first ballerina to be completely a
Balanchine was the greatest choreographer of our time, product of the School of American Ballet.)
this doubt was dispelled when the curtain came down on Public curiosity leading up to Orpheus (in the wake of
his Symphony in C.” Symphony in C’s tremendous success) was so great that
591
First Performance by Balanchine and Kirstein’s Ballet Society The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Kirstein and Balanchine decided to test Ballet Society’s City Ballet continued to showcase the choreography it-
broader appeal. Company funds (typically coming from self. Together, Kirstein’s ambitious vision and Balan-
Kirstein’s pockets) were almost exhausted. The organi- chine’s artistic brilliance brought ballet to the forefront
zation could not continue to cover its expenses with only of the arts.
four performances a year, the dancers could not survive —Alecia C. Townsend
without a more consistent income, and the repertory was
in danger of getting lost after one or two showings. They Further Reading
decided to see if Ballet Society had a future playing lon- Buckle, Richard. George Balanchine: Ballet Master.
ger seasons for the general public. The already scheduled New York: Random House, 1988. Written by a prom-
subscriber performance on April 28 occurred as planned, inent London dance critic, this biography is filled with
but the evening’s program was repeated the following detail, objective information, and tender remem-
three nights for general admission. brances. Chapters entitled “New Beginnings” and “In
The prestige surrounding these well-received perfor- Search of a Formula” deal specifically with Ballet So-
mances attracted the attention of many people, including ciety and the New York City Ballet.
City Center Chairman Morton Baum. Ballet Society Chujoy, Anatole. The New York City Ballet. New York:
business manager Frances Hawkins had met Baum while Alfred A. Knopf, 1953. The author, a Dance News
leasing the theater for several of the company’s previous editor, was witness to the birth and growth of the
engagements. In Baum, she recognized a possible solu- nation’s preeminent dance company. Contains sev-
tion to the company’s imminent fiscal and identity crisis. eral detailed chapters devoted to Ballet Society. Ap-
Although Kirstein was tired of false hopes from would- pendix features a chronological list of repertory and
be sponsors, he went with Hawkins to the City Center of- dancers.
fice, where Baum made him a decidedly unexpected of- Denby, Edwin. Looking at the Dance. New York: Hori-
fer. Ballet Society was invited to take up residence at the zon Press, 1968. This collection of criticism by one of
City Center and become officially the New York City the most eloquent dance writers in twentieth century
Ballet. Astonished, Kirstein replied, “If you do that for us America covers much of the history of Ballet Society.
I will give you in three years the finest ballet company in Reviews of company choreography as well as com-
America.” mentary about ballet’s evolution are offered.
Duberman, Martin. The Worlds of Lincoln Kirstein. New
Significance York: Knopf, 2007. Both an intimate portrait of the
The New York City Ballet’s opening performance in its man and a cultural history of his Bohemian social cir-
new City Center home took place on October 11, 1948. cles; written by a major scholar of gay history.
Orpheus was among the ballets featured on that program. Joseph, Charles M. Stravinsky and Balanchine: A Jour-
While the company was originally engaged as an affiliate ney of Invention. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
of the New York City Opera, three months after its pre- Press, 2002. Detailed study of the long-term collabo-
miere it performed as an independent component of City ration between the choreographer and composer and
Center. The company had a permanent home, many of its the evolution of the styles of each. Bibliographic ref-
expenses were supported, and its dancers could count on erences and index.
regular employment. Since then, it has earned and de- Kirstein, Lincoln. Thirty Years: Lincoln Kirstein’s The
servedly maintained its reputation as one of the finest New York City Ballet. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
ballet companies in the world. 1978. The author and founder of Ballet Society pro-
Kirstein stood true to his promise, and in so doing re- vides an interesting account of the history of the New
alized his dream of creating an American ballet. While York City Ballet. His original diary entries are offered
Ballet Society was a private, membership-only venture, and then expanded; the book does not attempt to pro-
the New York City Ballet, with its subsidized ticket vide a complete record of events but is a significant
prices, became known as the most publicly accessible and accurate volume of memoirs. Appendix includes
dance company in the United States. As he trained some chronological listing of repertory and dancers.
of the most technically proficient dancers in history, Bal- Leddick, David. Intimate Companions: A Triography of
anchine continued to choreograph incredibly diverse and George Platt Lynes, Paul Cadmus, Lincoln Kirstein,
innovative ballets. Unlike other dance companies that and Their Circle. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000.
emphasized the popular appeal of its stars, the New York Study of the life and work of Kirstein, as well as pho-
592
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 International Whaling Commission Is Formed
tographer Lynes and artist Cadmus, with whom he 1935 to 1976 are described in detail, along with
helped shape the American art world from the late quotes from the critics; casts, costumes, music, and
1920’s through the early 1950’s. location are also given. A valuable source of informa-
McDonagh, Don. George Balanchine. Boston: Twayne, tion.
1983. A very readable biography that includes both Teachout, Terry. All in the Dances: A Brief Life of
fact and analysis. The ballets performed during Ballet George Balanchine. Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt, 2004.
Society’s existence are described in detail, as are ele- Overview of the life and career of Balanchine and his
ments of the choreographer’s artistic process. In- contributions to the history of ballet. Bibliographic
cludes a chronology of Balanchine’s life and work references.
and a selective repertoire list. See also: Oct. 30, 1944: Graham Debuts Appalachian
Reynolds, Nancy. Repertory in Review: Forty Years of Spring with Copland Score; Sept. 11, 1951: Stravin-
the New York City Ballet. New York: Dial Press, sky’s The Rake’s Progress Premieres in Venice; May
1977. Contains introduction by Lincoln Kirstein and 30, 1954: Taylor Establishes His Own Dance Com-
essays by Walter Sorell on Balanchine and Nancy pany; Oct., 1956: Joffrey Founds His Ballet Com-
Goldner on the School of American Ballet. This vol- pany; June 24, 1964: Cunningham Stages His First
ume is the most exhaustive compilation of the ballet Dance “Event”; 1968: Mitchell and Shook Found the
company’s extensive repertoire. All ballets from Dance Theatre of Harlem.
December 2, 1946
International Whaling Commission Is Formed
The International Whaling Commission was first, as whale stocks were depleted, such concern cen-
established to regulate whaling and to ensure tered on the declining harvest. Later, whales came to be
conservation of whales. While it was given little power valued as integral parts of the planet’s biodiversity. De-
to enforce its policies, as more nations became spite the obvious threat that overhunting presented to the
members and international opinion changed, the whaling industry and despite the later interest in preserv-
commission helped to regulate whaling and to prevent ing the whale population, the international regulation re-
the extinction of several whale species. quired to assure whales’ continued existence proved diffi-
cult to achieve. The history of that effort is, in many ways,
Also known as: International Convention for the typical of international conservation efforts. At the heart
Regulation of Whaling of the effort to preserve the whales is the origin and his-
tory of the International Whaling Commission (IWC).
Categories: Organizations and institutions;
A number of attempts at regulation of whaling were
diplomacy and international relations;
made before the IWC was established in 1946. Nations
environmental issues
attempted to control access to whales in their coastal wa-
Key Figures ters and occasionally in adjacent seas. These attempts
Birger Bergersen (1891-1977), first chairman of the were not made to save whales but to reserve them for that
IWC nation’s whalers. Even if the efforts had been properly
A. T. A. Dobson (fl. mid-twentieth century), first applied and successful, whale conservation would not
secretary of the IWC have been served, because most whales are denizens of
Remington Kellogg (1892-1969), U.S. representative the open sea. Since Hugo Grotius argued for the freedom
to, and chairman of, the convention at which the of the seas in the early seventeenth century, the resources
IWC was formed of the open ocean were considered to be the property of
1946
whoever could harvest them. This principle exposed

Summary of Event whales to extensive exploitation and was a serious prob-
Whales have been hunted by humans for at least four thou- lem for the regulation of whaling and conservation of
sand years. In the twentieth century, however, whales and whales well into the twentieth century.
whale hunting became subjects of widespread concern. At The International Council for Exploration of the Sea
593
International Whaling Commission Is Formed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
International Whaling Commission Member Countries
Greenland
Sweden
Iceland
Russia
Finland
Norway
Estonia
Denmark Latvia
Lithuania
Canada Neth.
Ireland U. K. Poland Byelarus
Germany
Belgium
Lux. Czech
Slovakia Ukraine Kazakhstan
Austria Hungary Moldova Mongolia
Switz.
Slovenia Romania
France Italy Croatia
Bosnia
Serbia
Bulgaria
Montenegro Uzbekistan
Georgia
Macedonia Kyrgyzstan
Albania Armenia Azerbaijan North Korea
Portugal Turkmenistan
Spain Greece
Turkey Tajikistan
U. S. A. South Korea
Tunisia Cyprus Syria
Lebanon
China Japan
Morocco Israel Afghanistan
Iraq Iran
Canary Islands Jordan
Algeria
Kuwait Nepal
Pakistan Bhutan
Western Egypt
Mexico The Bahamas Libya Qatar
Sahara U. A. E.
Taiwan
Cuba Dom. Rep. Saudi Arabia Myanmar
Mauritania Laos
Bangladesh
Jamaica
Oman
Belize Haiti Niger
Honduras Mali Eritrea Yemen
Senegal India Thailand Vietnam
Chad
Guatemala Gambia Sudan Philippines
Kampuchea
El Salvador Nicaragua Burkina Guam
Nigeria Djibouti Marshall
Guinea Bissau Guinea Benin
Ghana Somalia
Costa Rica Guyana Ivory Togo
Islands
Venezuela Sri Lanka
Panama Suriname Sierra Leone Central African Ethiopia Palau
French Guiana Coast Cameroon Brunei Micronesia
Liberia Republic
Kiribati Colombia Equatorial Guinea Uganda Malaysia
Sao Tome & Principe Kenya
Ecuador Congo
Gabon
Zaire Rwanda
Burundi Indonesia
Papua Solomon
Peru Tanzania
New Guinea Islands
Brazil Comoros
Samoa
Bolivia Zambia Malawi
Islands Angola
Fiji
Vanuatu
Namibia
Zimbabwe
Botswana
Tonga French Madagascar
Paraguay Mozambique New Caledonia
Polynesia
Chile Australia
Argentina Swaziland
South Africa Lesotho
Uruguay
New Zealand
Falkland Islands
South Georgia Island
(ICES), an informal organization begun in 1902 to study ing grew. In 1944, in anticipation of the end of the war, a
and protect natural resources in marine habitats, made whaling protocol was established among several of the
important early attempts to learn about whale stocks and whaling nations. Most observers believed that the catch
the requirements for their conservation. ICES asked Nor- limits established by this protocol were too high and that
way to initiate a whaling statistics database, which be- the length set for the Antarctic whaling season was too
came the information base for subsequent argument and long. In 1945, in London, the protocol was extended and
action on the conservation of whales. The League of Na- amended, but there was little improvement. This lack of
tions attempted to bring some form of regulation to whal- significant progress necessitated the 1946 meeting in
ing during the 1930’s, and ICES ideas and proposals Washington, D.C., at which the IWC was established.
were instrumental in guiding the league’s efforts. All The International Convention for the Regulation of
such efforts were unquestionably helpful in setting the Whaling of 1946 played out in the aftermath of the earlier
stage for later conservation efforts, but nothing done attempts at international regulation. Their inadequacy,
early in the twentieth century seemed to slow interna- especially that of the most recent conferences, generated
tional whaling. New equipment, including improved fac- a sense of urgency in which the IWC could be estab-
tory ships on which a whale could be completely pro- lished. Fifteen nations, all with active or historic whaling
cessed, made whaling increasingly efficient. Only the fleets, attended. Because the war had just ended, neither
decline of whale populations and the advent of two world Japan nor Germany, both recently active in whaling, was
wars slowed the slaughter. included. The principal considerations on the agenda
Before World War II, the whaling nations became in- were the establishment of the regulations for future whal-
creasingly concerned about the intensive overhunting ing seasons, including 1947 and 1948, and the creation of
and the decline in whale stocks. Interest in establishing a permanent whaling commission for oversight of the in-
an international organization for the regulation of whal- dustry and conservation of whales.
594
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 International Whaling Commission Is Formed
Article 3 of the convention created the IWC. The arti- and Article 10 made withdrawal from the commission a
cle followed a draft convention submitted by the United simple matter. If notice of an intent to withdraw was
States fairly closely but diverged from the draft in impor- given before January 1, the withdrawal was effective on
tant points. Membership was open to any nation sub- June 1 of the same year. No article dealt with a method
scribing to the convention, not simply whaling nations. for settling disputes between members.
Each member had one representative and one vote. A Article 7 required that whaling statistics be sent to the
simple majority vote was required to pass any commis- Norwegian Bureau of International Whaling Statistics
sion decision except an amendment of the schedule of (BIWS). Article 8 established a system of scientific per-
whaling regulations, which required the approval of 75 mits by which a nation would be allowed to take a num-
percent of those voting. Any number of advisers could be ber of whales beyond the established quota simply by re-
employed by a nation, and though the advisers could not porting to the commission that it was taking them for
vote, they could address the commission before a vote. scientific purposes. Critics believe that the permit system
The commission elected its own chair and vice chair for has been used by some nations to circumvent whaling
three-year terms. An executive officer, the secretary, was quotas.
appointed by the commission. The document creating the IWC was signed by the fif-
Several committees were established by Article 3, the teen representatives on December 2, 1946, and went into
most important of which was the Scientific Committee, effect on November 10, 1948. With all of its imperfec-
which was charged with studying whales, establish- tions, the IWC is judged by most observers to be a land-
ing the state of whale populations, and recommending mark in whale conservation and regulation, as well as in
the appropriate levels of exploitation. Its membership international regulation and cooperation generally.
consisted of individuals nominated by the national com-
missioners. There was no requirement of expertise for Significance
membership, but provision was made for advisers, pre- The IWC was immediately bedeviled by problems com-
sumably with expertise, to attend meetings and advise mon to international regulatory organizations. Insuffi-
the committee, though the advisers could not vote. The cient funds and weak enforcement powers have been two
U.S. draft convention suggested that the commission be of the most serious problems. In addition, several prob-
associated with the Food and Agriculture Organization lems specific to the regulation of whaling have plagued
of the United Nations. The convention, however, chose commissioners. Information on the status of whale
not to affiliate the commission with any organization, stocks has generally been fragmentary and debatable.
though it would work with international organizations, Even when great whaling efforts produced fewer and
including the United Nations, throughout its history. smaller whales, a clear suggestion that the stocks were
Article 5 of the convention established the schedule of depleted, it was difficult to convince whaling companies
the regulations designed by the convention to conserve and their governments that the whales needed protection.
whales and build up stocks for future exploitation. The The commission’s original charge included two as-
original schedule included restrictions on the total catch signments that often appeared to be at odds with each
in a given season; minimum size limits on certain spe- other. The IWC was to regulate whaling and conserve
cies; bans on taking calves, suckling whales, or females whales, but the organization was also to act in the best in-
found with them; bans on taking any member of some terest of the whaling nations. This dual mission resulted
species and on taking other species in certain areas; rein a curious reversal of the commission’s regulatory pos-
strictions on the season length for Antarctic whaling, a ture. Early in the commission’s history, the best interest
requirement for inspectors on whaling ships and at land of whaling nations was given priority; later, whaling reg-
stations; and requirements that all parts of captured ulation and conservation of whales became the IWC’s
whales be used. Despite the fact that changing the sched- focus.
ule required a 75 percent vote, the schedule grew steadily In its early years, the IWC always set limits higher
in size and complexity. than its own Scientific Committee’s recommendation.
1946
Article 9, which dealt with enforcement, was one of The pressure for setting higher limits, exerted by the
the weaknesses of the convention. Enforcement was left whaling members of the commission, continued despite
to the government under whose jurisdiction an offending the economic extinction of the blue whale, the fin whale,
ship operated. In addition, the commission had no au- and the sei whale. Each species in turn was hunted until
thority over countries that were not members of the IWC, so few were sighted that the whalers had to turn to other
595
International Whaling Commission Is Formed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
whale species. This problem was confounded by the fact IWC continues to struggle with important questions, per-
that the commission had no control over whaling nations haps the most critical of which is whether whaling should
that did not join the commission. These unregulated be eliminated as a human activity. That appears unlikely
whalers weakened the attraction of responsible whaling in the near future as some countries, particularly Japan,
for some members of the commission. have strong whaling interests, pursued now under the ti-
Another problem with regulation in the early years tle of “scientific whaling.”
was the system by which annual limits were set, the blue —Carl W. Hoagstrom
whale unit (BWU). Used to determine quotas by equat-
ing all whales to the blue whale (1 blue = 2 fin = 2.5 Further Reading
humpbacks = 6 sei, for example), the BWU was among Baskin, Yvonne. “Blue Behemoth Bounds Back.” Bio-
the earliest means of setting quotas for whalers. As whale Science 43 (October, 1993): 603-605. A news article
populations shrank, the inability to regulate whaling ac- reporting on whale population surveys. Suggests that
cording to species, age, and gender illustrated the worst blue whale populations are increasing in the Northern
aspects of the BWU. In 1972, the BWU was replaced by Hemisphere.
limits on individual species, but whale populations had Birnie, Patricia. “International Legal Issues in the Man-
already suffered tragically from the concept’s applica- agement and Protection of the Whale: A Review of
tion. Four Decades of Experience.” Natural Resources
Only when the most intensive whaling failed to turn Journal 29 (Fall, 1989): 903-934. A good summary of
up enough whales to pay for the effort were the warnings the history of international efforts to save whaling and
of the Scientific Committee heeded and limits set low whales. Many references.
enough to allow recovery of the beleaguered stocks. At _______, ed. International Regulation of Whaling: From
the same time, the plight of the whales was being placed Conservation of Whaling to Conservation of Whales
before an increasingly sympathetic public by various and Regulation of Whale Watching. New York:
conservation groups. Under this new and growing public Oceana, 1985. A thorough two-volume history of the
pressure, the IWC slowly changed from a “whalers’ regulation of whaling. Includes the text of the 1946
club” to a whale-conservation organization. Increasingly International Convention for the Regulation of Whal-
restrictive limits on whaling resulted from this change: ing that created the IWC and many documents of im-
Certain areas, including the Indian Ocean, were declared portance to the history of whaling. Extensive bibliog-
sanctuaries within which no whaling was allowed, and in raphy.
1982 a moratorium was declared on all commercial Burton, Robert. The Life and Death of Whales. 2d ed.
whaling. New York: Universe Books, 1980. A small, interest-
The moratorium and sanctuaries do not protect ing book that describes whales, the history of whal-
whales completely. Various commission members ising, and briefly, the regulation of whaling. Illustra-
sued scientific permits to their whalers, allowing them to tions, index, and brief bibliography.
capture fairly large numbers of whales for scientific Friedheim, Robert L., ed. Toward a Sustainable Whaling
study. Others threatened withdrawal from or defiance of Regime. Seattle: University of Washington Press,
the commission. When Chile complained that the sanctu- 2001. Detailed study of the political, scientific, and
ary violated its national waters, the Southern Hemi- environmental aspects of whaling regulation and the
sphere sanctuary was interrupted by an extension of role of the International Whaling Commission in that
whaling waters to 60 degrees south latitude off the west regulation. Bibliographic references and index.
coast of South America. In addition, pressure to allow Horwood, Joseph. Biology and Exploitation of the Sei
whaling outside the sanctuary increased with sanctuary Whale. London: Croom Helm, 1987. Thorough and
establishment. well-written outline of the sei whale’s biology and ex-
Despite its controversial career, the impact of the ploitation history. Considers the IWC in the sei whale
IWC has been appreciable. There are still those on both context. Illustrations, index, and bibliography.
sides of the whaling issue calling for the IWC’s disband- McHugh, J. L. “The Role and History of the International
ment, but the commission has been successful in regulat- Whaling Commission.” In The Whale Problem: A
ing whaling to allow the apparent recovery of some Status Report, edited by William E. Schevill. Cam-
whale populations. The established sanctuaries and the bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974. A
moratorium bode well for the future of the whales. The brief history of the IWC, its shortcomings, and its
596
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 UNICEF Is Established
achievements. Illustrations, index, and many refer- Tønnessen, J. N., and A. O. Johnsen. The History of
ences. Modern Whaling. Translated by R. I. Christophersen.
Miles, Edward L., et al. “The International Whaling Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. One
Commission (IWC): More Failure than Success?” In of the most complete versions of the history of whal-
Environmental Regime Effectiveness: Confronting ing and the creation of the IWC available. An interest-
Theory with Evidence. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, ing appendix of whaling statistics. Extensive bibliog-
2002. Case study of the empirical effects of the IWC, raphy and thorough index.
arguing that it has been less effective in practice than See also: Sept. 11, 1961: World Wildlife Fund Is Es-
is commonly believed. Bibliographic references and tablished; Oct. 15, 1966: Congress Passes the Endan-
index. gered Species Preservation Act; Dec., 1966: Jensen
Schmid, Karen. “Scientists Count a Rising Tide of Finds PCBs in Animal Tissues; Oct. 15, 1969: Canada
Whales in the Sea.” Science 263 (January 7, 1994): Announces Ban on Hunting Baby Seals; Mar. 31,
25-26. A news article reporting on the surveys that 1970: Canada Bans Commercial Fishing in Lakes St.
show an increase in several whale populations. Illus- Clair and Erie; Sept., 1970: Cousteau Announces
trations. Large Decline in Ocean Life.
December 11, 1946

UNICEF Is Established
UNICEF was created to meet the basic needs of The latter was created in October, 1943, to undertake re-
children around the world and to foster maternal and lief work as Allied armies liberated Axis-occupied terri-
child development. As a result of funds raised by and tories at the end of World War II. The UNRRA did much
spent in conjunction with UNICEF’s programs, good work toward accomplishing its monumental task,
millions of lives have been saved and hundreds of but a number of flaws hurt the organization, not the least
millions of lives have been improved by medical, of which was its poor image in the U.S. Congress. The
educational, and nutritional initiatives. UNRRA was abruptly terminated in 1946, when the re-
construction of Europe was far from complete. Most of
Also known as: United Nations International its work on behalf of displaced persons was taken over by
Children’s Emergency Fund; United Nations the newly established International Refugee Organiza-
Children’s Fund
tion (IRO).
The IRO, perceived as being only a temporary body,
Categories: United Nations; organizations and
was given a five-year tenure to resettle displaced per-
institutions
sons. This task was complicated by the fact that the win-
Key Figures ter of 1946-1947 was one of the worst experienced in
Fiorello Henry La Guardia (1882-1947), director- modern Europe. On December 11, 1946, the U.N. Gen-
general of the United Nations Relief and eral Assembly responded to the crisis caused by this
Rehabilitation Administration harsh winter—especially as it affected children—and
Trygve Lie (1896-1968), Norwegian secretary-general created, by unanimous decision, the United Nations In-
of the United Nations, 1946-1952 ternational Children’s Emergency Fund, with a life of
Maurice Pate (1894-1965), first executive director of three years. The new organization had the good fortune
UNICEF of recruiting as its first executive director Maurice Pate, a
person with enormous talent, drive, and dedication to its
Summary of Event humanitarian mission, who proceeded to assemble a staff
1946
The United Nations International Children’s Emergency equally committed to the task.
Fund (UNICEF) was created in 1946 by the United Na- The results were little short of spectacular. UNICEF
tions as an emergency measure to cope with the conse- focused initially on Europe, where an estimated twenty
quences of the premature termination of the United Na- million children were in jeopardy in fourteen countries,
tions Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). and launched a relief operation of vast proportions, pro-
597
UNICEF Is Established The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
viding food, medicine, clothing, and other desperately therefore made UNICEF a permanent agency of the
needed supplies. By 1950, European reconstruction and United Nations and changed the organization’s name to
recovery were well under way, and UNICEF’s relief pro- the United Nations Children’s Fund. However, the origi-
gram reached completion. Elsewhere in the world, nal acronym, which by then had become world-famous,
though, an even larger number of children were in dire was retained.
straits. With decolonization, many nations became inde- UNICEF enjoys a semiautonomous status within the
pendent and, in many respects, were set adrift, with United Nations. It is governed by its own executive
millions of children in a state of utter destitution. In De- board of forty-one nations, selected in rotation for three-
cember, 1950, the U.N. General Assembly extended year terms from the U.N. membership. This board meets
UNICEF’s life for another three years and gave it the annually to determine UNICEF’s program and allocate
mandate to shift its emphasis from emergency assistance available funds. It has its own staff, part of which works
to long-term child development programs in underdevel- at the U.N. headquarters in New York City. The larger
oped countries. This was a challenge incomparably more part of this staff is deployed among UNICEF’s more than
difficult than that found in Europe. 110 regional and field offices around the world. The or-
By 1953, it was clear that, with growing decoloniza- ganization is headed by its executive director, who is ap-
tion and more new nations joining the ranks of the under- pointed by the U.N. secretary-general.
developed, the problem of child welfare in such nations Throughout UNICEF’s history, the executive director
was bound to escalate. The U.N. General Assembly has played a strong leadership role and has been respon-
The U.S. Committee for UNICEF presents a report on the organization’s activities in the Oval Office in November, 1949. From left:
Undersecretary of State James Webb, Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson, President Harry S. Truman, committee chair Mary Lord,
UNICEF delegate Katharine Lenroot, and Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs Dallas Dort.
(NARA)
598
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 UNICEF Is Established
sible for the quality of the agency’s contribution. Maurice time of its inception. It has founded numerous health
Pate, the first executive director of UNICEF, served for centers to provide maternal and child health services and
nineteen years and died in office in January, 1965. He teach the elementary rules of hygiene. UNICEF has also
and succeeding directors have imparted to the UNICEF undertaken an effort to curb maternal mortality. The or-
staff their high standards of integrity and service. ganization also helps women by providing prenatal care,
UNICEF’s activities are funded exclusively by vol- strengthening women’s social roles, and providing better
untary contributions, which come primarily from U.N. access to education. In cooperation with the World
member countries. UNICEF also raises funds from the Health Organization, UNICEF undertook a staggering
private sector. An important source of revenue is the sale campaign of universal immunization against preventable
of greeting cards. National committees for UNICEF have childhood diseases such as diphtheria, whooping cough,
been organized in many countries. These are private vol- tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, and measles, the largest
unteer organizations established to help UNICEF and child-killer. Another extremely effective campaign fo-
make it better known. Many celebrities have contrib- cused on controlling diarrheal diseases, an important
uted their talents to UNICEF and the national commit- cause of infant mortality, by means of a simple, inexpen-
tees. Entertainer Danny Kaye provided perhaps the fore- sive, and effective oral rehydration procedure.
most example of this dedicated support. Other UNICEF Hunger and malnutrition are even more challenging
goodwill ambassadors have included Peter Ustinov, Liv problems. They are rooted in economic underdevelop-
Ullmann, Harry Belafonte, Audrey Hepburn, and Jane ment and poverty, often accompanied by ignorance.
Curtin. UNICEF has instituted infant-growth monitoring pro-
The publicity provided by national committees is an grams to detect early signs of malnutrition, and it has pro-
important factor in the widespread popular support en- moted breast-feeding to reduce infant mortality related
joyed by UNICEF. Governments impressed by such sup- to the improper use of infant formulas.
port are more inclined to work with UNICEF and help it Beyond health and nutrition, then, UNICEF is in-
financially. UNICEF has circumvented the perennial involved in numerous programs. An estimated one hun-
adequacy of its budget by endeavoring to make local res- dred million children in the developing world receive no
idents practice self-help and by insisting that local gov- schooling of any kind. In cooperation with UNESCO,
ernments, even in the most destitute countries, devote a UNICEF is therefore promoting and supporting access to
larger portion of their resources to the well-being of their basic education. UNICEF also attends to the needs of
countries’ children. (When confronted with the task of homeless and abandoned children and provides emer-
achieving development, governments are easily tempted gency relief and rehabilitation to young victims of disas-
to build roads, power plants, or modern industry rather ters. In this connection, UNICEF serves as a standing
than provide better medical care or primary education for member of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee of the
children.) U.N. Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs,
For every $1 spent by UNICEF, local governments which attempts to coordinate the emergency relief activi-
contribute more than $2.50. UNICEF has been very ef- ties of UNICEF and other U.N. agencies involved in the
fective in enlisting the assistance of volunteers in recipi- provision of humanitarian aid.
ent countries and in acquiring the invaluable support of
nongovernmental organizations, whose skills, labor, and Significance
knowledge of local situations are potent sources of suc- The creation of UNICEF made an important contribution
cess in implementing programs and ensuring that assis- to the international protection of children. By means of
tance reaches the people who need it most. Furthermore, effective fieldwork, consciousness-raising, education,
UNICEF works closely with other U.N. agencies such and substantial fund-raising activities to finance its
as the World Health Organization (WHO), the United social-justice work, UNICEF has saved millions of lives
Nations Development Program, the United Nations and considerably improved the living conditions of even
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization larger numbers of children and their families. It is now an
1946
(UNESCO), and the World Bank. These agencies, in essential factor of social development. In 1965, UNICEF
fact, use some of their own resources to implement was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. This award was
UNICEF-initiated activities. hailed as well-deserved recognition for the organiza-
High on UNICEF’s agenda is mother and child tion’s remarkable accomplishments. UNICEF has suc-
health, one of the organization’s prime concerns from the ceeded in keeping the cause of children at the center of
599
UNICEF Is Established The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
global consciousness. The strength of public support for Jones, Phillip W., with David Coleman. The United Na-
its programs and the effectiveness of its child survival tions and Education: Multilateralism, Development,
strategies have led many countries and private donors to and Globalisation. New York: RoutledgeFalmer,
increase their voluntary contributions. 2005. Includes a chapter on UNICEF’s role in the
—Jean-Robert Leguey-Feilleux United Nations’ global education programs. Biblio-
Further Reading
Labouisse, Henry R. “For the World’s Children:
Beigbeder, Yves. New Challenges for UNICEF: Chil-
UNICEF at 25.” UN Chronicle 8 (April, 1971): 48-60.
dren, Women, and Human Rights. New York: Pal-
Excellent survey by the dedicated and effective sec-
grave, 2001. An evaluation of twenty-first century
ond executive director of the organization. Reviews
challenges for UNICEF. Bibliographic references
UNICEF’s accomplishments and examines the chal-
and index.
lenges of the years to come. Contains much useful in-
Bennett, A. LeRoy. International Organizations: Princi-
formation about UNICEF.
ples and Issues. 6th ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Weiss, Thomas George. International Bureaucracy: An
Prentice Hall, 1995. Chapter 14, “Promoting Social
Analysis of the Operation of Functional and Global
Progress,” introduces UNICEF and the many U.N.
International Secretariats. Lexington, Mass.: Lex-
agencies with which it works. Other chapters explain
ington Books, 1975. Discusses the functioning of the
the U.N. context within which UNICEF operates and
secretariats of international organizations, the prob-
the politics involved. Very useful to supplement ma-
lems encountered, and remedies available. Chapter 5
terials exclusively focused on UNICEF. Provides bib-
presents a case study, focused on UNICEF, showing
liographies.
the excellent performance of its staff. Includes a thor-
“The Best Mankind Has to Give.” UN Chronicle (Sep-
ough bibliography on international administration.
tember, 1989): 40-51. Reviews developments in the
thirty years since the Declaration on the Rights of the See also: Dec. 10, 1948: United Nations Adopts the
Child was proclaimed by the U.N. General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Dec. 20,
Discusses UNICEF’s efforts in implementing this 1952: United Nations Convention on the Political
declaration and developments in UNICEF strategy. Rights of Women Is Approved; Nov. 20, 1959:
Outlines the grave problems still facing children. United Nations Adopts the Declaration of the Rights
Black, Maggie. The Children and the Nations. New of the Child; May 18, 1965: Head Start Is Established
York: UNICEF, 1986. Chronicles UNICEF’s story in to Aid Poor Children; Dec. 16, 1966: United Nations
the context of social development and international Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Is Adopted;
cooperation. Very informative. Shows the wide- Nov. 7, 1967: United Nations Issues a Declaration on
spread impact of UNICEF. Prepared on the occasion Equality for Women; 1969: Parents Anonymous Is
of the fortieth anniversary of UNICEF. Established to Treat Abusive Parents.
600
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Spain Is Denied Entrance into the United Nations
December 12, 1946

Spain Is Denied Entrance into the United Nations
The General Assembly of the United Nations denied tarian, antidemocratic, and intolerant of the convictions
Spain U.N. membership, demonstrating the body’s of the Spaniards who supported the republic and were on
disapproval of Spain’s authoritarian and fascist- the losing side of the Spanish Civil War.
oriented regime, headed by dictator Francisco Franco. When the General Assembly voted to deny Spain
membership in the United Nations, it was applying dip-
Locale: Flushing Meadows, New York lomatic pressure on Franco. The assembly wanted him to
Categories: United Nations; organizations and relinquish power to a provisional government that would
institutions; diplomacy and international relations respect the civil rights of all Spaniards and give them the
Key Figures opportunity to choose their government freely. The
Francisco Franco (1892-1975), Spanish dictator, United Nations condemned Franco’s regime not only be-
1936-1975 cause it was undemocratic and authoritarian but also be-
José Antonio Primo de Rivera (1903-1936), Spanish cause it was founded with the support of the Axis Pow-
political leader and founder of the Falange ers. Franco’s forces won the Spanish Civil War with the
Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), Italian dictator, 1925- help of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini.
1943 Franco’s rule was ultimately guaranteed by armed
Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), German chancellor, 1933- force; it did not formally derive its authority from the
1945 consent of the governed, although large segments of the
population supported the regime. It was antidemocratic
Summary of Event and inspired by the fascist ideology. Franco himself ab-
General Francisco Franco established a military dictator- horred representative forms of government. According
ship in parts of Spain in 1936. After his forces prevailed to his understanding of Spanish history, Spain’s glorious
in a three-year civil war against the Second Spanish Re- imperial past under the Catholic sovereigns, such as Fer-
public in 1939, he consolidated his control of the entire dinand and Isabella, was destroyed by the introduction
country. Franco’s authoritarian regime was born of a of representative government and universal suffrage in
military insurrection against Spain’s legal, leftist gov- the nineteenth century. Self-serving party politics and
ernment, which had been narrowly elected by the popu- the conspiracies of freemasonry and Marxism caused
lace. The regime was able to survive until Franco’s death Spain’s decline as a military and colonial power in this
in 1975, in part because it had the support of many seg- view. Franco believed, moreover, that Spain faced an im-
ments of the Spanish population, including the army, the mediate communist threat when he committed himself to
fascist party, and the Roman Catholic Church. The mili- overthrowing the Second Republic in 1936.
tary perceived an obligation to intervene to save the na- Franco replaced Spain’s republican form of govern-
tion from the anarchy that plagued Spain’s Second Re- ment with an authoritarian state in which he exercised ul-
public, which included crippling strikes and ferocious timate power. As head of state and head of the govern-
attacks by the left on Catholic clergy in which about ment, he functioned as prime minister and president. He
seven thousand priests and religious were murdered, was commander-in-chief of the armed forces and leader
mostly during the early phases of the civil war. Franco’s of the only political party, the Falange. Franco ruled
ironclad rule protected Spain from the chaos he believed without a constitution and therefore without the rule of
was inherent in democracy. law. Franco declared that his regime was responsible
Spain’s fascist party was known as the Falange; it was only to God and history.
equally opposed to capitalism, communism, and democ- Franco’s disregard for human rights was evident from
racy. The party advocated the creation of a national so- the beginning of his rule. Supporters of the Spanish Re-
cialist state. The Roman Catholic Church, battered by public had no rights. Franco’s regime pursued its oppo-
1946
leftist persecution, sanctioned Franco’s rebellion and be- nents relentlessly in a large-scale campaign of repression
came a part of the state. Franco’s victory saved the during and after the civil war. The Law of Political Re-
church from the violent anticlericalism that had erupted sponsibilities, retroactive to October, 1934, even though
during Spain’s Second Republic. These three pillars of enacted in February, 1939, decreed that anyone who had
the Francoist state were generally conservative, authori- supported the cause of the republic in any way, even if
601
Spain Is Denied Entrance into the United Nations The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
passively, could be subject to up to fifteen years of im- The media conveyed only what the government wanted
prisonment. The law also targeted any member of a trade the population to know.
union, a masonic lodge, or a republican or left-wing party The regime limited freedom of association and as-
and any supporter of Basque or Catalan nationalism. sembly. No organization could be formed that pro-
More than 270,000 Spaniards were in prison by the end claimed goals contrary to government-endorsed values.
of 1939. Prison populations did not return to pre-civil Trade unions were illegal, as were strikes. Spanish work-
war levels for more than a decade. ers were forced to join the syndicate established by the
The average citizen found Franco’s campaign of re- state for their trade or profession. Spaniards could join
pression to be arbitrary and ruthless. A slight majority of only the one legal political party in the country, the
the Spanish people supported the republic, so the regime Falange. This created much frustration among workers.
decided that it had to administer a campaign of total ter- Politics was the only channel available to seek the re-
ror to frighten the population into submission. Even a dress of grievances, but it served the interests of the state
vague allegation could result in arrest or even death. and not those of the worker.
Franco’s side saw prominent republicans and leftists as The right to free assembly was also severely re-
incurable and believed execution was a reasonable solu- stricted. Any gathering of more than twenty people not
tion. People who supported the republic, even if they had sponsored by the church or the Falange required govern-
managed to survive the war and imprisonment, still had ment authorization. If the government wanted to harass a
to face persecution well into the 1950’s. Franco did not known opponent of the regime, the police would raid the
want those who opposed him to have access to power or residence when a family reunion was in progress because
wealth. Former republicans were silenced, but they were they could claim that more than twenty people were to-
not persuaded that they had been wrong. gether without government authorization.
When Allied victory in World War II seemed assured, While freedom of conscience was theoretically rec-
Franco attempted to mask his regime’s violation of hu- ognized, only Roman Catholicism enjoyed official pro-
man rights by revoking the Law of Political Responsibil- tection. Other faiths could be practiced only privately.
ities and issuing the Charter of the Spanish People in Franco persecuted Spain’s thirty thousand Protestants.
1945. It purported to be a bill of rights, although the free- Protestant congregations could not own or administer
doms proclaimed in the charter were severely under- church buildings and could not establish schools or evan-
mined on several levels. The charter only ensured such gelize.
freedoms as those of expression, association, and assem- The nature and organization of the judicial system se-
bly when they did not endanger the principles of the state riously endangered human rights. In addition to being
and did not harm Spain’s spiritual, national, or social government-appointed, judges were required to swear an
unity. Liberty was further limited by the issuance of coun- oath of loyalty to Franco, jeopardizing the sound and im-
termanding laws and decrees. Any right proclaimed in partial administration of justice. Military courts exer-
the charter could be revoked in states of emergency. The cised broad jurisdiction in ordinary penal law and prose-
average Spaniard knew that no more freedom was avail- cuted political crimes. Activity in opposition to the
able than there had been at the height of the repression af- regime was classified as military rebellion. The police
ter the civil war. could arrest a suspect without a warrant. Although there
Freedom of expression could only be had in private was a seventy-two-hour limit on detention, illegal deten-
conversation. The regime until 1966 censored all printed tion could not be appealed.
matter prior to publication, with the exception of Catho- A police-state atmosphere dominated the court sys-
lic and Falange materials. Books were banned and the- tem. If a person was apprehended by the police, family
aters were closed. Many topics were forbidden by the and friends could not prevent detention. The accused had
regime, including the regime itself, the succession of no access to a lawyer while in police custody. Only after
Franco, political and social agitation, offenses against preliminary legal proceedings were finished could the
morals, and any information that would place Spain in an accused consult a lawyer. Depositions could be obtained
unfavorable light. The government strictly controlled the through threats and violence.
press, to the extent of determining circulation and allo- The United Nations, organized by the victorious
cating newsprint. Freedom of information was not possi- Allies after World War II, abhorred the existence of a fas-
ble under such conditions. Few gave any credence to the cist regime like that of Franco after the defeat of fascism
news available from newspapers, television, and radio. had cost so many Allied lives. Exiled republicans antici-
602
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Spain Is Denied Entrance into the United Nations
pated that the Allies would overthrow Franco’s dictator- The General Assembly’s resolution against Spain’s
ship after defeating Nazi Germany. Some believed that membership in the United Nations was fully reversed in
World War II would not be won until all fascist regimes December, 1955, when Spain was finally admitted along
had been destroyed. with fifteen other nations. Although the nature of Spain’s
Although they deplored Franco’s oppression of the totalitarian government had not changed, the United Na-
Spanish people, the Allies did not intervene militarily. tions had adjusted its policy. U.N. leaders had come to
They limited themselves to isolating Spain diplomatically believe that the United Nations should be a universal,
after World War II, hoping to pressure Franco out of worldwide body that offered admission to all nations re-
power. The General Assembly’s resolution in December, gardless of their political philosophy. Governments with
1946, reaffirmed the Allies’ previous condemnations of unacceptable practices would be more likely to change
Spain in San Francisco, Potsdam, and London. It not only within the United Nations than outside it. Spain was ad-
barred Spain from membership in the United Nations but mitted with virtually no opposition. Nevertheless, a resi-
also banned Spain’s participation in all international due of dislike for Franco’s rule persisted in Europe:
agencies associated with the United Nations. Member Spain was refused membership in the North Atlantic
states were asked to recall their ambassadors from Spain. Treaty Organization (NATO), because its government
Finally, the resolution declared that the United Nations was not democratic. It also was barred from membership
would consider other measures if Franco’s regime were in the European Economic Community (EEC). Spain’s
not replaced by a government that represented the will of diplomatic isolation would not end completely until after
the Spanish people within a reasonable amount of time. Franco’s death. After Spain completed its transition to
democracy in 1978, objections to Spain’s membership in
Significance NATO and the EEC disappeared. Spain was admitted
The diplomatic pressures applied by the United Nations into NATO and the EEC in 1986.
did not weaken Franco’s hold on Spain. The United Na- —Evelyn Toft
tions’ policy of ostracism proved counterproductive.
Franco refused to change his regime, confident that the Further Reading
Western democracies would eventually value his staunch Carr, Raymond, and Juan Pablo Fusi Azipurua. Spain:
anticommunism. He was not mistaken. When the West- Dictatorship to Democracy. Boston: Allen & Unwin,
ern democracies determined that the Soviet Union was a 1979. A thorough overview of all aspects of Spain’s
threat to their interests, they recognized Spain’s strategic history from 1939 to 1978, including the philosophy
value for the defense of Western Europe and softened and institutions of Francoism; changes in the econ-
their condemnation of Franco’s regime. Spain’s diplo- omy, society, and culture during the Franco period;
matic isolation decreased largely because of the Cold the crisis of the last years of the regime; and the transi-
War. By 1951, most countries had returned their ambas- tion to democracy. Includes an index, a chronological
sadors and were encouraging Spain to participate in vari- table of events, a glossary of political terms, and a list
ous international agencies. The United States valued of main actors.
Franco as an ally in the battle against Soviet expansion- Gallo, Max. Spain Under Franco: A History. New York:
ism and signed an accord with Spain in 1953 agreeing to E. P. Dutton, 1974. A history of Franco’s regime from
provide economic and military assistance in exchange 1938 to 1969. Evident anti-Franco bias does not de-
for air and naval bases. tract from valuable insights into the nature of the re-
Those who had supported the republic, whether still gime. Includes a thorough bibliography (mostly of
resident in Spain or in exile, felt abandoned after the material in French and Spanish), index, and geneal-
European democracies’ failure to intervene against Fran- ogy of the Spanish royal family.
co’s dictatorship. Just as aid to the republic had been less Gilmour, David. The Transformation of Spain. London:
than forthcoming during the civil war, the United States Quartet Books, 1985. Deals mainly with the transition
and its allies in Europe would do nothing once World to democracy in Spain. Opens with a very useful in-
1946
War II was over to eliminate the last Fascist state on the troduction to the nature of Francoism and the struc-
continent. The average Spaniard could see no end to ture of the dictatorship. Includes bibliography, index,
Franco’s dictatorship, and in fact Spaniards would have and glossary of political and other organizations in
to wait forty years to have the yoke of dictatorship lifted Spain.
from them. Hills, George. Franco: The Man and His Nation. Lon-
603
Capra Releases It’s a Wonderful Life The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
don: Robert Hale, 1967. Combines a biography of reer both before and after his rise to power. Biblio-
Franco with Spain’s history from the beginning of the graphic references and index.
twentieth century into the 1960’s. Thorough treat- Payne, Stanley. The Franco Regime: 1936-1975. Madi-
ment of Spanish foreign relations during and after son: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987. Complete
World War II. Biased against the Left. Includes index. history from the civil war through Franco’s death in
Lists sources and provides an extensive bibliography, 1975. Takes a neutral stance. Includes maps, index,
much of it in Spanish. and an annotated and select bibliography.
Hughs, Neil. “The Problems and Future of Spain.” In _______. Franco’s Spain. New York: Thomas Y.
New Europe in Transition, edited by Peter J. Ander- Crowell, 1967. Brief history of Francoism from the
son, Georg Wiessala, and Christopher Williams. New civil war through the mid-1960’s. Covers politics and
York: Continuum, 2000. A look at the twenty-first diplomacy, the economy, social change, and cultural
century position of Spain on the world and European affairs. Includes index and annotated bibliography.
stage. Bibliographic references and index. Whitaker, Arthur R. Spain and Defense of the West: Ally
International Commission of Jurists. Spain and the Rule and Liability. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press,
of Law. Geneva: Author, 1962. Useful detail on judi- 1980. Reprint of 1961 Council on Foreign Relations
cial and legal structure of Franco’s rule with a chapter edition. History and analysis of Spain under Franco
on civil rights. Detailed description of laws meant to with focus on U.S. foreign policy. Special attention to
protect the regime from the opposition. Appendixes the 1953 agreement between the United States and
Spain. Includes index and annotated bibliography.
with the texts of fundamental laws and excerpts from
a political trial. Accessible to the layperson. See also: Feb. 1, 1946: First U.N. Secretary-General Is
Jensen, Geoffrey. Franco: Soldier, Commander, Dicta- Selected; Nov. 9-Dec. 15, 1946: United Nations Ad-
tor. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2005. Brief mits Its First New Member States; Dec. 14, 1955:
biography of the Spanish dictator, following his ca- United Nations Admits Sixteen New Members.
December 20, 1946

Capra Releases IT’S A WONDERFUL LIFE
Frank Capra’s film It’s a Wonderful Life, starring the duration of World War II, however, producing in-
Jimmy Stewart and Donna Reed, was released to stead for the U.S. War Department an acclaimed series of
somewhat mixed reviews but later emerged as one of documentaries collectively entitled Why We Fight. At
the most enduringly popular films of all time. war’s end, Capra was more than ready to return to com-
mercial filmmaking, albeit on his own terms; together
Locale: United States with fellow directors George Stevens and William
Category: Motion pictures and video Wyler, Capra had by early 1946 founded Liberty Films.
Key Figures He had also acquired rights to the material that he would
Frank Capra (1897-1991), American director fashion into It’s a Wonderful Life (1946) and had chosen
Jimmy Stewart (1908-1997), American actor Jimmy Stewart to play the film’s lead role.
Donna Reed (1921-1986), American actor The film was based on a very short story, “The
Lionel Barrymore (1878-1954), American actor Greatest Gift,” prepared by the writer-publicist Philip
Van Doren Stern as a Christmas card to be sent to his
Summary of Event friends. By the time Capra bought the rights to the story
Frank Capra had built a reputation as a top Hollywood di- for ten thousand dollars, “The Greatest Gift” was already
rector during the 1930’s with such populist films as Mr. secondhand and somewhat shopworn; acquired by
Deeds Goes to Town (1936) and Mr. Smith Goes to Radio-Keith-Orpheum (RKO) Pictures at the request of
Washington (1939), as well as with adaptations of popu- screen star Cary Grant, the story had undergone several
lar novels (including 1937’s Lost Horizon) and Broad- attempts at adaptation for the screen by accomplished
way plays (such as 1938’s You Can’t Take It with You). scenarists and dramatists including Marc Connelly and
Capra had discontinued the making of feature films for Clifford Odets.
604
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Capra Releases It’s a Wonderful Life
It is likely that Capra, his presumed optimism some- Close analysis of It’s a Wonderful Life reveals the
what tempered by the experience of war and its after- depth and complexity often lurking within films from
math, was less deterred than his predecessors by the the heyday of Hollywood. George Bailey’s impulse to-
curious mixture of life and death, light and darkness en- ward suicide, although immediately triggered by the
compassed by Van Doren Stern’s tale. In it, George eight-thousand-dollar shortfall engineered by Potter,
Bailey, an apparently successful businessman, husband, is in fact deeply rooted in George’s personal history of
and father, is rescued from a sudden impulse toward sui- self-sacrifice and thwarted dreams. Running parallel to
cide by an angelic presence who shows him what the George’s life and often intersecting with it is a credible
world might be like had he never been born. From the chronicle of American social history: Born around 1907,
start, Capra envisioned Stewart in the role of George, on a year or so earlier than the actor who played him, George
the basis of the actor’s range of performance in previous grows to manhood during the Roaring Twenties only to
Capra films. The rest of the casting was left more or less get sidetracked from his dreams by the Great Depression
to chance, with a number of supporting actors appearing and its aftermath. Others, such as George’s younger
in roles other than those for which Capra originally con- brother Harry (whom George rescues from drowning af-
sidered them. Jean Arthur, Capra’s—and apparently ter a daredevil trick on thin ice in 1919) and their friend
Stewart’s—first choice to play George’s wife, Mary, was Sam Wainwright, grow rich or famous, leaving George
then committed to another production, so Capra decided behind in Bedford Falls to tend the home fires or hold the
to “borrow” the much younger Donna Reed—an in- bag, as need be. Disqualified from military service dur-
spired if unexpected choice—from the studio that held ing World War II by a hearing impairment he had suf-
her contract. fered when he rescued Harry, George fights “the battle of
Planned and promoted as a major Hollywood produc- Bedford Falls” as an air-raid warden, once again denied
tion, It’s a Wonderful Life nevertheless fell somewhat the chance to leave the town and test his “wings.”
short of the rousing initial success that Capra had pre- Two images predominate throughout the film: those
dicted for it. With filming completed in July, 1946, edit- of George’s “bad ear,” into which good news is always
ing continued through the fall, and release was projected whispered, and of wings, both those on Harry’s plane and
for the late winter of 1946 or early spring of 1947. No those sought by the second-class angel Clarence Odbody
sooner was editing completed, however, than Capra was when he plunges into the river, confident that George
pressured by his partners and colleagues to release the will dive in to save him as he did Harry. Complementary
film in time for Christmas, replacing other productions to the images of hearing and flight is that of George “las-
that had been slow to reach completion. Despite the soing the moon” to court and please Mary; like the moon,
film’s time-framing device of Christmas Eve and Christ- George’s life has both a bright and a dark side. Conceiv-
mas, Capra had never envisioned It’s a Wonderful Life as ably, it was the dark side of George’s life, and nature, that
a “Christmas film” but rather as the portrayal of one helped keep at bay postwar audiences that sought only to
man’s life in context, in all seasons. be entertained; conversely, the same dark side has en-
Rushed into release, the film was promoted as a sured the film’s longevity. Perhaps without knowing
“Christmas comedy” to audiences that recalled only the quite why, the audience that discovered It’s a Wonderful
lighter side of Capra’s prewar films. When confronted Life through the medium of television identified with
with the actual film, as much melodrama as comedy, the George Bailey’s death wish.
film’s earliest audiences were thrown somewhat off- Viewed in retrospect, George Bailey’s recovery is
balance, uncertain whether to laugh or to cry. It’s a Won- truly ambiguous; even as he recovers from his sudden
derful Life included a dark, nightmarish vision of small- urge toward suicide, George is “recovered,” taken back
town America, encompassed in the scenes depicting the and covered over, by the same small-town society that
extent to which George’s home town would have been had pushed him toward the bridge—and the brink. At the
ruined without him to guide it. Despite the fact that this same time, the interlude with Clarence has caused him to
was a fantasy sequence—the “reality” in the film was discover, as if for the first time, the small wonders of par-
1946
that the town was nearly idyllic through George’s ef- ticipation in life, of give and take. Potter, George’s pe-
forts—audiences were not ready for even an imagined, rennial antagonist and possibly his mirror image, his
alternative vision of darkness in middle America so soon dark side, remains invulnerable to such recovery, having
after the end of World War II and its patriotic propaganda never learned to give.
campaigns. Significantly, Bedford Falls without George’s birth,
605
Capra Releases It’s a Wonderful Life The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
From left: Jimmy Stewart, Donna Reed, and Thomas Mitchell in It’s a Wonderful Life. (AP/Wide World Photos)
interaction, and intervention has become “Pottersville,” film could hardly have been impressed with the new
a town of honky-tonks and cheap thrills totally controlled technique, developed at Capra’s request, for simulating
by Potter, who knows how to release—and to profit snow and ice on film. Although It’s a Wonderful Life won
from—those same human instincts that he has long sup- none of the Academy Awards for which it was nomi-
pressed in himself. The film’s nightmare sequence, in nated during 1947, members of Capra’s “snow team”
which the anonymous George roams Pottersville with would in fact win a special-effects Oscar for 1948.
Clarence at his side, might well have served, visually and Nationwide, the general release of It’s a Wonderful
conceptually, as a model for some of the soon-to-be- Life proceeded on schedule late in January, 1947, and
produced crime movies that would become known as was followed by a promotional visit by Capra and Stew-
film noir. art to the “representative” American town of Beaumont,
Superstitious observers might well have found a neg- Texas, shortly before the Academy Awards ceremony in
ative omen in the fact that commercial printing of the which the film failed to garner any honors. Not long
film began on Friday, December 13, 1946, one week to thereafter, It’s a Wonderful Life was released in Great
the day before the first prints were shown before audi- Britian to decidedly negative reviews, whereupon Capra
ences in selected markets such as New York City. In New began to lose faith in the film of which he had expected so
York and other parts of the northeastern United States, a much. Despite decent performance at the box office,
record snowfall kept many potential viewers at home; more than returning the initial investment of three mil-
those few brave souls who did venture out to see the new lion dollars, the film tended to be dismissed as a relative
606
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Capra Releases It’s a Wonderful Life
failure both by Capra and by the film establishment at Bailey and who almost witness his suicide. By the mid-
large. It was soon made available for late showing on the dle 1980’s, at least one novel had been published featur-
new medium of television, where it would proceed to ing the film’s characters in later life, and professional
reach a new, unforeseen, and largely invisible audience, critics had begun to examine the film in depth, seeking
particularly during the season between Thanksgiving the source of its perennial appeal even to those who
and Christmas. “ought to know better.”
As Capra would later recall, it was the television audi- Toward the end of Capra’s long life, critics began a
ence, unforeseen at the time of the film’s release, that serious assessment of his contribution to the vocabulary
would keep It’s a Wonderful Life “alive” throughout the and history of film, finding in his work a progression and
succeeding decades, generating from the 1950’s onward coherence equal, if not superior, to those of many Euro-
a steady flow of correspondence that Capra took pains to pean filmmakers already immortalized for their art. For a
answer personally. Spectators would ask, for example, number of critics, It’s a Wonderful Life emerged, despite
where Capra had found the footage depicting Harry its popular appeal, as Capra’s most complex and aesthet-
Bailey’s combat experience, or why the dastardly H. C. ically sophisticated film, completing the cinematic state-
Potter, portrayed by Lionel Barrymore in a most memo- ment begun with his originally better-known films of the
rable performance, remains apparently unpunished for 1930’s. Ironically, the limited initial success of It’s a
the theft of eight thousand dollars. By the early 1970’s, Wonderful Life led not only to the eventual buyout of
the film had acquired a life of its own, sustained largely Liberty Films but also to a scaling-down of Capra’s
by word of mouth. filmmaking ambitions. With the possible exception of
Nevertheless, most of the film’s lasting values re- State of the Union (1948), he would produce no truly sig-
mained locked in spectators’ minds until some time after nificant films during the years to follow. Capra would,
1974, when no one in charge bothered to renew the com- however, live to the ripe age of ninety-four, long enough
mercial copyright of It’s a Wonderful Life at the end of to appreciate the recognition of his work in general and
twenty-eight years. The film then passed into the public of It’s a Wonderful Life in particular.
domain, available free of charge to television and other —David B. Parsell
video markets. Before long, It’s a Wonderful Life was ap-
pearing at all hours of the day and night on public and pri- Further Reading
vate television throughout the Christmas season, attract- Basinger, Jeanine. The “It’s a Wonderful Life” Book.
ing audiences unborn at the time of its release and New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1986. Includes full texts
emerging as a Christmas classic. of the final shooting script and the Van Doren Stern
short story, together with interviews with Jimmy Stew-
Significance art and cinematographer Joseph Biroc by film critic
During the early years of its rediscovery in the mid- Leonard Maltin. Basinger’s long, illustrated introduc-
1970’s, It’s a Wonderful Life was seen primarily as an in- tory essay, entitled “The Many Lives of It’s a Wonder-
spirational, sentimental Christmas film, having accumu- ful Life,” is informative, balanced, and perceptive.
lated with age the value of nostalgia for a lost small-town Capra, Frank. The Name Above the Title. Reprint. New
America which, like that of the illustrator Norman Rock- York: Da Capo Press, 1997. Capra’s autobiography,
well, might never have existed at all. Sentiment alone, well written if anecdotal, with useful information on
however, could hardly account for the film’s continuing It’s a Wonderful Life. Perceived errors of fact are dis-
hold upon its viewers. cussed in the introductory essay to Basinger’s book.
In the meantime, intertextual references to It’s a Won- Carney, Raymond. American Vision: The Films of Frank
derful Life had begun to surface throughout American Capra. New York: Cambridge University Press,
popular and middlebrow culture, from the mention of 1986. Carney’s exhaustive scholarly analysis seeks to
“plastics” as the way to success in Mike Nichols’s The situate Capra’s films within the context of American
Graduate (1967) (an echo of the words and deeds of art and literature from the nineteenth century onward.
1946
George Bailey’s friend Sam Wainwright) to the naming Carney, well versed in structuralist, poststructuralist,
of the most popular Muppets on the children’s television and psychoanalytical theory, reveals codes and struc-
show Sesame Street: In the film, Bert and Ernie, respec- tures in It’s a Wonderful Life that show it to be the
tively played by Ward Bond and Frank Faylen, are the most complete expression of Capra’s developing vi-
police officer and cabdriver who grow up with George sion.
607
Construction Starts on Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Glatzer, Richard, and John Raeburn, eds. Frank Capra: University Press, 1998. Compilation of essays ana-
The Man and His Films. Ann Arbor: University of lyzing Capra’s career as film maker and his relation-
Michigan Press, 1975. Deceptively titled, Glatzer and ship to the Hollywood studio system. Bibliographic
Raeburn’s volume is little more than a compendium references, index, and filmography.
of reviews interspersed with occasional essays. Use- Smoodin, Eric. Regarding Frank Capra: Audience, Ce-
ful for reconstructing Capra’s checkered career; well lebrity, and American Film Studies, 1930-1960. Dur-
illustrated with stills from major films, including It’s a ham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2004. Traces the
Wonderful Life. Includes negative review by noted evolution of Capra’s reception by various audiences
author James Agee. in order to discuss changes within the American film
Poague, Leland. The Cinema of Frank Capra. South studies establishment. Bibliographic references and
Brunswick, N.J.: A. S. Barnes, 1975. Historical in aim index.
and scope, Poague’s study traces Capra’s career from See also: Nov. 26, 1942: Casablanca Marks the Artis-
his earliest work in films. Includes one of the first full- tic Apex of 1940’s War-Themed Films; Mar. 15,
scale analyses of It’s Wonderful Life. 1945: Going My Way Wins Best Picture; 1946-1960:
Sklar, Robert, and Vito Zagarrio, eds. Frank Capra: Au- Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed; Mar. 2,
thorship and the Studio System. Philadelphia: Temple 1965: The Sound of Music Captivates Audiences.
1947
Construction Starts on Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor
The first nuclear reactor intended for fundamental Philip McCord Morse (1903-985), director of
research, rather than for the production of isotopes for Brookhaven, 1946-1948
nuclear bombs, was constructed at Brookhaven Leland John Haworth (1904-1979), physicist who
National Laboratory. contributed significantly to the construction of the
graphite research reactor and the proton synchrotron
Locale: Upton, Long Island, New York at Brookhaven
Categories: Energy; science and technology;
physics; engineering
Summary of Event
Key Figures The Brookhaven National Laboratory, directed first by
Leslie Richard Groves (1896-1970), U.S. Army Philip McCord Morse, was one of a number of national
general and head of the Manhattan Project, who facilities established by the U.S. Atomic Energy Com-
supported the idea of establishing national research mission (AEC) between 1947 and 1950 for fundamental
laboratories to aid in the peaceful uses of nuclear nuclear research. The AEC had been established in 1946
energy under the leadership of David Eli Lilienthal to take over
David Eli Lilienthal (1899-1981), chair of the Atomic from the Manhattan Project, the U.S. atomic bomb pro-
Energy Commission, 1946-1950, who helped gram during World War II. Under the leadership of Army
develop a national nuclear research policy general Leslie Richard Groves, the Manhattan Project
George B. Pegram (1876-1958), physicist, educator, had solved the problem of separating fissionable, en-
and presidential adviser who supported Rabi and riched uranium 235 from the more readily available ura-
Ramsey in their plans for a national laboratory nium 238. The enriched uranium was used in the first
Isidor Isaac Rabi (1898-1988), Austrian American atomic bomb exploded in Hiroshima on August 6, 1945.
physicist who won the 1944 Nobel Prize in After the end of World War II, scientific interest
Physics and was chair of the general advisory turned away the weapons-producing aspect of nuclear
committee to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, energy to research on its peacetime uses. Since the ex-
1952-1956 pense of setting up a nuclear-research laboratory was far
Norman F. Ramsey (b. 1915), physicist who became beyond the resources of any single private institution, it
executive secretary of the group of nine eastern occurred to several individuals to bring together the fi-
universities that established Brookhaven in 1947 nancial resources of the federal government and the in-
608
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Construction Starts on Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor
tellectual resources of private academic and technical in- but this one, dubbed the Cosmotron, was the first to pro-
stitutions. duce particles at energies in the range of 1 billion elec-
Apart from Groves’s early and influential support for tron volts. The machine reached its highest energy of 3.3
1947
the idea of national laboratories, three physicists who billion electron volts January, 1953. The accelerator al-
had also worked for the Manhattan Project were instru- lowed scientists to study high-energy proton collisions,
mental in bringing a national laboratory about. George B. which deepened the understanding of the complexities of
Pegram, dean of Columbia University, and two members subatomic particles.
of the university’s physics faculty, Isidor Isaac Rabi
(who had won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physics) and Nor- Significance
man F. Ramsey, actively championed peacetime nuclear Eventually, Brookhaven physicists wanted ten times the
research and advocated a collection of regional laborato- beam intensity available from the Cosmotron; such
ries to be jointly administered by the government and by power could only be produced by a machine with a mag-
private institutions. They were able to persuade nine net one hundred times larger than that of the Cosmotron.
northeastern institutions—Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, The laboratory’s scientists then discovered the “alternat-
Johns Hopkins, the Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ing-gradient” or “strong-focusing” principle, which al-
ogy, University of Pennsylvania, Princeton, University lowed the use of smaller but stronger magnets.
of Rochester, and Yale—to manage the Brookhaven un- Brookhaven operated an 80-inch bubble chamber
der the rubric Associated Universities, Incorporated. between 1963 and 1974. Particle beams were guided
Rabi and Pegram served on the association’s first board by magnets from the synchrotron ring into the liquid-
of trustees; Rabi also served as chair of the advisory com- hydrogen-filled chamber, where the particle tracks could
mittee to the AEC from 1952 to 1956. be photographed through small apertures in the lower
Brookhaven was designed to enable scientists from gallery. On June 2, 1963, when the first photographs of
universities and colleges, industry, and regional commer- particle interaction were taken in the 80-inch chamber, it
cial laboratories to pursue nuclear research. The facility, was the world’s largest operating instrument of its kind.
which began operating on August 22, 1950, was situated The most important discovery made with it was the 1964
on 5,265 acres of land in Upton, Long Island; about one confirmation of the existence of the omega-minus parti-
thousand acres were taken up by the physical plant. cle that Murray Gell-Mann had predicted theoretically
Brookhaven’s first big machine was a massive rein 1961.
search reactor that produced neutrons—heavy elemen- The National Synchrotron Light Source (NSLS) was
tary particles with no charge that decay into protons—for another instrument that helped make Brookhaven a
experimental purposes. A nuclear reactor generates en- world-renowned research center. Particle accelerators
ergy mainly in the form of heat by undergoing a process were used to knock electrons from atoms to form ions,
called nuclear fission, the splitting of the nuclei of ura- which were then accelerated and guided through electro-
nium or plutonium atoms. The Brookhaven research re- magnetic fields for investigative purposes. At its incep-
actor was a big machine in its time, requiring a building tion in 1982, the NSLS at Brookhaven was one of the first
100 feet wide, 120 feet long, and 80 feet high (30 feet of electron synchrotrons to be dedicated solely to photon
that below ground level). In June, 1968, after eighteen generation.
years of service, the reactor was put on standby. Brookhaven was eventually divided into nine scien-
By that time, a new reactor concept had been devised tific departments and eleven support departments. In
by five Brookhaven scientists. With this machine, the 1974, oversight passed from the Atomic Energy Com-
high-flux beam reactor, which produced its first self- mission to the Research and Development Administra-
sustaining chain reaction on October 31, 1965, Brook- tion, and from there to the U.S. Department of Energy in
haven was able to produce a much greater neutron flux 1977. The Brookhaven facility employs thousands of
density (the number of neutrons produced per space per scientists and support staff, as well as thousands of guest
second) than had previously been possible. Originally, researchers, and conducts research in a range of areas be-
the reactor operated with a power of 40 megawatts; in yond those of high-energy physics. Research conducted
1982, the power was increased to 60 megawatts. there has led to a number of advances in other sciences
Another important Brookhaven machine, the proton including medical applications, imaging science, and en-
synchrotron (a variant of the cyclotron), began operating vironmental science.
in June, 1952. Brookhaven had had other accelerators, —Richard P. Benton
609
Construction Starts on Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Further Reading bridge, Mass.: Union of Concerned Scientists, 2006.

Caldicott, Helen. Nuclear Power Is Not the Answer. New A brief report that discusses “extended nuclear power
York: New Press, 2006. Physician, antinuclear activ- reactor outages” and outlines how the Nuclear Regu-
ist, and scholar Caldicott refutes the claim that “clean latory Commission can avoid a catastrophic nuclear
and green” nuclear power is the solution to global accident.
warming. Also discusses alternatives, such as renew- Nuclearfiles.org. An excellent resource for students
able energy sources and green technology. studying the history of the atomic age. The site, a proj-
Duffy, Robert J. Nuclear Politics in America: A History ect of the Nuclear Age Peace Foundation, includes
and Theory of Government Regulation. Lawrence: links to primary sources, time lines, study guides,
University Press of Kansas, 1997. A study of gov- suggested readings, and much more.
ernment policy and regulation of the nuclear power Union of Concerned Scientists. http://www.ucsusa.org.
industry in the United States. Chapters include “Sub- The organization’s Web site includes outlines of its
government Dominance, 1945-65,” “Redefining Nu- history and mission and a wealth of information on
clear Power,” and “The Demise of the AEC.” science, technology, the environment, and nuclear en-
Ford, Daniel. The Cult of the Atom: The Secret Papers of ergy, among other topics, in general.
the Atomic Energy Commission. New York: Simon & Walker, J. Samuel. A Short History of Nuclear Regula-
Schuster, 1982. Charges the Atomic Energy Commis- tion, 1946-1999. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Nuclear
sion with covering up the possibility of a meltdown at Regulatory Commission, 2000. A 70-page history of
a nuclear power plant. Revised in 1986 as Meltdown, the Atomic Energy Commission and the Nuclear
Simon & Schuster. Regulatory Commission. Available at http://www
Glasstone, Samuel. Sourcebook on Atomic Energy. 3d .nrc.gov/who-we-are/short-history.html.
ed. Huntington, N.Y.: Krieger, 1979. An authoritative See also: Dec. 2, 1942: Fermi Creates the First Con-
text on all aspects of nuclear energy. Clearly written trolled Nuclear Fission Chain Reaction; Nov. 4, 1943:
and superbly organized. World’s First Nuclear Reactor Is Activated; Aug. 1,
Harson, Lewis A., ed. Master Plan for Site Development 1946: Atomic Energy Commission Is Established;
and Facilities Utilization, 1982. Upton, N.Y.: Brook- Beginning 1949: Hanford Nuclear Reservation Be-
haven National Laboratory, 1983. Presents Brook- comes a Health Concern; Dec. 20, 1951: World’s
haven’s five-year plan, with maps, charts, and pic- First Breeder Reactor Produces Electricity; Dec. 12,
tures. 1952: Chalk River Nuclear Reactor Explosion and
Hewlett, Richard G., and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr. A His- Meltdown; June 27, 1954: Soviet Union Completes
tory of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Its First Nuclear Power Plant; Oct. 17, 1956: First
2 vols. Washington, D.C.: Atomic Energy Commis- Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Opens; Aug., 1957:
sion, 1972. An excellent history of the AEC and the Price-Anderson Act Limits Nuclear Liability; Dec. 2,
U.S. atomic-energy program up to the beginning of 1957: First U.S. Commercial Nuclear Plant Opens;
Eisenhower’s presidency. Dec. 12, 1963: General Public Utilities Announces
Lochbaum, David. Walking a Nuclear Tightrope: Un- Plans for a Commercial Nuclear Reactor; Mar. 4,
learned Lessons of Year-Plus Reactor Outages. Cam- 1969: Union of Concerned Scientists Is Founded.
610
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Gabor Develops the Concept of Holography
1947
Gabor Develops the Concept of Holography
1947
Dennis Gabor created a lensless system of three- from a point of the object being photographed is focused
dimensional photography, one of the most important by a lens on a photographic film to create an image of the
developments in twentieth century optics. point. Images of each point are created similarly. A rec-
ord of the intensity of the image points is stored on the
Locale: Rugby, England film without any phase information about the combining
Categories: Inventions; science and technology; wave fronts. The clarity of the image depends in large
photography part on the quality of the focusing lens.
Key Figures Dennis Gabor, the inventor of holography, had been
Dennis Gabor (1900-1979), Hungarian-born inventor intrigued since his teenage years by the way the photo-
and physicist and 1971 Nobel laureate in physics graphic image of an object was stored by a photographic
Emmett Leith (1927-2005) and plate, but he had been unable to devote any consistent re-
Juris Upatnieks (b. 1936), radar researchers at the search effort to the question until the 1940’s. At that
University of Michigan who produced the first laser time, Gabor was involved in the development of the elec-
holograms tron microscope. By 1947, the electron microscope had
improved the resolving power of the ordinary light mi-
Summary of Event croscope by a factor of 100, but it was still unable to re-
Since 1900, the recording of images using the technique solve objects the size of atoms and small molecules. This
of photography has been commonplace. The optical lens inability resulted from imperfections in the objective of
had been in use for several centuries and the formation of the microscope. If the aperture of the objective was de-
images using lenses was well understood. The develop- creased to reduce the spherical aberration of the lens,
ment of photography in the early twentieth century in- then the diffraction of the electrons produced a blurred
creased greatly the importance of the lens to the scientific image. If the aperture was opened to reduce diffraction,
community. Combining the optical lens and the process then the spherical aberration of the lens blurred the im-
of photographic emulsion made possible the recording of age. The theoretical work of O. Scherzer indicated that
events and information in a way unknown before the the limit of the resolving power of the objective was
twentieth century: photographing star clusters, recording twice that needed to “see” atoms. The practical limit at
emission spectra of heated elements, storing data in the that time was about twelve times. The problem faced by
form of small recorded images (for example, microfilm), Gabor seemed insurmountable.
photographing microscopic specimens, and many oth- Gabor was pondering the problem of how to improve
ers. Because of its vast importance to scientists, the sci- the electron microscope while sitting beside a tennis
ence of photography has developed steadily. court on Easter morning in 1947 when the solution came
An understanding of the photographic process and of to him. He would attempt to take a poor electron picture
the holographic process requires some clarification of and then correct it optically. The process would require
the wave behavior of light. Light is an electromagnetic coherent electron beams, that is, electron waves having
wave that, like a water wave, has an amplitude and a definite phase. This two-stage method was inspired by
phase. The amplitude corresponds to the wave height, Lawrence Bragg. Bragg had formed the image of a crys-
while the phase indicates which part of the wave is pass- tal lattice by means of diffraction from the photographic
ing a given point at a given time. Acork floating in a pond X-ray diffraction pattern of the original lattice. This dou-
bobs up and down as waves pass under it. The position of ble diffraction process is the basis of the holographic pro-
the cork at any time depends on both amplitude and cess. Bragg’s method was limited because of his inability
phase. Waves from more than one source arriving at the to record phase information of the X-ray photograph. So,
cork combine in ways that depend on their relative only crystals, for which the phase relationship of the re-
phases. If the waves arrive in phase, they add and pro- flected waves could be predicted, could be studied.
duce a large amplitude; if out of phase, they subtract to Gabor devised a way of capturing the phase informa-
produce a small amplitude. The total amplitude, or intention. By adding coherent background to the wave re-
sity, depends on the phases of the combining waves. flected from the object, an interference pattern was pro-
In ordinary, nondigital photography, light radiating duced on the photographic plate. When the phases of the
611
Gabor Develops the Concept of Holography The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
two waves are identical, a maximum intensity will be re- nents. Illuminating the transparency diffusely allowed
corded; where they are out of phase, a minimum intensity the whole image to be seen at one time. This develop-
is found. Therefore, what is recorded in a hologram is not ment also permitted the recording of holograms of dif-
an image of the object but rather the interference pattern fusely reflecting three-dimensional objects. Gabor had
of the two coherent waves. It looks like a collection of seen from the beginning that this should allow the forma-
swirls and blank spots. The hologram (or photograph) tion of three-dimensional images.
then would be illuminated by the reference beam and part After the early 1960’s, the field of holography devel-
of the transmitted light would be a replica of the original oped very quickly. Because it is basically different from
object wave. By viewing this object wave, one sees an conventional photography, the two techniques often
exact replica of the original object. complement each other. Gabor saw his idea blossom into
Gabor’s original intention was to improve the resolv- a very important technique in optical science.
ing power of the electron microscope. He intended to
Significance
form the hologram with electrons and then to illuminate
Because of the lack of intense, coherent sources of light,
it with visible light. The wavelength of visible light is on
the early holograms produced images of rather poor
the order of 100,000 times the wavelengths of electrons.
quality. For this reason and because of the technical diffi-
The magnification achieved should be on the order of
culties in making holograms, the new technique of ho-
100,000.
lography aroused little interest for the first fifteen years
To demonstrate the feasibility of the concept, Gabor
after its development. The development of the laser and
attempted to make a hologram using visible light. The
the publication of the first laser holograms in 1963, how-
major impediment at the time in making holograms using
ever, caused a blossoming of the new technique in many
any form of radiation was a lack of coherent sources. For
fields. Techniques were developed quickly that allowed
example, the coherence length of the mercury lamp used
holograms to be viewed with white light and also holo-
by Gabor and his assistant Ivor Williams was so short
grams that could reconstruct multicolored images.
that they were able to make holograms of only about 1
In biology, the use of holography makes it possible to
centimeter in diameter. The early results were rather
overcome basic limits of the microscope. Holographic
poor in terms of image quality and also had a double im-
methods also have been used to map terrains with radar
age. For this reason, there was little interest in hologra-
waves and in Earth surveillance for forestry, agriculture,
phy and the subject lay almost untouched for more than
and meteorology. The advertising profession as well has
ten years.
not been slow to see the possibilities of holography. The
Interest in the field returned after the development of
three-dimensional image of a hand holding a diamond
the laser in 1962. Emmett Leith and Juris Upatnieks, who
necklace over the entrance to a jewelry store attracts cus-
were doing radar research at the University of Michigan,
tomers. At the opening of a new automobile plant, a dis-
published the first laser holographs in 1963. Leith and
play case contains alternately a coach and the body of a
Upatnieks used an off-axis reference beam rather than
new car. From time to time, the case is illuminated with
the in-line arrangement that Gabor was forced to use.
diffuse light to show that it is really empty.
Gabor actually had noted from the start that this off-axis
Advances in computer memory and digital technol-
method would allow the separation in space of the twin
ogy has made holography a multibillion-dollar industry.
image. The laser was an intense light source with a much
It has found applications in advertising, in the making of
longer coherence length. Its monochromatic nature al-
art, in security devices on credit cards, as well as in scien-
lowed the off-axis reference scheme to be used to its full
tific fields. An alternate form of holography, also sug-
potential and improved the resolution of the images
gested by Gabor, uses sound waves. Acoustical imaging
greatly. Also, there was no longer any restriction on the
is useful wherever the medium around the object is
size of the object to be photographed.
opaque to light rays, for example, in medical diagnosis.
The availability of the laser allowed Leith and Upat-
—Grace A. Banks
nieks to propose another improvement in the holographic
technique. Before 1964, holograms were made of only Further Reading
thin, transparent objects. A small region of the hologram Gabor, Dennis. “Holography, 1948-1971.” Science 177
bore a one-to-one correspondence to a region of the ob- (July 28, 1972): 299-313. A revised version of Ga-
ject. Only a small portion of the image could be viewed at bor’s Nobel lecture. It traces the development of ho-
one time without the aid of additional optical compo- lography from its beginnings in a nonmathematical
612
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Lamb and Retherford Discover the Lamb Shift
way. Good for readers with a very general knowledge Pennington, Keith S. “Advances in Holography.” Scien-
of physics. tific American 218 (February, 1968). Discusses the
Johnston, Sean F. Holographic Visions: A History of advances made in the holographic technique as well
1947
New Science. New York: Oxford University Press, as some applications of holography in the mid-
2006. The story of how holography spread as a sci- 1960’s.
ence to the arts, science fiction, business, countercul- Williamson, Samuel J., and Herman Z. Cummins. “Ho-
ture, and popular culture. Illustrations, bibliography, lography.” In Light and Color in Nature and Art. New
index. York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983. This college-level
Kasper, Joseph, and Steven Feller. The Complete Book of introductory text is geared for those with little back-
Holograms. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1987. ground in mathematics or science. Describes various
Geared for use in an introductory course at the high types of holograms and illustrates the principles of
school or college level. Kasper and Feller explain ho- holography in a basic manner.
lography using many diagrams but no mathematics. See also: Feb. 21, 1947: Land Demonstrates the Polar-
There are discussions of applications of the technique oid Camera; June 3, 1948: Hale Constructs the 200-
and descriptions of how to make holograms. Inch Telescope; 1952-1956: Müller Develops the
Leith, Emmett, and Juris Upatnieks. “Photography by Field Ion Microscope; May, 1954: Bell Scientists De-
Laser.” Scientific American 212 (June, 1965). A fairly velop the Photovoltaic Cell; 1958: Donald Uses Ul-
nontechnical description of the first production of ho- trasound to Examine Human Fetuses; July, 1960: In-
lograms using laser light. Includes numerous photo- vention of the Laser; Aug., 1963: Lasers Are First
graphs and diagrams. Used in Eye Surgery.
1947
Lamb and Retherford Discover the Lamb Shift
Willis Eugene Lamb, Jr., and Robert C. Retherford Summary of Event
discovered a disparity between the energy levels of By the end of the nineteenth century, classical physics
electrons in two different states previously believed to sought to explain the physical world as the interaction
have exactly the same energy levels. The discovery of between discrete particles of matter or by wave activity.
this disparity, which came to be called the Lamb shift, The success of classical physics prompted many scien-
paved the way for the theory of quantum tists to predict the end of physics as an investigative
electrodynamics. displine, because all the significant problems of physics
seemed on the verge of solution. Problems began to oc-
cur within this system, however. These problems led
Locale: New York, New York Max Planck eventually to discover bursts of energy that
Categories: Physics; science and technology looked like particles, in contexts in which a continuous
Key Figures flow of energy was expected. This discovery marked the
Willis Eugene Lamb, Jr. (b. 1913), American physicist beginning of quantum mechanics, which states that elec-
Robert C. Retherford (fl. mid-twentieth century), tromagnetic waves come in discrete units of energy
American physicist rather than as one continuous flow of wave action. In
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (1902-1984), English terms of classical physics, quantum theory violates one
physicist of the fundamental assumptions of physics: that light, or
Richard P. Feynman (1918-1988), American physicist radiation, spreads continuously and is evenly distributed
Shin’ichirf Tomonaga (1906-1979), Japanese physicist through space.
Julian Seymour Schwinger (1918-1994), American By 1905, Albert Einstein had worked out the details of
physicist the theory of special relativity and had begun to study the
Max Planck (1858-1947), German physicist photoelectric effect, wherein light waves falling on cer-
Albert Einstein (1879-1955), German-born physicist tain metals would release electrons from the metal. His
Louis de Broglie (1892-1987), French physicist studies showed that the release of electrons from metal
613
Lamb and Retherford Discover the Lamb Shift The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
depended solely on the wavelength of light. Regardless to further development. During World War II, the experi-
of the brightness of light, shorter wavelengths of light re- mental use of microwave techniques prompted new ex-
leased more electrons, while longer wavelengths of light plorations in QED. It was at this juncture that Willis Eu-
lacked the energy to release any electrons. For Einstein, gene Lamb, Jr., and his longtime collaborator Robert C.
the photoelectric effect meant that specific wavelengths Retherford entered the picture.
of light possessed “quanta” of energy. Lamb had completed his doctoral dissertation at the
In 1913, Niels Bohr introduced a new quantum view University of California at Berkeley in 1938 and accepted
of physics. Bohr retained the classical model of the atom, an appointment to teach physics at Columbia University
where the electrons spun in an orbit around an atomic nu- in New York City. His research work centered on the
cleus. As a result of this spin, the electron generated elec- metastable states of atoms. A metastable state is a pro-
tromagnetic waves according to the laws of classical longed version of what is normally an ephemeral state. For
physics. Bohr used Planck’s theory of quanta and con- example, as a hydrogen atom absorbs energy, entering
structed a model of an atom in which electrons emitted what is called the excited state, its electron jumps tempo-
radiation only when they changed orbits. To jump to a rarily to a higher orbit then quickly decays to its original
higher orbit, an electron needed to absorb a quantum of state, emitting a single photon in the process. The elec-
energy. In returning from that higher-energy state, the tron is in its outer orbit for an infinitesimal fraction of a
electron would release a quantum of energy. The orbits second. Metastable conditions last several million times
were set at specific distances from the nucleus, and it re- longer than that because of a property called parity, which
quired a quantum of energy to make the jump. requires the electron to emit two photons.
The differences between the Bohr model and that of Lamb worked on microwave absorption and emission
classical physics lay in the fact that the Bohr atom did not of atoms in order to determine the “fine-structure” of the
radiate energy when it was in a stable orbit, whereas in atom. He was able to excite the electrons of hydrogen at-
classical physics, a spinning electron was required to ra- oms by bombarding them with microwaves that were
diate electromagnetic waves continuously, with the re- equal to the energy difference between their two orbital
sult that the electron lost energy until it fell into the nu- levels. When each electron returned to its original orbit,
cleus. All the components for a new view of the physical it emitted a photon that provided the characteristic spec-
world were now available, and in 1924, Louis de Broglie trum of hydrogen. The Dirac equation predicted that
proposed the wave-particle duality: Not only could in the hydrogen atom, the two states of heightened en-
waves act like particles but also particles could act like ergy—the momentary excited state and the metastable
waves. Erwin Schrödinger used this idea of the dual na- state—would have precisely the same energy levels. In
ture of matter to develop a theory of wave mechanics. 1947, working with Retherford, Lamb demonstrated that
The wave-particle duality became one of the founda- these two energy states were not exactly equal after all.
tions of modern physics, and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac The tiny gap in energy level between excited and meta-
provided the theoretical structure for this physics in what stable state was a significant complication in the devel-
is often called the “Copenhagen interpretation.” As the oping models of quantum physics. It came to be known
leading advocate for this point of view in the 1930’s, as the Lamb shift.
Dirac claimed that neither the particle nor the wave as- The Lamb shift began a revision of Dirac’s equation
pect of matter was subordinate to the other. In 1928, that in turn led to the development of a theory of quantum
Dirac published an equation that described all the proper- electrodynamics. Lamb followed up his experimental
ties of the electron and satisfied the requirements of both discovery with contributions to the new theory. In 1955,
quantum mechanics and relativity. By 1930, Dirac had he shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with Polykarp
formulated a mathematical transformation theory that Kusch for their independent work on the interactions of
became the basis of future research programs in quantum electrons and electromagnetic radiation.
mechanics and quantum electrodynamics (QED).
The development of QED, describing electromag- Significance
netic radiation and properties of the electron, was based The experimental discovery of the Lamb shift identified
on the work of Dirac in conjunction with the contribu- a problematic area in the Dirac equation and produced
tions of Werner Heisenberg and Wolfgang Pauli. Al- theoretical reevaluations of the quantum effects of the
though the Dirac equation was a critical discovery in electron that led to the growth of quantum electrodynam-
physics, the mathematical description produced barriers ics. The most imaginative theoretical approach belonged
614
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Lamb and Retherford Discover the Lamb Shift
to Richard P. Feynman. While sitting in a cafeteria at Einstein, Albert, and Leopold Infeld. The Evolution of
Cornell University, Feynman watched someone tossing Physics: The Growth of Ideas from Early Concepts to
a plate in the air. He decided to formulate a mathematical Relativity and Quanta. New York: Simon & Schuster,
1947
description of the spin and wobble of the plate and from 1938. One of the most accessible single-volume his-
this serendipitous event produced a new view of electron tories on the development of modern physics avail-
dynamics. Feynman’s resulting diagrams predicted the able to the general reader. There are virtually no tech-
Lamb shift with great precision; they became a powerful nical terms and no mathematics are required. The
tool in many areas of physics. final section of this book is on quanta.
Working independently from each other, Julian Sey- Feynman, Richard. QED: The Strange Theory of Light
mour Schwinger and Shin’ichirf Tomonaga chose to and Matter. Exp. ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Uni-
work out the consequences of the Lamb shift from an- versity Press, 2006. The definitive work on quantum
other point of view. Earlier physicists had ignored the electrodynamics for audiences of any level, by one of
charge and mass of the electron. Schwinger and Tomo- the foremost physicists and writers in the field. Index.
naga decided to measure both these quantities. The math- Fritzsch, Harald. Elementary Particles: Building Blocks
ematical technique they developed to measure both the of Matter. Translated by Karin Heusch. Hackensack,
mass and charge of the electron was called renormaliza- N.J.: World Scientific, 2005. Brief explanation of
tion. They argued that the infinite “bare” mass of the quantum electrodynamics for a popular audience.
electron is canceled out by the mass of the photon and the Index.
particle cloud that surrounds the electron, except for a Schweber, Silvan S. QED and the Men Who Made It:
small residual mass. This residual mass and similar re- Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga. Prince-
sidual charge are the only finite quantities that can be ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994. This mas-
measured. Later experimental results agreed with the sive, comprehensive history of the development of
predictions of the renormalization process. quantum electrodynamics includes several chapters
In 1965, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga shared on Lamb, the Lamb shift, and their importance to
the Nobel Prize in Physics. Their work opened the door for QED. Bibliographic references and index.
future studies in quantum electrodynamics, such as better Segrè, Emilio. From X-Rays to Quarks: Modern Physi-
understanding of the fine-structure of the atom, the nature cists and Their Discoveries. San Francisco: W. H.
of the electromagnetic field, and the interaction between Freeman, 1980. Segrè was one of a few physicists
radiation and electrons. Indeed, in a brief period of time, who both participated directly in nuclear physics (and
discoveries in physics reshaped the understanding of the received a Nobel Prize for his work) and wrote a num-
nature of matter, enabling scientists to produce a new vi- ber of popular accounts on the history of physics. The
sion of the fundamental organization of the universe. earlier sections of this volume cover the discoveries
— Victor W. Chen and theories of those who produced a coherent picture
of the atom.
Further Reading
De Broglie, Louis. The Revolution in Physics: A Non- See also: Nov., 1946: Physicists Develop the First
Mathematical Survey of Quanta. Translated by Ralph Synchrocyclotron; 1951: Hofstadter Discovers That
W. Niemeyer. New York: Noonday Press, 1955. A Protons and Neutrons Have Structure; Jan. 15, 1958:
highly recommended text for those seeking nontech- Esaki Demonstrates Electron Tunneling in Semicon-
nical information on quantum mechanics. De Broglie ductors; 1964: Gell-Mann and Zweig Advance Quark
is one of the founders of modern physics and shares Theory; 1968: Friedman, Kendall, and Taylor Dis-
these discoveries with his reader. cover Quarks.
615
Simon Publishes Administrative Behavior The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1947
Simon Publishes ADMINISTRATIVE BEHAVIOR
In Administrative Behavior, Herbert A. Simon ing the early twentieth century. The single most impor-
provided a basis for a scientific theory of management tant idea provided by Taylor was the use of the scientific
as well as a model of human beings who make method in management. The use of the scientific method
satisfactory rather than optimal decisions. meant a whole new way of looking at management prob-
lems. Taylor believed that until it had data, theory, prin-
Locale: New York, New York ciples, and laws, no one was likely to take management
Categories: Business and labor; publishing and science seriously.
journalism In developing his approach to the study of administra-
Key Figures tion, Simon was influenced by Charles Edward Merriam,
Herbert A. Simon (1916-2001), author of head of the political science department at the University
Administrative Behavior of Chicago while Simon was a doctoral student there.
Chester Irving Barnard (1886-1961), author of The Merriam was a founder of the Chicago School of politi-
Functions of the Executive cal science and an early advocate of applying the tools of
Luther Gulick (1892-1993), author of The Elements of psychology researchers to the study of politics. Clearly
Administration and an adviser to the Franklin D. influenced by Merriam, Simon took a psychological or
Roosevelt administration behavioral approach in Administrative Behavior.
Charles Edward Merriam (1874-1953), a founder of Administrative Behavior challenged much of the re-
the Chicago School of political science ceived administrative theory of its day and provided a
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915), pioneer in new conceptual framework, that of decision making, for
scientific management the analysis and description of organizational phenom-
ena. Although other authors, such as Luther Gulick, had
Summary of Event attempted to articulate principles of administration as a
The basis of Administrative Behavior (1947) was Her- basis for a science of administrative behavior, Simon
bert Simon’s doctoral dissertation at the University of was quick to point out that these attempts to establish
Chicago. The book advanced the literature on adminis- principles of administration were seriously flawed and
tration in three important ways, thus making the litera- not very useful.
ture more useful to practicing managers. One principle of administration of that time stated that
First, Simon pointed out problems that existed with administrative efficiency increased with an increase in
then-current principles of administration. To replace specialization. Simon asked how such a principle could
those principles, he proposed approaching administra- be a useful guide for managers. To illustrate Simon’s
tive problems in a more rigorous and scientific manner. question, consider a manager’s attempt to provide nurs-
Second, influenced by the work of Chester Irving Bar- ing care in a particular geographic region. Should spe-
nard, Simon provided a description of how managers ac- cialization be by place or by function? That is, should one
tually make decisions. This description came to be known nurse specialize in treating all patients within a single
as the theory of bounded rationality. Decision makers geographic region, or should one nurse specialize in
with bounded rationality were profoundly different from treating all patients afflicted with a certain disease? The
the decision makers described by writers on economics specialization principle of administration is not helpful
and administration who preceded Simon. Third, Simon in answering the question. Simon argued that administra-
presented clear and workable terms, concepts, and frames tive decisions cannot be guided by simple-minded adher-
of reference for the study of administration. This clarifi- ence to a single management principle. Instead, good de-
cation may be the most important part of the book, be- cisions result from consideration of a number of decision
cause it formed a basis for later thinking and writing criteria and application of importance weights to those
about organizational problems. criteria.
Simon was not the first to consider the possibility of To a significant extent, before Administrative Behav-
applying scientific principles to the management task. ior was published, an administrator was thought of as a
Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the ideas of work person who got things done. Although this is certainly
measurement and human engineering in his writings dur- true, such a statement ignores the fact that a decision al-
616
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Simon Publishes Administrative Behavior
ways precedes an action. Thus, when thinking about the central to thinking and writing about administrative
administrator’s job, an important consideration is deci- problems.
sion making. Simon’s intent was not to develop a norma-
1947
tive theory of decision making, describing how decisions Significance
should be made. Instead, he was interested in a descrip- Administrative Behavior influenced managerial thought
tive theory of decision making, or discovering how deci- in several ways. First, the publication and popularity of
sions are actually made. the book allowed Simon to become associated with the
From this interest in a descriptive theory of decision Ford Foundation as an adviser. In the late 1950’s and
making, Simon came to distinguish between the “eco- early 1960’s, the Ford Foundation was highly critical of
nomic man” of classical economic theory and what he business education and became a major force in shaping
termed “administrative man.” The economic man of or- management education. Simon had close ties to the Ford
thodox economic theory makes optimal choices in a Foundation, especially Bernard Berelson, another be-
highly specified and clearly identified environment. haviorist there. As a result of this relationship between
Economic man functions in a world in which all alterna- the foundation and Simon, Simon had a receptive audi-
tives are identified and each alternative has a known set ence for his ideas about the way management education
of consequences. Further, economic man has a utility should be carried out. The foundation was especially
function describing likes and dislikes, and he or she se- powerful because it had the resources to back up its rec-
lects the alternatives leading to maximization of utility, ommendations for business education. It provided more
or satisfaction. Most important, economic man is an than $35 million to improve business school curricula in
optimizer; that is, he or she always selects the best alter- the 1960’s.
native. Simon perceived that economic man did not cor- In the early 1960’s, the Ford Foundation made vari-
respond to any real decision maker. ous recommendations for improving business education.
In place of economic man, Simon suggested adminis- At the time these recommendations were made, Simon
trative man. The rationality of administrative man is was closely associated with the foundation and had re-
different from economists’ description. Administrative cently published the second edition of Administrative
man is not omniscient and does not have unlimited com- Behavior. An important foundation recommendation
putational powers. Unlike economic man, administrative was for increased emphasis on academic research. The
man is not completely rational; his or her rationality is clear and workable terms, concepts, and frames of refer-
bounded, or limited, but is by no means absent. Most im- ence contained in Administrative Behavior were useful
portant, administrative man is not a true maximizer. in carrying out this recommendation. Researchers could
Rather, he or she strives for satisfactory rather than opti- use Administrative Behavior as a guide in developing an
mal solutions. In Simon’s terminology, administrative administrative science. In emphasizing the need for re-
man has “bounded rationality” and is a “satisficer.” search, the foundation recommended cooperation be-
Simon wanted to develop a science of administration. tween business researchers and researchers trained in
He was convinced that ethical statements and factual other areas, such as behavioral sciences. Simon surely
statements could be separated. Simon suggested that the would have agreed with this idea.
management writing preceding Administrative Behavior Administrative Behavior influenced managers by
included both factual statements and ethical statements. clarifying the nature of rationality in the decision pro-
He insisted that a science must consist of factual state- cess, particularly the cognitive limitations of human de-
ments, that is, statements that can be verified through ex- cision makers. A major impact of the book is that manag-
perience. Ethical statements (that is, normative state- ers have a better understanding of how decision making
ments expressing value judgments) have no part in a occurs. Managers can use either a satisficing or an opti-
science of administration, according to Simon. mizing model when approaching a decision. Because of
A major contribution of Administrative Behavior is its efficiency, the satisficing model is often appropriate
the vocabulary and analytic scheme it provided. As Si- and useful and may therefore be useful for routine deci-
mon points out, before a science can develop principles, sions. Using a satisficing model, a manager does not
it must possess concepts. Following the example of have to consider all possible courses of action; instead,
Charles Edward Merriam, Simon clarified concepts such the manager’s decision model may include just a few
as rationality, efficiency, authority, power, equilibrium, possible courses of action, one of which will be “good
identification, and causation. These concepts became enough,” though not necessarily optimal. There are situ-
617
Simon Publishes Administrative Behavior The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ations in which the optimizing model is more appropri- structure. Administrative Behavior extended the body of
ate. Simon provided managers with the knowledge that management knowledge that could be taught in universi-
there are multiple types of decision models. It is the man- ties. It showed that sound management principles could
ager’s responsibility to use each type of model appropri- be tested in the same way as were principles in the natural
ately. sciences. Management concepts were subjected to the
The concept of bounded rationality introduced in Ad- same logical scrutiny as were legal concepts. Thus, man-
ministrative Behavior impressed upon managers that agement began to be considered as a profession, similar
they often need help making decisions because of the to law and medicine. Simon’s book helped bring about a
limits of human cognitive capacity. The use of decision realization that professionally trained managers bring
aids by managers can be traced to concepts of bounded particular expertise to the job and deserve to be compen-
rationality introduced in Administrative Behavior. As sated accordingly.
one illustration, a large manufacturing company in the —Jack Ruhl
South periodically makes large capital investments in
new technology. The decision to purchase a particular Further Reading
technology may involve the commitment of hundreds of Augier, Mie, and James G. March, eds. Models of a Man:
thousands of dollars. Checklists assist the manager mak- Essays in Memory of Herbert A. Simon. Cambridge,
ing the capital acquisition decision. The checklists are Mass.: MIT Press, 2004. Dozens of essays in this
designed by groups of engineers who carefully consider comprehensive collection reflect on the foundational
the manufacturing process as well as all costs (both out- work of economist Herbert Simon. Highly recom-
of-pocket costs and opportunity costs) associated with a mended.
particular process. Each potential acquisition is evalu- Barnard, Chester I. The Functions of the Executive. 1938.
ated on each criterion listed on the checklist before a de- Anniversary ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer-
cision is made. The checklist thus acts as a decision aid sity Press, 1968. A difficult but challenging book that
for the manager. questions much of the conventional wisdom about
Administrative Behavior provided managers with an management. The discussion of authority is espe-
understanding of organizations, one that could be used to cially reasoned and interesting. Written for practicing
carry out specific managerial responsibilities such as or- managers, but understandable to undergraduates.
ganizing an accounting department. Consider Simon’s Crowther-Heyck, Hunter. Herbert A. Simon: The Bounds
comments on the role of the organization. People spend of Reason in Modern America. Baltimore: Johns
most of their adult waking lives functioning in organiza- Hopkins University Press, 2005. A biographical ac-
tions. Thus, organizations have a tremendous influence count that focuses on Herbert Simon’s economic and
on personal qualities and habits. Further, organizations administrative theories. Highly recommended.
provide to those in responsible positions the means of ex- Duncan, W. Jack. Great Ideas in Management: Lessons
ercising authority and influence over others. Thinking from the Founders and Foundation of Managerial
about an organization in this way affects the way manag- Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989. Inte-
ers do their jobs. grates classic management ideas from the eighteenth
Administrative Behavior influenced the management century forward in a clear and readable way. Briefly
literature in other ways. The management literature rec- discusses concepts such as the art and science of man-
ognized that the management process was much more agement, decision making, rationality, goals, motiva-
complicated than previously thought. No set of manage- tion, coordination, and change. Easy to read.
ment principles could be used in all management situa- March, James G., and Herbert A. Simon. Organizations.
tions, and scholars began to study contingencies under 1958. 2d ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1993. A
which various decision strategies work best. Knowledge continuation and development of the ideas presented
obtained in other areas, such as psychology and sociol- in the first two editions of Administrative Behavior.
ogy, was brought to bear on management problems. Many propositions but little empirical support for
The book was also the beginning of a process of mak- them. The theory presented in the book has aged well.
ing the professional manager’s role more respectable and Appropriate for undergraduates.
justifying professional training in management. Admin- Simon, Herbert A. Administrative Behavior. 4th ed. New
istrative knowledge consisted not of a set of proverbs, York: Free Press, 1997. Provides a clear description
but of a set of clearly defined concepts and an analytical of Simon’s concept of bounded rationality and the ef-
618
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Blacklisting Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool
fects of the organization on managers’ decisions. In- the context of all of Simon’s writing. Easy to read, in-
troduction allows the reader to trace the evolution of teresting, and fun.
Simon’s thought. Easy to read.
See also: 1954: Drucker Examines Managerial Roles;
1947
_______. Models of My Life. New York: Basic Books,
1958: Galbraith Critiques the Creation of a Society
1991. An autobiography. Describes the path of Si-
of Mass Consumption; 1960’s: Service Economy
mon’s research and places Administrative Behavior in
Emerges in the United States.
1947-1951
Blacklisting Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool
Amid the early days of the Cold War and growing can Communists came to be seen as actual or potential
hysteria about communists in the United States, the traitors, who, for the safety of the country, needed to be
House Committee on Un-American Activities launched purged from trade-union leadership, government em-
an investigation of communist influence in the motion ployment, the teaching profession, and even the enter-
picture industry. The resulting blacklist, or ban on tainment industry. American anxiety about domestic
employment of alleged communists, hurt both communists later was heightened by the Korean War.
individual careers and the morale of the film The American Communist Party had been more pop-
community as a whole. ular in the 1930’s, when massive unemployment at home
contrasted with apparently full employment in Stalin’s
Locale: Hollywood, California; Washington, D.C.
Soviet Union, and when Stalin opposed German ex-
Categories: Motion pictures and video; social issues
pansion and helped the Spanish Republic battle fascist
and reform; business and labor; Cold War
rebels. The party’s respectability, diminished by the
Key Figures German-Soviet Pact of August, 1939, was restored when
J. Parnell Thomas (1895-1970), U.S. congressman Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June, 1941.
from New Jersey, 1937-1950, and chair of HUAC, Communism had special appeal for writers, who
1947-1948 found Hollywood to be an oasis of good pay in the eco-
John S. Wood (1885-1968), U.S. congressman from nomic desert of Depression-era America. After talking
Georgia, 1931-1935 and 1945-1953, and chair of pictures were introduced, journalists, playwrights in-
HUAC, 1945-1946 and 1949-1952 volved in New York City’s struggling left-wing theater,
Dalton Trumbo (1905-1976), American screenwriter short-story writers, and even some who had never writ-
and one of the Hollywood Ten ten before found scriptwriting jobs in the film industry.
Ring Lardner, Jr. (1915-2000), American screenwriter Many of them joined the Hollywood branch of the Com-
and one of the Hollywood Ten munist Party, which helped organize the Screen Writers
Elia Kazan (1909-2003), Turkish-born stage and film Guild. The industry’s profit orientation, however, left
director Communist writers little chance, except during World
Carl Foreman (1914-1984), American screenwriter War II, to give films an ideological slant.
and blacklist victim The House Committee on Un-American Activities
(HUAC) was created in 1938. In 1947, Committee
Summary of Event Chairman J. Parnell Thomas demanded that individuals
During World War II, the Soviet Union and the United in the film industry answer questions about their own and
States were allies against Nazi Germany. When the war their colleagues’ past or present Communist affiliations.
ended in 1945, a rapid worsening of Soviet-American re- That October, ten of those subpoenaed—the so-called
lations turned the American Communist Party, advocat- Hollywood Ten—refused to answer questions, basing
ing the Soviet model of socialism, from a tolerated politi- their refusal not on the Fifth Amendment’s guarantee
cal sect into a band of persecuted political outcasts. As against self-incrimination but on the First Amendment’s
Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin installed puppet govern- protection of freedom of speech and association. Five of
ments in one Eastern European country after another, the Hollywood Ten—Lester Cole, Ring Lardner, Jr.,
blockaded Berlin, and acquired the atomic bomb, Ameri- Dalton Trumbo, Edward Dmytryk, and Adrian Scott—
619
Blacklisting Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Countering Red Fascism lywood Ten’s lower court conviction on

contempt charges; in June, nine of them
Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Televi- went to prison. Adrian Scott was sen-
sion (1950) was published by the antifascist and anticommunist journal tenced in September.
Counterattack, based in New York City. The introduction to the report is In 1951, HUAC, with John S. Wood of
reminiscent of the anticommunist paranoia of the time. The report also Georgia now its chairman, resumed its
listed a number of well-known individuals—namely entertainers, actors, investigation of Hollywood communism.
and writers—suspected of being communists, producing, in effect, its
This probe continued through 1951. Some
own “blacklist.”
of those summoned refused to cooperate,
The Communist party has made intensive efforts to infiltrate every citing the Fifth Amendment; others, in-
phase of our life, and because of its great propaganda value has concen- cluding stage and motion-picture director
trated on radio and television. Networks, individual stations, advertising Elia Kazan, cooperated willingly, naming
agencies, “package producers,” radio-TV unions and even the trade press past associates who had been Commu-
have been more and more “colonized” by the Party. The “colonists” need nists. Either because of eagerness to leave
not be members or even deliberate cooperators. It is sufficient if they ad- prison and resume his career or because of
vance Communist objectives with complete unconsciousness. a genuine change of heart, Dmytryk pub-
. . . The hour is not too late for those of the patriotic and intelligent ma-
licly renounced communism, giving the
jority to immediately undertake a suitable counter-attack. No time is to
be lost. As one former head of a Soviet espionage ring commented bit-
names of past associates who were Com-
terly, after breaking with Red Fascism: “What American businessmen munists. He was the only one of the Holly-
and the American public do not seem to realize is that these people are wood Ten to do so.
playing for keeps, with no holds barred. They don’t lose time just making In the late 1950’s, HUAC suffered some
resolutions or having meetings. They’re activists! Until we Americans setbacks, and its investigatory zeal began
learn to take prompt, effective action, too, they’ll win every round!” to flag. In 1958, Arthur Miller, a gifted
playwright whose entry into film work
had been blocked by his reputation as a
leftist, rejected the HUAC demand that he
were then under contract to major studios. The House of name past associates who were Communists. Miller’s
Representatives voted the Hollywood Ten to be in con- conviction on contempt of Congress charges in 1957 was
tempt of Congress. overturned by a higher court decision in 1958. In 1956,
When the rude behavior of some of the Hollywood Carl Foreman, who had been blacklisted for refusing to
Ten at the hearings turned public opinion against them, cooperate with HUAC, finally offered, in a closed ses-
the heads of the major studios became frightened. In No- sion with Chairman Francis Walter, to cooperate. This
vember, 1947, the Motion Picture Association of Amer- time, however, the chairman did not ask Foreman to
ica announced that the Hollywood Ten would be dis- name names. Foreman’s name was removed from the
missed from their jobs at the various studios and that no blacklist. In 1975, after public tolerance toward dissent
known member of the Communist Party would be hired had been increased considerably by the national turmoil
in the future. This ban on employment, the blacklist, later over civil rights and the Vietnam War, HUAC was abol-
was extended to all who refused to cooperate with ished.
HUAC, whether they were proven to be Communists or Many blacklisted writers continued to write screen-
not. The American Legion exerted pressure on motion- plays under assumed names. Indeed, Dalton Trumbo’s
picture studios to maintain the blacklist; other private or- screenplay for The Brave One (1956)—written under the
ganizations and individuals smoked out Communists, name Robert Rich—won the Academy Award for Best
publishing lists of supposedly subversive entertainers Original Story. His award went unclaimed until 1975. In
and writers. 1960, Frank Sinatra was forced to renege on a promise to
Liberal actors and directors who once had vocally op- hire Albert Maltz, another of the Hollywood Ten. Also in
posed the HUAC investigation now stopped doing so, 1960, however, director Otto Preminger announced that
fearing for their careers. The president of the Screen Ac- Dalton Trumbo had written the script for Exodus (1960).
tors Guild, a young actor named Ronald Reagan, cooper- Actor and producer Kirk Douglas stated that Trumbo had
ated with the blacklisters. On April 10, 1950, the U.S. also written the script for Spartacus (1960). Neither
Supreme Court, after a long legal battle, upheld the Hol- film’s box-office success was hurt seriously by airing
620
Trumbo’s contribution. Nevertheless, it was not until the for foreign film studios; by arranging to have someone
late 1960’s, when Ring Lardner, Jr., was hired under his else, a “front,” pretend to be the author of scripts that they
own name to write the screenplay for the antiwar black had written, while still receiving at least some of the
1947
comedy M*A*S*H (1970), that the blacklist era really monetary reward; or by writing under a pseudonym.
ended. Some blacklisted scriptwriters ultimately regained their
careers in the American film industry, but many did not.
Significance Actors who refused to cooperate with HUAC or who
The effects of the blacklist and of the era of suspicion that were revealed by informers or professional Communist
it exemplified were many. The blacklist is estimated to hunters to have had past associations with Communist
have claimed about three hundred victims. It certainly Party causes usually saw their livelihoods ruined. Work-
harmed individual careers, although not all blacklistees ing under pseudonyms was impossible, as their faces
were hurt equally. Scriptwriters could keep working in would appear on screen. The film industry shunned
several ways: by leaving the United States and working them; the nascent television industry, dependent on cor-
Dalton Trumbo (front, second from left) stands with other members of the Hollywood Ten, shortly before he reported to prison in 1950.
(Museum of Modern Art, Film Stills Archive)
621
Blacklisting Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
porate sponsors for advertising revenue, was even more a spate of pointedly anti-Communist films, generally
determined to steer clear of politically tainted perform- of poor artistic quality and almost all box-office fail-
ers. One actor committed suicide, possibly because of ures. They probably were produced to appease congres-
problems caused by the blacklist. Left-leaning African sional investigators and anti-Communist vigilante orga-
American singer and actor Paul Robeson was stripped of nizations. Examples include The Red Menace (1949), I
his passport and was shunned even by black civil rights Married a Communist (1950), I Was a Communist for the
leaders. FBI (1951), and My Son John (1952).
Playwrights, such as Lillian Hellman (who had writ- The first Hollywood films to discuss the blacklist ex-
ten Hollywood scripts in the 1930’s and 1940’s) and Ar- plicitly, The Way We Were (1973) and The Front (1976),
thur Miller, did not suffer as much financially from their were released after the era was safely over. Two films
refusal to cooperate with HUAC as did other creative made during the blacklist era, however, dealt in a dis-
professionals. Playwrights had an outlet for their work guised form with the issues involved in the blacklist and
on Broadway, which the blacklist never affected as com- the anti-Communist witchhunt. High Noon (1952), the
pletely as it did cinema and television. story of a Western marshal who is forced to face a band of
The damage done to the film industry by the blacklist outlaws alone without the aid of the townsmen, is often
was ameliorated by the extent to which the blacklist regarded by film critics as a veiled criticism of Holly-
could be circumvented. The practice of writing under a wood’s timidity in the face of congressional investigat-
pseudonym not only allowed some blacklisted screening committees. Carl Foreman wrote the script shortly
writers to keep writing; it also allowed motion-picture before he was blacklisted for his noncooperative stand at
companies to take advantage of the blacklistees’ skills at a HUAC hearing and was forced to seek work in Great
reduced rates of pay. The Hollywood studios sometimes Britain. Elia Kazan’s On the Waterfront (1954), in which
were permanently deprived of the services of blacklisted a longshoreman works up the courage to inform on cor-
writers who found employment in foreign film indus- rupt union bosses, is often seen as a veiled justification
tries; Joseph Losey, who carved out a career for himself for Kazan’s decision, during the HUAC hearings of
in Great Britain, is an example. Similarly, the stigmatiza- 1952, to inform on past Communist associates from his
tion of playwrights Arthur Miller and Lillian Hellman as days in the New York City theater in the 1930’s.
communist sympathizers meant that Hollywood studios The decision of some Hollywood figures to cooperate
deprived themselves of the talents of these two first-rate with congressional investigators by naming names,
dramatists, even as their careers continued on Broadway. thereby exposing others to the blacklist and perhaps even
The banishment of actors for past political actions did destroying such people’s careers, created rifts in the Hol-
cost the film industry some talent. In an industry with a lywood community, and in the entertainment world in
surplus of fresh new faces always eager to break in, how- general, that lasted for years. Elia Kazan, for example,
ever, the loss was small. would spend the rest of his life defending his decision to
One sometimes overlooked effect of the blacklist was “name names.”
the loss of foreign-born talent. Some of the German refu- —Paul D. Mageli
gees who had been living and working in Hollywood
during World War II went back to Europe to escape ha- Further Reading
rassment for their political views. These included drama- Buhle, Paul, and Dave Wagner. Hide in Plain Sight: The
tist Bertolt Brecht, who had coauthored a screenplay, Hollywood Blacklistees in Film and Television, 1950-
novelist Thomas Mann, and composer Hanns Eisler. 2002. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Exten-
Charlie Chaplin, the once-beloved British-born film co- sive discussion of every significant work of film and
median, was hounded out of the United States for a while television worked on by a blacklistee in the second
because of revulsion against both his allegedly left-wing half of the twentieth century. Bibliographic refer-
political views and his supposed moral peccadilloes. ences and index.
Not only the employees but also the bosses of the Hol- Ceplair, Larry, and Steven Englund. The Inquisition in
lywood film empire were frightened by the specter of Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community, 1930-
anti-Communist vigilantism. The type of films produced, 1960. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday,
therefore, was to some extent affected. The trend toward 1980. An exhaustive study of the Hollywood Ten, the
daring films of social realism that had been evident in investigation of 1951-1952, and the fate of the
the late 1940’s was halted, at least for a while. There was blacklistees. Especially informative on the pre-1947
622
Hollywood communist subculture. The authors view Navasky, Victor S. Naming Names. Reprint. New York:
Hollywood’s communists with a mixture of criticism Hill & Wang, 2003. A journalist examines the ethical
and admiration. Bibliography, endnotes, index, and dilemma faced by those who named names for
1947
photographs. Relies heavily on interviews. HUAC, thus avoiding their own blacklisting but caus-
Cole, Lester. Hollywood Red: The Autobiography of ing others to be blacklisted. Excellent chapter, based
Lester Cole. Palo Alto, Calif.: Ramparts Press, 1981. on interviews, on informers’ motives. Rejects anti-
The life story of a screenwriter who never beat the communism as a morally valid rationale for naming
blacklist and who never recanted his faith in commu- names. Endnotes, list of interviewees, index. For the
nism. Although obviously biased, it provides a good general reader.
victim’s-eye view of the post-World War II purge of Schwartz, Nancy Lynn. The Hollywood Writers’ Wars.
the film world. Filmography, photographs, and index. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982. A history of the
Kanfer, Stefan. A Journal of the Plague Years. New York: Hollywood Communist screenwriters’ subculture
Atheneum, 1973. A film critic’s chronicle of blacklist- during the 1930’s and 1940’s. The author expresses
ing from 1947 to 1958, showing its effects on radio, nearly undiluted admiration for that subculture. Sup-
television, and Broadway as well as Hollywood. Es- plements but does not supplant the book by Ceplair
pecially informative on the private individuals and or- and Englund. Endnotes, photographs, index, and
ganizations that helped HUAC by ferreting out show- filmographies of more than thirty blacklisted and in-
business Communists. Sympathetic to blacklistees. vestigated actors and writers. For scholars.
Photographs, annotated bibliography, index, no notes. Whitfield, Stephen J. The Culture of the Cold War. Balti-
Kazan, Elia. Elia Kazan: A Life. New York: Alfred A. more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. Views
Knopf, 1988. In this lengthy but briskly written auto- the blacklist as part of a general trend toward confor-
biography, covering everything from childhood to mity in the United States during the 1940’s and 1950’s.
professional life to love life, Kazan vigorously de- Especially useful for its examination of how blacklist-
fends his decision to cooperate with HUAC in 1952. era anxieties affected the kind of films made. Excel-
Provides some insights into communism in the 1930’s lent bibliographical essay. Index; no notes.
New York City theater. Photographs and index. For See also: Oct. 15, 1942-1961: Kazan Brings Natural-
the general reader. ism to the Stage and Screen; Oct. 20, 1947: HUAC In-
Lardner, Kate. Shut Up He Explained: The Memoir of a vestigates Hollywood; July 24, 1952: Premiere of
Blacklisted Kid. New York: Ballantine Books, 2004. High Noon; Jan. 22, 1953: The Crucible Allegorizes
Ring Lardner’s daughter provides a personal account the Red Scare Era; Mar. 30, 1955: On the Waterfront
of the effects of blacklisting on her father and her Wins Best Picture; Jan. 25, 1970: M*A*S*H Satirizes
family. Warfare.
623
Land Demonstrates the Polaroid Camera The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
February 21, 1947

Land Demonstrates the Polaroid Camera
When Edwin Herbert Land invented his instant-print pia self-portrait appeared in The New York Times along
camera, he reinvented photography itself, altered a with an editorial titled “The Camera Does the Rest,” an
major industry, and astounded the scientific obvious play on the famous Kodak slogan, “You press
community. the button, we do the rest.” The following week the pho-
tograph was published in Life magazine as a full-page
Also known as: Instant photography picture. In spite of the public demand for the new camera
Locale: New York, New York generated by all the publicity, the first instant camera did
Categories: Photography; inventions; science and not appear on the market until 1948.
technology; manufacturing and industry Edwin Land, born into a middle-class family from
Key Figures Bridgeport, Connecticut, attended Harvard University
Edwin Herbert Land (1909-1991), inventor of instant but did not graduate. Fascinated by science and invention
photography and founder of the Polaroid since childhood, Land went to Harvard seeking a field in
Corporation which he could make significant intellectual contribu-
George Wheelwright III (1903-2001), Harvard tions and establish his reputation and fortune. Deciding
physicist who was Land’s partner in his first that his greatest opportunities lay in investigating polar-
business enterprise, the Land-Wheelwright ized light, he set up a laboratory in Cambridge, Massa-
Laboratories chusetts, and went into business with a young Harvard
William J. McCune (b. 1915), Polaroid executive in physics instructor, George Wheelwright III. The Land-
charge of manufacturing and engineering Wheelwright Laboratories patented an extensive sheet
polarizer, consulted for Harvard, the Massachusetts In-
Summary of Event stitute of Technology, and Massachusetts General Hos-
On February 21, 1947, at the annual meeting of the Op- pital, and, in the mid-1930’s, began making polarizing
tical Society of America at New York City’s Hotel Penn- camera filters for the Eastman Kodak Company and “Po-
sylvania, Edwin Herbert Land held the first public laroid Day Glasses” for the American Optical Company.
demonstration of his instant-print camera. This first In 1937, Land decided it was time to incorporate. He was
demonstration of instant photography was made with a named president, chairman of the board, and director of
large Deardorff portrait camera on a tripod, flanked by research of the new Polaroid Corporation.
floodlights. Land sat in front of the camera and, using a Land had conceived the idea for the instant-print cam-
cable release, snapped his own picture. Fifty seconds era while vacationing with his family in Santa Fe, New
later, he removed two 8-x-10-inch sheets of paper from a Mexico, in 1943. As he and his three-year-old daughter
metal chamber attached to the back of the camera, peeled Jennifer walked about the city one afternoon. Land pho-
them apart, and displayed a large sepia image of himself. tographed the sights with his portable camera. When
The society’s program declared that this demonstration Jennifer wanted to know why she could not see the pic-
was a new kind of photography, as revolutionary as the tures immediately, Land began to think about the possi-
transition from wet plates to daylight-loading film. To bility of making a camera that not only took pictures but
counter any suggestion that his black-and-white system also developed them instantly. He later declared that af-
might be old-fashioned, Land himself proclaimed that ter an hour of walking alone and considering the prob-
the process could be adapted to both color and motion lem, the design of the camera and its film became clear to
pictures. him, and it took only three years for the camera to be-
Even though Land explained that the new instant come a reality. As Land noted, however, years of rich ex-
camera, to be called the Polaroid Land camera, would not perience in working with polarizers, acquiring a knowl-
be available for sale for some months, the technical com- edge of plastics and of the properties of viscous liquids,
munity was astounded by his scientific virtuosity. The preparing microscopic crystals smaller than the wave-
public was immediately informed of the new develop- length of light, and all the other activities of the Polaroid
ment, which was reported in newspapers and magazines Corporation were compressed into those three years.
throughout the United States and Europe. The morning In 1948, working closely with William J. McCune,
after the New York demonstration, for example, the se- Jr., Land produced the first instant-print camera, the
624
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Land Demonstrates the Polaroid Camera
1947
Edwin Herbert Land demonstrates his instant-print process. (Library of Congress)
Model 95, which retailed for $89.75. A folding camera the professional, and the Model 80 Highlander of 1954
larger than most roll-film cameras, it weighed four introduced a new, smaller picture format. By 1960, the
pounds and had an f/11 lens and shutter speeds from 1/8 development time for the black-and-white film had been
to 1/60 of a second. The camera used Polaroid Land film, reduced to fifteen seconds. In 1963, the color that Land
which consisted of two rolls of negative emulsion and had promised earlier became a reality when Polaroid
positive paper together with a pod of chemicals called the Polacolor Land film appeared on the market along with
reagent. After a picture was taken, pulling a tab brought the Polaroid Land Automatic 100 camera, which was the
the exposed negative, the positive paper, and the reagent first to take film packs rather than picture rolls. With the
through two tight rollers. As the pod broke, the chemical introduction of the SX-70 in 1972, Land finally made the
spread, transferring the image from the negative to the camera he had visualized on that solitary walk in Santa
positive paper. After a one-minute wait, a door in the Fe in 1943—a camera that truly made “one-step photog-
camera back was opened, and the print was peeled away raphy” possible.
from the negative strip. The first film produced eight se- The most outstanding innovation among the many in-
pia images and cost $1.50 per roll. In 1950, Polaroid introduced by the SX-70 was that the film was developed
troduced a new orthochromatic film called Type 41, outside the camera. After exposure, the camera ejected a
which made black-and-white pictures. sealed picture unit consisting of a multilayer negative
Throughout the 1950’s, Polaroid expanded its range and positive; the image appeared as the photographer
of cameras at regular intervals. The Model 110 Path- watched, and there was no extraneous paper to be peeled
finder of 1952 was a more advanced camera intended for away. Other innovations had to do with the design of the
625
Land Demonstrates the Polaroid Camera The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
camera itself. For example, it was the first folding single- Crist, Steve, ed. The Polaroid Book: Selections from
lens reflex in history. When folded, it was flat and com- the Polaroid Collections of Photography. London:
pact; when unfolded, it had a roughly triangular shape, Taschen, 2005. A well-illustrated collection of Polar-
with a viewfinder on top. As McCune declared, every- oid art photography, black-and-white as well as color,
thing before the SX-70 had been a compromise for Land. with an essay on the medium by Barbara Hitchcock. A
beautifully designed book.
Significance
Innovation/Imagination: Fifty Years of Polaroid Pho-
Like George Eastman before him, Edwin Land appealed
tography. New York: H. N. Abrams and Ansel Adams
more to the amateur photographer than to the profes-
Center for Photography, 1999. From a 1999 exhibi-
sional when marketing his instant-print cameras. Al-
tion of Polaroids at the Ansel Adams Center for Pho-
though it should be noted that both Kodak and Polaroid
tography in San Francisco. Chapters include “The Po-
made cameras for professional use, a large part of the
laroid Collection,” “Edwin Land’s Polaroid: ‘A New
output of both companies was directed toward the mass
Eye,’” “Polaroid and the Artist,” and “Polaroid Mile-
market. Eastman, with his first Kodak and, later, the in-
stones.” Well illustrated, mainly in color.
expensive Brownie, had made photography a truly dem-
Livesay, Harold C. American Made: Shapers of the
ocratic art form. Land, while demonstrating Model 95 at
American Economy. New York: Pearson-Longman,
the Royal Photographic Society in London in 1949, sug-
2007. A collection of essays detailing the lives and
gested that with his camera, the average amateur could
works of Americans who greatly influenced the U.S.
become an aesthetic experimenter, developing creative
economy. Includes an essay on Edwin Land, inventor
ideas on the spot, just as a painter or sculptor would.
of the Polaroid camera.
Land made it possible for photographers to observe
McElheny, Victor K. Insisting on the Impossible: The
their work and subject matter simultaneously, removing
Life of Edwin Land. Reading, Mass.: Perseus Books,
most of the manipulative barriers between the photogra-
1998. A biography of the founder of Polaroid and a
pher and the photograph. The photographer could thus
history of the company.
think of the art in the taking rather than the making of
Olshaker, Mark. The Instant Image. New York: Stein &
photographs. He believed that all that should be neces-
Day, 1978. Examines the factors and attitudes that
sary to get a good picture is to take a good picture.
made Land and Polaroid different from other busi-
— LouAnn Faris Culley
nessmen and companies. The author interviewed Po-
Further Reading laroid employees as well as Ansel Adams and several
Adams, Ansel. Polaroid Land Photography Manual. Kodak officials. A balanced and objective account of
New York: Morgan & Morgan, 1963. A manual of the Polaroid’s evolution.
Polaroid Land process. Adams demonstrates how in- Wensberg, Peter C. Land’s Polaroid. Boston: Houghton
stant photography can be a serious creative medium. Mifflin, 1987. A well-written account of Polaroid’s
Well-illustrated throughout, with a concise explana- growth from a small private company to a giant corpo-
tion of Adams’s famous zone system. ration. Provides many personal insights into Land’s
Coe, Brian. Cameras. New York: Crown, 1978. Outlines character and practices. Also contains photographs of
the development of the camera and some of its more Land with some of his inventions, including the Life
important accessories from photography’s begin- cover with the SX-70.
nings in the 1830’s. Contains an account of the early
attempts, before Land, to achieve instant photogra- See also: 1947: Gabor Develops the Concept of Holog-
phy. Helpful illustrations, including diagrams of Po- raphy; 1958: Donald Uses Ultrasound to Examine
laroid and Kodak instant-print cameras. Human Fetuses.
626
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Truman Doctrine
March 12, 1947

Truman Doctrine
1947
Following World War II, President Harry S. Truman tempted to expand into areas where it had no military
declared that the United States would use its resources control, including Greece, Turkey, and Iran.
to aid nations resisting Soviet encroachment and to In confronting these emergencies, the United States at
contain Soviet expansion. He thus articulated the first attempted ad hoc measures that, although essentially
cornerstone of the next forty years of U.S. foreign successful in achieving their immediate objectives,
policy, setting the terms of U.S. participation in the failed to establish policy guidelines for the postwar
Cold War. world. In Iran, for example, the Soviet Union refused to
withdraw its occupation forces and made demands
Locale: Washington, D.C. through diplomatic channels for exclusive oil and min-
Categories: Cold War; diplomacy and international eral rights. The United States and Great Britain joined in
relations a strong protest, which implied the threat of Western mil-
Key Figures itary assistance to counter Soviet pressure. In March,
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United 1946, Soviet troops began a complete withdrawal, and
States, 1945-1953 the Iranian government succeeded in stabilizing its rule.
George F. Kennan (1904-2005), U.S. State In the case of Turkey, the Soviet Union sent several
Department’s director of policy planning, 1947- diplomatic notes in 1945 and 1946 that demanded the
1949 cession of border territory and a joint administration of
George C. Marshall (1880-1959), U.S. secretary of the Dardanelles. These demands were to be ratified in a
state, 1947-1949 treaty that also would provide for the leasing of navy and
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; army bases in the Dardanelles to the Soviets to imple-
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central ment joint control. Following a second Soviet note, the
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet United States sent a strong naval fleet into the Mediterra-
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 nean, the first U.S. warships to be sent into those waters
James Francis Byrnes (1879-1972), U.S. secretary of during peacetime since 1803. A week later, Great Britain
state, 1945-1947 joined the United States in rejecting Soviet demands on
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of Turkey. Meanwhile, in Greece, only extensive British
Great Britain, 1940-1945 and 1951-1955 military and economic aid prevented a complete collapse
Henry A. Wallace (1888-1965), vice president of the of the war-torn country and a coup d’état by communist
United States, 1941-1945, secretary of commerce, guerrillas.
1945-1946, and editor of the New Republic, 1946- Following extensive domestic debate, the United
1947 States formally abandoned its traditional peacetime iso-
lationist approach to world affairs and adopted a long-
Summary of Event range policy intended to deal with Soviet expansionism.
Soon after the conclusion of World War II, the United One position in the debate was dramatized by Winston
States was faced with the necessity of finding a new prin- Churchill, the former prime minister of Great Britain, in
ciple to guide its foreign policy. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s a speech at Fulton, Missouri, in early 1946. There, with
concept of a global postwar peace based on cooperation President Harry S. Truman on the platform, Churchill
between the United States and the Soviet Union had characterized the Soviet Union as an expansionist state
proven to be ineffective. The Soviet army occupied most that would react only to a strong counterforce. Soviet ex-
of eastern and central Europe and made it clear that the pansion, Churchill believed, could be prevented only by
Soviet Union would not tolerate independent regimes a collaboration between the United States and Great Brit-
there. Despite the agreements made at the Yalta Confer- ain to preserve the independence of Europe and to pre-
ence, Joseph Stalin, the Soviet dictator, unilaterally im- vent the extension of what came to be called the “Iron
posed communist regimes on Poland, Hungary, Bul- Curtain.”
garia, Czechoslovakia, and Romania. The protests of the A contrasting attitude was expressed by Secretary of
United States and Great Britain did not alter this policy of Commerce Henry A. Wallace, who declared that only
Soviet control. Furthermore, the Soviet government at- U.S.-Soviet cooperation could prevent another war. He
627
Truman Doctrine The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
pointed out that the Soviet desire for control of areas on nationalism in U.S. foreign policy, it seemed axiomatic
its borders was understandable and reasonable, and that that if aid to Greece and Turkey could be justified by
the United States had long acted to secure its own hemi- their strategic importance, the United States must aid
spheric security. Substantial segments of U.S. public other European countries where the situation was
opinion supported either Churchill or Wallace. How- equally desperate. Great Britain was suffering from the
ever, the State Department sought a middle ground. Re- wartime destruction of its factories and the loss of its ca-
jecting both the Soviet-expansion position of Churchill pability to export manufactured goods. Germany was in
and the sphere-of-influence concept of Wallace, Secre- ruins and virtually incapable of feeding its population. In
tary of State James Francis Byrnes urged that the Soviet France and Italy, the Communist Party had wide support
Union adopt a more cooperative diplomatic policy. The within the industrial laboring class and was working by
United States, he said, should pursue a policy of firmness
and patience and wait for the Soviets to see the reason-
ableness of negotiation. It appeared to many, including Truman Doctrine
President Truman, that the United States was the one that
was always being reasonable, not the Soviet Union. By U.S. president Harry S. Truman addressed Congress on
1947, the administration had adopted the position that the topic of the security and autonomy of Greece and
the revolutionary postulates of the Soviet regime made Turkey in the face of an encroaching Soviet Union in the
traditional diplomacy impossible. region following World War II. The speech is now
known as the Truman Doctrine.
The first step in the development of the new policy to-
ward the Soviet Union came in response to the continu- One of the primary objectives of the foreign policy of
ing Soviet threat to Greece and Turkey. In February, the United States is the creation of conditions in which
1947, Great Britain informed the U.S. State Department we and other nations will be able to work out a way of
that the British government could no longer continue to life free from coercion. This was a fundamental issue in
support the regime in Greece. Great Britain, like all of the war with Germany and Japan. Our victory was won
Western Europe, was suffering from grave economic over countries which sought to impose their will, and
problems. As the British Empire retreated, the United their way of life, upon other nations.
States stepped forward. Within the next few weeks, Pres- To ensure the peaceful development of nations, free
from coercion, the United States has taken a leading part
ident Truman decided that the independence of Greece
in establishing the United Nations. The United Nations
and the recovery of Europe were crucial to the security of
is designed to make possible lasting freedom and inde-
the United States. pendence for all its members. We shall not realize our
On March 12, 1947, the president appeared before a objectives, however, unless we are willing to help free
joint session of Congress and presented what became peoples to maintain their free institutions and their na-
known as the Truman Doctrine. He outlined the desper- tional integrity against aggressive movements that seek
ate situation in both Greece and Turkey and called upon to impose upon them totalitarian regimes. This is no
the American people to “help free peoples to maintain more than a frank recognition that totalitarian regimes
their free institutions and their national integrity against imposed on free peoples, by direct or indirect aggres-
aggressive movements that seek to impose upon them to- sion, undermine the foundations of international peace
talitarian regimes.” Most important, he pointed out, was and hence the security of the United States. . . .
The seeds of totalitarian regimes are nurtured by mis-
the fact that such totalitarian aggression was a direct
ery and want. They spread and grow in the evil soil of
threat to the security of the United States. In response,
poverty and strife. They reach their full growth when the
Congress appropriated $400 million for economic aid to hope of a people for a better life has died. We must keep
both Greece and Turkey. Additionally, the president was that hope alive.
authorized to dispatch civilian and military advisers to The free peoples of the world look to us for support in
help both nations defend their sovereignty. maintaining their freedoms. If we falter in our leader-
The next step in this new policy was to bring the same ship, we may endanger the peace of the world—and we
consideration to bear upon Western Europe, an even shall surely endanger the welfare of our own nation.
more critical area. There is debate over the degree to Great responsibilities have been placed upon us by
which U.S. economic aid to postwar Europe was moti- the swift movement of events. I am confident that the
vated by the desire to contain Soviet influence in West- Congress will face these responsibilities squarely.
ern Europe. Nevertheless, to proponents of the new inter-
628
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Truman Doctrine
both overt and covert means for a radical change in the Union and pursue it consistently. This containment, or
government of both countries. A further difficulty was the counterapplication of force wherever Soviet expan-
that the winter of 1946-1947 was the most severe experi- sion threatened, had a negative aspect, because it put a
1947
enced by Europeans for generations. tremendous burden on U.S. consistency and steadfast-
From a military viewpoint, new weaponry made it es- ness. On the positive side, through containment, the
sential that European control of the Atlantic gateways be United States could help work changes within the Soviet
in friendly hands. In terms of trained technicians, indus- system and help modify the revolutionary zeal of the re-
trial capacity, and raw materials, Western Europe was a gime. If expansionist dynamics were constantly frus-
potential giant worth keeping in the U.S. camp. These trated, Kennan reasoned, the forces must be expended
factors led to an announcement by the new secretary of within the system itself, and this would mean some mod-
state, George C. Marshall, at Harvard University in June, ification of totalitarian control.
1947, of what came to be known as the Marshall Plan: If
Significance
the European countries could develop a cooperative ap-
Although the Truman Doctrine, strictly speaking, ap-
proach to their economic problems, Marshall said, the
plied only to Greece and Turkey, its importance went
United States would assist in their recovery.
well beyond the fate of those two countries. Truman’s
Congress eventually authorized a grant of $17 billion
speech of March 12, 1947, represented the first tentative
to the Organization for European Economic Cooperation
articulation of the policy of containment later placed in
over a four-year period. A total of about $13 billion was
print by Kennan. The doctrine was a commitment to uti-
actually spent. Although aid was offered to all European
lize the economic resources of the United States—as
nations, including the Soviet Union, the Soviet-domi-
well as its military expertise in the form of advisers and
nated areas were not permitted to cooperate, because do-
trainers—to resist Soviet expansion and aggression in
ing so would have required revealing Soviet economic
Europe. The Truman Doctrine thus represented the first
secrets and sacrificing Soviet economic control. Success
proactive statement made by a U.S. president of the prin-
of the Marshall Plan emerged quickly; in 1952, Europe
ciples that guided the United States during the Cold War.
exceeded its prewar production figures by some 200 per-
Combined with Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech, it repre-
cent.
sents one of the founding Western foreign policy state-
A discussion of the theory behind the policy embod-
ments of that war. The principles enunciated by Truman
ied in the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan ap-
were followed for decades thereafter, shaping the history
peared in an unsigned article on the subject of contain-
of the second half of the twentieth century.
ment in the July, 1947, issue of Foreign Affairs. The
— George Q. Flynn and Joseph R. Rudolph, Jr.
author, it was later disclosed, was George F. Kennan, a
high-ranking member of the State Department. Kennan’s Further Reading
essay proposed that the antagonism that existed between Acheson, Dean. Present at the Creation: My Years in the
the United States and the Soviet Union was merely the State Department. New York: Norton, 1969. Written
logical extension of certain basic Soviet assumptions. by Truman’s last secretary of state, an often poignant,
The United States, Kennan maintained, could count on immensely interesting accounting of the years during
Soviet hostility, because the rhetoric of the Bolshevik which United States foreign policy shaped the post-
Revolution demanded war against capitalist states. war world.
World War II had submerged this antagonism only tem- Gaddis, John Lewis. The United States and the Origins of
porarily. “These characteristics of Soviet policy,” he the Cold War, 1941-1947. New ed. New York: Co-
wrote, “like the postulates from which they flow, are ba- lumbia University Press, 2000. History of U.S.-Soviet
sic to the internal nature of Soviet power, and will be with relations during World War II and the postwar period,
us . . . until the nature of Soviet power is changed.” up to and including the announcement of the Truman
The immediate question, Kennan insisted, was how Doctrine. Bibliographic references and index.
the United States should counter this new ideological Jeffery, Judith S. Ambiguous Commitments and Uncer-
crusade that threatened to engulf Europe. In Kennan’s tain Policies: The Truman Doctrine in Greece, 1947-
view, the United States should adopt a policy of “long- 1952. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2000. Study
term, patient, but firm and vigilant containment.” To focused on Greece of the effects of the Truman Doc-
counter the Soviet policy, the United States should adopt trine upon the nation it was originally designed to
a long-range course of diplomacy toward the Soviet help. Bibliographic references and index.
629
Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps Europe and America The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Jones, Howard. “A New Kind of War”: America’s impact of the containment policy on postwar Soviet
Global Strategy and the Truman Doctrine in Greece. foreign policy.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. A detailed McGhee, George Crews. The U.S.-Turkish-NATO Mid-
analysis of the effect of the containment policy on pol- dle East Connection: How the Truman Doctrine Con-
itics in its first beneficiary. tained the Soviets in the Middle East. New York: St.
Jones, Joseph M. The Fifteen Weeks (February 21-June Martin’s Press, 1990. An excellent regional study of
5, 1947). New York: Viking Press, 1955. A good ac- containment at work.
count of the crucial weeks during which the Truman Rees, David. The Age of Containment: The Cold War,
administration committed itself to first the contain- 1945-1965. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1967. A
ment doctrine and then the Marshall Plan. view of the coldest days of the Cold War from a Brit-
Lieberman, Sanford R., et al., eds. The Soviet Empire Re- ish perspective.
considered. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1994. See also: Feb. 4-11, 1945: Yalta Conference; Apr. 3,
Many of the generally excellent essays address the 1948: Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe.
Spring, 1947
Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps Europe and America
Christian Dior’s “New Look” heralded the end of the want to abandon the artistic interests he had forged dur-
austerity imposed by World War II and started a ing his teenage years. In his first foray into the art world,
fashion revolution that extended into the 1950’s. Dior formed a partnership with Jacques Bonjean to open
Dior’s vision of female elegance, however, was an art gallery. Their gallery featured young artists; Dior
impractical for working women, reflecting instead a and Bonjean were among the first to exhibit works by
version of fashion that treated women primarily as Georges Braque, Giorgio de Chirico, Raoul Dufy, Mau-
decorative objects. rice Utrillo, Fernand Léger, and Pablo Picasso. Of them
all, perhaps only Utrillo, with his gentle cityscapes,
Locale: Paris, France; Europe; United States eventually influenced Dior’s designs. Dior learned fash-
Categories: Fashion and design; manufacturing and ion drawing from his friend Jean Ozenne and for a time
industry supported himself as a fashion illustrator. Another friend,
Key Figures Max Kenna, taught him about color and balance.
Christian Dior (1905-1957), French fashion designer Soon, Dior began to sell his designs to established
Robert Piguet (1901-1953), French fashion designer fashion houses. By designing the costumes for produc-
Lucien Lelong (1889-1958), French fashion designer tions of several plays, he kept his interest in theater alive.
Robert Piguet employed Dior as a designer in 1938. With
Summary of Event Piguet, Dior learned the exacting standards of haute cou-
Born in 1905 to a well-to-do family, Christian Dior al- ture. Women’s fashion leaned toward romanticism then;
ways remembered his mother as a woman of great ele- the major Paris designers decreed the use of soft, flowing
gance. His father liked things English and dressed little lines and frilly decorations. Dior, though, credited Piguet
Christian in sailor suits. He had governesses and tutors with teaching him the virtue of simplicity.
until age eleven, when he was sent to school at Gerson, Fashion does not exist in a vacuum; world events
France. During his teen years, Dior excelled at dressing shape even the width of a hem. Adolf Hitler’s march to
up for costume events and suggesting ensembles for power and program of world conquest exerted enormous
schoolmates who took part in amateur theatrical produc- influence on the fashion world. When German forces oc-
tions. Intended by his father for a career in politics, Dior cupied France in World War II, the Germans rationed
attended the École des Sciences Politiques (school of po- clothes. The wives of German officers wanted Paris fash-
litical science), where he earned his degree in 1926. He ions, however, so the Germans excluded haute couture
then went on to complete his military service. from rationing. Paris did not suffer from the bombing
Politics did not suit Dior; nor did he want to enter the raids that the Germans inflicted on much of Europe, so
family fertilizer-manufacturing business. Dior did not the business of fashion went on almost as usual. Of
630
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps Europe and America
course, not many fabrics could be obtained, and the war war years, however, did not meet the standards of Paris’s
influenced design. Square shoulders, to-the-knee skirts, professional fashion critics. Many called these fashions
and a vaguely military look dominated the fashion scene. vulgar and even ugly. It was in this climate, in 1946, that
1947
When Germany had invaded France, Dior had again Dior opened his own salon. His largely female staff
found himself in the army. Once France surrendered, the adored him and devotedly worked long hours. The ex-
army disbanded, and Dior was forced to take a job on a quisite fit needed for the clothes he designed required
farm. In 1941, though, he joined the design house of long hours from both his expert fitters and his clients.
Lucien Lelong and once again worked in the vocation Even the most simple of Dior’s styles needed at least two
that he loved. hundred hours of hand-finishing.
When the war ended, Parisians turned their attention Dior wanted to make a name for himself; he thus
back to fashion. The fashions designed during the post- looked for something different, something special.
Going back to the softer silhouette of the 1930’s, Dior
made some essential changes. These changes were incor-
porated into Dior’s spring, 1947, collection. The collec-
tion was a success, drawing rave reviews from the critics.
Fashion writers dubbed it the “New Look.”
In Dior’s new designs, shoulders rounded gently. La-
dylike sleeves fitted neatly into narrow armholes. Waists
followed natural lines, and skirts stopped just above the
ankle. Dior chose gentle, subdued colors for his innova-
tive collection. He used sumptuous fabrics, including
thick velvets, fine wool, and sinuous silk. Evening
gowns featured strapless bodices, meticulously hand-
beaded embroidery, and extravagantly flowing skirts.
(Although the New Look was terrifically popular, an an-
ecdote of the day recounted that one man complained
that he had difficulty telling his Dior-clad dance partner
from a bird cage.)
Dior’s seemingly simple silhouette relied on clever
seaming and complicated darts. Boning, stiffening, waist
cinchers, hip padding, and tailoring contributed to the
garments’ “hanger appeal,” meaning that the clothes
looked almost as good on the hanger as they did on a
woman. By 1948, versions of the New Look could be
found in stores on both sides of the Atlantic. Women’s
magazines gave hints on how to buy an original Dior:
Stay at only the best hotels, they said. Drive up in a Rolls-
Royce; if a woman did not have one, they advised, then
she should rent one. Last but not least, a prospective
buyer was advised to bring pockets full of money, be-
cause an original Dior did not come cheaply.
Significance
British and European teenagers immediately tried to
make the New Look their own. Shortages of fabric, and
even thread, made these girls invent ingenious new ways
to use the mend-and-make-do techniques they had
learned during the war to achieve the look. They used
A Parisian fashion model wears one of Christian Dior’s spring, Dior’s novel fashion designs as a means to forge their in-
1947, “New Look” dresses. (AP/Wide World Photos) dependence and to reject their parents’ generation.
631
Dior’s “New Look” Sweeps Europe and America The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
The British government appealed to women’s patri- men be the final, if not the sole, arbiters of what should be
otic impulses when asking them not to adopt the New created for women to wear? Before the nineteenth cen-
Look during a time of shortages and rebuilding. Princess tury English dressmaker Charles Frederick Worth,
Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth II), however, wore the women had designed for women. The Industrial Revolu-
New Look on her state visit to France. Her sister, Prin- tion, however, revolutionized the fashion industry along
cess Margaret, chose Dior to make the gown she wore to with all the others, as what had before been made by hand
her twenty-first-birthday ball; after that, nothing could was mass-produced by machine. Worth gained fame as a
stop British women from embracing the Dior fashion couturier during this transitional period; some say he cre-
craze. ated haute couture single-handedly. He insisted that he
Not everyone liked the New Look. Women in the could dress women more elegantly than anyone else
workforce found it difficult to wear. It took time to could. Soon, men took over the couture industry. In time,
achieve the look, moreover; a woman had to don a push- women were performing only the handwork without
up bra, a waist cincher, several stiffened petticoats, and contributing much to fashion designs.
very high heels. A small flowered hat with a veil and pris- The fashion world changed dramatically from the
tine white gloves topped off the New Look. Women in 1960’s onward, on both sides of the drawing board.
the legal and medical professions grumbled, saying they Dior’s New Look, however, influenced designers for de-
found the fashions almost impossible to wear. Secre- cades, both as a model to emulate and as one to eschew.
taries could not fit the style’s voluminous skirts into their Dior developed separates, “little girl” day dresses, tight
chairs. Women in the upper echelons of the business sheaths, cocktail and dinner suits, and cotton as a fash-
world, too, felt that they did not look serious in Dior- ionable fabric. His innovations and their presentation
inspired designs. helped define the nature of postwar fashion and set a
During the war, women had joined the workforce in standard for both his competitors and his successors.
large numbers, making vital contributions as they kept — Maxine S. Theodoulou
factories turning out weapons and civilian necessities.
When the war ended, most were expected to give up their Further Reading
jobs and go back to hearth and home; many women, how- Bayle, Françoise, ed. Christian Dior: Homme du siècle.
ever, did not want to do that. In the context of the time, Versailles, France: Museé Christian Dior, 2005. Cata-
therefore, many women protested that the New Look log of the 2005 centennial exhibition of Dior’s de-
turned women into decorative stereotypes and hindered signs. In French, but full of illustrations of the de-
them from keeping their positions in the workplace. signer’s work.
Some who disliked the New Look formed “Just a Lit- De Marly, Diana. Christian Dior. New York: Holmes &
tle Below the Knee” clubs and vowed not to wear the Meir, 1990. A very readable biography, liberally
look. Club members picketed Dior’s hotel room in Chi- sprinkled with Dior’s fashion sketches and pictures of
cago, bearing signs urging others to join them in the fight his designs.
for freedom in manner of dress. Dior, however, pursued Giroud, Françoise. Dior: Christian Dior, 1905-1957.
his own vision of women. He saw them as flowers, and Translated by Stewart Spencer. New York: Rizzoli,
he thought that their legs should be shrouded in mystery. 1987. A biography filled with sumptuous pictures of
Dior retained his prewar sense of life and of style; some Dior’s homes, his workrooms, and his clothes. An ab-
critics claimed that he imagined a carefree and happy life solutely must-see book.
that had never really existed. Moreover, Dior expected Rethy, Esmeralda de, and Jean-Louis Perreau. Christian
women to shape their bodies to his clothes. He “pack- Dior: The Early Years, 1947-1957. New York: Ven-
aged” women for male consumption and subscribed to dome Press, 2001. Examination of Dior’s first ten
the old-fashioned religious view of women as tempt- years of success, beginning with his New Look col-
resses. lection of 1947. Bibliographic references.
Designer Coco Chanel thought that Dior’s New Look Robinson, Julian. Fashion in the Forties. New York: St.
embodied all the worst aspects of clothes designed for Martin’s Press, 1976. A detailed account of French,
women by men. She disliked Dior’s fashions so much British, and American fashion, especially during
that she reentered the fashion business, and critics agree World War II, that helps one understand the evolution
that she produced her best work during this period. of Dior’s New Look.
Chanel’s actions raised an important question: Should Steele, Valerie. Paris Fashion: A Cultural History. New
632
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Congress of Racial Equality Holds Its Journey of Reconciliation
York: Oxford University Press, 1988. A look at the fashion aficionados or not, readers will find this book
fashion industry through the eyes of a sociologist and provocative and instructive.
historian.
See also: July 5, 1946: Bikini Swimsuit Is Introduced;
1947
Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty
Mar. 19, 1954: Laura Ashley Fashion Company Is
Are Used Against Women. New York: William Mor-
Founded; Early 1960’s: Quant Introduces the Mini-
row, 1991. A cogent study of the fashion and beauty
skirt; Oct. 18, 1968: Lauren Creates the Polo Clothing
industry from a feminist’s point of view. Whether
Line.
April 9-23, 1947

Congress of Racial Equality Holds Its Journey of
Reconciliation
The Journey of Reconciliation, sponsored by the George M. Houser became the group’s executive secre-
Congress of Racial Equality, helped establish tary in 1945, a successful national campaign was one of
nonviolent direct action as the civil rights his chief goals. A white activist in FOR when he was cho-
organization’s identifying mark and served as a model sen for the new position, Houser had been involved with
for the Freedom Rides of the early 1960’s. James L. Farmer, Jr., and others in founding CORE and
was concerned that its first three years of efforts had
Locale: Washington, D.C.; Virginia; North Carolina; fallen short of his dream of making CORE a major force
Tennessee; Kentucky for nonviolent reform in the United States.
Categories: Civil rights and liberties; social issues The second major cause of the journey was the U.S.
and reform; organizations and institutions Supreme Court decision in Morgan v. Virginia (June,
Key Figures 1946), which declared Virginia’s policy of racial segre-
Bayard Rustin (1912-1987), civil rights advocate who gation on interstate motor carriers unconstitutional.
helped organize the Journey of Reconciliation and When several bus companies refused to comply with the
the 1963 March on Washington decision, Houser saw their resistance as the opportunity
James Peck (1915-1993), white supporter of civil he had looked for. Nonviolent direct action, he believed,
rights activism and one of the leaders of the Journey might help the cause of desegregated transportation
of Reconciliation and the Freedom Rides of 1961 while strengthening CORE’s impact.
George M. Houser (b. 1916), cofounder of CORE, a Bayard Rustin, a longtime activist who had served
leader of the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), causes such as Gandhi’s liberation efforts in India and
and a planner of the Journey of Reconciliation several antiwar campaigns, agreed. A founder of
CORE’s New York branch, Rustin was quite familiar
Summary of Event with the organization’s goals and needs. At CORE’s fall,
Three factors converged to bring about the 1947 Journey 1946, executive committee meeting, he and Houser ar-
of Reconciliation, which was sponsored jointly by the gued that the recent Morgan v. Virginia decision pro-
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and the Fellowship vided a promising setting for demonstrating the potential
of Reconciliation (FOR). The first and most basic was of nonviolent direct action. Both men at the time were
CORE’s desire to launch a direct-action campaign that secretaries in FOR’s Racial Industrial Department and
would attract national attention and thus strengthen the had the support of Abraham J. Muste, a widely known
organization at a time when its resources were meager pacifist and FOR executive.
and its activities limited. Since its founding in 1942 by a Throughout the fall and winter of 1946-1947, Rustin
biracial group in Chicago, CORE had been committed to and Houser gained other supporters both within and out-
nonviolent direct action on the model of Mahatma Gan- side their organizations. By January, 1947, they were
dhi in India and had sponsored sit-ins and other forms of ready to take a preliminary trip along the proposed route
nonviolent protest. both to gain additional partners and to finalize the details.
CORE’s budget was barely $100 per month in 1945- Their original plan to extend the trip into the Deep South
1946, however, and its public visibility was low. When all the way to New Orleans was abandoned because of
633
Congress of Racial Equality Holds Its Journey of Reconciliation The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the possibility of violent resistance. The Journey of Rec- and four others of varied professional backgrounds. Two
onciliation, as they called it after discussions with FOR of them, Joseph Felmet of Asheville, North Carolina, and
staffers, would be confined to the upper southern states Peck, were socialists affiliated with the Workers Defense
from Virginia to North and South Carolina. League. Peck was editor of the league’s news bulletin.
The third contributing factor to the journey was inter- The other three white participants were North Carolina
organizational cooperation among civil rights groups, Methodist pastors Ernest Bromley and Louis Adams,
augmented by local individuals and churches. During and Worth Randle, a Cincinnati biologist.
their planning trip in January, 1947, Houser and Rustin From Washington, the group traveled to Richmond,
enlisted a significant number of college students and Virginia, where the first overnight stop was scheduled.
black church members to provide housing and food for Half the group traveled on a Greyhound bus, the other
the journey participants. The National Association for half on the Trailways line. Each ticket listed every
the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) had seri- planned stopover in cities where the riders would address
ous misgivings about the journey and refrained from ac- meetings in churches, but the planners had determined
tive support, but it did offer its local contacts in several that the ultimate destination on each ticket required
communities along the route. The NAACP’s reluctance crossing a state line, since their specific goal was to im-
was caused by its fear of violent backlash if the travelers plement the Morgan decision of 1946. The plan was to
went into the Deep South or possibly even the border travel across Virginia, into North Carolina, Tennessee,
states. CORE’s decision to confine the trip to the Vir- and Kentucky, and then back across Virginia. The entire
ginia and Carolina areas helped ameliorate this concern, journey would take two weeks.
but not sufficiently to convince the NAACP executive Meetings were arranged chiefly by the NAACP in co-
secretary, Walter White, to provide funds or active assis- operation with local churches. Peck reported that it was
tance. exciting to begin the journey after months of anticipation
In late March and early April, 1947, the sixteen partic- and to be actually “on stage,” trying to challenge resis-
ipants in the journey engaged in intense training in tance to the recent court decision. The underlying hope
Washington, D.C. Anticipating the training techniques of the participants was not only to enforce a law but also
of the 1960’s, such as role-playing, lectures and discus- to change attitudes. If idealistic, this goal was basic to
sions, and learning ways to protect oneself in case of vio- those who set out on the potentially dangerous trip, usu-
lent resistance, they prepared. ally regarded as the first Freedom Ride.
On April 9, the group of eight whites and eight blacks Although the journey elicited no major violent re-
left the nation’s capital and headed southward through sponse, there were several arrests. The first was on a
northern Virginia. Ideologically, the biracial group Trailways carrier as the group left Petersburg, Virginia.
shared much. Four of the black participants in the Jour- Peck was arrested in Durham, North Carolina, along with
ney of Reconciliation were pacifists, among them Rustin and Johnson, during a rally in a church. Durham
Bayard Rustin, whose activist career included support was a small but prosperous city with better paving, hous-
for Gandhi’s liberation efforts in India. Rustin was paring, and other facilities in the white sections than in the
ticularly controversial because of his earlier affiliation black. Peck was bothered by this and spoke out against it.
with communism, an unusual association among black He and the others were detained only briefly and then
leaders, but he had abandoned communism by the early taken by car to Chapel Hill, the nearby site of the Univer-
1940’s. In addition to Rustin and Homer Jack of the Chi- sity of North Carolina. Interestingly, the Chapel Hill area
cago Council Against Racial and Religious Discrimina- was the only stop on the journey that witnessed real vio-
tion, the black participants were freelance lecturer lence.
Wallace Nelson, New York attorney Conrad Lynn, stu- In Cargill, a small town just outside Chapel Hill’s city
dent Andrew Johnson from Cincinnati, Chicago musi- limits, Peck was hit by a group of taxi drivers as he stood
cian Dennis Banks, William Worthy of the New York outside his bus. Inside the bus, four of the journey group
Council for a Permanent FEPC (Fair Employment Prac- were arrested when they tried to integrate the front seats.
tices Commission), and Eugene Stanley of A. and T. Col- Released on bail, they were taken by a local white Pres-
lege in North Carolina. byterian minister to his home for protection, but cabs full
All the white members were pacifists as well—James of hostile resisters wielded rocks and sticks and warned
Peck of the Peck and Peck clothing business family, the minister that they would burn his home if he did not
Houser, Jack, New York horticulturalist Igal Roodenko, get the group out of town.
634
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Congress of Racial Equality Holds Its Journey of Reconciliation
Other arrests occurred in Asheville, North Carolina, drivers, other passengers, and observers were sympa-
as the group traveled westward toward Tennessee after thetic toward desegregation but were ignorant of various
stopping in Greensboro. Again, Peck was arrested. The laws. Seeing the journey activists demonstrate nonvio-
1947
issue was the same in Asheville as in Chapel Hill, the ef- lent techniques, he felt, contributed to greater under-
fort to integrate the whites-only seats. Asheville hap- standing and support.
pened to be the home of one of the white participants, Joe At a deeper level, the Journey of Reconciliation was a
Felmet, and some of the group stayed overnight in his truly paradigmatic event. Strictly speaking, it was the
home. In the trial the next day, Peck and his codefendant, first Freedom Ride. What is usually termed the first Free-
a black participant from Chicago named Dennis Banks, dom Ride in popular parlance was actually modeled after
were found guilty and sentenced to thirty days on a road the 1947 precedent in key respects. Peck, who was active
gang. The state’s attorney and the judge who presided in both the 1947 journey and the 1961 Freedom Rides,
did not know about the Morgan decision and borrowed a saw the earlier event as supremely significant in the lon-
copy of the decision from Curtis Todd, a black attorney ger process of rides by desegregationist activists, de-
who represented the riders. As it turned out, Banks and scribing it as “perhaps the most unique and outstanding
Peck remained in jail only a few hours and were released, undertaking CORE has ever made.” CORE trainers used
but during that time, the other prisoners vented their an- both the concept of the journey and the methodology of
ger at Peck, a white man supporting blacks. Eventually, nonviolent protest in preparing for the 1961 rides into the
the state dropped the case when its officials learned more Deep South.
about the 1946 court decision. As a factor in the history of racial and ethnic rights,
From Asheville, the Journey of Reconciliation con- the Journey of Reconciliation is somewhat analogous to
tinued into Knoxville, Tennessee, then northward into the 1962 desegregation efforts in Albany, Georgia. In
Kentucky and back across Virginia before ending in both cases, the immediate goals were not achieved
Washington in late April. Of the five arrest cases during quickly. The specific objective of the journey was to in-
the two-week trip, all but one were dropped. The Chapel tensify grassroots efforts to achieve a greater degree of
Hill case was pursued by prosecutors, and Rustin, desegregation in public transportation. That did not hap-
Felmet, and Roodenko served thirty days at hard labor pen quickly, but the effort did increase public awareness
on a road gang. Nevertheless, there were no reporters of the problem and encourage many other efforts to de-
waiting to interview the participants and nothing like segregate interstate buses, trains, and other conveyances.
the intense journalistic enthusiasm that would mark the In doing that, the 1947 journey into the upper South also
Freedom Rides fourteen years later. The Journey of demonstrated that nonviolence had much more potential
Reconciliation was a pioneering effort that at the time than many people realized to augment legal efforts to
attracted a disappointingly slight response from the press bring about racial equality. Spiritually and intellectually,
and the public. the leaders were encouraged to perpetuate the nonviolent
method. Like Albany, the Journey of Reconciliation was
Significance a source of inspiration to challenge racial segregation
The significance of the Journey of Reconciliation lay, in and discrimination by concerted group action. That as-
the short run, in the heightened publicity it elicited and pect of the journey’s impact continued to have influence
the inspiration it gave to advocates of social change by throughout the 1950’s and into the following decade.
means of nonviolent direct action. Although no reporters The judicial proceedings that occurred during and af-
were waiting to interview the participants when they re- ter the Journey of Reconciliation were also significant
turned, press coverage of the various incidents during the for CORE’s later development. The several cases that
trip was fair and rather extensive. Both Houser and grew out of the trip were pursued by attorneys who sup-
Rustin were pleased with the details of press accounts ported CORE’s objectives and provided useful experi-
and considered them positive. For the participants them- ence in using the details of local and state laws to show
selves, newspaper articles were important for their later contradictions with Supreme Court decisions and thus to
efforts to gain support and recruit new activists. bring to bear on local problems the larger influence of
Indeed, many years later, CORE leaders used stories federal law. This was a rather slowly developing process
of the journey to teach nonviolent theory and encourage since bus companies often cited state law as their guide
participation. Peck was particularly encouraged by the and delayed implementing federal mandates until the
response of people in general to the effort and noted that courts made it clear that they applied.
635
Congress of Racial Equality Holds Its Journey of Reconciliation The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
CORE’s finances and public visibility remained Houser, George, and Bayard Rustin. We Challenged Jim
rather low even after the journey but it was the first of Crow! A Report on the Journey of Reconciliation,
several undertakings that would gradually propel the or- April 9-23, 1947. New York: Fellowship of Reconcil-
ganization to higher public recognition and larger mem- iation, 1947. This brief but valuable report lists and
bership. FOR assisted CORE in pursuing some of the describes all participants in the Journey of Reconcili-
cases, including the Chapel Hill litigation in months im- ation, outlines the highlights of the experiences in
mediately following the journey. By the 1950’s, CORE each city, and gives brief accounts of several arrests
was beginning to grow in several of its chapters and to and trials. It also includes a statement on the purposes
equip itself for a larger role in racial desegregation litiga- and nature of CORE and explanations of its nonvio-
tion. lent theory. No notes or index.
Above all, the trip was a favorite topic of conversation Johnson, Ollie A., III, and Karin L. Stanford, eds. Black
and training programs that led eventually to the 1960’s Political Organizations in the Post-Civil Rights Era.
Freedom Rides that elicited widespread media coverage New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press,
and support by youth across the nation. The Journey of 2002. Acollection that explores the role of black orga-
Reconciliation was clearly a high point in CORE’s his- nizations since the “end” of the Civil Rights move-
tory, as well as a model for the potential efficacy of non- ment in the late 1960’s. Includes a chapter on CORE,
violent direct action. “From Protest to Black Conservatism: The Demise of
—Thomas R. Peake the Congress of Racial Equality,” by Charles E. Jones.
Bibliography, index.
Further Reading Levine, Daniel. Bayard Rustin and the Civil Rights
Bell, Inge Powell. CORE and the Strategy of Nonvio- Movement. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University
lence. New York: Random House, 1968. This work Press, 2000. A biography of Rustin that includes dis-
traces and analyzes the development of CORE’s use cussion of Rustin’s philosophy of nonviolent protest
of nonviolent direct action from its early days until the and nonviolent direct action and their use in the Civil
height of the Civil Rights movement in the 1960’s. Rights movement.
Both conceptual and historical, it is useful for show- Meier, August, and Elliott Rudwick. CORE: A Study in
ing how direct action distinguished CORE from the the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968. New York:
older mainstream civil rights organizations. Contains Oxford University Press, 1973. A detailed account of
notes, bibliography, and index. the origins, development, and campaigns of CORE
Farmer, James. “On Cracking White City.” In My Soul Is from 1942 to the late 1960’s. Well documented with
Rested, edited by Howell Raines. New York: Putnam, CORE primary materials, this book demonstrates the
1977. In this introductory section of Raines’s valuable periodic resurgence of the organization and explains
oral history of the Civil Rights movement, James the basic reasons for its problems after 1966. List of
Farmer provides perspective on the evolution of pro- references and index.
test thought. One of the founders of CORE, Farmer Morris, Aldon D. The Origins of the Civil Rights Move-
had a distinctive vantage point for demonstrating the ment: Black Communities Organizing for Change.
difficulties and successes of the early movement. He New York: Free Press, 1984. This essential back-
underscores the importance of the 1946 Supreme ground study for most civil rights activities in the
Court decision that declared segregated interstate bus South includes extensive information on all the move-
seating unconstitutional and notes the importance of ment centers and organizations of the period. Its value
the journey as a precedent for the Freedom Rides. on this topic is chiefly its analysis of CORE in its early
Feldman, Glenn, ed. Before Brown: Civil Rights and days, particularly its establishment of a base in the
White Backlash in the Modern South. Tuscaloosa: South during the decade following the Journey of
University of Alabama Press, 2004. Places the start of Reconciliation. Notes, bibliography, index.
the Civil Rights movement long before Brown v. Peck, James. Freedom Ride. New York: Simon & Schu-
Board of Education (1954). Focuses on white south- ster, 1962. This compact account is particularly valu-
ern resistance to the movement. Includes the chapter able because its author was a leading participant in
“You Don’t Have to Ride Jim Crow: CORE and both the Journey of Reconciliation and the later Free-
the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation,” by Raymond dom Rides. A white liberal, Peck was at times in-
Arsenault. jured by opponents of integration yet persisted in his
636
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Robinson Breaks the Color Line in Major-League Baseball
civil rights activism. One sees in his work the emo- ery Bus Boycott; Jan. 10, 1957: SCLC Forms to Link
tions, risks, and goals of the freedom riders. Refer- Civil Rights Groups; Sept. 25, 1957: Eisenhower
ences, index. Sends Troops to Little Rock, Arkansas; Feb. 1-July
1947
See also: Spring, 1942: Congress of Racial Equality 25, 1960: Greensboro Sit-Ins; Apr. 3-May 8, 1963:
Forms; Apr. 3, 1944: Supreme Court Rules African Civil Rights Protesters Attract International Atten-
American Disenfranchisement Unconstitutional; tion; Aug. 28, 1963: King Delivers His “I Have a
May 17, 1954: Supreme Court Ends Public School Dream” Speech; June 21-22, 1964: Three Civil
Segregation; Dec. 5, 1955-Dec. 21, 1956: Montgom- Rights Workers Are Murdered.
April 15, 1947

Robinson Breaks the Color Line in Major-League Baseball
Branch Rickey recruited Jackie Robinson to be the first inforced by an informal agreement among the major-
African American major-league baseball player. league owners. This agreement was still very much in
Together, they began the racial integration of force in 1945, when Rickey decided to proceed with his
mainstream professional baseball and forwarded the plan to bring down baseball’s color barrier. Finding skill-
cause of civil rights and integration generally. ful African American players was not a problem. Al-
though they were excluded from major-league baseball,
Locale: Ebbets Field, Brooklyn, New York African Americans had not stopped playing the game.
Categories: Social issues and reform; sports Barnstorming professional and semiprofessional teams
Key Figures and eventually entire “Negro” leagues arose, with a level
Jackie Robinson (1919-1972), African American of play comparable to that of the major and top minor
professional baseball player leagues. Indeed, Negro League teams often beat white
Branch Rickey (1881-1965), president of the Brooklyn all-star teams in games played during the off-season.
Dodgers Despite their comparable skills, African American
Happy Chandler (1898-1991), commissioner of baseball players were paid much less and had to spend far
baseball, 1945-1951 more time traveling than white players. Nor did the Ne-
gro Leagues enjoy the stability of the major and minor
Summary of Event leagues. As a result, a pool of talented and more-than-
In 1945, the United States was both triumphant and trou- willing African American players was available to
bled. The most powerful nation in the world in the after- Rickey.
math of World War II, the United States measured its The integration of baseball had previously been advo-
strength not only in military and economic terms but also cated by African American sportswriters such as Sam
in the supposed moral superiority of American democ- Lacy of the Baltimore Afro-America and Wendell Smith
racy. In 1945, however, segregation and racial exclusion of the Pittsburgh Courier. What Rickey brought to the is-
remained the norms in American society. Even the U.S. sue was clout. He had the position and personality to be-
armed forces were largely segregated. In the years fol- gin integrating baseball and to deal with any opposition
lowing the war, Americans would have to come to terms that might arise. As with other civil rights advances of the
with the gap between what their democracy was sup- 1940’s, 1950’s, and 1960’s, there was stern opposition—
posed to be and what it was. It was in this context that from other major-league owners as well as fans. The
major-league baseball extended an opportunity to Afri- owners argued that white fans and players were not ready
can Americans and, in so doing, lost its status as a racist for integration. Rickey believed that the time was right,
institution. The change did not come easily and might however, and he pushed ahead.
have been significantly delayed if not for Branch Rickey, Rickey’s motivation has been the subject of consider-
the president of the Brooklyn Dodgers. able debate. He claimed to be acting on religious and
The color line that excluded African Americans from moral grounds, but he undoubtedly was aware of the
major-league baseball had its origins in the previous cen- growing economic success of the Negro Leagues, as well
tury and was solidly established. In 1923, it had been reas the wealth of talent they might offer to the Dodgers.
637
Robinson Breaks the Color Line in Major-League Baseball The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
the cause of racial equality, struggling against segrega-

tion while serving in the armed forces.
Rickey saw in Robinson a man with fire in his belly,
great self-control, and superb baseball skills. Robinson
saw both an athletic and a social challenge. With the
support of his wife, Rachel, he decided to accept the chal-
lenge, signing a contract to play in the Dodger organiza-
tion. One obstacle had to be overcome before the Jackie
Robinson experiment could begin, however. Rickey
wanted Robinson to acclimate himself by playing in the
minor leagues for one year. In order for Robinson to be
optioned to the Dodgers’ minor league team in Montreal,
the other major-league owners would have to approve.
None of them did.
Into this impasse stepped the new commissioner of
baseball, Happy Chandler, a former Kentucky politician
and veteran of public life. The previous commissioner,
Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis, had been an uncom-
promising opponent of integration. Indeed, it was Landis
more than anyone who had engineered and maintained
the 1923 agreement outlawing interracial play. Chandler
had inherited Landis’s autocratic power but not his atti-
tude on the color line. Despite considerable pressure
from the owners, Chandler overruled their fifteen-to-one
vote against Rickey, allowing Robinson to begin his ca-
Jackie Robinson. (National Baseball Library, Cooperstown, reer in mainstream professional baseball in the spring of
New York) 1946.
Later, Chandler would claim he had made his deci-
sion because he did not wish to explain to his Creator that
On the other hand, Rickey did not monopolize the best he had denied a fellow human being a chance to play
African American prospects, even recommending star baseball because of the color of his skin. Chandler’s po-
outfielder Monte Irvin to the rival New York Giants. litical sense was also astute. He correctly surveyed the
While motives are complex and difficult to discern, one political winds and realized that the criticism he took for
thing is clear: Rickey had an unshakeable belief in what allowing Robinson to play would have been dwarfed by
he was doing. the damage to his image that would have resulted if he
The question of who would shoulder the burden of had championed the cause of segregation. Americans’
breaking the color line was a difficult one. Rickey and opinions on race were changing, not entirely or all at
other advocates of integration knew that the honor of be- once, but enough to shift the tide.
ing that person would be at least equaled by the ordeal With permission to play secured, it was up to Robin-
and that even a very strong individual might be broken by son to succeed. He came through in every respect. He led
the twofold pressure of competing on the major-league Montreal to a league championship, winning the respect
level and being a crusader for racial justice. Because of of International League players and fans alike. He
the demanding job description, Rickey saw his choice to proved that he could keep his mind on the game of base-
be one of awesome importance. It was Wendell Smith ball while putting up with verbal abuse and physical in-
who recommended Jackie Robinson. Rickey had Robin- timidation in the form of brushback pitches and high
son scouted and interviewed him. All the qualifications spikes. Playing half of his games in Montreal, a multicul-
were there. Robinson was college educated and had tural Canadian city, probably helped, but Robinson had
played three different college sports on integrated teams. clearly proved his mettle.
At twenty-six years of age, Robinson was mature but still The following spring, Robinson joined the Dodgers’
in his prime. He also had demonstrated his dedication to roster, playing his first regular-season major-league
638
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Robinson Breaks the Color Line in Major-League Baseball
game on April 15, 1947. Although Robinson got off to a The indirect benefits of baseball’s integration were
slow start, he believed that his teammates were behind also substantial. Understood not as a first cause, but as an
him. (This might not have been the case had Rickey not important link in the chain of events, it facilitated later
1947
traded several Dodger players who refused to play with gains such as the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v.
an African American.) Opposing teams were another Board of Education (1954), which desegregated schools,
matter. They rode Robinson unmercifully, as was the and the Civil Rights Acts of 1957, 1964, and 1965, which
custom of the time with all rookies, often making race the addressed other forms of segregation, job discrimina-
focus of their comments. In living up to his agreement tion, and voting rights. The integration of baseball had
with Rickey, Robinson turned the other cheek to such rendered absurd the contention that the races were inca-
comments to avoid jeopardizing his cause by touching pable of interacting fruitfully for common ends. Clearly,
off a feud or a brawl. Sympathetic reporters such as Wal- if athletes of different races could play together, people
ter Winchell tried to ease Robinson’s burden by criticiz- of different races could work and live together. Equal op-
ing the worst offenders in their publications, a gesture for portunity in baseball was analogous to that throughout
which Robinson later expressed gratitude. American society. Finally, baseball’s integration fos-
Soon Robinson began to play well, proving himself to tered bonds between white fans and African American
be an excellent hitter and baserunner, as well as a versa- players. This made it less likely that white Northerners
tile fielder. By the end of the year, Robinson had batted would accept segregation and other forms of racial injus-
.297, won Rookie of the Year honors, and, quite literally, tice passively, as they had in the past.
revolutionized baseball. The Dodgers won the National It is a mistake, however, to see Robinson’s triumph
League pennant. With Robinson and many other African over baseball’s color line as a signal that racial justice
American players, they would win five more pennants in and equality are no longer problematic issues in Ameri-
the next nine years, becoming a convincing testament to can society. While the player rosters of organized base-
the possibilities of interracial cooperation. The other ball teams became thoroughly integrated, African Amer-
owners had been proved wrong. White players and fans icans remain clearly underrepresented in managerial,
overwhelmingly accepted integration, rejecting a past coaching, and front-office positions, although some
that most Americans were more than willing to forget. progress has been made in these areas. There have, in ad-
The cost to Robinson was significant. His hair turned dition, been charges of remaining discrimination on the
prematurely gray, and he spent many years recovering field. Specifically, it has been alleged that players of
from the trauma of his groundbreaking achievement. He marginal ability have better chances to make big-league
had made himself a target in order to rub out baseball’s rosters if they are white. Similarly, pockets of racial prej-
color line. For this Robinson suffered, but he never ex- udice continue to exist among fans. Moreover, the exis-
pressed regret. tence of a pool of well-paid African American athletes is
a misleading indicator of economic distribution accord-
Significance ing to race. African Americans continue to make up a dis-
The initial and most obvious impact of Jackie Robin- proportionate number of America’s poor, and the exis-
son’s triumph over the color line in baseball was to create tence of a few wildly successful African American role
career opportunities for other African American baseball models—for generations that will by and large never
players. Moved primarily by the need to stay competitive achieve such success—is a powerful instance of the am-
(the Dodgers dominated the National League for a de- biguous value of the ideology of the American Dream.
cade with the help of African American players such as None of these considerations should diminish the ap-
Robinson, Roy Campanella, Joe Black, Don Newcombe, preciation due Jackie Robinson. He did not manage to
and Jim Gilliam), and in the absence of the dire conse- strike down racism with a single blow, but he was not an
quences they had predicted, other owners began to scout “Uncle Tom” either. He was a fine athlete with highly de-
and sign talented African American players. There was veloped social values and the character and courage to
still hesitancy on the part of some franchises, most nota- back them up. Perhaps most impressive was Robinson’s
bly the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox, but refusal to become rigid in his thinking. As the terrain of
by 1959 every major-league team had been integrated. race relations in the United States changed toward the
Baseball had been successfully transformed into a sym- end of his life, Robinson changed his political affiliation,
bol of racial equality and harmony rather than one of hy- citing the Republican Party’s lack of committment to the
pocrisy and frustrated dreams. cause of racial equality. Recognizing the need for new
639
Robinson Breaks the Color Line in Major-League Baseball The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
initiatives rather than worship of the past, Robinson Roy Campanella, and many other major-league play-
never presented his own experience as a reason for com- ers, as well as Negro League players, managers, and
placency. He saw clearly that the quest for racial justice coaches. Available in print for the first time since
was an ongoing struggle. 1964.
— Ira Smolensky Robinson, Jackie, with Wendell Smith. Jackie Robin-
son: My Own Story. New York: Greenberg Press,
Further Reading
1948. A straightforward account of Robinson’s ath-
Aaron, Hank. I Had a Hammer. New York: Harper-
letic career and experience breaking organized base-
Collins, 1991. Describes Aaron’s early experience as
ball’s color line. Contains many photographs. Also
one of relatively few African American players, his
notable is the participation of Smith, who wrote for
hall-of-fame career, and his subsequent frustration
the Pittsburgh Courier, an African American paper. It
with the failure of baseball owners to integrate man-
was Smith who recommended Robinson to Branch
agement and coaching staffs fully.
Rickey.
Frommer, Harvey. Rickey and Robinson: The Men Who
Tygiel, Jules. Baseball’s Great Experiment: Jackie Rob-
Broke Baseball’s Color Barrier. New York: Mac-
inson and His Legacy. New York: Oxford University
millan, 1982. Provides a rich portrait of the two fig-
Press, 1983. Thoroughly researched social history
ures central to the Jackie Robinson story.
that casts light not only on the personalities involved
Kahn, Roger. The Boys of Summer. New York: Harper &
in the Jackie Robinson story but also on the broader
Row, 1972. A sport journalist’s “then and now” por-
social and historical context in which these individu-
traits of Jackie Robinson and selected teammates on
als operated. Examines racial integration of all the
the Dodgers. Remarkable for its frankness and depth
major-league teams and the subsequent issue of orga-
of feeling.
nized baseball’s integration on the management level.
Lamb, Chris. Blackout: The Untold Story of Jackie Rob-
Voight, David Q. America Through Baseball. Chicago:
inson’s First Spring Training. Lincoln: University of
Nelson-Hall, 1976. Chapter 8, “American Baseball
Nebraska Press, 2004. Detailed account, providing a
and the American Dilemma,” presents a thought-
background on baseball’s color line and Robinson’s
provoking critique of the so-called Jackie Robinson
early life and recounting his recruitment by Rickey
myth: the belief that Robinson’s entry into baseball
and his early training, through his first minor-league
somehow fostered or signaled a golden age of racial
game in Montreal.
equality.
Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma: The Negro
Woodward, C. Vann. The Strange Career of Jim Crow.
Problem and American Democracy. New York:
New York: Oxford University Press, 1957. A classic,
Harper & Row, 1962. Originally published in 1945,
highly readable account of segregation in the Ameri-
Myrdal’s book went into great detail and pulled no
can South.
punches in its portrayal of American racism. A Swed-
ish sociologist, Myrdal served the United States well See also: June 2, 1941: Yankee Baseball Great Lou
in the role of social conscience, propelling Americans Gehrig Dies; Sept. 30-Oct. 6, 1947: NBC Broadcasts
toward experiments in racial equality. the Baseball World Series; Oct. 8, 1956: Larsen Pit-
Peterson, Robert W. Only the Ball Was White. Engle- ches a Perfect Game in Baseball’s World Series; Fall,
wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Describes life 1957: Brooklyn Dodgers Move to Los Angeles; Sept.
in the Negro Leagues. Also quotes from a 1923 agree- 7, 1960: Rudolph Becomes the Fastest Woman in the
ment by white team owners that continued and for- World; Mar. 2, 1962: Chamberlain Scores 100 Points
malized the exclusion of African American players. in a Professional Basketball Game; Feb. 25, 1964:
Robinson, Jackie. Baseball Has Done It. Reprint. Intro- Clay Defeats Liston to Gain World Heavyweight
duction by Spike Lee. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Ig, 2005. An Boxing Title; May 5, 1969: Russell Retires as the
oral history of the racial integration of baseball, con- Celtics Take an Eleventh NBA Title; Jan. 16, 1970:
sisting of Robinson’s interviews with Hank Aaron, Flood Tests Baseball’s Reserve Clause.
640
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki Expedition
April 28-August 7, 1947

Heyerdahl’s KON-TIKI Expedition
1947
Described by many as one of the greatest ocean carved them. He formulated a theory to answer his ques-
adventures of the twentieth century, Thor Heyerdahl’s tions: Ancient, pre-Incan people had sailed from South
Kon-Tiki Expedition was undertaken to test his theory America to settle the Polynesian Islands. Cultural an-
that, originally, Polynesian peoples came from the thropologists were of two schools concerning the origin
Americas, not from Asia as had previously been of the Polynesian people: The “isolationists” believed
believed. the culture had arisen spontaneously; the “diffusionists”
said the people had migrated from Asia.
Locale: South America; Pacific Ocean; Polynesia In March, 1938, Heyerdahl returned to Norway and
Categories: Anthropology; exploration and began serious study of how Stone Age people might have
discovery come to Polynesia. He discovered stone carvings of peo-
Key Figures ple with a striking resemblance to those he had met on the
Thor Heyerdahl (1914-2002), Norwegian zoologist, islands, but the carvings were of Northwest Coast Indi-
anthropologist, and explorer ans from the Bella Coola Valley of British Columbia.
Bengt Danielsson (1921-1997), Swedish writer and Heyerdahl publicly introduced his theory in Interna-
anthropologist tional Science in an article titled “Did Polynesian Culture
Knut Haugland (b. 1917), Norwegian radio expert and Originate in America?” (1941). He asserted that two sep-
World War II hero arate migrations from the American mainland had popu-
Erik Hesselberg (1914-1972), Norwegian children’s lated Polynesia; the first was a pre-Incan civilization
book writer and artist from near Lake Titicaca and along the Peruvian coast;
Torstein Raaby (1920-1964), Norwegian radio expert the second, later, migration was from Bella Coola, Brit-
and World War II hero ish Columbia, via the Hawaiian Islands. His theory was
Herman Watzinger (1910-1986), Norwegian engineer contrary to those of ethnologists, who insisted that the in-
habitants of Polynesia must have migrated solely from
Summary of Event Asia, because it would have been impossible for ancient
As a child, Thor Heyerdahl showed a precocious interest peoples to sail far enough to reach Polynesia from the
in biology. He majored in zoology at the University of Americas.
Oslo from 1933 to 1936, becoming particularly inter- During World War II, Heyerdahl was occupied as a
ested in the origins of animal life on isolated islands. soldier in the Free Norwegian Forces, but after the war,
Consequently, Heyerdahl and his wife Liv Coucheron despite the skepticism of the experts, he set out to prove
Torp left Norway in 1936 to study animal life on Fatu that primitive people could have traveled from South
Hiva in the Marquesas Islands, an isolated group of America to Polynesia. Heyerdahl had studied legends of
French-owned islands in the Polynesian archipelago. Virakocha, originally known as Kon-Tiki (Sun-Tiki), the
Heyerdahl lived among the Marquesans, studying their leader of a group of tribes who were white and tall, with
crafts and listening to their legends. One legend was of long, flowing beards. They were builders and erected
the hero Tiki, called the Son of the Sun, a fair-haired, stone monuments. According to legends and historical
white-skinned god who brought his people to the island accounts, the tribes were massacred at Lake Titicaca,
from the east. Heyerdahl was shown a six-foot-long pet- Peru, around 500 c.e., but Kon-Tiki escaped with some
roglyph of a fish, surrounded by sun symbols. Elsewhere of his followers by sailing westward across the Pacific
on the rock face were carvings of human figures and a Ocean in a small boat.
crescent-shaped ship. Armed with knowledge of the legends and having
Heyerdahl questioned the Marquesans as to the ori- seen evidence of people with strong similarities to those
gins of these carvings. On Hiva Oa, a neighboring island, ancient tribes of Peru in Polynesia, Heyerdahl set out to
Heyerdahl saw giant red stone statues called colossi; prove his theory with a practical demonstration. He
there was nothing like them on the other islands. There would re-create an ancient sailing vessel using authentic
were also reliefs, including one of a creature that looked materials and sail it from the coast of South America to
like a cat. Since there were no such animals on the is- the Polynesian Islands. At a meeting of the New York
lands, Heyerdahl wondered how an artist could have City Explorers Club, he enlisted the support of Danish
641
Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki Expedition The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
polar explorer Peter Freuchen, who, unlike others, be- 1947, the fifteen-ton raft was christened Kon-Tiki, in
lieved in the capabilities of primitive vessels. To Heyer- memory of the ancient Sun God, and the next day it was
dahl, Freuchen’s greatest contribution to the expedition towed by the tug Guardian Rios fifty miles offshore, into
was to take it seriously. Thanks to Freuchen’s support, fi- the Humboldt Current, and set adrift. At sea, the crew
nancial backers appeared. Heyerdahl assembled a crew learned how to sail the raft, playing the prevailing winds
of five fellow Norwegians: Herman Watzinger, second and the Humboldt and South Equatorial currents.
in command, would record meteorological and hydro- Heyerdahl expected Kon-Tiki to reach the Marquesas
graphic data on the voyage. Knut Haugland and Torstein Islands, more than four thousand miles away, in fifteen
Raaby were to be radio operators, and Erik Hesselberg or sixteen weeks, or by mid-August. Using the radio, the
would be the ship’s navigator. A Swede, Bengt Daniels- crew stayed in contact with those monitoring their prog-
son, in charge of supplies, joined the crew in Peru. ress. They broadcast weather information and daily
The raft was to replicate ancient vessels and be built of progress reports. A running account of the voyage, au-
balsa wood. To find the lightweight wood, the crew had thored by Heyerdahl, was radioed and published in The
to travel deep into the jungles of Ecuador. They cut, New York Times. The first report, May 13, noted that the
trimmed, and debarked twelve giant trees; the logs were expedition had covered more than five hundred miles
then floated to the sea, accompanied by quantities of and survived a severe storm lasting five days. “Although
bamboo and lianas to be used on the finished raft. The each wave looked as if it would roll over us, the raft
raft was built without nails, spikes, or wire at the Lima, proved amazingly buoyant,” and the tons of water that
Peru, port of Callao. Nine of the thickest logs were used, fell over the raft quickly dispersed between the logs. The
and grooves were cut into the wood for the hemp ropes skeptics were proved wrong concerning the seawor-
that fastened the logs into a raft that was forty-five feet thiness of the raft.
long and eighteen feet wide. The raft had an open bam- Heyerdahl also commented on the number and types
boo cabin covered with banana leaves and two masts of fish: “It is like sailing over an aquarium.” Food was
with square sails, painted with the image of Kon-Tiki. not a problem; using flying fish for bait, the crew could
Skeptics said the balsa raft would sink, the ropes would “catch more fish in five minutes than [they could] eat in
disintegrate, and the crew would drown. On April 27, two days.” Ancient seafarers had carried water in cross-
sections of bamboo; Kon-Tiki’s water supply
consisted of 275 gallons of crystal-clear
spring water from the Andes, supplemented
with rain water. Two hundred coconuts were
also aboard. Skeptics were also proved wrong
about the expedition’s progress. On June 20,
the crew radioed a record drift of 132 miles in
two days. They reported that they were half-
way to their destination, five days ahead of
schedule.
To view image, please refer to print edition On July 9, Heyerdahl reported that after
seventy-five days at sea, the raft had drifted
thirty-four hundred nautical miles. He noted
the balsa raft had “fine sea capacities and im-
pressive speed.” Even in the biggest waves,
the raft rode the sea “like a duck.” After two
back-to-back gales, the ropes holding the raft
together stretched, but they held. Unfortu-
nately, the raft had drifted in such a direction
that Heyerdahl was certain they would not see
the Marquesas Islands. He hoped instead to
make landfall on one of the islands of the
Thor Heyerdahl poses with a model of the Kon-Tiki in 1950. (Hulton Ar- Tuamotu Archipelago.
chive/Getty Images) On July 17, the crew saw the first definite
642
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki Expedition
Rafting Across the Pacific peoples from prehistoric America. What was not disput-
able was that six men, none of whom had sailing experi-
The balsa-wood raft Kon-Tiki traveled more than 4,300 ence, navigated winds and currents, showing courage to
miles from Lima, Peru, to Polynesia, a journey that
1947
a public thirsty for vicarious adventure. Heyerdahl’s
lasted 101 days. Thor Heyerdahl documented the expe- book Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific by Raft (1950) sold
dition in his widely read book Kon-Tiki, published in more than thirty million copies and was translated into
1950:
more than seventy languages. In 1951, the documentary
By late afternoon the trade wind was already blowing film of the voyage won an Academy Award.
at full strength. It quickly stirred up the ocean into roar- —Marcia B. Dinneen
ing seas which swept against us from astern. For the first
Further Reading
time we fully realized that here was the sea itself come to
Heyerdahl, Thor. American Indians in the Pacific: The
meet us; it was bitter earnest now—our communications
were cut. Whether things went well now would depend Theory Behind the Kon-Tiki Expedition. London: Al-
entirely on the balsa raft’s good qualities in the open sea. len & Unwin, 1952. A massive work that examines
We knew that, from now onward, we should never get the facts supporting Heyerdahl’s theory of Polynesian
another onshore wind or chance of turning back. We origins in early America.
were in the path of the real trade wind, and every day _______. Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific by Raft. Trans-
would carry us farther and farther out to sea. The only lated by F. H. Lyon. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1950.
thing to do was to go ahead under full sail; if we tried to An account of the expedition, including background
turn homeward, we should only drift farther out to sea concerning Heyerdahl’s reasons for undertaking the
stern first. There was only one possible course, to sail be- voyage.
fore the wind with our bow toward the sunset. And, after
Holton, Graham E. L. “Heyderdahl’s Kon Tiki Theory
all, that was the object of our voyage—to follow the sun
and the Denial of the Indigenous Past.” Anthropologi-
in its path as we thought Kon-Tiki and the old sun-
worshipers must have done when they were driven out cal Forum 14, no. 2 (July, 2004): 163-181. Details the
to sea from Peru. argument against Heyerdahl’s theory.
Jacoby, Arnold. Senior Kon-Tiki: The Biography of Thor
Heyerdahl. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1967. Biograph-
ical information contributes to an understanding of
why Heyerdahl developed his theory and undertook
sign they were approaching land: Two giant boobies cir-
the Kon-Tiki Expedition.
cled the raft. On July 30, they sighted the island of Puka-
Ralling, Christopher. The Kon-Tiki Man: Thor Heyer-
Puka, an atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago. However, the
dahl. London: BBC Books, 1990. An illustrated ac-
“vagaries of wind and tide” prevented their landing. Kon-
count of Heyerdahl’s travels; provides background
Tiki drifted another 260 miles into the archipelago before
material on the Kon-Tiki Expedition.
it finally crashed on the Raroia Reef on August 7; all
hands were safe.
See also: May 29, 1953: Hillary and Tenzing Reach the
Significance Top of Mount Everest; June, 1959: Price Identifies an
The forty-three-hundred-mile, 101-day voyage of the Ancient Astronomical Computer; 1964: Renfrew,
Kon-Tiki proved part of Heyerdahl’s theory: Ancient Dixon, and Cann Reconstruct Ancient Near Eastern
peoples could have sailed from the Americas to the Poly- Trade Routes; 1965: Anthropologists Claim That
nesian Islands. Anthropologists, however, continued to Ecuadorian Pottery Shows Transpacific Contact in
dispute whether the islands were settled by migrating 3000 b.c.e.
643
Japan Becomes a Constitutional Democracy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
May 3, 1947
Japan Becomes a Constitutional Democracy
Japan was defeated in World War II and occupied by quired replacing a constitution that Americans believed
the United States, which forced Japan to accept had provided the foundation for Japanese militarism and
democracy in place of authoritarianism as the basis of imperialist aggression.
a new political system. This new, American-imposed General of the Army Douglas MacArthur occupied a
system was codified in the Japanese Constitution of central place in the process of Japan becoming a constitu-
1947, which made government responsible to the tional democracy. President Harry S. Truman appointed
people and included safeguards aimed at preventing a him to command the U.S. occupation that began in Au-
revival of militarism or imperialism. gust, 1945. As the supreme commander of the Allied
Powers, MacArthur and his staff—the Supreme Com-
Also known as: Japanese Constitution of 1947; mand for the Allied Powers (SCAP)—worked with Ja-
Shfwa Constitution pan’s postwar leaders to create an open society based on
Locale: Tokyo, Japan capitalism and popular rights. Among the reforms SCAP
Categories: World War II; government and politics; sponsored, perhaps the most important and permanent
colonialism and occupation was adoption of a new constitution.
Key Figures MacArthur, acting on instructions from Washington,
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), American supreme informed Japan’s postwar government of the need for
commander of the Allied Powers and military constitutional revision in October, 1945. In response,
governor of Japan, 1945-1951 Prime Minister Kijnrf Shidehara created a special com-
Charles L. Kades (1906-1996), U.S. Army lieutenant mittee and appointed as its chair former Tokyo Univer-
colonel and deputy director of the Government sity professor Matsumoto Joji. The Matsumoto Commit-
Section of the Supreme Command of the Allied tee drafted a document that provided for only modest
Powers revision of the Meiji Constitution, reaffirming the em-
Matsumoto Joji (1877-1954), Japanese minister of peror’s political supremacy. The U.S. State Department
state in charge of the constitution instantly rejected this draft, because the terms of surren-
Kijnrf Shidehara (1872-1951), prime minister of der dictated by the Allies to Japan stipulated that Japan
Japan, October, 1945-April, 1946 could retain its monarchy only if the emperor had no real
Ashida Hitoshi (1887-1959), Japanese diet member governmental authority.
and chair of the Committee to Popularize the MacArthur assigned the task of preparing an Ameri-
Constitution can version of Japan’s new constitution to the Govern-
ment Section of SCAP, with Lieutenant Colonel Charles
Summary of Event L. Kades, a graduate of Harvard Law School, chairing
In 1889, Japan adopted the Meiji Constitution, which as- the drafting committee. His instructions established as
signed supreme political authority to the emperor and a required provisions only preservation of the emperor, re-
place of dominance in government to an aristocratic nunciation of war, and an end to Japan’s feudal system.
elite. It also created a position of privilege and power for Nine subcommittees worked in secrecy on different parts
the military. Thereafter, Imperial Japan used force to ex- of the constitution, completing the document in just ten
tend its territorial control in East Asia, culminating in a days. Japanese leaders did not learn that the Matsumoto
war to subjugate China in 1937. The United States tried version was “completely unacceptable” until February
to halt this expansion with verbal protests and then eco- 13, 1946, when MacArthur presented the American draft
nomic sanctions, causing Japan to attack U.S. military as its substitute. Shidehara was stunned. MacArthur
installations at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Al- acted quickly to reassure Japan’s leaders. He emphasized
most immediately after entering World War II, the U.S. that acceptance of the draft would exclude Emperor
government began to plan for the postwar reconstruction Hirohito from prosecution as a war criminal, which most
of Japan, focusing attention on the future structure of its Americans and many of the Allies favored. Moreover, it
government and the status of the emperor. In public dec- would speed restoration of sovereignty, thereby ending
larations, the United States identified democratization of foreign control of Japanese politics.
Japan as a major war aim. Achievement of this goal re- MacArthur’s arguments, added to recognition of the
644
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japan Becomes a Constitutional Democracy
ishing prewar peerage and advisory

positions for the elite, it vested gov-
ernmental power in the Diet, a bi-
1947
cameral legislature whose represen-
tatives were to be elected without
regard to sex, income, or social status.
A lower house with 466 members
held primary power. People at least
twenty years of age were to vote in
124 districts for three to five repre-
sentatives, who would serve four-
year terms. The lower house elected
a prime minister, who named cabi-
net members, half of whom had to
be members of the Diet. The upper
House of Councilors had 250 mem-
bers, elected at the prefectural level
and nationwide for six-year terms,
but the lower house could override
decisions of the upper house by a
two-thirds majority vote. Also, the
General Douglas MacArthur (seated) presides over the surrender of Japan aboard lower house controlled the budget
the USS Missouri, September 2, 1945. (Digital Stock) and ratified treaties. The cabinet se-
lected and voters confirmed justices
on a supreme court, who had the
futility of resistence, persuaded influential conserva- power to decide the constitutionality of the Diet’s legis-
tives, especially Foreign Minister Shigeru Yoshida and lation and to name judges to sit on lower courts.
Ashida Hitoshi, to accept the American draft and arrange Perhaps the most famous and controversial provision
for its expeditious adoption. On April 17, newspapers in of the constitution was Article 9, which renounced war
Japan published the complete text of the “MacArthur forever. It also pledged that “land, sea, and air forces, as
Constitution” in colloquial Japanese, making it accessi- well as other war potential, will never be maintained,” al-
ble to the general public. Another reason for the broad though minimal forces were allowed for a purely self-
and genuine popular appeal of the constitution was
Ashida’s efforts as chair of the Committee to Pop-
ularize the Constitution to build support. Japanese Japan Renounces War
conservatives moved quickly to secure the ap-
proval of the Privy Council. In August, the House Chapter 2 of the constitution of Japan, which became effective
of Representatives of the Diet (legislature) ap- May 3, 1947, includes Article 9, which renounced war and a
pointed a special committee to review the docu- standing military force.
ment. After the lower house approved a slightly
1. Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on jus-
modified version, the upper House of Peers gave tice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a
its consent in October. On November 3, 1946, the sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as
new constitution was promulgated, with a provi- means of settling international disputes.
sion for it to become effective six months later. 2. In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding para-
Japan became a constitutional democracy on graph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential,
May 3, 1947. Divided into chapters, the new con- will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state
stitution was a detailed document containing 103 will not be recognized.
articles. It assigned sovereignty to the people, Source: National Diet Library of Japan. Government Printing Bureau
making Emperor Hirohito, who had denied his di- translation (undated). http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/.
vinity in 1946, “the symbol of the state.” Abol-
645
Japan Becomes a Constitutional Democracy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
defensive purpose. Thirty-one articles guaranteed an as- ample of Japan’s talent for achieving national strength
sortment of “fundamental human rights,” among them through adaptation to what it borrowed from the outside
respect for individuals, freedom of thought, a right to ed- world.
ucation, and “minimum standards of wholesome and cul- —James I. Matray
tural living.” Of special significance at the time were
those provisions ensuring sexual equality in a wide range Further Reading
of areas, including suffrage, property rights, inheritance, Brands, Hal. “Who Saved the Emperor? The MacArthur
divorce, and matters pertaining to marriage and the fam- Myth and U.S. Policy Toward Hirohito and the Japa-
ily. These guarantees reflected the desires of Japanese nese Imperial Institution, 1942-1946.” Pacific Histor-
feminists, who found champions in several female staff ical Review 75 (May, 2006): 271-305. Argues that
members of SCAP. Other chapters dealt with national fi- MacArthur expedited implementation of a U.S. war-
nance and local self-government. Amendments required time policy of allowing the Japanese to retain the
a two-thirds vote of the Diet and approval of a majority of monarchy if the constitution gave the emperor no real
voters in a special referendum. power.
Hellegers, Dale M. We, the Japanese People: World
Significance War II and the Origins of the Japanese Constitution.
Adoption of a new constitution in 1947 was arguably the Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002. Re-
most important event in modern Japanese history, be- affirms the traditional view that MacArthur ordered
cause it swept away all vestiges of militarism and author- his staff to write the 1947 constitution and compelled
itarianism. Political parties, interest groups, and business Japanese leaders to accept authorship of it with few
leaders replaced the outlawed aristocracy and military as changes.
the new power brokers in postwar Japan. The constitu- Inoue Kyoko. MacArthur’s Japanese Constitution: A
tion remained controversial among the Japanese people, Linguistic and Cultural Study of Its Making. Chicago:
however, not least because global politics had a direct University of Chicago Press, 1991. Describes how the
impact on how they judged whether its provisions served translation of the 1947 constitution into Japanese cre-
the interests of the nation and its people. The escalating ated disagreements with the Americans that exposed
Cold War between the United States and the Soviet differences on its meaning, with Japan’s version re-
Union, which not only halted reforms during the U.S. oc- flecting its values and traditions.
cupation but also led to the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty of Koseki Shoichi. The Birth of Japan’s Postwar Constitu-
1951, polarized Japanese politics. Conservative nation- tion. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997. Empha-
alists called for revision of the constitution that had been sizes how Japanese conservatives reinterpreted the
“imposed” on Japan. Pacifists vigorously defended the American draft of the Japanese Constitution of 1947
“peace constitution,” because revision invited rearma- to conform with Japan’s legal, political, and cultural
ment. traditions, thereby winning public support for the
The Cold War had another, quite unforeseen effect: document.
The U.S. government soon came to favor modification of Matray, James I. Japan’s Emergence as a Global Power.
Article 9 to allow Japan to arm itself. This would allow Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2000. Provides a suc-
the country to make a greater contribution to the Ameri- cinct description of how Japan became a constitu-
can anticommunist security system in East Asia. The tional democracy, as well as covering later debate
Japanese refused all attempts to amend the constitution, about constitutional revision. Reprints portions of the
saying that they had had enough of militarism and war. In 1947 constitution.
later years, however, a liberal interpretation of the self-
defense clause allowed for creation of a significant mili- See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
tary and its limited deployment overseas. This and other cific Theater; Dec. 7, 1941: Bombing of Pearl Harbor;
economic, social, and political reforms that have had an May 3, 1947: Japanese Constitution Grants New
impact on Japan have not always coincided with the in- Rights to Women; Sept. 8, 1951: Treaty of Peace with
tentions of U.S. officials, providing perhaps the best ex- Japan Is Signed in San Francisco.
646
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japanese Constitution Grants New Rights to Women
May 3, 1947
Japanese Constitution Grants New Rights to Women
1947
For the first time in Japan’s modern history, women came the primary U.S. agency for formulating policy
received political, social, and economic rights under a guidelines in Japan and continued in that role until its dis-
new constitution written under U.S. guidance after solution in November, 1947. Formulated by May, 1944,
Japan’s surrender, which ended World War II. was a plan called “The Post-War Objectives of the
United States in Regard to Japan,” which became the ba-
Also known as: SWNCC-228 sis for the more detailed plan, “U.S. Initial Policy”
Locale: Tokyo, Japan (SWNCC 150/4), which was radioed to General Douglas
Categories: Government and politics; civil rights MacArthur, Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers
and liberties; social issues and reform; women’s (SCAP), on August 29, 1945.
issues Earlier, the Potsdam Declaration of July 26 had de-
Key Figures manded Japan’s immediate surrender and stated that Ja-
Beate Sirota (b. 1923), civilian employee in the pan would be occupied until the government had been
government section of Supreme Command Allied democratized, preferably by the people, as stipulated in
Powers, who wrote the constitutional sections on the Atlantic Charter (1941). The Japanese government
women’s rights rejected Potsdam, as it did not guarantee the existence of
Hugh Borton (1903-1995), state department employee, Japan’s emperor system. On August 6 and 9, the United
expert on Japan, and principal author of SWNCC- States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Naga-
228 saki. Emperor Hirohito addressed his people over the ra-
Courtney Whitney (1897-1969), U.S. brigadier general dio and asked that they surrender to the Allied forces and
and lawyer, who became the chief of the peacefully accept the first occupation in Japan’s history.
government section at General Headquarters, or On August 30 the U.S. military quickly established
GHQ, in 1945 general headquarters in Tokyo. U.S. president Harry S.
Charles L. Kades (1906-1996), deputy chief of the Truman signed SWNCC 150/4 on September 6, making
government section at GHQ and principal drafter of it official U.S. government policy, and gave MacArthur
the Japanese constitution almost unconditional authority to implement U.S. pol-
Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964), American Supreme icy. On September 18 and October 22, MacArthur re-
Commander of the Allied Powers and military ceived more definitive orders regarding occupation pol-
governor of Japan, 1945-1951 icy from the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Neither of these orders
Matsumoto Joji (1877-1954), Japanese minister of mandated constitutional reform or mentioned women’s
state in charge of the constitution rights.
Shigeru Yoshida (1878-1967), career diplomat, who MacArthur’s Civil Liberties Directive to the Japanese
served as prime minister during the constitution’s government, issued on October 4, stated that there would
ratification in the Japanese diet be no discrimination on the basis of race, nationality,
Hirohito (1901-1989), emperor of Japan, r. 1926-1989, creed, or political opinion; gender was not addressed.
who supported the constitutional rewrite and This directive was supported by the Japanese people but
ratification process not by the conservative government headed by Prime
Kijnrf Shidehara (1872-1951), prime minister of Minister Kijnrf Shidehara. On October 11, MacArthur
Japan, October, 1945-April, 1946, whose told Shidehara to liberalize the 1889 Meiji Constitution;
unsuccessful attempts to rewrite the constitution emancipation of females was listed first as an objective.
drove MacArthur to command government-sector This was a statement or suggestion, not a directive or
personnel to rewrite it order; however, Shidehara responded by appointing
Matsumoto Joji and other cabinet ministers to rewrite the
Summary of Event Meiji Constitution.
On March 10, 1943, the U.S. State Department began Between November 27, 1944, and December 19,
planning changes for Japan following its surrender at the 1945, the SWNCC-228 and 228/1 documents mandating
end of World War II. The State-War-Navy Coordinating the reform of the Japanese constitution and government
Committee (SWNCC), formed in December, 1944, be- were written, primarily by Hugh Borton, a State Depart-
647
Japanese Constitution Grants New Rights to Women The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ment official. These documents were forwarded infor- created became Article 14 (a Japanese equal rights
mally to MacArthur and his immediate staff by the amendment), Article 24 (equal rights in marriage, di-
Tokyo-based State Department political adviser, George vorce, inheritance, property rights, and choice of domi-
Atcheson, Jr., on December 13, and formally sent to cile), Article 26 (equal educational opportunity), Article
MacArthur on January 11, 1946, by the SWNCC. They 27 (equal right and obligation to work), and Article 44
were sent as information rather than as official directives (equal rights to run for and hold political office). Article
but became the blueprint for the American rewrite of the 15, universal adult suffrage, was not written by Sirota.
Japanese constitution. These rights were more sweeping and inclusive than ex-
In December, 1945, the Japanese diet (legislative isted in most extant constitutions. Sirota’s original sec-
body) revised the election law, granting women the tions included even more rights and protections for
rights to vote and to run for political office. Japanese suf- women than those listed above, but they were eliminated
fragists had been fighting for these rights since the by Whitney and Kades.
1920’s and had actively lobbied both the SCAP and their The entire model draft was complete and endorsed
government for these rights since the war’s end. These by MacArthur by February 12. The next day, the steer-
rights, however, had no constitutional protection. ing committee presented it to Matsumoto at Foreign
The Matsumoto constitutional draft was submitted to Minister Shigeru Yoshida’s home. The Japanese cabi-
MacArthur on February 1, 1946, and was promptly re- net rewrote two versions of what came to be called the
jected by him on the grounds that the emperor system MacArthur Draft and submitted them to MacArthur on
was left largely intact and that few civil rights were ac- March 2 and 5; MacArthur accepted the March 5 draft.
corded to the people. MacArthur had also rejected other Hirohito endorsed that draft, and it was made public al-
constitutional drafts, written by political and civilian most immediately. On June 26, both houses of the Diet
groups, on the same bases. Only one of these rewrites in- began ratification debates, which lasted until October.
cluded woman suffrage; other civil rights for women This constitution had wide public support, but the gov-
were not mentioned. ernment opposition, led by Yoshida, who had become
Also on February 1, a local newspaper disclosed the prime minister in the July, 1946, elections, and his pre-
Matsumoto draft’s inadequacies to the general public. war conservative allies, kept trying to change it, espe-
Brigadier General Courtney Whitney, head of the gov- cially the sections on women’s rights. The various Japa-
ernment section, told MacArthur how to get a constitu- nese women’s groups, organized primarily by Army
tion drawn up legally before the Far Eastern Commission Lieutenant Ethel B. Weed, along with Sirota, MacAr-
(FEC), a joint allied oversight committee, convened in thur, and others, fought these maneuvers. The final out-
late February. Once the FEC came into being, MacAr- come was that few changes were made in the MacArthur
thur would have to submit all work on the constitution to Draft.
it for approval and face a probable Soviet veto. He Hirohito proclaimed the new constitution to be the
wished to avoid this. law of the land on November 3, 1946, the Emperor Mei-
MacArthur ordered Whitney to construct a model ji’s birthday. (The date was suggested by Yoshida.) The
draft. Whitney created a steering committee (Alfred new constitution would be called the Shfwa Constitution,
Hussey, Milo Rowell, and Charles L. Kades, the princi- after the dynastic era that began in 1926. On May 3, 1947,
pal drafter) to orchestrate the entire process. SWNCC- the constitution officially came into effect.
228 was divided up line by line and distributed to nine
groups, consisting of one to four personnel each, for re- Significance
structuring. Each group was to work quickly and in total The first postwar elections for the lower house of the Diet
secrecy. The civil rights sections were given to Beate were held on April 10, 1947. Day-care centers were set
Sirota (later known as Beate Sirota Gordon) and Harry up at election sites. Thirty-eight women won seats. This
Emerson Wildes, both civilians, and Lieutenant Colonel date is still celebrated as the Day of Women’s Rights.
Pieter R. Roest. Sirota, a twenty-two-year-old natural- Fusae Ichikawa founded the Japanese League of
ized U.S. citizen (born in Vienna, reared in Tokyo), se- Women Voters at the end of 1945. In spite of her fears of
cured from local libraries copies of European constitu- a low turnout, in the 1946 lower house elections 67 per-
tions, which this civil rights committee used as models. cent of women and 78.5 percent of men voted, and
She was then given the task, among others, of writing the slightly lower percentages cast ballots for the upper
sections on civil rights for women. The sections Sirota house. By 1976, women outvoted men. Women, how-
648
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Japanese Constitution Grants New Rights to Women
ever, were not engaging in politics to the same extent as uments with commentary, primary sources, chronol-
men. In 1974, the Japanese diet was 3.4 percent female. ogy, list and brief biographies of historical figures, a
Even fewer women occupied political offices below the glossary, a bibliography, and much more. Invaluable.
1947
national level, such as in prefectural, municipal, town, Burks, Ardath W. Japan: A Postindustrial Power. 3d ed.
and village assemblies. As of 1971, only 1.2 percent of Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990. Excellent
high government administrative posts were held by general reference on Japan. Some material on women,
women. but nothing extensive. College-level reading. Refer-
Other legislative reforms solidified some constitu- ences provided.
tional guarantees. These events were largely the result of Hellegers, Dale M. We, the Japanese People: World
the active Japanese women’s groups organized by Weed, War II and the Origins of the Japanese Constitution.
Weed’s own work in teaching Japanese women about de- Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002. Re-
mocracy (there are no words in Japanese for democracy affirms the traditional view that MacArthur ordered
or freedom; they are foreign concepts, as is liberty in the his staff to write the 1947 constitution and compelled
Western sense), and MacArthur’s strong support for Japanese leaders to accept authorship of it with few
women’s rights. changes.
In 1947, the Labor Standards Act made discrimina- McNelly, Theodore, ed. Sources in Modern East Asian
tion in pay by gender illegal. Discrimination in hiring, History and Politics. New York: Appleton-Century-
training, promotion, work conditions, and benefits were Crofts, 1967. A book of original documents concern-
not prohibited, providing the loopholes employers ing China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Includes
needed to discriminate against women. SWNCC-228, the 1952 peace treaty, and the Meiji
After intense resistance from the Japanese govern- and Shfwa constitutions. References and maps pro-
ment, the SCAP successfully pushed the creation of the vided.
Women’s and Minors’ Bureau in the Ministry of Labor Moore, Ray A., and Donald L. Robinson. Partners for
(1947). The bureau’s primary function was to protect Democracy: Crafting the New Japanese State Under
women’s rights after the occupation ended (April 28, MacArthur. New York: Oxford University Press,
1952). Weed and her coalition of Japanese women’s 2002. Provides a history of the formation of the Japa-
groups were instrumental in getting the SCAP to insist on nese constitution and Japan’s constitutional govern-
this bureau’s creation. On January 1, 1948, the new civil ment following World War II. Focuses particularly on
code came into effect. In it, the constitutional guarantees the United States as an occupying nation regulating
of gender equality in marriage, property rights, and in- and overseeing that formation. Good for background
heritance were upheld. Nevertheless, by 1982, 40 peron the political and diplomatic process.
cent of marriages were still arranged, many times by the Morgan, Robin, ed. Sisterhood Is Global: The Interna-
woman’s corporate employer. tional Women’s Movement Anthology. New ed. New
The Eugenics Protection Law of 1948 was not en- York: Feminist Press at City University of New York,
couraged or introduced by the SCAP. Rather, Japanese 1996. Contains demographic material on the status of
women who had worked with Margaret Sanger in New women in each country listed. Includes material on
York or who had met Sanger on her two trips to Japan in the women of Japan. A classic resource, with a new
the 1920’s secured the right to have access to family preface.
planning information and contraceptives. Limited legal Pharr, Susan J. Political Women in Japan: The Search
abortion was authorized, and securing adequate and safe for a Place in Political Life. Berkeley: University of
contraception was still considered a problem by Japa- California Press, 1981. Excellent cross-cultural study
nese women because of various regulations. on Japanese and other women’s political lives. Col-
—Dixie Dean Dickinson lege-level reading. References provided.
_______. “A Radical U.S. Experiment: Women’s Rights
Further Reading Laws and the Occupation of Japan.” In The Occupa-
Birth of the Constitution of Japan. National Diet Library. tion of Japan: Impact of Legal Reform, edited by L. H.
http://www.ndl.go.jp/constitution/e/. An excellent Redford. Norfolk, Va.: MacArthur Memorial, 1977.
and highly recommended resource for any study of Excellent source on who actually wrote the women’s
post-World War II Japanese government and policy, rights sections of the Japanese constitution. Refer-
namely the making of the Japanese constitution. Doc- ences and documents provided.
649
Construction of Levittown Is Announced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Pyle, Kenneth B. The Making of Modern Japan. 2d ed. occupation. Divergent perspectives are presented.
Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1996. Easy reading at College-level reading. References provided at the end
the college level. Some discussion of status of Japa- of each chapter.
nese women. This is a good general source of infor-
mation. Chapters 12 and 13 discuss the occupation. See also: July, 1937-Sept. 2, 1945: World War II: Pa-
References provided. cific Theater; Sept., 1943: Australians Elect First
Sugisaki, Kazuko. “From the Moon to the Sun: Women’s Women to Parliament; Mar. 15, 1944: France Grants
Liberation in Japan.” In Women in the World, 1975- Suffrage to Women; Aug. 6 and 9, 1945: Atomic
1985: The Women’s Decade, edited by Lynne B. Bombs Destroy Hiroshima and Nagasaki; May 3,
Iglitzin and Ruth Ross. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC- 1947: Japan Becomes a Constitutional Democracy;
CLIO, 1986. Excellent chapter on the history of Sept. 8, 1951: Treaty of Peace with Japan Is Signed in
Japanese women and women’s activities since 1945. San Francisco; Dec. 20, 1952: United Nations Con-
References at the end of each article. College-level vention on the Political Rights of Women Is Ap-
reading. proved; 1955-1956: Indian Parliament Approves
Ward, Robert E., and Sakamoto Yoshikazu, eds. Democ- Women’s Rights Legislation; Nov. 7, 1967: United
ratizing Japan: The Allied Occupation. Honolulu: Nations Issues a Declaration on Equality for Women;
University of Hawaii Press, 1987. This book resulted Nov. 5, 1968: Chisholm Becomes the First African
from a joint U.S.-Japanese conference on the Allied American Woman Elected to Congress.
May 7, 1947
Construction of Levittown Is Announced
The building of Levittown, the first large-scale planned of, the mass population shift from the cities to the suburbs
suburban community in the United States, signaled an in the United States that occurred after World War II.
American population shift to the suburbs after World The end of World War II produced a large number of
War II. veterans with new families in need of housing. The own-
ers of the building firm Levitt and Sons, who, on May 17,
Locale: Levittown, Long Island, New York 1947, announced their plan to begin construction of the
Categories: Architecture; urban planning; project, recognized this opportunity and bought a large
immigration, emigration, and relocation tract of land on Long Island on which the company de-
Key Figures veloped a suburban subdivision of 17,500 houses, priced
William J. Levitt (1907-1994), president of Levitt and for working-class and lower-middle-class families.
Sons Levitt and Sons was started in 1929 by Abraham
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), president of the Levitt, a real estate lawyer, and his two sons. Alfred
United States, 1933-1945, who instituted several Levitt was trained as an architect, and William J. Levitt
programs that enabled World War II veterans to was the president of the company from its inception.
purchase houses Prior to World War II, Levitt and Sons built several
Robert Moses (1888-1981), New York bureaucrat who small suburban subdivisions on Long Island, as well as
oversaw the building of most of the parkways and other subdivisions in the northeastern United States,
expressways in New York City and on Long Island styled and priced for upper-middle-class families, which
Henry Ford (1863-1947), industrialist who initiated the provided a profitable base for the firm. During World
idea of making automobiles available for working- War II, Levitt and Sons built U.S. Navy housing, which
class people provided additional profits and technical experience in
mass-producing inexpensive housing.
Summary of Event By the time the war ended, therefore, Levitt and Sons
In 1947, construction of the first Levittown, a large-scale had the financial strength to purchase a large tract of land
planned suburban community, began on Long Island, on Long Island and the technical knowledge to mass-
New York. Levittown was a factor in, as well as a symbol produce houses. The construction method used to build
650
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Construction of Levittown Is Announced
Levittown involved building houses on concrete slabs mute to work and transportation to stores, schools,
(without basements), using precut materials, and adopt- entertainment facilities, churches, and other places.
ing an assembly-line-like process in which crews of The first requirement, the availability of affordable
1947
workmen would move from one house to the next to do a private automobiles, was promoted by the industrialist
specific job. By owning as many of the sources of supply Henry Ford, who made the decision to mass-produce au-
as possible and by purchasing in large volume direct tomobiles on an assembly line early in the twentieth cen-
from manufacturers, the Levitt organization was further tury. This revolutionized the automobile industry, and
able to minimize costs. transportation in general, in the United States. By allow-
The size of the Levitt firm, which grew to be the larg- ing people to commute to work, the private automobile
est residential developer in the eastern United States, and made it possible for people to live in houses that were
the scope of its developments allowed the company to some distance from public transportation. The Levitt
pressure local officials into changing building codes and organization based its construction methods on Ford’s
zoning ordinances. In one of the company’s later devel- assembly-line concept.
opments, it was even able to have the township lines The second requirement for the development of sub-
changed. In building Levittown, however, Levitt and urbs was an infrastructure that included arterial roads to
Sons strove not only to produce affordable houses at a allow many automobiles to travel to industrial areas dur-
profit to the company but also to create a community. ing commuting periods of the day. The politically power-
The houses were built in neighborhoods situated around ful Robert Moses, the president of the Long Island State
village greens that included neighborhood shops, play- Park Commission, greatly expanded the scope of the
grounds, and swimming pools. state park program to include the building of parkways.
Suburbia in general, and Levittown in particular, de- The first parkways that Moses had built on Long Island,
pends on the private automobile as the prime mode of although theoretically designed for leisure-time access
transportation because the population density is too low to the numerous state parks and beaches he had built on
to make public transportation feasible. Two things were Long Island, also provided arteries for commuting.
needed before suburbs could develop: private automo- At the end of World War II, the transportation require-
biles that the working- or lower-middle-class families ments for suburban development—the automobile and
who would live in the suburbs could afford, and an auto- the arterial roads—were in place on Long Island. No
mobile-based infrastructure that would facilitate a com- company, however, would consider building a subdivi-
sion of any size, much less one on the
scope of Levittown, unless there was a
market for the houses. That market ex-
isted at the end of World War II, in the
form of the masses of veterans who
were starting families. It was not, how-
ever, the traditional market that subur-
ban subdivisions had been designed and
built for in the past.
Previous subdivisions had been rela-
tively small, and they were targeted to-
ward financially established families in
the upper-middle class. The returning
veterans were not generally financially
established, nor were they, for the most
part, members of the upper-middle class.
The Levitt organization was confronted
by the possibility of building a large
number of small, low-priced houses for
young, working-class, or lower-middle-
class, families. Levitt was uniquely qual-
An aerial view of Levittown, New York, ca. 1959. (Courtesy, NPS) ified to take on a project of this scope.
651
Construction of Levittown Is Announced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Its business successes provided the money necessary to For Levitt and Sons, Levittown was a financial suc-
obtain a large tract of land for development, and its tech- cess. The company built a second Levittown in Penn-
nical experience gained from building Navy housing sylvania and a third in New Jersey, both as suburbs of
gave it the ability to mass-produce housing. Philadelphia. In business, success does not go unnoticed,
The other significant factor in the building of a subdi- and while Levitt and Sons became the largest home
vision, in addition to the number of potential buyers, was builder in the eastern United States, it was by no means
the ability of the buyers to obtain financing. President the only one.
Franklin D. Roosevelt, with the support of several veter- Levittown was different, however, from earlier subur-
ans’ groups, called for and signed into law several mea- ban subdivisions, not only in its size, construction meth-
sures that enabled World War II veterans to purchase ods, and planning but also in its target marketing group:
houses. The most important and best-known part of this working- and lower-middle-class families. Levittown
legislation was the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of proved that suburban subdivisions could be profitably
1944, commonly known as the G.I. Bill of Rights, or G.I. built and marketed to a whole new class of buyers, much
Bill. This bill originally guaranteed housing loans to more numerous than the upper-middle-class buyers for
World War II veterans up to the lesser of 50 percent of the whom the first suburban subdivisions were designed.
home’s value or $2,000, with a maximum interest rate Many more people could thus be lured from cities, creat-
of 4 percent and a term of twenty years. In 1945, the max- ing more and more suburbs, with an ever-increasing de-
imum amount was raised to $4,000 and the term to pendency on the automobile as the primary means of
twenty-five years. Another significant law was the transportation.
Housing and Rent Act of 1947, which stipulated that As more and more people used private automobiles,
newly constructed single-family houses could be sold or demand for public transportation dwindled, as did the
rented only to veterans or their families for the first thirty economic viability of public transportation. When sub-
days after completion. The result of these and several re- urbs were first developed, the norm was for a family to
lated laws was that the returning veterans represented a own one automobile and use it primarily for commuting
large home-buying group with the financial resources to to work. As people left the cities for the suburbs, busi-
purchase many houses. nesses followed them. First, retail stores began to move
to suburban sites, and later they moved to suburban shop-
Significance ping malls. The retail stores were followed by service
The immediate effect of the construction of Levittown businesses, and ultimately by industry.
was the relocation of six thousand more families to sub- This relocation from cities, with their population and
urbia. These families used the automobile as their prime business densities and public transportation, fostered an
mode of transportation, which increased the use of fossil increased reliance on the automobile as a necessary
fuels and generated air pollution. means of transportation. The increased reliance on the
Levittown was not merely a group of houses but a automobile allowed further spreading out of commerce,
planned community, with the houses grouped into neigh- which, in turn, increased the average number of automo-
borhoods around village greens with playgrounds, swim- bile miles traveled. One effect of this increased amount
ming pools, and shops. Just as the Levitts saw the eco- of personal automobile travel was the considerable in-
nomic benefits of building houses for large numbers of crease in the amount of fossil fuels needed to provide
families, retail merchants saw the benefits of selling to power for the automobile. The environmental effects of
large numbers of families, all of whom were approxi- increased fossil-fuel consumption range from increased
mately the same age and in approximately the same fi- amounts of greenhouse gases to the increased amounts of
nancial situation. Large stores, which provided more va- all types of pollutants associated with the internal com-
riety and lower prices than the neighborhood stores in bustion engine.
the subdivision’s original development plans, were built Levittown has been criticized from its inception, most
on the outskirts of Levittown. These new stores were notably by the architectural critic Lewis Mumford, for
successful in attracting business from the residents of the supposed homogeneity of its inhabitants. The idea
Levittown and surrounding communities, but unlike the has been forwarded, however, that there was far more di-
neighborhood shops that were within walking distance versity in Levittown than was found in the urban neigh-
of the Levittown houses, these new stores required auto- borhoods from which its original inhabitants moved.
mobile transportation for shopping. The suburban sprawl initiated by the construction of
652
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Construction of Levittown Is Announced
Levittown has had many other environmental implica- York: Pantheon, 1982. Presents a sociological study
tions. Most notably, the development of ecologically of the development of a community. Contains an
sensitive land areas can affect entire ecosystems. The sit- extensive bibliography, including references on the
1947
ing of suburban developments and their ancillary roads, political maneuvering that took place to establish
service buildings, and utilities would become increas- Levittowns, their evolution, and technical aspects of
ingly contentious as the environmental movement the construction of Levitt houses.
gained strength in the postwar era. Garreau, Joel. Edge City: Life on the New Frontier. New
—Robert E. Haag York: Doubleday, 1991. Presents an analytic view of
the continuing shift of population away from cities.
Further Reading
Describes the interaction between housing and trans-
Beauregard, Robert A. When America Became Subur-
portation and explains the siting of new communities.
ban. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
Excellent notes and references.
2006. A study of the post-World War II shift from life
Larrabee, Eric. “The Six Thousand Houses That Levitt
in the city to life in the suburbs, focusing on “the inter-
Built.” Harper’s Magazine, September, 1948, 79-88.
section of urban decline, mass suburbanization, do-
Presents a contemporary, detailed view of the devel-
mestic prosperity, and U.S. global aspirations.”
opment of Levittown.
Boulton, Alexander O. “The Buy of the Century.” Ameri-
Levitt, William J. “What! Live in a Levittown?” Good
can Heritage 44 (July/August, 1994): 62-69. This his-
Housekeeping, July, 1958, 47, 175-176. The benefits
torical article includes a view of Levittown some
of buying a mass-produced suburban house are pre-
forty-five years after it was built, as well as informa-
sented from the builder’s point of view. Written at a
tion and advertisements from the original sales cam-
time when the builder was attempting to increase the
paigns. Includes original floor plans and photographs
size and prices of the houses.
of the houses and the development.
Nicolaides, Becky M., and Andrew Wiese, eds. The Sub-
Caro, Robert A. The Power Broker: Robert Moses and
urb Reader. New York: Routledge, 2006. This reader
the Fall of New York. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
treats the intricacies of suburban life, its creation, and
1974. Presents the political and funding schemes and
suburbia’s impact on the making of gender and family
battles that allowed the parkways on Long Island to be
ideologies, politics, race relations, technology, de-
built, as well as the decisions that changed the prime
sign, and public policy. Includes more than two hun-
means of commuting to the private automobile. As
dred primary-source documents as well as illustra-
Levittown had effects on suburban development
tions.
across the United States, Robert Moses’s transporta-
tion infrastructure also had effects throughout the na- See also: Mar., 1944: Hayek Opposes Centralized
tion. Economic Planning; June 22, 1944: Roosevelt Signs
Dobriner, William M., ed. The Suburban Community. the G.I. Bill; Apr., 1953: Fuller Builds First Industrial
New York: Putnam, 1958. A collection of articles Geodesic Dome; Apr. 18, 1956-Apr. 21, 1960: Brazil
written while suburban development was still rapidly Builds a New Capital City; 1960’s: Mumford Warns
expanding. Includes articles about suburbia in general of the Dangers of Growing Cities; Summer, 1964:
and articles specifically about Levittown. Reston, Virginia, Exemplifies the Planned Commu-
Gans, Herbert J. The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Pol- nity; Apr. 28-Oct. 27, 1967: Expo 67 Features Inno-
itics in a New Suburban Community. Reprint. New vative Architecture.
653
Taft-Hartley Act Passes over Truman’s Veto The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
June 23, 1947

Taft-Hartley Act Passes over Truman’s Veto
Superseding the pro-labor Wagner Act, the Taft- threw the authority of the federal government behind
Hartley Act invoked federal authority to restore a workers’ right to select unions of their own choosing and
popularly acceptable balance of power between to bargain collectively with employers. Employers,
management and unions. whose businesses were still targets of antitrust legisla-
tion, were further constrained by the act’s delineation of
Also known as: Labor-Management Relations Act; practices deemed unfair to labor.
U.S. Code Title 29, sections 141 et seq. Hostility toward labor that manifested itself in Con-
Locale: Washington, D.C. gress also appeared to characterize several dramatic
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history; business moves by the Democratic administration of President
and labor Harry S. Truman. Anomalously, through most of his po-
Key Figures litical career Truman had been a reliable ally of orga-
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United nized labor. Truman had won support from the leaders of
States, 1945-1953 railroad unions, but these relationships were ruptured
Robert A. Taft (1889-1953), U.S. senator from Ohio, abruptly when an irate Truman ordered federal seizure of
1939-1953 the railways and threatened to draft striking workers into
Fred Allan Hartley, Jr. (1902-1969), U.S. the armed forces during the nationwide railroad strike of
representative from New Jersey, 1929-1949 1946.
John L. Lewis (1880-1969), a United Mine Workers The rail strike was only one of a series of labor explo-
leader sions that the president and the country had had to con-
front in an uncertain postwar economy. Soaring prices
Summary of Event tended to cancel workers’ wartime wage gains. Corpo-
The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 represented a national re- rate profits were the highest in history, and a massive
action against the perceived excess of power wielded by wave of mergers raised new fears of monopoly. Orga-
labor unions in the aftermath of World War II. By 1946, nized labor’s response was to demand higher wages.
it was widely believed that the labor reforms of Franklin Some unions, such as John L. Lewis’s United Mine
D. Roosevelt’s administrations had pushed prolabor leg- Workers (UMW), went further, demanding employer-
islation too far and had unbalanced the operations of a financed health and welfare benefits.
competitive marketplace. Informed by vocal interest Although employment had reached new heights and
groups, a popular consensus developed around the no- the overall number of work stoppages was modest, crip-
tion that the existing statutory rules governing collective pling strikes erupted between 1945 and 1947 in critical
bargaining ignored the rights of employers, vitiated the industries including steel, railways, automobiles, electri-
rights of individual workers (notably those uninterested cal goods, rubber, meatpacking, and coal mining. More-
in joining unions), and jeopardized the public interest. over, these strikes and the threat of others were compli-
These opinions were strongly reflected in the dominant cated by shutdowns resulting from union jurisdictional
mood of the Eightieth Congress, the members of which disputes provoked by feuds between the American Fed-
were overwhelmingly conservative and overwhelmingly eration of Labor (AFL) and the Congress of Industrial
Republican. Organizations (CIO).
Specifically, many members of Congress believed Controlling Congress for the first time in twenty-eight
that the time had come for amendment of the Norris- years, the Republican Party, through one of its principal
LaGuardia Act of 1932, which deprived the federal leaders and a presidential hopeful, Senator Robert A.
courts of jurisdiction over most labor disputes, removed Taft of Ohio, determined to capitalize on an individualis-
unions from subjection to the antitrust legislation of the tic nation’s antipathies toward seemingly strident dicta-
Sherman Antitrust Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act, torial labor leaders and the unions they represented.
and ensured unions’ freedom to employ the full gamut of Taking his cues from a manifesto of the National Associ-
their organizing weapons to secure collective bargain- ation of Manufacturers, Taft became a spokesman for
ing. Similar views extended to operations of the National those who sought to curtail what were widely regarded as
Labor Relations Act (the Wagner Act) of 1935, which labor’s own unfair practices: secondary boycotts (en-
654
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Taft-Hartley Act Passes over Truman’s Veto
couraging others not to trade with a particular business), nances, and the methods by which union officers were
refusals to bargain or failures to bargain in good faith, vi- elected were thrown open to government scrutiny. Strin-
olations of contracts, the overt use of coercion against gent restrictions were imposed on union political activi-
1947
nonunion workers to force them into unions, demands ties and political contributions in federal elections.
for the closed (or all-union) shop, “featherbedding” (cre- Siding with labor, whose support he was eager to re-
ating jobs or making jobs simpler to add to union mem- gain, as well as capitalizing on doubts about the act even
bership or benefit members), and jurisdictional strikes. among its sponsors, President Truman vetoed the Taft-
Taft and his fellow Republicans were eager to win po- Hartley Act on June 20, 1947. As Truman probably ex-
litical advantage over a Democratic president mired in pected, given the strong votes favoring it in Congress, the
attempts to deal with a Lewis-led UMW strike and al- measure was passed over his veto, three days later. The
ready at odds with labor leaders for what they perceived act’s hundreds of specific provisions covered in twenty
as Truman’s mishandling of the rail strike. pages of fine print thus became the nation’s principal la-
Such was the climate of opinion in which Congress bor law.
passed the Taft-Hartley Act on June 20, 1947, amending
the Norris-LaGuardia Act and the Wagner Act in a num- Significance
ber of important ways. Taft-Hartley—cosponsored by President Truman and labor leaders alike condemned the
Congressman Fred Allan Hartley, Jr.—largely restored Taft-Hartley Act bitterly. Truman argued that it would
employers’ freedom to hire and fire workers regardless sow seeds of discord that would plague the nation’s fu-
of union membership. The act consequently severely ture, that it created an unworkable administrative struc-
limited, if it did not entirely void, unions’ chances of ture, that it complicated collective bargaining, and that it
winning the closed shop. Internal union discipline was made no contribution to the resolution of complex labor-
impaired by a provision that union members could be management problems. The sentiments of union leaders
dropped from membership only because of nonpayment were summed up by their description of Taft-Hartley as a
of dues, thus opening the door to employers’ deployment slave labor bill that threatened to eviscerate their major
of antiunion provocateurs, spies, and “stool pigeons” gains of the preceding fifteen years. Considering the na-
within union ranks. tional uproar generated by the act, it was to be expected
The act further placed under proscription a lengthy that it became an important issue in the national elections
list of unfair practices by labor. Vigorous union recruit- of 1948 and 1952. More than being an electoral issue, it
ing measures, particularly during elections to determine also became a touchstone for determining one of the
workers’ choices of bargaining agents, were banned. bounds between liberals and conservatives, friends of la-
Union ultimatums to employers were banned, as were bor and enemies of labor, and champions of business and
union efforts to persuade employers to discriminate in fa- critics of business.
vor of union workers. The checkoff system, whereby em- In the light of the heated debates and dire predictions
ployers deducted union dues from workers’ wages, was attending Taft-Hartley’s enactment, the subsequent his-
abolished. Under many circumstances, secondary and tory of the act’s operation was markedly placid. With or-
jurisdictional strikes and boycotts were proscribed, and ganized labor’s support, Truman was reelected in 1948.
when they were threatened they could be held in abey- Strong labor unions continued to grow stronger over the
ance by court injunctions. Similarly, strikes affecting in- next two decades, with nearly 1.5 million workers be-
terstate commerce, which conceivably meant strikes in coming union members in the South alone during the
most industries, were subjected to the delay of eighty- 1950’s. Unions grew at a slower rate than in the previous
day “cooling off” periods, after which the president decade, but there were many explanations for this in ad-
could secure a court injunction. Unions were made sub- dition to the effects of Taft-Hartley.
ject to civil suit for damages to employers’ interests, Within two years after Taft-Hartley’s enactment, it
caused by unfair practices. had become clear that both organized labor and employ-
Especially galling to organized labor was the provi- ers were managing to live with provisions of the act.
sion that before the act’s administrative agency, the Na- Judged by the number of employer appeals to the NLRB
tional Labor Relations Board (NLRB), would hear union about the unfair practices of unions, employers were far
appeals, union officials were required to take an oath that less interested in using Taft-Hartley to suppress orga-
they neither were communists nor were affiliated with nized labor than congressional and other political battles
communist organizations. In addition, union files, fi- had indicated. In 1949, for example, nine-tenths of the
655
Taft-Hartley Act Passes over Truman’s Veto The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
appeals filed with the NLRB came from unions rather strike, nevertheless engineered a work slowdown. When
than from employers. operators, in turn, refused to contribute to the UMW wel-
Union leaders acted swiftly to exploit the Taft- fare fund—as Taft-Hartley permitted them to do—Lewis
Hartley’s gray areas and loopholes. One provision of the called a full strike. A federal injunction sanctioned by
act stipulated that workers’ refusal to stay on the job be- Taft-Hartley was swiftly issued. Lewis ordered the men
cause of “abnormally dangerous conditions” did not con- back to work, but many refused. Lewis, in company with
stitute a strike, so unions claimed dangerous conditions twenty other UMW officials, subsequently was charged
when they wanted workers off the job. Furthermore, with contempt. A federal district court on March 2, 1950,
since employers could sue unions for violations of Taft- exonerated the union officials. On March 3, President
Hartley’s no-strike provision, unions simply demanded Truman called upon Congress for authorization to seize
that new contracts with employers omit the no-strike the mines and channel their profits into the U.S. Trea-
pledges from the workforce. John L. Lewis, whose UMW sury. Within hours, the strike was resolved in a compro-
had been released from federal control on June 30, 1947, mise favoring the UMW. There would be six other occa-
negotiated mine operators into acceding to a new con- sions in 1948 alone in which the president would invoke
tract proviso that miners would work while they were Taft-Hartley’s national emergency provisions to force
“able and willing.” resolution of strikes, or threats of strikes, that were
Lewis was also in the forefront of labor leaders’ bitter against the public interest.
fight against Taft-Hartley’s imposition of a noncommu- Taft-Hartley, on balance, did not bring peace between
nist oath. A few unions were controlled by communists, management and labor. Both sides continued to fault the
but the vast majority were not. Labor leaders were furi- act, the former because it did too little to curb the monop-
ous that on questions of loyalty they, and not employers, oly power of unions, the latter because it was excessive
were being singled out. Although a number of unions and discriminatory in regulating unions. The act did in-
reluctantly acceded to oath requirements, hoping to pla- volve the federal government in guiding and controlling
cate the NLRB and public opinion, Lewis, a staunch Re- certain activities of both employers and unions in discrete
publican himself, adamantly refused. The NLRB over- ways, a trend strengthened by the Labor-Management
ruled its own general counsel by dropping the oath Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 (the Landrum-
requirement. Griffin Act).
Taft-Hartley’s almost universal ban on union political — Clifton K. Yearley
activities, particularly the ban on union political expen-
ditures, was fought by being ignored pending resolution Further Reading
by the nation’s courts of the issues involved. The AFL Beik, Millie Allen. Labor Relations. Westport, Conn.:
initiated, as a subterfuge, voluntary fund-raising cam- Greenwood Press, 2005. History of labor relations in
paigns among union members that were designed to en- America, including a chapter analyzing the Taft-
sure the political defeat of Senator Taft and those politi- Hartley Act. Bibliographic references and index.
cians who had supported him. As it transpired, a circuit Cox, Archibald. Law and the National Labor Policy. Los
court decision in March, 1948, pronounced the Taft- Angeles: Institute of Industrial Relations, University
Hartley ban on political activity unconstitutional. Loop- of California, 1960. An excellent, readable survey of
holes were widened when the United Auto Workers events and policies leading to Taft-Hartley. Notes and
(UAW) negotiated contracts exempting it from several of a usable index.
the act’s restrictions and several other unions won “no- Donovan, Robert J. Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency
liability” contracts from employers that removed them of Harry S. Truman, 1945-1948. New York: W. W.
from dangers of employer-filed civil suits for unfair Norton, 1977. A fine, informative book. Chapter 33 is
practices. excellent on Truman’s reaction to Taft-Hartley. The
The remainder of 1947 after passage of Taft-Hartley entire book provides a splendid context for post-1945
was relatively free of major strikes. Serious stoppages re- labor problems. A few photos, useful chapter notes,
curred in early 1948, however, providing important chal- and index.
lenges to the act. One major stoppage involved the Gregory, Charles O. Labor and the Law. 2d rev. ed. New
UMW, led by John L. Lewis. When negotiations be- York: W. W. Norton, 1961. An excellent and authori-
tween Lewis and mine operators over the pending 1949 tative survey of the subject. Valuable on the first de-
contract remained unsettled, Lewis, without calling a cade of Taft-Hartley’s impact and complications.
656
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Great Books Foundation Is Established
Some notes, brief bibliography, and good index that nesses’ required adaptations to Taft-Hartley. Chapter
includes cases. A fine introduction for lay readers. 32 on government and labor is especially informative
Hughes, Jonathan R. T. American Economic History. 5th on Taft-Hartley as an extension of government’s in-
1947
ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1998. Detailed tervention in the economy. Many page notes and brief
history of the colonial and U.S. economy from 1607 chapter bibliographies. A valuable synthesis.
through the mid-1990’s.
Lee, R. Alton. Truman and Taft-Hartley. Lexington: See also: Apr. 8, 1943-June 23, 1947: Inflation and
University of Kentucky Press, 1966. Scholarly and Labor Unrest; May 25, 1948: General Motors and
detailed. A bit turgid, but invaluable. Notes, modest the UAW Introduce the COLA Clause; Dec. 29,
bibliography, and useful index. 1950: Celler-Kefauver Act Amends Antitrust Legis-
Northrup, Herbert R., and Gordon F. Bloom. Govern- lation; Dec. 5, 1955: AFL and CIO Merge; Late
ment and Labor: The Role of Government in Union- 1950’s: Firms Begin Replacing Skilled Laborers
Management Relations. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. with Automated Tools; Dec. 5, 1957: AFL-CIO Ex-
Irwin, 1963. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss Taft-Hartley’s pels the Teamsters Union; Sept. 14, 1959: Landrum-
content, meaning, and implications and provide an Griffin Act Targets Union Corruption; Sept. 30, 1962,
appraisal. Detailed and informative. Page notes, and Sept. 16, 1965: Chávez and Huerta Form Farm-
chapter bibliographies, table of cases, and name and workers’ Union and Lead Grape Pickers’ Strike;
subject indexes. Jan. 16, 1964: Hoffa Negotiates a National Truck-
Wilcox, Clair. Public Policies Toward Business. Home- ing Agreement; Oct. 15, 1970: Congress Passes the
wood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1966. Strong on busi- RICO Act.
July, 1947
Great Books Foundation Is Established
Creation of the Great Books Foundation brought to ranged from the Bible and Homer’s epics through the
fruition the lifelong goal of a number of academicians works of Aristotle, Dante, William Shakespeare, Charles
that the Western canon be made readily available to Darwin, and Fyodor Dostoevski. For John Erskine of Co-
anyone with a desire to learn. lumbia College, a “great book” was simply “one that has
meaning, and continues to have meaning, for a variety of
Locale: Chicago, Illinois people over a long period of time.” The establishment of
Categories: Humanitarianism and philanthropy; the foundation and the expansion of its programs repre-
organizations and institutions; education sented a giant step forward in adult education in the
Key Figures United States. In a sense, however, the creation of the
Robert M. Hutchins (1899-1977), president, 1929- foundation was merely a new phase in a thirty-year-long
1945, and chancellor, 1945-1951, of the University dream.
of Chicago As early as 1917, a small but influential group of col-
John Erskine (1879-1951), American professor of lege professors, led by Erskine, expressed concern about
English literature the nature and quality of liberal-arts education in the
Mortimer J. Adler (1902-2001), an early student and United States. Erskine believed that, in order for all peo-
supporter of Erskine ple to have common ground for intellectual discussions,
every person should be exposed to the Western canon.
Summary of Event Erskine was a professor of English literature with no
In July, 1947, the Great Books Foundation, under the background in Greek and Latin literature, theology, or
chairmanship of Robert M. Hutchins, opened its offices political philosophy. Nevertheless, he proposed to teach
in Chicago. Its purpose was to expand the great books a curriculum of approximately sixty books in those areas
course beyond the University of Chicago, bringing to all of study, as well as English literature, to be read and dis-
of the United States the knowledge of the books then cussed at the rate of one per week over two academic
deemed to compose the Western canon. These books years. The General Honors course, as it was originally
657
Great Books Foundation Is Established The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
called, was offered to Columbia juniors in 1921, and it cago in 1929, at the age of thirty, he invited Adler to join
differed dramatically from any course of study previ- him and to implement the great books curriculum at that
ously offered at an American university. school.
The course was to be taught, or more appropriately, Hutchins created a stir at Chicago when he himself
led, by professors who were not necessarily experts in began teaching the great books curriculum to college
the fields covered by the books. The books were to be freshmen. He did it, he said, because Adler had con-
read in chronological order, in English rather than in vinced him that his education was lacking and because he
their original languages. The intense course of study— would learn twice: first by reading the books and then by
each book would be discussed at one two-hour class leading discussions of them. More important, he saw the
meeting per week—left little room for in-depth examina- great books program in a larger context, as the fount of
tion of the material. No written test was given; grades Western democratic ideals. The curriculum, in a some-
were based upon participation in the discussion group what different form from that used at Columbia, soon be-
and an oral examination. came required for all University of Chicago undergradu-
Erskine had tried out his idea while serving with the ate students. The curriculum was also adopted by
United States Army in France and Germany after World Amherst College in Massachusetts and by St. John’s
War I. He had led discussion groups of ordinary Ameri- College in Annapolis, Maryland.
can soldiers, many of whom had no formal education be- Hutchins and Adler took the great books curriculum
yond grade school, and he determined that one could ap- two steps further, ultimately completing the process that
preciate and benefit from reading the “classic” books Erskine had begun thirty years before. First, in 1933,
without any background in or intense study of the mate- they began leading great books discussions with students
rial. Upon returning to Columbia, Erskine convinced the at University High School, which was affiliated with the
college to adopt the General Honors course. University of Chicago. Perhaps never before had the
For Erskine and his students, it was not only the mate- president of such a prestigious institution found himself
rial that was being studied but the manner in which it teaching high school students—and learning so much
was studied that was important. The noted philosopher from and with them.
Mortimer J. Adler, who studied under Erskine in the Second and more important, the university, with the
first General Honors course from 1921 to 1923, later be- cooperation of the Chicago Public Library, began offer-
came a leading advocate of the great books program. For ing the great books reading and discussion program to
him, the experience of studying the great books under working adults through extension courses in the Chicago
Erskine was perhaps the most fortunate circumstance of area. They trained discussion leaders for more than thirty
his life. Adler said that the discussion groups were “con- groups. Although adult-education programs had existed
ducted in the manner of highly civil conversations about for some time, this was probably the first that was not vo-
important themes and in a spirit of inquiry.” In 1923, cational, recreational, or part of a high school equiva-
when new sections of General Honors were formed, they lency program. One group, which was moderated by
had two instructors per class, each from a different de- Hutchins and Adler themselves, came to be known as the
partment of the school, who could supplement each “Fat Man’s Class” because of the affluence of the partici-
other’s knowledge in some subject areas. This discus- pants, who were among the business and industrial elite
sion method, utilizing two discussion leaders with dif- of the city.
ferent backgrounds, was retained by the Great Books Hutchins’s next goal was to expand the great books
Foundation. program beyond Chicago. By 1946, there were more
Adler remained at Columbia as a graduate student and than five thousand participants throughout the United
instructor, and, at the age of twenty-one, he himself led a States. The project by then had clearly outgrown its home
General Honors section. Several years later, he met Rob- at the University of Chicago, which was not equipped to
ert Hutchins, who was at the time the dean of the Yale operate such a large-scale adult education program in
University Law School. Adler moved to Yale, where he addition to educating its enrolled student population.
and Hutchins worked together on several projects relat- Hutchins therefore approached Walter Paepcke, a mem-
ing to legal philosophy. Adler’s enthusiasm for the great ber of the “Fat Man’s Class,” to assist in creating a foun-
books curriculum was contagious, and Hutchins was dation that could more properly run and expand the great
soon convinced of the importance of the course. When books courses. By July, 1947, the Great Books Founda-
Hutchins was named president of the University of Chi- tion, with the assistance of the Old Dominion Foundation
658
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Great Books Foundation Is Established
and the Ford Foundation’s Fund for Adult Education, time and energy away from the only works that mattered.
was up and running. Later, English and other modern European works came
Besides establishing and operating adult great books to be valued alongside the classics, as writers such as
1947
discussion groups, including the training of discussion- William Shakespeare, René Descartes, Immanuel Kant,
group leaders, the foundation had a second goal: to make and others achieved prominence. It was at this point that
inexpensive, uniform editions of the books available to the canon stood at the time the Great Books Foundation
all group participants. Fortunately, Hutchins and the was created.
University of Chicago had a ready and willing partner, Ironically, however, at just that moment in history,
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. In 1943, William Benton, another canonical shake-up was brewing: Some mem-
a longtime friend of Hutchins and also a member of the bers of the American academy believed that American
“Fat Man’s Class,” became part owner of Britannica. Af- authors such as Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne,
ter finding it extremely difficult to locate all the neces- and Edgar Allen Poe should be incorporated in the
sary great books in the book shops of Chicago, Benton canon. Up until the twentieth century, American litera-
proposed that Britannica publish the entire set of great ture was believed to be secondary in importance to Euro-
books for use by participants. At the same time, Adler of- pean literature and philosophy and not properly part of
fered to compile a cross-reference of “great ideas,” an in- the canon. In the wake of the two world wars, however, a
dex of the great books, which he called a “Synopticon.” rise in American patriotism led to the creation of a prop-
Hutchins served as general editor, and Erskine sat on the erly American canon that would help define American
advisory board of editors. The project took more than identity and values. These books, too, became incorpo-
eight years. rated into the ever-changing notion of “great books.”
Over the years since its creation, the Great Books Throughout these modifications in the canon, how-
Foundation has seen an ebb and flow of participants, who ever, it was largely agreed that there should, in fact, be a
have at times numbered fifty thousand. The program was canon. That is, it was agreed that all members of a given
also expanded to reach ever-younger students. High society should read the same books in order to provide
school great books groups, utilizing the same materials them with a common vocabulary and background for dis-
as the adults, were organized in the late 1950’s and early cussing the issues most important to their society. This
1960’s. notion was seriously challenged for the first time in the
1980’s and 1990’s, as the very notion that one set of
Significance books should be institutionally privileged over all the
Although participants in programs sponsored by the rest came into question. The debate continues between
Great Books Foundation are not as numerous as in the those who seek to include alternative voices (such as
foundation’s heyday, the great books idea has had a sub- those of people of color and women) in the canon, those
stantial and continuing effect on American education, who seek to preserve the canon from such “degradation,”
most notably at St. John’s College, whose entire four- and those who believe that canonicity itself should be
year curriculum is based upon the great books model. questioned rather than taken for granted. The Great
More people than ever before have read the books con- Books Foundation remains at the center of these discus-
sidered by Hutchins, Erskine, and Adler to be important sions as they apply to the world beyond the academy.
to American education. Many are read and discussed in — Richard A. Flom
adult-education programs unrelated to the foundation, as
well as in elementary and high schools. One may find the Further Reading
ideas of the great books in speeches of politicians, edito- Adler, Mortimer J. How to Think About the Great Ideas:
rial pages, and popular books. Thus, the “Great Conver- From the Great Books of Western Civilization. Edited
sation,” as Hutchins called the continuing exchange of by Max Weismann. Chicago: Open Court, 2000.
important ideas, continues unabated. Adler’s statement of the value of great books to under-
The idea of the Western canon at the heart of the Great stand the “great ideas” of Western culture. Sees such
Books Foundation is one that has changed repeatedly ideas as separable from the language in which they
over the centuries. At one time, “great books” was be- were originally expressed. Index.
lieved to describe only the classics (that is, Latin and _______. Philosopher at Large: An Intellectual Autobi-
Greek literature of the ancient world). Anything written ography. New York: Macmillan, 1977. Adler’s per-
in English was second-rate, and reading such works took sonal story of intellectual growth, the development of
659
National Security Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ideas, rather than a recitation of events. Includes a the great books concept in detail. In one chapter, he
description of the problems of indexing The Great coyly parodies Socratic dialogue to illustrate his
Books of the Western World. Contains a complete bib- point. Good for the ardent fan of the great books phi-
liography of Adler’s works through 1976, as well as losophy.
Erskine’s and the Great Books Foundation’s original Hutchins, Robert M. Great Books: The Foundation of a
lists of authors. Liberal Education. New York: Simon & Schuster,
Ashmore, Harry S. Unseasonable Truths: The Life of 1954. Lays out the philosophy behind the great books
Robert Maynard Hutchins. Boston: Little, Brown, program and its importance to general education.
1989. A lengthy biography by a close colleague. De- Hardly dated, Hutchins seems prescient in his discus-
tails Hutchins’s struggle to implement the great books sion of the influences and misuses of electronic mass
program at the University of Chicago as well as his media.
work with Encyclopaedia Britannica and the Great Morrissey, Lee, ed. Debating the Canon: A Reader from
Books Foundation. Addison to Nafisi. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
Erskine, John. My Life as a Teacher. Philadelphia: J. B. 2005. Compilation of the most important essays on
Lippincott, 1948. The autobiography of the professor literary canons and canonicity written between 1709
who originally conceived the great books program. and 2003. Includes work by David Hume, T. S. Eliot,
Published shortly after the establishment of the Great Harold Bloom, and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., among
Books Foundation, it predates publication of The others. Bibliographic references and index.
Great Books of the Western World. A chapter is de-
voted to the development of the Columbia great books See also: 1941: New Criticism Arises in American
program. Universities; Aug. 1, 1946: Congress Creates the
Fitzpatrick, Edward Augustus. Great Books: Panacea or Fulbright Program; May 18, 1965: Head Start Is Es-
What? Milwaukee: Bruce, 1952. Fitzpatrick defends tablished to Aid Poor Children.
July 26, 1947

National Security Act
The National Security Act created the modern Louis A. Johnson (1891-1966), U.S. secretary of
governmental bureaucratic structure responsible for defense, 1949-1950
the defense of the United States. It created the Omar N. Bradley (1893-1981), chairman of the Joint
Department of Defense and the cabinet-level post of Chiefs of Staff, 1949-1953
secretary of defense, as well as the National Security George C. Marshall (1880-1959), chief of staff of the
Council, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Joint U.S. Army, 1939-1945, secretary of state, 1947-
Chiefs of Staff. 1949, and secretary of defense, 1950-1951
Richard M. Nixon (1913-1994), president of the United
Also known as: U.S. Code Title 50, sections 401 States, 1969-1974
et seq.
Summary of Event
Categories: Laws, acts, and legal history;
As steps were taken to strengthen the U.S. commitment
government and politics
to European security by means of the Truman Doctrine
Key Figures and the Marshall Plan, it became increasingly clear that
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United measures were needed at home to increase the efficiency
States, 1945-1953 of the United States’ military establishment. A major im-
James Vincent Forrestal (1892-1949), U.S. secretary petus to the reorganization of the U.S. defense system
of the Navy, 1944-1947, and the first secretary of had come from the obvious weaknesses revealed during
defense, 1947-1949 World War II. One prime example of such weaknesses
Robert Porter Patterson (1891-1952), secretary of war, was the military disaster at Pearl Harbor. The war also
1945-1947 had revealed numerous cases of duplication of effort
660
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 National Security Act
among the various services. Another

new factor that needed to be considered
was that Cold War diplomacy required
1947
close collaboration between military and
diplomatic elements, a condition that
had hardly existed during the war. There-
fore, many officials, including President
Harry S. Truman, thought that the need
for a more efficient system of defense
was obvious.
On July 26, 1947, Truman signed the
National Security Act, responding to this
need, but reaching an agreement on the
exact details of the reorganization and
centralization of the military establish-
ment had not been an easy task. As early
as 1945, President Truman had submit-
ted a plan for reorganization to Con-
gress, but it took two years to settle the
differences of opinion among the three From left: Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Omar N. Bradley, Secre-
branches of the armed forces. The Navy tary of Defense Louis A. Johnson, President Harry S. Truman, and an unidentified
was especially reluctant to sacrifice its official watch an Army Day parade in 1949. (National Archives)
independence to what it feared would be
a defense establishment dominated by
the Army. In particular, the Navy feared that the new sys- cabinet agencies within the Department of Defense. The
tem might mean the abolishment of the Marines, or at act also gave legal recognition to the Joint Chiefs of
least their transferral to the Army. Staff, with a rotating chairman. Each of the three services
Another sensitive area of dispute centered on the would be represented on this committee, which was to be
Navy’s newly acquired air capability. Having become responsible for providing close military coordination,
firmly convinced of the value of aircraft carriers during preparing defense plans, and making strategy recom-
World War II, the Navy wanted to expand its air arm, mendations to another new agency, the National Security
which would include the construction of super-carriers Council, which was to be chaired by the president of the
able to accommodate the newly designed jet planes. United States.
Many admirals feared that an Army-dominated defense The other members of the National Security Council
system might mean an emphasis on land-based, long- were to include the vice president, the secretary of state,
distance bombers. During 1946 and 1947, President Tru- the secretary of defense, the secretaries of the three ser-
man worked to bring together the Army, represented by vices, and the chairman of another new agency, the Na-
Secretary of War Robert Porter Patterson, and the Navy, tional Security Resources Board. The president could
represented by Secretary of the Navy James Vincent designate additional persons to serve on the council; un-
Forrestal. In this campaign, Truman was assisted espe- der Truman, the council had twenty members. Critics la-
cially by Forrestal, who, although entirely sympathetic beled the council “Mr. Truman’s Politburo,” because it
to the Navy’s point of view, did work for a reasonable attempted to blend diplomatic and military consider-
compromise. ations at the highest level of national interest. Finally, the
As a result of these meetings, agreements were act created the Central Intelligence Agency as an inde-
reached that culminated in the National Security Act of pendent source of security information.
1947. The act created the Department of Defense (called This impressive reorganization plan had barely gotten
the National Military Establishment until 1949) with a under way when serious problems arose. In some in-
secretary holding cabinet rank. The Department of the stances, these problems were merely continuations of the
Army, the Department of the Navy, and a new Depart- traditional competition between the Army and the Navy;
ment of the Air Force were made into separate sub- the new system did little to eliminate interservice rivalry,
661
National Security Act The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
despite the outstanding work of Forrestal as the first sec- The overall result of the National Security Act was to
retary of defense. Some opponents asserted that the new create a U.S. foreign policy system that fit the country’s
system merely created one more contending party, the new and unprecedented role as a global superpower. The
Air Force. The three services soon were engaged in con- law also created a system in which the national security
ducting separate, elaborate publicity and congressional adviser became a major player in foreign policy deci-
lobbying campaigns to gain increased shares of the de- sions, enjoying daily direct access to the president as an
fense budget. The Navy championed the merits of its integral member of the executive branch of the govern-
super-carrier program, while the Air Force pointed to the ment. More than one secretary of state would complain
new B-36 bomber as the best defense investment. Secre- about having to do battle with influential national secu-
tary Forrestal tried to mediate this struggle, but the issues rity advisers who had the president’s ear. Finally, the le-
seemed to be beyond the capacity of any one person to gal requirement that the secretary of defense not be an
control. In failing health, the secretary resigned on active member of the military cemented the tradition
March 3, 1949. Although interservice rivalry still ex- of the U.S. military being commanded at its highest
isted, Forrestal had reported prior to his resignation that levels by civilians, a policy that would have far-reaching
the new defense system had already saved U.S. taxpayers effects throughout the twentieth and early twenty-first
more than $56 million. centuries.
The new secretary of defense appointed by President — George Q. Flynn and Steve D. Boilard
Truman was Louis A. Johnson of West Virginia, who ap-
proached his job with a pugnacious attitude that may Further Reading
have been a result of his lack of administrative experi- Destler, I. M. “National Security Advice to U.S. Presi-
ence at a comparably high level of government employ- dents: Some Lessons from Thirty Years.” World Poli-
ment. He soon plunged into the interservice rivalry by fa- tics 29, no. 2 (January, 1977): 143-176. An analysis
voring the Air Force. The building of new naval aircraft and critique of the foreign policy advisory system cre-
carriers was suspended, and considerable amounts of ated by the National Security Act. Although thorough
money went into expanding the strength of the Air Force. and based on three decades of experience, the analysis
Although this executive policy saved money, some crit- is now somewhat dated.
ics claimed that it weakened national defense. The State Hoxie, R. Gordon. “James V. Forrestal and the National
Department joined in the growing criticism of Johnson, Security Act of 1947.” In Command Decision and the
because it resented the new secretary’s unilateral ap- Presidency: A Study in National Security Policy and
proach to national security. Apparently, it was not long Organization. New York: Readers Digest Press,
before Truman had reason to regret his appointment of 1977. Discusses the origins and provisions of the Na-
Johnson, as in September, 1950, he turned to General tional Security Act; provides particular detail on the
George C. Marshall, former secretary of state, to take 1949 amendment to the act. Written in a narrative
over the Department of Defense. The simultaneous ap- style. Notes and bibliography.
pointment of Marshall’s service colleague, General Leffler, Melvyn P. A Preponderance of Power: National
Omar N. Bradley, as chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold
helped make operations smoother within the Defense War. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press,
Department. 1992. Places the National Security Act within the
larger context of the Cold War. See especially chapter
Significance 4, “From the Truman Doctrine to the National Secu-
The full implications of the new diplomatic and mili- rity Act, November 1946-July 1947.” Notes and bibli-
tary structures created by the National Security Act ography.
did not become evident until the administration of Pres- Rosati, Jerel A. “Presidential Management and the NSC
ident Richard M. Nixon. Nixon’s national security ad- Process.” In Politics of United States Foreign Policy.
viser and secretary of state, Henry Kissinger, estab- Fort Worth, Tex.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1993.
lished the supremacy of those two positions over the rest Discusses the foreign-policy-making system created
of the foreign policy apparatus. Although efforts were by the National Security Act. Clear and well orga-
made to decentralize that apparatus after Kissinger’s de- nized. Tables, charts, and bibliographic essay.
parture, his legacy continued into subsequent adminis- Stuart, Douglas T. “Present at the Legislation: The 1947
trations. National Security Act.” In Organizing for National
662
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 India Gains Independence from the United Kingdom
Security, edited by Douglas T. Stuart. Carlisle Bar- with commentary by the editor. The chapter on the po-
racks, Pa.: Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War litical and legislative history of the National Security
College, 2000. Essay detailing the 1947 act and its im- Act and the 1949 amendments is especially useful.
1947
portance to U.S. national security structures. The rest Notes and bibliography.
of the volume examines changes in that structure
throughout the rest of the twentieth century. Biblio- See also: Mar. 12, 1947: Truman Doctrine; Apr. 3,
graphic references. 1948: Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe; Mar. 24-
Theoharis, Athan G., ed. The Truman Presidency: The Apr. 11, 1951: Truman-MacArthur Confrontation;
Origins of the Imperial Presidency and the National Jan. 17, 1961: Eisenhower Warns of the Military-
Security State. Stanfordville, N.Y.: Earl M. Coleman Industrial Complex; July 4, 1967: Freedom of Infor-
Enterprises, 1979. A compilation of extracts from de- mation Act Goes into Effect; Nov. 5, 1968: Nixon Is
classified memos, addresses, letters, and analyses, Elected President.
August 15, 1947

India Gains Independence from the United Kingdom
India gained its political freedom from the United Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833), the “father of Indian
Kingdom at the price of great suffering and loss of life. nationalism,” who saw reformed Hinduism as the
One million people lost their lives during the basis for a modern Indian state
migrations between India, envisioned as a Hindu state,
and the newly created Pakistan, which became a Summary of Event
primarily Islamic state. Although Indian poets and philosophers had long
dreamed of a united India stretching from the Himalayas
Also known as: Partition of India
to the oceans, in actuality the subcontinent for centuries
Locale: India; Pakistan
was the site of warring states. Such unity as existed was
Categories: Colonialism and occupation;
imposed from the outside, such as that imposed by the
independence movements; government and politics
British. Coming first as traders, they later turned India
Key Figures into a colony.
Clement Attlee (1883-1967), first post-World War II The British first introduced the Western concept of
prime minister of Great Britain nationalism, made Indians aware of their national iden-
Winston Churchill (1874-1965), prime minister of tity, and fostered the growth of an independence move-
Great Britain during World War II, who opposed ment. The British also brought the idea of white superior-
independence for India and helped make possible ity—that Indians because of their color were racially
the creation of Pakistan inferior, their society barbarous, and their culture in an
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), self-styled “holy man” early stage of evolution. Added to the humiliation of ra-
whose policy of noncooperation forced the British cial inferiority was that of economic exploitation. To max-
to give up India imize its profits, the British East India Company that first
Muhammad Iqb3l (1877-1938), Muslim poet, ruled India exploited Indian labor and appropriated land
theologian, and barrister whose writings inspired and raw materials.
the formation of Muslim Pakistan Indians found an early spokesperson for the cause of
Mohammed Ali Jinnah (1876-1948), leader of the independence in the British-educated Indian patriot Ram
Muslim League, who was the person most Mohan Roy. Roy advised the Indian people to copy
responsible for establishing a separate Pakistan Western methods and combine them with revived Hin-
Louis Mountbatten (1900-1979), last British viceroy, duism to create an independent India. Growing resent-
who supervised partition of the Indian subcontinent ment over continued economic exploitation as well as
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964), leader of the Congress British disregard for Indian religious law resulted in the
Party, who, along with Gandhi, was the driving first open demonstration for independence, the Sepoy
force for independence Rebellion of 1857. The rebellion was suppressed. The
663
India Gains Independence from the United Kingdom The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Postcolonial India Congress Party) to express their desires

and to make plans for achieving indepen-
India’s first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, spoke before the General dence. World War I raised Indian expec-
Assembly of the United Nations in 1948, one year after India gained its in- tations. Even though the British assumed
dependence from the United Kingdom: dictatorial control through the Defense of
India Act (1915), Indians hoped that by
It is a strange thing, when the world lacks so many things, food and
other necessities in many parts of the world and people are dying from
backing the war effort they would be re-
hunger that the attention of this Assembly of Nations is concentrated only warded with greater political freedom.
on a number of political problems. There are economic problems also. I On the contrary, the British reasserted
wonder if it would be possible for this Assembly to take a holiday for a their control through the repressive Row-
while from some of the acute political problems which face it, and allow latt Acts in 1919. Protests resulted in the
men’s minds to settle down and look at the vital and urgent economic Amritsar Massacre, in which about four
problems, and look at places in the world where food is lacking. . . . hundred peacefully demonstrating Indi-
I have no doubt that this Assembly is going to solve our problems. I am ans were killed and more than one thou-
not afraid of the future. I have no fear in my mind, and I have no fear, even sand wounded because of firing ordered
though India, from a military point of view, is of no great consequence. I by a British general. Indian public opin-
am not afraid of the bigness of great powers, and their armies, their fleets
ion turned further against the British, who
and their atom bombs. That is the lesson which my Master taught me. We
stood as an unarmed people against a great country and a powerful em-
were perceived to have approved of the
pire. We were supported and strengthened, because throughout all this action. Indians saw themselves as sec-
period we decided not to submit to evil, and I think that is the lesson which ond-class citizens in their own land.
I have before me and which is before us today. I do not know if it is possi- Few were more outraged than Ma-
ble to apply this to the problems which face the world today. It is a terrible hatma Gandhi, who emerged as the leader
problem, but I think if we banish this fear, if we have confidence, even of the Indian drive for independence.
though we may take risks of trust rather than risk violent language, vio- Trained in law in England, Gandhi prac-
lent actions and in the end war, I think those risks are worth taking. ticed in South Africa. Offended by dis-
crimination against nonwhites, he devised
a policy of noncooperation that he used
with great effectiveness in India. Gandhi
British, however, improved the administration of India identified with the masses. He dressed in homespun, ob-
and the rights of Indians by placing India under colonial served religious and dietary laws, and lived in humble sur-
control, rather than control by the East India Company, roundings. His followers worshiped him and called him
through the Government of India Act of 1858. Even “Mahatma,” or “Great Soul.” Because of his education
though some provincial councils were established and and experience, Gandhi had the ability to unite educated
Indians could serve as counselors to the viceroy, the ap- Indians with the masses. The combination eventually pro-
pointed British ruler in India, power remained with the vided the means for freeing India of foreign control.
British. No matter how well educated or capable, Indians Gandhi was joined in his drive for political indepen-
remained in the lowest level of the civil service. dence by Jawaharlal Nehru, also from an upper-caste
Economic exploitation continued but on a larger Hindu family. Both Gandhi and Nehru envisioned an in-
scale. The English cotton mills needed raw material, so dependent India as an essentially Hindu state. This trou-
large areas of India were turned from rice cultivation to bled the Muslim minority, concentrated in the northwest,
that of growing cotton, thus endangering the food supply. who thought they would suffer from discrimination in
The British further impoverished India by destroying its such a state. The Muslims found a leader in Mohammed
cotton industry through flooding the market with cheap Ali Jinnah. Following the advice of the theologian Mu-
British textiles that were free of tariffs. Indians were also hammad Iqb3l that only a separate state could bring Mus-
recruited for military service at a lower pay scale than lims together in the true spirit of their religion, Jinnah
their British counterparts. Until World War I, Indians resigned from the Congress Party to head the Muslim
provided an effective, inexpensive police force for the League. Its objective was the establishment of a Muslim
British Empire. state.
Frustrated, Indians in 1885 founded the Indian Na- The growing religious rivalry weakened but did not
tional Congress (which later also became known as the stop the drive for independence. Some accused the Brit-
664
ish of covertly supporting the rivalry, continuing a “di- force these regulations. The 495 princely states, whose
vide and rule” policy that had been effective in keeping rulers retained their absolute powers and lavish lifestyles
India a colony for nearly two centuries. The accusation in contrast to the poverty of the masses, posed obstacles
1947
was not without foundation. The British in the interwar to enforcement.
period found their control of India increasingly to be a In 1935, the British parliament granted India a new
burden. They had a deficit trade balance with India, the constitution, extending the franchise and giving the sepa-
Indian army with its antiquated equipment ceased to be rate provinces greater independence. Many maintained
an effective fighting force, and serving in the Indian civil that India could then have been granted full indepen-
service was no longer attractive to ambitious young Brit- dence without violence and bloodshed had it not been
ons. To minimize costs, the British tended to support ex- for the determined opposition of a small but influential
isting institutions and the status quo. As a result, India group of conservative British statesmen. Among them
stagnated socially. Even though the British had intro- was the wartime prime minister Winston Churchill. Al-
duced legislation supporting basic human rights, in- though he was a noted historian, he seemingly was blind
creasingly neither the will nor the means existed to en- to demands of subjugated peoples for liberation. Part of
Partition of India, 1947
Afghanistan China
Lahore
West Bhutan
Delhi Nepal
Pakistan
Benares
Karachi
East
Pakistan
India Burma
Calcutta
Arabian
Sea Bombay
Hyderabad
Bay of
Hyderabad
Bengal
Bangalore
Madras
Ceylon
665
India Gains Independence from the United Kingdom The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Churchill’s strategy in dealing with India was that of versial. Both Indians and Pakistanis gained political as
supporting the Muslim faction. The outbreak of World well as religious freedoms in separate sovereign states.
War II consequently found the Indians divided and re- Even the British were relieved with dignity of the stigma
sentful over the viceroy bringing them into the war with- of colonialism. Controversy, however, remained.
out their consent. The Congress Party refused to back the Religious minorities in both Pakistan and India con-
war effort. The Muslim League, however, gave its lim- tinued to suffer persecution. With Pakistan moving in-
ited support, expecting British backing for a separate creasingly in the direction of becoming an Islamic state,
state. the question of human rights, especially for women, be-
Hoping to retain Indian support, the British offered came acute. The constitutions, of which there were three
them a plan that promised full independence after the in twenty-six years, specified that laws would contain no
war. Remembering the betrayal after World War I, Gan- provisions going against the Qur$3n. The governments,
dhi and Nehru responded in August of 1942 with their following a pattern set by the strong-willed Jinnah, who
“Quit India” demand. The British government under died after little more than a year in office, were often mil-
Churchill overreacted. Gandhi and Nehru, together with itary dictatorships that committed numerous civil rights
their sympathizers, were imprisoned and the Congress abuses. The dictatorial style of government, combined
Party was banned. The British restored order, but at the with economic exploitation and cultural differences,
price of their right to continue to rule India. Gandhi’s caused the East Pakistanis, separated from West Pakistan
hunger strikes and the threat of rioting by his loyal fol- by more than 1,000 miles, to seek independence. After a
lowers secured his release and that of most of his follow- bloody civil war, the new state of Bangladesh was estab-
ers by 1944. lished in 1971 in the territory that had been East Pakistan.
In 1945, the British offered another plan, which Pursuit of basic human rights in India was more suc-
would create a federal state with considerable power in cessful. The constitution that went into effect in 1950
the hands of the several provinces. The Indians were firm guaranteed all basic freedoms. Jawaharlal Nehru, who
in their demand for complete political freedom. Massive became India’s first prime minister and retained that
unrest was avoided, because in 1945 the Churchill gov- office until his death in 1964, was determined despite
ernment was replaced by a Labour government under formidable obstacles to enforce its provisions. His great-
Clement Attlee. Sympathetic to Indian aspirations, Att- est accomplishments domestically were removing the
lee announced that independence would be granted as stigma of caste, improving the condition of women, and
soon as power could be transferred safely. fighting poverty. In foreign relations, Nehru pursued a
Largely because of the power given it by the wartime formal policy of nonalignment during the Cold War. Do-
Churchill government, and over the bitter objection of mestically, Nehru attacked the legacy of the caste sys-
Gandhi, the Muslim League demanded the creation of a tem: Untouchability was declared illegal, but the prob-
separate Muslim state called Pakistan. The last viceroy lem of a permanent Dalit underclass, especially in rural
and the person assigned the task of supervising the divi- areas, persists into the twenty-first century. The custom
sion of the Indian subcontinent into Muslim and Hindu of sati, or the immolation of widows, had already been
states was Lord Louis Mountbatten. Mountbatten com- abolished by the British. Hindu women now were given
pleted his onerous task ahead of schedule. The division the vote and could aspire to all vocations or professions
resulted in the greatest human migration in history, as without discrimination. They could marry across caste
Muslims and Hindus fled to either Pakistan or India. One lines and were allowed to divorce. They could also both
million lost their lives along the way. Independence Day inherit and control property.
was enthusiastically celebrated on August 15, 1947, in In his war on poverty, Nehru initiated a series of ambi-
both Delhi and Karachi, the capitals of India and Paki- tious economic plans that included not only socialistic
stan. Nearly a century after the struggle began, the Indi- planning but changing the educational system to provide
ans gained their independence. The dislocations of peo- a greater emphasis on vocational, professional, and sci-
ples and the tragic loss of life and property, however, entific training. By 1966, India had become the world’s
remained a bitter legacy. seventh most industrially advanced nation and had de-
veloped a sizable middle class. Nehru died in 1964. De-
Significance spite continued religious unrest, separatist movements,
The impact on human rights of the independence of India border disputes, foreign invasions, and the assassination
and Pakistan was immediate, far-reaching, and contro- of his daughter, Indira Gandhi, and grandson, Rajiv Gan-
666
dhi, who both served as prime minister, political inde- India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Several essays dis-
pendence and respect for basic human rights endured. In- cuss how the partition of India has affected the condi-
dia’s citizens exercise their right of franchise in higher tion of women.
1947
proportion than in most Western democracies. Smith, Vincent A. The Oxford History of India, edited by
—Nis Petersen Percival Spear. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1981. An excellent, concise, and comprehen-
Further Reading
sive history of India. It is especially of interest to those
Das, Durga. India from Curzon to Nehru and After. New
seeking more information on development of cus-
York: John Day, 1970. This clearly written book be-
toms, religions, the rise of Muslim power, and dynas-
gins with the political awakening of India at the turn
ties that predate British rule and independence. The
of the century, discusses independence and the Nehru
chronological tables, maps, and photographs are also
era, and finally speculates about India’s future. Also
useful.
examines India’s cultural diversity.
Spear, Percival. India: A Modern History. 1961. Rev. ed.
Das, Manmath Nath. Partition and Independence of In-
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. A
dia. New Delhi: Vision Books, 1982. Das, an eyewit-
widely used college and university textbook for intro-
ness to partition and independence, deals with his
ductory courses on Indian history. Spear writes in a
subject in a lucid and coherent manner. He is critical
layperson’s language and leaves no loose ends. The
of British policies and believes that they contributed
bibliography is annotated and cites a number of pri-
greatly to the difficulties of partition and indepen-
mary documents for those wishing to do further re-
dence.
search on partition and independence.
Golant, William. The Long Afternoon: British India,
Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India. 7th ed. New
1601-1947. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1975. Aro-
York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Wolpert’s clas-
manticized version of British Indian history leading
sic book is of particular value to those seeking more
up to and including partition and independence. Al-
information on developments after partition and inde-
though he is British, the author is prone to place blame
pendence. The author is critical of the government of
equally on the British and the Indians for what he
Indira Gandhi and is pessimistic about India’s future.
terms “chaos.” The numerous eyewitness accounts
The “priority ranking” of the bibliography should be
are of value; anecdotes hold the reader’s interest.
of value for in-depth research on India.
Hay, Jeff. The Partition of British India. New York:
Chelsea House, 2006. Abrief work examining the his- See also: 1943-1944: Famine Decimates Bengal; Oct.
tory of the partition of British India. Part of the pub- 27, 1947-Dec. 31, 1948: India and Pakistan Clash
lisher’s Arbitrary Borders series. over Kashmir; Jan. 30, 1948: Gandhi Is Assassinated;
Mahajan, Sucheta. Independence and Partition: The Feb. 4, 1948: Ceylon Becomes an Independent Do-
Erosion of Colonial Power in India. Thousand Oaks, minion; Sept. 12, 1948: India Invades Hyderabad
Calif.: Sage, 2000. A comprehensive study of the po- State; Nov. 26, 1949: Indian Government Bans Dis-
litical history of British India, colonialism, and an incrimination Against Untouchables; 1955-1956: In-
dependent Indian state. dian Parliament Approves Women’s Rights Legisla-
Menon, Ritu, ed. No Woman’s Land: Women from Paki- tion; Sept. 20, 1965-Mar. 22, 1966: India-Pakistan
stan, India, and Bangladesh Write on the Partition of Conflict Prompts U.N. Peacekeeping Response; Jan.
India. New Delhi: Women Unlimited, 2004. Writings 24, 1966: Gandhi Serves as India’s First Female
by women, focusing on women’s everyday lives in Prime Minister.
667
German Writers Form Group 47 The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
September, 1947
German Writers Form Group 47
Many important German writers joined Group 47 to ter was moved to the Atlantic coast and appointed editor
confront the Nazi past and provide a forum for mutual in chief of a German newspaper, Der Ruf (the call), by the
support and criticism following World War II. The U.S. camp authorities. With the assistance of Alfred
group spawned many of the most important works of Andersch and Walter Kolbenhoff, Richter’s newspaper
German literature over the next twenty years, until its became the most liberal and widely distributed German
prestige and institutional power proved its undoing. camp newspaper in the United States in 1945 and 1946.
After his release as a prisoner of war, Richter’s re-
Also known as: Gruppe 47 quest that Der Ruf be printed and distributed in Germany
Locale: Bannwaldsee, Germany was granted, and the newspaper was published there
Categories: Literature; organizations and from August, 1946, until April, 1947. Both the American
institutions and the German edition of Der Ruf dealt with topical is-
Key Figures sues, including German collective guilt for the Nazi past
Hans Werner Richter (1908-1993), German writer and the future of German government. Publication of the
Ilse Scheider-Lengyel (1903/1910-1972), German German edition was halted by U.S. military authorities
photographer, critic, and writer after only sixteen issues, however—perhaps at the
Alfred Andersch (1914-1980), German writer prompting of the Soviet Union, which did not fare well
Heinrich Böll (1917-1985), German writer on the editorial pages of the paper. Richter had hoped to
Günter Grass (b. 1927), German writer continue the work of Der Ruf in the form of a satirical pe-
riodical, but the military government was no longer will-
Summary of Event ing to grant him a license. In response, Richter organized
At the beginning of September, 1947, a group of fifteen the meeting of friends and writers at the home of Schnei-
German authors met at the home of Ilse Schneider- der-Lengyel. The meeting was the first of a series that
Lengyel in Bannwaldsee, near Füssen in the German lasted from 1947 until 1967.
province of Allgäu. The group provided a forum for the The moral support and mutual understanding offered
discussion of the serious problems facing German writ- by Group 47 were invaluable in helping overcome the
ers in the post-World War II era. Among those present at psychological effects of years of Nazi brutality and op-
the meeting in addition to Schneider-Lengyel were Hans pression. As a forum for free thinkers, Group 47 gave its
Werner Richter, Walter Kolbenhoff, Walter M. Gug- members the opportunity to express an opinion. In gen-
genheimer, Friedrich Minssen, Wolfgang Bächler, eral, however, the group was homogeneous. Its members
Nicolaus Sombart, Heinz Friedrich, Heinz Ulrich, and shared certain beliefs and opinions: They all leaned to
Wolfdietrich Schnurre. They had no awareness at the the left of center politically, were strongly concerned
time that their small group would become the nucleus of about the future of German language and literature, and
one of the greatest literary movements in German his- were suspicious of complex writing and complicated
tory, Gruppe 47 (Group 47), named after the year in grammar.
which the first meeting took place. Although Group 47 was not primarily a political
The idea for Group 47 originated in the mind of Hans group, its members were often involved with political
Werner Richter while he was interned as a prisoner of causes and discussed and debated current affairs. This is
war in the United States. At the beginning of 1945, the hardly surprising, given the atmosphere in which Group
United States government began moving prisoners of 47 was formed. The postwar era in Germany was a time
war with antifascist records to Fort Kearney and Fort of political upheaval and political change, and Group 47
Getty on the Atlantic coast, where they attended courses was not immune from variations in the German national
to prepare them as future administrators for the new de- political scene. In general, Group 47 was distrustful of
mocracy that would be founded in Germany after the political institutions, politicians, and government agen-
Allied Powers—France, Great Britain, the United States, cies. There was a fear that youthful vigor and naïveté
and the Soviet Union—reunited the various occupation could be misused, as it had been under the rule of Adolf
zones and phased out military government. Because of Hitler. Many of the works by authors involved with
his writing experience and journalistic background, Rich- Group 47 centered on this theme.
668
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 German Writers Form Group 47
No previous generation had warned the members of the war, creating a fictional picture that closely resem-
Group 47 of the dangers of politics in causing war. The bled reality. Like Grass, Böll forced his readers to think
German authors of the 1920’s had spent some time dis- about the events of the recent past and to ask themselves
1947
cussing the devastating consequences of World War I, questions.
but the question of how to avoid a repetition of the trag- Both Grass and Böll returned to older German literary
edy did not play a major part in most of their works. Erich traditions, reviving the techniques of the early twentieth
Maria Remarque’s Im Westen nichts Neues (1929; All century German literary giant Thomas Mann while initi-
Quiet on the Western Front, 1929) was a notable excep- ating new techniques. Böll and Grass were keenly aware
tion, but its main focus was to discuss the horrors of war, that a return to traditional styles of writing was one
not how to avoid them. Group 47 examined the political method of avoiding the distortion of the German lan-
scene rather than the front lines. In this sense, it did much guage that had taken place under Nazi rule. No matter
more than the post-World War I literary groups had done how much these and other German authors fell back on
to attack the establishment—from common citizens to earlier literary tradition, however, the beauty of their
high-ranking politicians—and to prevent further war in prose was always secondary to their main purpose: the
Europe. search for truth through their writing.
In contrast to the literary groups that emerged in the
wake of World War I, notably the Spartacus movement Significance
(1918-1919), Group 47 was not born out of the fires of Group 47 had an enormous influence upon the topics and
war in Germany. The movement came rather from the themes of all postwar German literature, including that
prisoner-of-war camps of the United States and was of Grass and Böll. Indeed, the topics that Group 47 dis-
transplanted to Germany. Group 47 was the third and cussed became the topics of German literature for the
most important force pushing German literature forward next twenty years. More than half of the German authors
after World War II. The other two groups, the émigré who achieved international fame between 1947 and 1967
writers and the writers who had remained behind to resist were advanced by Group 47. Almost every major Ger-
the Nazis, did little to move the German literary scene to- man author of the postwar period participated in the meet-
ward new horizons. Group 47 provided the impetus for ings of Group 47 at one time or another. Famous writers
new, groundbreaking literary developments. such as Ingeborg Bachmann, Paul Celan, Peter Handke,
One of the most important of these development was a Siegfried Lenz, Peter Weiss, Erich Kästner, Marie Luise
series of early attempts—between 1947 and 1959—by a Kaschnitz, Ernst Bloch, Luise Rinser, Walter Jens, and
number of German writers to come to terms with the leg- Uwe Johnson all took part in the meetings of Group 47 as
acy of the Nazi dictatorship. This German Trümmer- readers, critics, or guests. Works by those associated
literatur (literature of ruins), which appeared immedi- with Group 47 would shape modern German literature to
ately after the end of World War II, sought confrontation an extent greater than any other literary movement.
with the past as a means of assuring that a Nazi dictator- Group 47 strengthened the German literary commu-
ship would never again occur. Authors such as Günter nity and brought together writers of different back-
Grass and Heinrich Böll, later participants in the meet- grounds and varying experience. The older writers acted
ings of Group 47, addressed Germany’s Nazi past in their as mentors to the younger writers, helping both young
novels and short stories. and old achieve their full potential. The comments made
For instance, Grass’s novel Die Blechtrommel (1959; by Group 47 members about works at their meetings of-
The Tin Drum, 1961) dealt with the problems of guilt and ten helped authors work out details before manuscripts
answerability for the events of the war. By blurring the were sent to publishers.
lines between right and wrong, good and evil, Grass In 1949, two years after the founding of Group 47, the
forced his readers to think about the events of the Hitler Federal Republic of Germany (colloquially known as
era. This distortion was at times humorous but was more West Germany) was established. Almost immediately,
often serious, showing how difficult it was to answer the works by the group’s members were recognized as an
questions raised by mass executions, gas chambers, and important part of the new nation’s culture. Despite its
concentration camps. In a similar way, Böll addressed original antiestablishment crusade, Group 47 was slowly
Germany’s Nazi past in his novel Billard um halbzehn becoming a part of the establishment. Authors who par-
(1959; Billiards at Half Past Nine, 1961). Böll focused ticipated in Group 47 usually had little trouble getting
on a single family and its experiences before and after their works published, and many new writers saw partici-
669
German Writers Form Group 47 The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
pation in Group 47 as a way to gain recognition in the lit- by Bruno Boesch. Translated by Ronald Taylor. Lon-
erary community. don: Methuen, 1971. Covers the main trends and
By 1959, Group 47 was firmly ensconced as the Ger- movements in German literature from before World
man literary establishment. Written works by members War I to the 1970’s. Emphasis is given to exile writing
of Group 47 during this period were numerous, and some during the Third Reich and the skepticism that devel-
of them masterpieces of German poetry and prose, yet oped among German writers following World War II.
the decline of Group 47 was already beginning. Its insti- Includes a general bibliography and index.
tutional status began to alienate some of its members, Demetz, Peter. Postwar German Literature: A Critical
even as others with less literary talent embraced the Introduction. New York: Western, 1970. Deals with
group as a way to ensure undeserved success. As the Ger- the profound social and intellectual transformations
man economy recovered, more money was available in in German literature since 1945. Portraits of the au-
German society, and many of that society’s members— thors, poets, and playwrights who have shaped Ger-
including Group 47 writers—evinced a desire for as man postwar literature make up the body of the work.
much money as they could get. Includes suggestions for further reading and index.
The founders of Group 47 had always feared the dan- Parkes, Stuart, and John J. White, eds. The Gruppe 47
gers of large political organizations. However, student Fifty Years On: A Re-appraisal of Its Literary and Po-
protests at the last meeting of the group in Pulvermühle, litical Significance. Atlanta, Ga.: Rodopi, 1999. Col-
Germany, made them painfully aware that they were lection of papers presented at a symposium held by
now considered just such an organization. Only when the Goethe Institute assessing the legacy of Group 47.
student protesters disrupted the meeting with chants and Bibliographic references.
shouts did those associated with Group 47 realize the Reed, Donna K. The Novel and the Nazi Past. New York:
magnitude of the problems that had developed in their as- Peter Lang, 1985. A nicely organized, interdisciplin-
sociation. The student protests revealed to the core of ary account of post-World War II German literature
Group 47 the extent to which its power had become an and its handling of twelve years of Nazi dictatorship.
obstacle to its goals, and the group collapsed as a result. Focuses on the works of Günter Grass, Heinrich Böll,
Despite its eventual downfall, Group 47 maintained and Alfred Andersch. Includes footnotes, bibliogra-
its position as the driving force in German writing for phy, and index.
nearly twenty years and claimed some of the greatest Robertson, John George, et al. A History of German Lit-
German writers of the twentieth century as participants. erature. 6th ed. Elmsford, N.Y.: London House &
As a result of the accomplishments of its members and Maxwell, 1970. A general history of German litera-
the strong influence that it maintained over writing in ture from its beginnings to the present. The sections
Germany, Group 47 reserved a secure place for itself in on National Socialism and the postwar era in Ger-
literary history. many are useful. Includes chronological table, end-
—Gregory Weeks notes, bibliography, and index.
Further Reading See also: Aug. 9, 1942: Stein Is Killed by the Nazis;
Bangerter, Lowell A. German Writing Since 1945: A 1946: Jaspers Examines Germany’s Collective Re-
Critical Survey. New York: Continuum, 1988. A sponsibility for War Crimes; 1951: Rise of the New
comprehensive survey of the authors, works, literary Novel; 1956: Wiesel’s Night Recalls the Holocaust;
movements, and directions of German writing in the 1959: Grass Publishes The Tin Drum; 1963: Arendt
postwar era. A good general reference book. Includes Speculates on the Banality of Evil; Feb. 20, 1963:
bibliography and index. Hochhuth Stages a Critique of Pope Pius XII’s Si-
Bettex, Albert. “Modern Literature (1885 to the Pres- lence During the Holocaust; May 11, 1968: Handke’s
ent).” In German Literature: A Critical Survey, edited Kaspar Dramatizes Language Theory.
670
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 NBC Broadcasts the Baseball World Series
September 30-October 6, 1947

NBC Broadcasts the Baseball World Series
1947
Television coverage of the 1947 World Series helped possession of consumers in 1947. Potential viewers
create a boom in the sale of television sets and would purchase a television receiver (which was a very
establish a lasting link between television and expensive item in 1947) only if they were convinced that
professional sports. it could present to them programs of compelling interest.
However, RCA’s television operation, a new division of
Locale: New York, New York the National Broadcasting Company (or NBC), did not
Categories: Sports; radio and television; popular have the experience to produce television programs with
culture mass-audience appeal. Without a large audience, NBC
Key Figures could not sell advertising time to sponsors—the essential
David Sarnoff (1891-1971), guiding force in RCA’s factor in generating income.
development of television One solution to this dilemma was the coverage of ath-
Frank Folsom (1894-1970), RCA executive who letic events, which NBC had already begun as early as
worked for the expansion of commercial television 1944 with the Gillette Cavalcade of Sports. The Gillette
in the late 1940’s Safety Razor Company was satisfied with its sponsor-
Joe DiMaggio (1914-1999), New York Yankees ship of the earlier program and agreed to purchase adver-
outfielder tising time on the broadcast of the 1947 World Series.
Al Gionfriddo (b. 1922), reserve outfielder for the NBC’s coverage of the 1947 World Series became an ex-
Brooklyn Dodgers whose remarkable catch in the periment that pulled together for the first time crucial in-
1947 World Series gave him a place in baseball lore gredients for success in commercial broadcasting: a pro-
Dizzy Dean (1911-1974), star pitcher of the 1930’s and gram with innate mass appeal, a limited but potentially
broadcaster in the 1950’s huge viewing audience, and a corporation willing to pay
for air time to advertise a product.
Summary of Event NBC’s decision to cover the 1947 World Series was
In the early fall of 1947, the hectic pace of life slowed in not simply the product of postwar economics but also the
New York City, as baseball became the chief preoccupa- outgrowth of RCA’s work with television technology,
tion of its usually bustling citizenry. The upstart Dodgers which had begun in the late 1920’s. David Sarnoff had
of Brooklyn won the championship of the National spent considerable money to support technical experi-
League, and the powerful Yankees returned to their pre- ments and to purchase patents. He had also weathered
World War II mastery of the American League. The two rugged competition from inventors such as Philo Farns-
were to clash in a rematch of the 1941 World Series (won worth and corporate challengers such as Philco. Sarnoff’s
by the Yankees) in a city where only a fraction of the 1939 decision to push for the expansion of commercial
eight million residents could attend the best-of-seven- broadcasting led to a flurry of activity that included tele-
games series. Brooklyn’s Ebbets Field held only thirty- vision coverage of a college baseball game between
four thousand seats, and even massive Yankee Stadium Princeton University and Columbia University on May
could accommodate only seventy-four thousand fans. 17, 1939. World War II soon intervened, however, and
Sensing the presence of an avid potential audience, commercial television temporarily lost its impetus.
David Sarnoff, the president of the Radio Corporation of Sarnoff had an imperial presence in the boardrooms
America (RCA), decided to expand RCA’s rudimentary of RCA and NBC, but one of his able associates, Frank
television system to cover the 1947 World Series. This de- Folsom, played an important part in the decision to em-
cision brought together for the first time two of the giants phasize popular sports in the early days of television.
in the entertainment industry: big league baseball—for Sarnoff was a Russian émigré with aristocratic tastes and
several decades the nation’s most popular professional an obsessive interest in technology; Folsom was a prag-
sport—and television, which would soon leap from the matic marketing expert who had earned his corporate
electronic laboratory to dominate mass communications. reputation at Montgomery Ward. The two seemed to
Sarnoff and RCA faced a basic problem in their plans bring together a vigorous combination of technical inno-
to promote a profit-making television broadcasting sys- vation and inventive marketing that contributed to
tem: There were only eight thousand television sets in the NBC’s success with the 1947 World Series.
671
NBC Broadcasts the Baseball World Series The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Most of the nation’s television sets were concentrated York Times commented that the television camera in
in the New York area, where the 1947 World Series had a Yankee Stadium could not handle the sharp contrast be-
special appeal, but these seven games offered an unusual tween sections of the field bathed in bright sunlight and
display of player virtuosity and fan excitement. In the the shadows cast on the infield by the stands behind
fourth game, the Yankees’ Bill Bevens needed only one home plate. The cameras also had difficulty in following
more out to complete the first no-hit game in World Se- the rapid movement of a batted ball and in covering the
ries history when Cookie Lavagetto, the Dodgers’ second- simultaneous actions of runners and fielders. Neverthe-
string third baseman, slammed a double off the Ebbets less, NBC’s broadcast of the World Series achieved its
Field outfield wall that not only broke up the no-hitter purpose of stimulating public interest in television and
but also gave Brooklyn a victory. The legendary Joe Di- stimulating the sale of television sets. Many sports fans’
Maggio hit two home runs in the series, but he was de- initial experience with television came in viewing the
prived of a third home run in the sixth game by a seem- 1947 World Series in the confines of a neighborhood bar,
ingly impossible running catch made some 415 feet where the cost was limited to the price of a beer.
from home plate by the fast-footed Al Gionfriddo. Had
Gionfriddo not made the catch, DiMaggio’s drive would Significance
have put the Yankees ahead in the sixth game and could The broadcast of the 1947 World Series spread out
have decided the outcome of the series. Gionfriddo’s feat through a primitive network that reached four cities:
astonished the seventy-four thousand spectators, twenty- New York, Philadelphia, Schenectady (New York), and
five Yankees, and the television audience. In spite of the Washington, D.C. Although there were other factors
remarkable efforts of Gionfriddo and Lavagetto, the involved in promoting the sale of television sets, the
Dodgers fell to the Yankees, whose relief pitcher, Joe broadcast must be considered a major contribution to the
Page, turned in a stellar performance in the seventh and cultivation of public fascination with the medium. In
decisive game. particular, the adult male sports fan was, in a still male-
The excitement of television coverage of a dramatic dominated society, generally the primary wage earner in
World Series created widespread public interest, but a family. His response to television coverage of the
there were problems for the broadcast medium. The New World Series and to peer pressure within America’s
sports-oriented culture was a crucial
factor in his decision to purchase a tele-
vision set. After the fall of 1947, the
consumer demand for television sets
grew rapidly. Households with televi-
sion rose from 8,000 in 1946 to 300,000
in 1948 to 4 million by 1950. Sarnoff
and Folsom presided over the growth of
NBC television into a nationwide net-
work with huge advertising revenues.
To view image, please refer to print edition Baseball and television became in-
extricably, if at times unhappily, linked
after 1947. The problems in telecast-
ing day games declined with improve-
ments in camera capability in the
1950’s, but the complexity and rapid-
ity of crucial plays continued to defy
even the most skilled director. These
brief moments of intense excitement
were spread out over a two-to-three-
hour period in which ruminative pitch-
ers and dawdling hitters could slow the
In game 5 of the 1947 World Series, Dodger Johnny Jorgensen tags Yankee Phil pace of the game to a veritable stand-
Rizzuto out before he can steal third base. (AP/Wide World Photos) still. Announcers searched for inter-
672
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 NBC Broadcasts the Baseball World Series
esting commentary, and television viewers left for the The symbiotic relationship between television and
kitchen. Former St. Louis Cardinals pitcher Dizzy Dean professional sports created a bonanza in income for both,
provided a solution on the Columbia Broadcasting Sys- but in the process also created a new, and not entirely ad-
1947
tem’s (CBS) Game of the Week in the mid-1950’s with mirable, dimension in the culture of sports in the United
his never-ending stream of anecdotes, corn-pone humor, States. In its first two decades, television conveyed feats
and—when all else failed—a full-voiced rendition of the of prowess and courage that helped build the heroic per-
folk-pop song “The Wabash Cannonball.” In his disarm- sonas of baseball’s Joe DiMaggio, Ted Williams, and
ing, folksy style, Dean pioneered color commentary and Willie Mays and football’s Johnny Unitas and Jim Brown.
linked it to a sanitized version of sports humor that later By the 1970’s, though, television’s contribution to mythic
broadcasters could only mimic or praise. image-making diminished. The flood of advertising in-
Baseball soon found a formidable competitor in the come made sports stars into millionaires at the same time
television sports arena—professional football. Encour- that journalism exposed some wealthy stars in all of their
aged by the commercial success of baseball on tele- lust for money and media attention. The improvements in
vision, the networks moved cautiously into the fall video technology and corresponding adjustments by di-
season’s Sunday afternoon games in the 1950’s. Profes- rectors, announcers, and analysts, however, presented in
sional football was at the time a marginal operation that unprecedented detail the continuation of the decades-old
occasionally grabbed the headlines with the presence of a drama of confrontation and the humorous mixture of play-
few former college all-Americans. The game itself, how- ful exaltation and sly sarcasm that carries professional
ever, was better suited than baseball for the technology sports beyond its darker side of meanness and greed.
of television. The center of action was the line of scrim- —John A. Britton
mage, which moved across a measured and carefully
lined one-hundred-yard field. The sideline camera could Further Reading
follow most of the action with ease. Abramson, Albert. The History of Television, 1880 to
The relationship between television and sports inten- 1941. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1987. A detailed
sified as broadcasts drew larger audiences and, therefore, account of the scientific experiments and engineering
larger advertising revenue. For both baseball and foot- innovations that resulted in workable television
ball, television came to mean a substantial increase in broadcast systems before World War II.
team owners’ profits and players’ salaries. By the 1970’s, Barnouw, Erik. Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of Ameri-
football commissioner Pete Rozelle and baseball com- can Television. 1975. 2d rev. ed. New York: Oxford
missioner Bowie Kuhn worked more as heads of multi- University Press, 1990. Broad survey of the history of
million-dollar corporate entities than as coordinators of television, with emphasis on entertainment and news
sports associations. Both Kuhn and Rozelle saw large programs. Little attention to televised sports, but a
television contracts as crucial to the health of their re- thorough examination of general trends in the industry.
spective organizations. Lasch, Christopher. The Culture of Narcissism. 1978.
Professional football’s golden era in the 1970’s and Reprint. New York: Norton, 1991. A wide-ranging
1980’s glittered all the more because of improvements critique of American culture. Chapter 5, “The Degra-
in television technology, especially the magnetic-tape dation of Sport,” is an indictment of the impact of tele-
video recorder, which made the slow-motion replay pos- vision on athletics, especially football. A widely ac-
sible. Baseball also eventually benefited from this and cessible book.
other changes. The videotape replay, along with new Lyons, Eugene. David Sarnoff: A Biography. New York:
camera lenses and higher-quality pictures, made baseball Harper & Row, 1966. A sympathetic biography of the
a much more photogenic subject. The outfield camera, founder of RCA. Lyons stresses Sarnoff’s insights
usually located just behind and above the left-center- into technological advancement and his organiza-
field fence, provided a close study of the micro-war over tional skills.
home plate involving the pitcher and the catcher pitted Morgan, Edward P. “Fifty-Mile Bleachers.” Collier’s,
against the hitter. Slow-motion replay and multiple cam- September 27, 1947, 128-132. Interesting description
era angles made it possible to review the details of quick of the arrival of televised sports to bars in the weeks
double plays and stolen bases and the trajectories of before the 1947 World Series. Includes discussions of
towering home runs, deceptive curveballs, and floating the growth of television and the use of different types
knuckleballs. of television sets.
673
Yeager Breaks the Sound Barrier The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Rader, Benjamin. American Sports: From the Age of the early 1980’s, with Sarnoff as the central character.
Folk Games to the Age of Televised Sports. 5th ed. Discusses many of RCA’s internal struggles as well
Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2004. A as its bitter competition with other communications
wide-ranging history of sports and athletics in the companies. Chapters 6-8 set the context of the deci-
United States, from early America to the early sion to broadcast the 1947 World Series.
twenty-first century. Includes discussion of profes- Stein, Fred. A History of the Baseball Fan. Jefferson,
sional sports in the television age. N.C.: McFarland, 2005. Major-league baseball agreed
_______. In Its Own Image: How Television Has Trans- to have the World Series televised because of base-
formed Sports. New York: Free Press, 1984. Provoca- ball’s large audience—its fans. This work explores
tive study of the impact of television on sports, em- the history of how baseball fans have shaped, and
phasizing the 1950’s and 1960’s, when sports became been shaped by, professional baseball.
a major part of television broadcasting. Also contrasts Voigt, David Quentin. From Postwar Expansion to the
the attitudes and actions of players in the age of big- Electronic Age. Vol. 3 in American Baseball. Univer-
budget television with the heroic images of players sity Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1983.
from earlier decades, laments the triumph of high sal- History of baseball that combines interesting detail
aries and selfishness over discipline and teamwork, with measured generalizations and provides solid
and connects the transformation to larger changes in background on the emergence of televised baseball.
politics and culture. See also: June 2, 1941: Yankee Baseball Great Lou
Smith, Curt. America’s Dizzy Dean. St. Louis, Mo.: Gehrig Dies; Apr. 15, 1947: Robinson Breaks the
Bethany, 1978. A thoughtful biography of the hard- Color Line in Major-League Baseball; Oct. 8, 1956:
throwing pitcher. Smith traces Dean’s career from his Larsen Pitches a Perfect Game in Baseball’s World
days as a big-league star to his comeback as a popular Series; Fall, 1957: Brooklyn Dodgers Move to Los
baseball broadcaster. Angeles; June 8, 1966: NFL-AFL Merger Creates a
Sobel, Robert. RCA. New York: Stein & Day, 1986. A Sports-Industry Giant; Jan. 16, 1970: Flood Tests
critical history of the corporation from the 1920’s to Baseball’s Reserve Clause.
October 14, 1947

Yeager Breaks the Sound Barrier
Air Force Captain Chuck Yeager accelerated the Bell sity all change—to 660 miles per hour at a height of fifty
Aircraft Company’s X-1 jet plane to seven hundred thousand feet. The ratio of the speed of a given object
miles per hour, becoming the first person to fly faster through a given medium to the speed of sound traveling
than the speed of sound. through the same medium is called the object’s “Mach
number.” Thus, Mach 1 is the speed of sound under a
Locale: Mojave Desert, near Muroc Dry Lake, given set of conditions, Mach 2 is twice the speed of
California sound, and so on. Speeds greater than Mach 1 are termed
Categories: Science and technology; space and “supersonic.” Speeds approaching and slightly exceed-
aviation ing the speed of sound (from about Mach 0.8 to about
Key Figures Mach 1.3) are called “transonic.”
Chuck Yeager (b. 1923), U.S. Air Force test pilot During the early 1940’s, several attempts were made
Bob Hoover (b. 1922), U.S. Air Force test pilot to fly aircraft at and beyond Mach 1. It was discovered,
Jack Ridley (1915-1957), project engineer for the X-1 however, that as an airplane approaches Mach 1, strong
testing program local-pressure shock waves form on its wings, and air-
flow becomes unsteady enough to interfere with the air-
Summary of Event craft’s stability and the pilot’s ability to control it. Al-
The speed of sound through air is approximately 761 though there was considerable interest in creating an
miles per hour at sea level. That speed decreases with al- airplane powerful enough to reach Mach 1, many engi-
titude—as the air’s composition, temperature, and den- neers believed that the intense vibration induced by pres-
674
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Yeager Breaks the Sound Barrier
1947
Captain Chuck Yeager (left) poses with Major Gus Lundquist and Captain James Fitzgerald in front of the X-1 experimental aircraft.
(Library of Congress)
sure shock waves would cause it to disintegrate. The term aerodynamic innovations were employed in these XS-1
“sound barrier” was coined to describe the physical (later simply designated X-1) aircraft.
shock waves preventing planes from exceeding Mach 1, Because bullets were known to travel at speeds ex-
as well as the conceptual hurdle that the speed of sound ceeding Mach 1, the fuselage of the X-1 was shaped like
came to represent for engineers and pilots. a .50 caliber bullet, with smooth contours constructed
As part of a military program to develop supersonic from high-strength aluminum built to withstand eighteen
research aircraft, the Bell Aircraft Corporation of Buf- times the force of gravity. The wing sections were short
falo, New York, was awarded a contract on March 16, and thin (the plane had only a twenty-eight-foot wing-
1945, to manufacture experimental airplanes specifi- span), but they were extremely strong. The power train
cally designed with enough power and structural integ- consisted of a powerful four-chamber rocket engine ca-
rity to withstand the conditions they would encounter at pable of providing six thousand pounds of thrust. Be-
transonic speeds. In 1946, three rocket-powered aircraft, cause of safety concerns and the performance penalties
designated XS-1 (Experimental Sonic-1), were deliv- resulting from a ground takeoff, the X-1 was designed
ered to the U.S. Army Air Forces (the precursor of the to be launched from the bomb bay of a Boeing B-29
U.S. Air Force) for testing. Many novel structural and Superfortress bomber at high altitude.
675
Yeager Breaks the Sound Barrier The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
By July, 1947, the X-1 was ready for experimental horizontal stabilizer as Ridley had advised returned the
testing; Muroc Army Air Field in Southern California necessary pitch control, and Yeager was able to achieve
was chosen as the ideal spot because of its year-round ex- Mach 0.96 without difficulty.
cellent weather and the proximity of thousands of acres The plan for October 14 was to take the X-1 to Mach
of desert and dry lake beds. Three men were chosen to 0.98. All proceeded well; the horizontal stabilizer gave
accompany the aircraft to Muroc for its testing: Jack Yeager stable control beyond Mach 0.94, so he switched
Ridley, a pilot with a master’s degree in engineering on additional rocket engines and easily achieved Mach
whose job was to analyze flight data, and two test pilots, 0.96. At Mach 0.965, the aircraft’s Machmeter began to
Bob Hoover and Chuck Yeager. Although Hoover was fluctuate wildly and went off scale. Simultaneously, the
an excellent and experienced test pilot, Yeager was cho- ground control crew heard the world’s first sonic boom;
sen as the first pilot, relegating Hoover to the role of Chuck Yeager had smashed through the sound barrier.
backup pilot. Yeager’s piloting skills, his ability to stay Later analysis showed that he had in fact achieved Mach
focused under pressure, and his interest in learning as 1.07, flying at 700 miles per hour. He later reported that
much detail as possible about every aircraft he tested penetrating the sound barrier was like punching through
made him the logical choice. Jell-O, and that once he was flying at supersonic speeds,
The X-1’s first powered flight occurred on August 29, the flight became extremely smooth. As it turned out, the
1947, with Hoover flying chase in a Lockheed P-80. Al- true barrier was not in the heavens, but in understanding
though authorized only to go to Mach 0.82, Yeager was the physics of supersonic flight.
moved by the exhilaration of the moment to push the X-1
to Mach 0.85, beyond the velocity at which high-speed Significance
aerodynamics were well understood. Because the project From Orville and Wilbur Wright’s historic flight initiat-
engineers and pilots alike were learning about a new field ing airplane travel through the end of World War II, air-
of aerodynamics as they went along, the project’s proto- planes changed appearance, but there were relatively few
col was to proceed cautiously and incrementally, in- innovative design changes. With the advent of jet en-
creasing the plane’s speed by only Mach .02 in each con- gines, however, more power was available than existing
secutive flight. The data from each flight (recorded by airframes could tolerate, mandating basic redesigning
five hundred pounds of special flight-test instrumenta- for high-speed flight. The X-1 was a radical new design,
tion) could then be analyzed prior to the next flight. built exclusively to determine whether Mach 1 could be
On October 5, 1947, during the sixth flight, Yeager reached and exceeded. The success of this venture
experienced severe turbulence and buffeting when he proved conclusively that the “sound barrier” was more
reached Mach 0.86. The right wing dropped, and the con- intellectual and psychological than factual.
trols became sluggish when Yeager tried to correct the Many supersonic flights at ever-increasing speeds
problem. When he increased his speed to Mach 0.88 to were made over the ensuing decade; the first supersonic
try to rectify the situation, the aileron began to vibrate bomber became operational in 1956, and by the late
from the shock waves, making it extremely difficult to 1950’s Mach 2 was achieved. During the 1960’s, as
keep the wings level. Yeager aborted the mission. On his speeds approached Mach 2.5, further innovative designs
very next flight, however, he took the plane to Mach were required to prevent the outer shell from overheating
0.94, at which point his controls ceased to function be- as a result of friction from the rapidly moving air. By the
cause of the shock waves forming on all the control sur- early 1970’s, Mach 3 had been achieved and the first com-
faces. Yeager was forced to turn off the engine and jetti- mercial supersonic aircraft were introduced. The world’s
son his remaining fuel in order to glide to a safe landing. first supersonic transport plane (SST), the TU-144, was
The project team then spent some time analyzing the tested by Soviet pilots in 1968 and began regular cargo
situation, knowing that without elevator controls to angle service in 1975. Britain and France jointly constructed
the nose up or down, it would be impossible to take the the Concorde SST, designed to fly at Mach 2, beginning
X-1 to Mach 1. Jack Ridley, however, came up with a passenger service in 1976. Due to the extreme annoyance
possible solution: using the horizontal stabilizer (the factor of sonic booms (created continuously whenever
winglike structure on the tail that stabilized pitch control) an aircraft flies at supersonic speeds), commercial super-
to control the X-1’s angle of attack. After extensive tests sonic flights are now forbidden over the United States;
on the ground, during the eighth powered flight Yeager only transoceanic supersonic flights are allowed.
slowly took the aircraft back to Mach 0.94. Using the — George R. Plitnik
676
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 HUAC Investigates Hollywood
Further Reading tails a century of aeronautics research, concentrating

Abzug, Malcolm J., and E. Larrabee. Airplane Stability on design and construction as well as the engineers
and Control: A History of the Technologies That who helped perfect modern airplanes.
1947
Made Aviation Possible. New York: Cambridge Uni- Kerrebrock, Jack. Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines. 2d
versity Press, 2002. Comprehensive coverage of aired. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1992. Technical
plane stability and the evolution of design and con- description of the power plants necessary for super-
struction of control systems. sonic flight. Requires some familiarly with physics or
Courtwright, David. Sky as Frontier: Adventure, Avia- engineering.
tion, and Empire. College Station: Texas A&M Uni- Yeager, Chuck, and Leo Janos. Yeager: An Autobiogra-
versity Press, 2005. Complete history of aviation phy. New York: Bantam Books, 1985. Chuck Yea-
from the first pioneers through the space shuttle. De- ger’s autobiography, with extensive information
tails the significance of air and space in American his- about his time as a test pilot. Includes details about his
tory. experiences testing the X-1.
Dwiggins, Don. Flying the Frontiers of Space. New Yeager, Chuck, and Charles Leerhsen. Press On! Fur-
York: Dodd, Mead, 1982. Readily accessible history ther Adventures in the Good Life. New York: Bantam
of American experimental aircraft from 1947 to the Books, 1988. Another autobiography, with more in-
early 1980’s. formation about Yeager’s friends and his personal life
Hallion, Richard. “The Air Force and the Supersonic during his career as a pilot.
Breakthrough.” In Technology and the Air Force: A
Retrospective Assessment, edited by J. Neufeld, G. M. See also: May 15, 1941: Turbojet Engine Is Used in the
Watson, and D. Chenoweth. Washington, D.C.: Air First Jet Plane; Nov. 20, 1953: Test Aircraft Exceeds
Force History and Museums Program, 1997. Concise Twice the Speed of Sound; Oct. 14, 1957-Dec. 10,
history of the events leading up to and immediately 1963: Dyna-Soar Space Plane Is Developed; Oct. 26,
following the first supersonic flight. 1958: Boeing 707 Begins Commercial Service; June
Hansen, James R. The Bird Is on the Wing: Aerodynam- 8, 1959-Dec. 31, 1968: X-15 Rocket Aircraft Pro-
ics and the Progress of the American Airplane. Col- gram; Dec. 13, 1969: First Jumbo Jet Is Delivered to
lege Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004. De- Airlines.
October 20, 1947

HUAC Investigates Hollywood
The House Committee on Un-American Activities Key Figures
investigated communist influence in Hollywood, J. Parnell Thomas (1895-1970), U.S. congressman
calling members of the entertainment industry to testify from New Jersey, 1937-1950, and chair of HUAC,
before it. A group of ten writers and directors who 1947-1948
refused to cooperate with HUAC on First Amendment Martin Dies, Jr. (1900-1972), U.S. congressman from
grounds was imprisoned for contempt of Congress, and Texas, 1931-1944, 1953-1958, and chair of HUAC,
1938-1944
the major motion picture studios announced that they
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United
would no longer employ any known communist.
States, 1945-1953
Also known as: House Special Committee to Inves- Summary of Event

tigate Un-American Activities; House Committee In 1938, nine-year-old film star Shirley Temple was ac-
on Un-American Activities; House Un-American cused of being a dupe of the Communist Party, because
Activities Committee she had waved at a group of communist journalists while
Locale: Washington, D.C. in France. This accusation was not an aberration; it was a
Categories: Cold War; government and politics; logical outcome of the right- and left-wing extremism
motion pictures and video; civil rights and liberties that infected the United States at the time. During times
677
HUAC Investigates Hollywood The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
what they called “un-American ac-

tivities.” Given the rise to power of
Adolf Hitler in Germany the previ-
ous year, the McCormack-Dickstein
Committee (officially the Special
Committee on Un-American Activ-
ities Authorized to Investigate Nazi
Propaganda and Certain Other Pro-
paganda Activities) focused primar-
ily on fascist, rather than communist,
activities in the United States. The
committee is most famous for inves-
tigating the so-called Business Plot,
To view image, please refer to print edition in which fascists allegedly conspired
to overthrow President Franklin D.
Roosevelt and seize the White House.
Ironically, Congressman Dickstein
was revealed in the 1990’s to have
been on the payroll of a Soviet intel-
ligence agency in the late 1930’s, al-
though there is some dispute as to
how much of the information he
promised to the Soviets he actually
delivered.
On May 26, 1938, the U.S. House
of Representatives authorized an-
Congressman J. Parnell Thomas (left) confronts actor Robert Taylor as he takes the other Special Committee to Investi-
stand at the HUAC hearings on October 22, 1947. Taylor became a friendly witness gate Un-American Activities. The
after he volunteered information to the committee. (AP/Wide World Press) committee was commonly known
as the Dies Committee, after Martin
Dies, Jr., its chair. Dies was assisted
of intense crisis, Americans have been prone to hunt for by his former clerk, Robert E. Stripling, as counsel, and by
scapegoats to explain their troubles. Having correct ideas Representative J. Parnell Thomas and others. Although it,
is used as a measure to prove that a person is indeed “100 too, was meant to investigate Nazi infiltration, the com-
percent American.” Extremists on both the right and left mittee quickly focused its efforts on communism instead.
vie to have their ideas become the moral law of the land. During the first days of the committee’s existence,
Purges (“witch hunts”), flag waving, and a decreased tol- 640 organizations, 483 newspapers, and 280 labor
erance for dissent are symptoms of such epochs. unions were accused of un-American activities. The pa-
Anticommunist and general antiforeign sentiment in- triotism of the Boy Scouts, the Camp Fire Girls, and Shir-
creased during World War I in the United States, and it ley Temple was questioned. When the committee could
continued to find support into the 1920’s. This sentiment find no communists more substantial than such long-
was expressed in legal action against foreigners, such as dead playwrights as Christopher Marlowe and Euripi-
the raids conducted by U.S. attorney general Alexander des, it quickly lost credibility. Nevertheless, a similar
Palmer against people suspected of socialist beliefs, as lack of knowledge about Marxism and communism con-
well as the passage of several acts limiting immigration tinued to underlie later inquests.
into the United States. Hate groups such as the Ku Klux The Dies Committee contributed heavily to Con-
Klan, with their message of intolerance of “foreign” or gress’s June 1, 1939, elimination of the proposed Federal
different peoples and ideas, flourished. Theatre from President Roosevelt’s New Deal agenda.
In 1934, Representatives John W. McCormack and The committee’s lessons were not forgotten: Show-
Samuel Dickstein formed a committee to investigate business people were easy targets, and targeting Holly-
678
wood brought instant media attention. The Dies Com- Friendly witnesses, mainly studio executives, were
mittee established the tactics that would be used by its called to testify before the committee during its first
own later incarnation, by Senator Joseph McCarthy, and week of hearings. During the second week, nineteen wit-
1947
by others after World War II. These tactics included sen- nesses, mainly writers, were subpoenaed. Ten witnesses
sational press releases, secret, fabricated lists of “known” said that the proceedings themselves were un-American
communists, attacks on anything liberal, and “proof” in and unconstitutional. They refused to cooperate with the
the form of gossip, illogic, and association with a touch committee. These ten, who became known as the Holly-
of truth. wood Ten or the Unfriendly Ten, were writers Alvah
Attacks on communism diminished once the Soviet Bessie, Lester Cole, Ring Lardner, Jr., John Howard
Union entered World War II on the side of the Allied Lawson, Albert Maltz, Sam Ornitz, and Dalton Trumbo,
Powers. As part of the war effort, Song of Russia (1944) as well as directors Herbert Biberman and Edward
and other pro-Soviet films were made at the War Depart- Dmytryk and writer-producer Robert Adrian Scott. The
ment’s request. Song of Russia would be denounced in Hollywood Ten asserted their right to the freedoms of
1947 hearings, because it showed happy, smiling people speech and assembly under the First Amendment. Holly-
in the Soviet Union. wood’s entertainment community loudly supported the
After World War II, the U.S.-Soviet alliance dissolved. ten’s First Amendment rights. The ten were liberal, and
Republicans and ultraconservative groups assaulted com- all had some affiliation, however cursory, with the Com-
munism anew. The House Committee on Un-American munist Party.
Activities, or House Un-American Activities Committee On November 24, 1947, Congress voted to cite the
(HUAC), became a permanent, standing committee of Hollywood Ten for contempt. Immediately, fifty top stu-
the U.S. House of Representatives in 1946. On March 12, dio executives met at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New
1947, President Harry S. Truman announced the Truman York City to determine their position regarding the ten.
Doctrine, an anticommunist foreign-aid effort designed Eric Johnson, the president of the Motion Picture Associ-
to blunt Republican charges that he was soft on commu- ation of America, read the Waldorf Declaration: The
nism. The State Department was purged of alleged com- Hollywood Ten would be suspended without pay, and
munists, and Truman established a peacetime security and from that point forward, no studio would “knowingly”
loyalty program. U.S. attorney gen-
eral Tom C. Clark compiled a list of
organizations espousing communist, “Are You a Member of the Communist Party?”
fascist, totalitarian, or subversive
ideas, which was to be used internally Screenwriter John Howard Lawson was made to testify before HUAC on Octo-
to determine which government em- ber 29, 1947. His interrogation by a member of the committee typified that of
ployees should be investigated. The many in Hollywood who refused to “name names” and cooperate with the
list was published and quickly be- committee.
came HUAC’s primary source docu- Interrogator: “Are you a member of the Communist Party or have you ever
ment. been a member of the Communist Party?”
On October 20, 1947, a subcom- John Howard Lawson: “It’s unfortunate and tragic that I have to teach this
mittee of HUAC opened its first post- committee the basic principles of Americanism.”
war hearings. Because of prehear- Interrogator: “That’s not the question. That’s not the question. The ques-
ing publicity, more than one hundred tion is—have you ever been a member of the Communist Party?”
news agencies were present, along Lawson: “I am framing my answer in the only way in which any American
with three major radio networks and citizen can frame . . . absolutely invades his privacy . . . ”
eleven newsreel and television cam- Interrogator: “Then you deny it? You refuse to answer that question, is that
correct?”
eras stationed above the witness ta-
Lawson: “I have told you that I will offer my beliefs, my affiliations and ev-
ble. The committee was chaired by
erything else to the American public and they will know where I stand as they
J. Parnell Thomas, and Robert E. do from what I have written.”
Stripling served as its chief counsel. Interrogator: “Stand away from the stand. Stand away from the stand. Offi-
Other members of note were Richard cers, take this man away from the stand.”
M. Nixon and John S. Wood, who
became HUAC’s chair in 1950.
679
HUAC Investigates Hollywood The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
employ anyone associated with the Communist Party. of perjury in a highly publicized and sensational trial. In
Traditionally, a congressional investigatory commit- February, the British uncovered massive espionage that
tee has two primary functions: to secure information eventually led to the execution of American spies Julius
needed to create legislation and to oversee the executive and Ethel Rosenberg. Senator Joseph McCarthy began
branch’s activities. These committees have no direct his campaign for reelection by using his attack on com-
legislative or judicial functions. HUAC, however, per- munism as a stepping stone to power. In June, the Korean
formed both those functions, and in so doing it violated War began, and three former Federal Bureau of Investi-
both the constitutional separation of powers and the civil gation agents published Red Channels: The Report of
rights of subpoenaed witnesses. Witnesses were not al- Communist Influence in Radio and Television (1950),
lowed to meet or cross-examine their accusers, no ex- which became the bible of blacklisting.
clusionary rules regarding hearsay evidence were used, HUAC’s Hollywood investigation began again in
and witnesses were not allowed due process. Eight of the 1951. Blacklisting—for ridiculing HUAC, for being sub-
ten were writers, but the committee produced no evi- poenaed, or for unknowingly being on the list that Holly-
dence that they had written anything that was subversive wood studios and professional guilds claimed did not
or that called for the violent overthrow of the U.S. gov- exist—became institutionalized. A suspected Commu-
ernment. The committee never documented any evi- nist could not get work without publically naming names
dence of Communist infiltration of the movie industry, of other Communists and recanting supposed sins,
and even if it had, membership in the Communist Party thereby receiving absolution from the committee. Not
was not illegal. Nevertheless, without judge or jury, the only did Hollywood not support its own, but no one else
Hollywood Ten were tried and sentenced. did either. No one questioned the right of the committee
If the committee had been serious about its attempt to to exist or to do what it was doing—not the press, not
root communism out of the film industry, it could have the American Civil Liberties Union, and not the Anti-
succeeded. The contributions of highly paid Hollywood Defamation League of B’nai B’rith or the Hollywood-
artists to Communist Party causes were known but not based American Jewish Committee. Ten of the nineteen
investigated. Thomas contended that he had a list of subpoenaed were Jewish, as were six of the ten who were
seventy-nine prominent Communists in his files, but indicted.
only the Hollywood Ten were prosecuted. The subpoe- The blacklisted went underground and set up their
naing of entertainment-industry figures was not done to own networks. The names of “clean” writers who were
support legislation (none was ever proposed). None of willing to act as “fronts” were put on scripts. Fictional
the witnesses were government employees, so the attor- names were also used. Only the Hollywood community
ney general’s list was not relevant. The Hollywood Ten knew that Maltz wrote The Bridge on the River Kwai
were judged guilty because their thoughts were im- (1957) and The Robe (1953) or that Trumbo wrote Ro-
proper. They were convicted of contempt of Congress, man Holiday (1953), Cowboy (1958), and The Brave
because they refused to answer the committee’s ques- One (1956). The Brave One won an Oscar that no one
tions the way the committee wanted them to. claimed until 1975. A mystique developed around the
In 1950, after the Supreme Court refused their last ap- blacklisted writers. As a result, more work gradually
peals, the Hollywood Ten went to jail for at least a year came to them.
apiece. Ring Lardner, Jr., and Lester Cole were sent to The blacklist had a chilling effect on social criticism.
the federal prison in Danbury, Connecticut—as was J. In 1947, 28 percent of Hollywood studio movies dealt
Parnell Thomas, who in 1948 had been convicted of with social issues; in 1949, only 18 percent did. By 1954,
fraud in a payroll scam. Lardner was made a stenogra- only about 9 percent of Hollywood films dealt with so-
pher in the classification and parole office; Thomas was cial problems. In 1953 and 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court
made caretaker of the prison’s chicken yard. made two rulings that finally protected witnesses from
the abuses experienced by the Hollywood Ten and others
Significance caught up in the anti-Communist sweep.
Between March, 1947, and December, 1952, some 6.6 —Dixie Dean Dickinson
million people were investigated by Truman’s security
program. No espionage was discovered, but some five Further Reading
hundred people were dismissed from government- Bentley, Eric. Are You Now or Have You Ever Been: The
related jobs. Alger Hiss was convicted in January, 1950, Investigation of Show Business by the Un-American
680
Activities Committee, 1947-1958. New York: Harper House, 1975. Of particular interest here are Schle-
& Row, 1972. Abridged testimonies of eighteen wit- singer’s introduction, which discusses Supreme
nesses appearing before HUAC, 1947-1958. Testi- Court cases related to congressional hearings, and the
1947
monies of Edward Dmytryk (1947, 1951), Ring article by H. Lew Wallace, “The McCarthy Era.”
Lardner, Jr. (1947), Larry Parks (1951), Lillian Good background material on the era and bibliog-
Hellman (letter, 1952), and Paul Robeson (1956) are raphy.
of particular interest. No references; easy to read. Schrecker, Ellen. Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in
Photographs. America. Boston: Little, Brown, 1998. Presents an ac-
Dmytryk, Edward. Odd Man Out: A Memoir of the Hol- count of Joseph McCarthy, the Hollywood blacklist,
lywood Ten. Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois Uni- and the impact of McCarthyism on American history.
versity Press, 1996. A personal account of the direc- Schumach, Murray. The Face on the Cutting Room
tor’s experience during the “witch hunts.” Floor. New York: William Morrow, 1964. Enlighten-
Miller, Douglas T., and Marion Nowak. The Fifties: The ing book on censorship in Hollywood from the silent
Way We Really Were. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, film era through the 1960’s. Appendix gives samples
1977. Written by a historian and a journalist. Docu- of censorship rules in other countries and Holly-
mented and informative but still very readable. See in wood’s motion-picture code. Photographs. No refer-
particular Chapter 1 on McCarthy and Chapter 12 on ences. Good source on the gray list, the Hollywood
Hollywood. College-level reading. underground, and the American Legion.
Navasky, Victor S. Naming Names. New York: Penguin Vaughn, Robert F. Only Victims: A Study of Show Busi-
Books, 1982. Navasky was trained as a lawyer and a ness Blacklisting. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons,
journalist; he gives a factual, informative study of the 1972. This book is based on the actor’s doctoral dis-
era and explains why so many people became inform- sertation, covering the time period 1938-1958. Well
ers. Excellent source. References provided. College- documented and informative. Introduction by Senator
level reading. George McGovern. Focuses on the sociological and
Redish, Martin H. The Logic of Persecution: Free Ex- psychological underpinnings of the radical right and
pression and the McCarthy Era. Stanford, Calif.: left that fueled HUAC. Good documents in appen-
Stanford University Press, 2005. An examination of dixes.
the anticommunist hysteria of the 1940’s and 1950’s.
Includes a chapter on HUAC and the Hollywood Ten. See also: Oct. 15, 1942-1961: Kazan Brings Natural-
Bibliographic references and index. ism to the Stage and Screen; 1947-1951: Blacklisting
Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr., and Roger Burns, eds. Con- Depletes Hollywood’s Talent Pool; Jan. 22, 1953:
gress Investigates, 1792-1974. New York: Chelsea The Crucible Allegorizes the Red Scare Era.
681
India and Pakistan Clash over Kashmir The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
October 27, 1947-December 31, 1948

India and Pakistan Clash over Kashmir
The dispute between India and Pakistan over Kashmir Indian Muslims felt a separate Muslim nation was nec-
led to the first major war between the two countries. essary to protect their rights, but this insistence thwarted
The war ended inconclusively, with a tense cease-fire the hopes of leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, the father
and Kashmir divided along the Line of Control of independent India, who wanted the new nation to
between Indian and Pakistani occupying forces. The remain united. The British, who generally followed a
two nations would continue to skirmish and divide-and-rule policy to manage their vast colonial
occasionally fight all-out wars over Kashmir for the empire, exploited the rift between the Indian National
rest of the century. Congress, which favored a united India, and the Muslim
League, which wanted a divided India, in order to weaken
Also known as: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947; First the independence movement itself. Even when the move-
Kashmir War ment was successful, this strategy of the British imperial
Locale: Kashmir government contributed to the indigenous disputes and
Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; eventually led to the partition of the subcontinent.
expansion and land acquisition; diplomacy and When the Indian National Congress refused to accept
international relations Jinnah’s proposal to divide India and create Pakistan,
Key Figures Jinnah threatened direct action and incited his followers
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964), prime minister of to defy law and order, resulting in carnage and destruc-
India, 1947-1964 tion in many Indian cities during the 1940’s. The violent
Mohammed Ali Jinnah (1876-1948), governor-general uprisings were most devastating in Calcutta, in Bengal,
of Pakistan, 1947-1948 and in Amritsar and Lahore in the Punjab. The “vivisec-
Louis Mountbatten (1900-1979), British viceroy of tion” of India, as Gandhi called it, came to seem inevita-
India, 1947, and governor-general of India, 1947- ble, and violence and chaos remained unabated until, on
1948 June 3, 1947, Louis Mountbatten, the last viceroy of In-
Mohammad Ayub Khan (1907-1974), Pakistani general dia and its first governor-general, announced the British
and later president, 1958-1969 plan to partition India.
Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904-1966), Indian minister for Soon after that announcement, a boundary commis-
home affairs, 1947-1951, and later prime minister, sion was appointed under Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who had
1964-1966 never visited India. Although the commission members
Hari Singh (1895-1961), maharaja of Kashmir, 1925- were Indian judges, half of whom were chosen by the In-
1949 dian National Congress and half by the Muslim League,
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), Indian nationalist Radcliffe made the final decision on contested points. In
leader the end, the northwest provinces, which had predomi-
nantly Muslim populations, joined the new nation of Pa-
Summary of Event kistan, although the princely state of Kashmir and East
The clashes over Kashmir between India and Pakistan Bengal both remained in India.
must be understood against the background of India’s There were, however, millions of Muslims scattered
struggle for independence from British rule, which lasted throughout India. Many chose to remain where they
approximately two hundred years, and the eventual parti- were. Many others, who wished to join the new Islamic
tion of India and creation of Pakistan at the time of inde- nation, had to leave their homelands to reach it. More-
pendence. The question of India’s unity as a nation was a over, the lands that were to form Pakistan were home to a
major issue that divided the leaders of the Indian subcon- great many Hindus in addition to their Muslim popula-
tinent’s struggle for independence during the years that tion. Thus, an immediate consequence of the partition of
led up to August 15, 1947, when the British finally relin- India was the displacement of millions of people, which
quished power. The Muslim minority within the predom- was hardly anticipated or planned. During the summer of
inantly Hindu India was led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, 1947, an estimated seven million Muslims migrated
who argued for the creation of a separate nation, Paki- from India to Pakistan, and about as many Hindus trav-
stan. eled from Pakistan to India, with very little planning and
682
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 India and Pakistan Clash over Kashmir
protection. This mass migration re- Disputed Territory of the Kashmir Region
sulted in the deaths of more than one
million people through violence and Chinese Area, Claimed by India
Afghanistan
1947
hardship.
Following the independence and
Sha C h i n a
partition of the two nations, states ksa
m
with Islamic majorities, except Kash- Va
lle
Northern
mir, joined Pakistan, while the vast y
Areas
majority of the other princely states
joined India voluntarily. The few re- Aksai
sisting states located within India’s Chin
new borders—Hyderabad and Juna-
gadh—were annexed by force. Kargil
Azad Kash
Kashmir, the largest of all Indian
Srinagar
princely states and one known for its
natural beauty and its strategic value Jammu and Kashmir
Islamabad
due to its location bordering Paki-
mir
stan, Afghanistan, China, and India,

P a
presented a special problem. Al-

k
Jammu
though its majority population was
i
t
s
a I n d i a
Muslim, Hari Singh, Kashmir’s ruler n
and a Dogra Rajput Hindu, hoped = Pakistani-controlled Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas
to maintain his realm as a separate = Indian-controlled Jammu and Kashmir
kingdom. To that end, he refused to = Chinese-controlled Aksai Chin
join either India or Pakistan and in- = Chinese-controlled Shaksam Valley
stead signed a “standstill” agreement = Post-1948 Kashmir boundary
with Pakistan. Kashmir was valu-
able to India not only for its strategic
importance, its control of the head-
waters of the Punjab rivers, and its
fame as the Switzerland of Asia, but also for its status as dia for military assistance. In response, India initially
the home of the Pandits, or the Kashmiri Brahmins, maintained that it would be illegal for it to intervene be-
whose most famous son was Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s cause of the agreement of nonintervention it had signed
first prime minister. with Pakistan. When Hari Singh understood that the only
There were preexisting tensions between Hari Singh legal basis for India to send its army into Kashmir would
and his Islamic subjects, emblematized by Sheik Mu- be for him to accede his kingdom to India, the maharaja
hammad Abdullah, known as the Lion of Kashmir, who and Lord Mountbatten signed the instrument of acces-
was jailed for demanding a larger share of power. Hardly sion, legally making Kashmir a part of India.
two months after independence, Islamic peasants in the Following Kashmir’s legal accession to India, on Oc-
Poonch area of southwestern Kashmir staged a revolt tober 27, 1947, Indian armed forces entered Kashmir to
against their Rajput landlords. Large numbers of Paki- suppress the insurgency. The Indian action eventually
stani tribal fighters crossed the border into Kashmir to turned into a full-scale war between India and Pakistan in
support the revolt, hoping to turn the situation into an in- which India gained control of two-thirds of Kashmir. On
surgency and overthrow Hari Singh. By October, 1947, January 1, 1948, at the urging of Lord Mountbatten, In-
the Pathan tribes from inside Pakistan joined the insur- dia’s Prime Minister Nehru agreed to involve the United
gency, supported by the Pakistani military. Nations Security Council to resolve the dispute.
When the insurgents reached the outskirts of Srina- The Security Council called for an immediate cease-
gar, the state’s capital, Maharaja Hari Singh released fire and an eventual plebiscite, which was to be con-
Sheik Abdullah from jail and dispatched him to New ducted under the supervision of a special United Nations
Delhi to confer with his friend, Nehru: He appealed to In- Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP). The coun-
683
India and Pakistan Clash over Kashmir The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
cil’s resolution required Pakistan to withdraw the bulk of Khan and Indian prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri met
its forces from Kashmir and India, but to maintain a lim- in Tashkent to produce the Tashkent Declaration, com-
ited military presence. Although the cease-fire took ef- mitting both nations to resolve the dispute without the
fect on December 31, 1948, neither side withdrew its use of force. However, the declaration failed to produce a
forces from Kashmir, and the plebiscite never took place. lasting peace, as the two nations would fight another ma-
Kashmir was divided at the de facto boundary between jor war and many limited wars in subsequent years.
the lands controlled by the two armies, the so-called Line — Mathew Kanjirathinkal
of Control (LOC). Beginning in January, 1949, a U.N.
observer group was assigned to the area to monitor the Further Reading
cease-fire. Blinkenberg, Lars. Asia: The History of Unresolved Con-
flicts. 2 vols. Rev. ed. Odensk, Denmark: Odense
Significance University Press of Southern Denmark, 1998. Pro-
After the 1948 cease-fire agreement, the area under In- vides the history of the conflict in great detail with an
dia’s control became known as the state of Jammu and analysis of the relevant political issues.
Kashmir, and the area under Pakistani control was named Bose, Sumatra. Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to
Azad Kashmir, or Free Kashmir. Pakistan continued to Peace. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
maintain that Hari Singh’s cession of Kashmir to India 2003. Outlines the problems that divide India and Pa-
was invalid, because it was signed under duress and it kistan with regard to Kashmir and makes policy rec-
contradicted the previous agreement between India and ommendations that may lead to peace.
Pakistan, which committed the two nations to maintain- Chofield, Victoria. Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan,
ing the status quo. India argued that the nonintervention and the Unending War. New York: I. B. Tauris, 2003.
agreement prior to the war was null and void, because Pa- Taking the reader through a history of Kashmir, this
kistan instigated and supported the insurgency. book outlines some of the basic issues that underlie
In 1954, Kashmir’s Constituent Assembly ratified the the conflict, mainly from the Pakistani viewpoint.
instrument of accession, officially making Jammu and Coll, Steve. “The Stand-Off: How Jihadi Groups Helped
Kashmir an Indian state, and India considered the matter Provoke the Twenty-First Century’s First Nuclear
finally settled without a plebiscite. Pakistan’s forces still Crisis.” The New Yorker 82 (February 13, 2006): 126-
did not withdraw, however. In 1962, China launched a 139. Discusses the terrorist attack on the Indian Par-
surprise attack against India and occupied Ladakh, an liament on December 13, 2001, and the diplomatic in-
area of Kashmir bordering China, resulting in the divi- volvement of the United States to avert war.
sion of Kashmir into three parts, controlled by three na- Paul, T. V., ed. The India-Pakistan Conflict: An En-
tions. Ever since this Sino-Indian War, China has sup- during Rivalry. New York: Cambridge University
ported Pakistan militarily and diplomatically, further Press, 2005. Adopts the questionable enduring rivalry
complicating the Kashmir issue. theory of war to shed some light on the roots of the
In September, 1965, Pakistan crossed the LOC in an conflict.
attempt to invade Jammu and Kashmir, leading to a sec-
ond full-scale war with India, the Indo-Pakistani War of See also: Aug. 15, 1947: India Gains Independence
1965. India decisively defeated Pakistan, and the war from the United Kingdom; Sept. 12, 1948: India In-
ended with another cease-fire agreement, mediated by vades Hyderabad State; Sept. 20, 1965-Mar. 22,
the United Nations. In 1966, under the auspices of the 1966: India-Pakistan Conflict Prompts U.N. Peace-
Soviet Union, Pakistani president Mohammad Ayub keeping Response.
684
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Is Signed
October 30, 1947

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Is Signed
1947
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade set basic of 1932. The new secretary of state, Cordell Hull,
rules under which open and nondiscriminatory trade strongly believed that the United States should take the
could be conducted between nations following World lead in arresting the worldwide protectionist wave. He
War II. Meant as a temporary agency that would be was convinced that eliminating trade barriers was the
replaced by the International Trade Organization then best means of reversing the downward spiral in interna-
under discussion, GATT became the de facto tional trade, which in turn would allow higher standards
framework for international trade for almost fifty years of living for all countries and promote lasting peace. Af-
when the ITO’s member nations failed to ratify its ter several years of his intensive lobbying, the Reciprocal
creation. Trade Agreements Act (RTA Act), an amendment to the
Smoot-Hawley Act, was passed in 1934. The RTA Act
Also known as: GATT empowered the president, for a period of three years, to
Locale: Geneva, Switzerland initiate trade agreements on the basis of reciprocal tariff
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations; reductions. Reductions of U.S. tariffs were limited to 50
trade and commerce percent. The RTA Act was extended several times.
Key Figures The United States concluded agreements with
Cordell Hull (1871-1955), U.S. secretary of state, twenty-nine countries on the basis of most-favored-
1933-1944 nation treatment before the outbreak of World War II.
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), British economist The idea of negotiating reciprocal tariff reductions, em-
and diplomat bodied in the RTA Act, was the conceptual basis for
James Edward Meade (1907-1995), British economist GATT as well. Soon after the United States entered
and public official World War II, the Allied nations, particularly the United
Lionel Charles Robbins (1898-1984), British States and Great Britain, started discussing postwar trade
economist and diplomat and monetary issues. The discussion led to the Bretton
Woods Conference in July, 1944, at Bretton Woods,
Summary of Event New Hampshire. This conference established the
On October 30, 1947, representatives of twenty-three charters of the International Monetary Fund and the In-
countries meeting in Geneva, Switzerland, signed the ternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to re- (commonly known as the World Bank) to deal with inter-
duce trade barriers among signatory nations. GATT was national monetary issues. It also recognized the need for
an attempt to combat the rise of worldwide protectionism a comparable institution focusing on trade to comple-
that had preceded World War II. By providing a set of ment the monetary institutions.
rules for open and nondiscriminatory trade and a mecha- Negotiations on the form and functions of an Interna-
nism to implement these rules, GATT sought to create an tional Trade Organization (ITO) were first held on a bi-
institutional framework within which international trade lateral basis between the United States and Great Britain.
could be conducted as stably and predictably as possible. The United States pressed for nondiscrimination, mean-
When the Great Depression set in, the U.S. Congress ing that no country would be favored over others; Great
had passed the highly protective Smoot-Hawley Tariff Britain insisted on the continuation of its Imperial Prefer-
Act in 1930, raising average tariff rates on imports by al- ence, under which British goods received preferential ac-
most 60 percent. Great Britain had passed the Import cess to the markets of former British colonies and vice
Duties Act in 1932, abandoning its traditional free trade versa. A compromise was reached, and the results of
policy. Other countries responded with restrictive import those bilateral negotiations were published in Novem-
policies in self-defense. The result was a downward spi- ber, 1945, in the Proposals for Expansion of World Trade
ral in international trade, with the volume of trade in and Employment.
manufactured goods declining by 40 percent by the end The United States next expanded those proposals into
of 1932. a draft charter for the ITO in 1946. The charter was
The U.S. view on international trade began to change amended in successive conferences from 1946 to 1948 in
after the Democratic victory in the presidential election London, New York, Geneva, and Havana. The final ver-
685
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Is Signed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
sion of the ITO charter, known as the Havana Charter, was Among the twenty-three participating countries, 123
drawn up in Havana on March 4, 1948. However, the char- bilateral negotiations occurred. The United States was a
ter, which represented a series of agreements among fifty- party to 22 of them, and the remaining 101 took place
three countries, never came into effect, because most among the other members of the group. The signatory na-
countries, including the United States, failed to ratify it. tions accounted for more than three-fourths of world
At the same time that the United States published the trade, and negotiations covered two-thirds of trade
proposals, it invited several countries to participate in ne- among GATT’s member nations. Tariffs were reduced
gotiations to reduce tariffs and other trade barriers on the on about fifty thousand items, accounting for about half
basis of principles laid out in the proposals. The United of world trade. Average tariff rates were cut by about
States proposed to integrate all individual treaties into a one-third in the United States. By 1950, average tariffs
multilateral treaty. GATT was thus drawn up as a general on dutiable imports into the United States had fallen to
framework for rights and obligations regarding tariff re- about 25 percent of Smoot-Hawley levels.
ductions for twenty-three participating nations. GATT GATT is a remarkable success story of an interna-
came into being before the Havana Conference but in ac- tional organization. Over the years, it has provided the
cordance with the draft charter for the ITO that was then framework for an open trade system and a set of rules for
under discussion. It was originally envisaged as the first nondiscrimination and settlement of international trade
of a number of agreements that were to be negotiated un- disputes. Although GATT was very successful in reduc-
der the auspices of the ITO. It was supposed to establish a ing barriers to trade, however, its policies of mutual and
provisional agency that would pass out of existence once reciprocal tariff reduction were criticized by developing
the ITO was established. countries as harmful to their development, owing to the
The power and the bureaucratic size of the proposed unfavorable terms of trade their largely agricultural and
ITO faced strong opposition in the U.S. Congress. Conse- commodity-based trade faced in relation to the much
quently, the Havana Charter was not put before the U.S. higher-priced manufactured goods exported by devel-
Senate for ratification for fear of its defeat. When it was oped countries. This and other motives propelled them to
clear that the United States would not ratify the Havana establish the U.N. Conference on Trade and Develop-
Charter, GATT became by default the underpinning of an ment (UNCTAD), which served as a forum for develop-
international institution, assuming part of the commer- ing-country grievances and a platform from which to
cial policy role that would have been assigned to the ITO. seek reform of the international economic order.
Technically speaking, GATT is not an organization of Despite these successes, the credibility of GATT was
which countries become members but a treaty among undermined by the difficulty of reducing nontariff barri-
contracting parties. As a multilateral agreement, GATT ers and exemption of several important sectors from ap-
has no binding authority over its signatories. When coun- plication of GATT principles. In 1995, GATT was re-
tries agree to GATT, they are expected to commit to three placed by the World Trade Organization (WTO), which
fundamental principles: nondiscrimination, as embodied was tailored to be better suited to the post-Cold War in-
in the most-favored-nation clause (all countries should ternational economy and to respond more effectively to
be treated equally); a general prohibition of export subsi- the concerns of developing as well as developed nations.
dies (except for agriculture) and import quotas, from — Baban Hasnat
which developing countries are exempted; and a require-
ment that any new tariff be offset by a reduction in other Further Reading
tariffs. Bhagwati, Jagdish. The World Trading System at Risk.
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1991.
Significance The author is an ardent supporter of GATT. This book
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was with- contains a collection of his lectures, which make a
out precedent. Prior to GATT, no agreement had ever case for the continuation of GATT-sponsored multi-
been completed that included as many countries, covered lateral trade talks.
as much trade, involved such extensive actions, or repre- Gardner, Richard N. Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy: The
sented such a wide consensus on commercial policy. The Origins and the Prospects of Our International Eco-
agreement provided a promising contrast to the record of nomic Order. New expanded ed. New York: Mc-
failures to liberalize trade that had characterized the Graw-Hill, 1969. Provides complete details of the pre-
years between the two world wars. paratory work of ITO-GATT.
686
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered
Hughes, Jonathan R. T. American Economic History. 5th versity Press, 2005. Evaluation of GATT’s functions,
ed. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1998. Detailed legacy, and role in relation to the World Trade Orga-
account of colonial and U.S. economic history from nization. Bibliographic references and index.
1947
1607 through the mid-1990’s. Tussie, Diana. The Less Developed Countries and the
Jackson, John H. Restructuring the GATT System. New World Trading System: A Challenge to the GATT.
York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1990. Ex- New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1987. Studies GATT
plores issues relating to future restructuring of GATT. from the point of view of less developed countries,
Chapter 1 provides a brief but succinct history of with particular focus on how they have been treated
GATT. by the developed countries in GATT negotiations.
_______. The World Trading System: Law and Policy Wilcox, Clair. A Charter for World Trade. New York:
of International Economic Relations. Cambridge, Macmillan, 1949. An excellent book on the history,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1989. An introductory text on trade provisions, and significance of the Havana Charter.
law and policy within the background of international The author represented the United States as chairman
law, national law, and related disciplines, including of its delegation at the conference in London and vice
economics and political science. chairman of its delegations at Geneva and Havana.
Kock, Karin. International Trade Policy and the GATT, See also: July 1-22, 1944: Bretton Woods Agreement
1947-1967. Stockholm, Sweden: Almqvist & Wik- Encourages Free Trade; Jan. 1, 1948: Benelux Cus-
sell, 1969. A study of the interplay of foreign trade toms Union Enters into Force; Apr. 3, 1948: Marshall
policies of GATT members and their cooperation in Plan Provides Aid to Europe; Apr. 18, 1951: Euro-
GATT. pean Coal and Steel Community Is Established; Mar.
Lanjouw, Jean O., and Iain Cockburn. Do Patents Mat- 25, 1957: European Common Market Is Established;
ter? Empirical Evidence After GATT. Cambridge, Jan. 4, 1960: European Free Trade Association Is Es-
Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2000. tablished; July 1, 1967: European Economic Commu-
Pamphlet that puts forth a detailed study of the effects nity Adopts the Common Agricultural Policy; Aug. 8,
of the GATT upon international intellectual property 1967: Association of Southeast Asian Nations Is
law and patents. Bibliographic references. Formed; Jan. 1, 1968: Johnson Restricts Direct For-
Mavroidis, Peter C. The General Agreement on Tariffs eign Investment; Dec., 1969: Birth of the European
and Trade: A Commentary. New York: Oxford Uni- Monetary Union Project.
November, 1947
First Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered
Chloramphenicol was the first antibiotic discovered to Mildred Rebstock (b. c. 1920), scientist who achieved
be effective in treating a broad range of bacterial and the first artificial synthesis of an antibiotic
rickettsial diseases, though its use was later restricted
because of toxic side effects in some individuals. Summary of Event
In November, 1947, scientists from Parke, Davis and
Also known as: Chloramphenicol
Company Research Laboratory in Detroit, Michigan,
Locale: Detroit, Michigan
along with scientists from Yale University and the Army
Categories: Health and medicine; science and
Medical Center in Washington, D.C., jointly announced
technology; chemistry; biology
the isolation of a new antibiotic, chloramphenicol. The
Key Figures antibiotic was derived from a soil bacterium, subse-
Paul Burkholder (1903-1972), Yale scientist who quently named Streptomyces venezuelae, which had
isolated a species of Streptomyces from which been isolated at Yale from a mulched soil sample ob-
chloramphenicol is produced tained in a field near Caracas, Venezuela.
Joseph Smadel (1907-1963), scientist who directed While screening soil isolates for possible antibacte-
field trials in Malaysia, where chloramphenicol was rial substances, Paul Burkholder, working in the Osborn
first tested Botanical Laboratory at Yale, tested a culture of the new
687
First Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
species of streptomyces for its ability to inhibit the was then called Rickettsia orientalis) was a particular
growth of bacteria. Cultures of streptomyces were seen problem to soldiers and civilians in Southeast Asia. Jo-
to inhibit a wide variety of bacteria, including strains of seph Smadel, the scientific director of the Walter Reed
Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Salmonella, and Shi- Army Institute for Research (WRAIR), began searching
gella. A research team at Parke, Davis tested liquid fil- for antimicrobial agents that might prove useful against
trates obtained from streptomyces cultures and found typhus. When Parke, Davis, provided him with a group
that these too possessed antibacterial properties. Once of drugs to test, Smadel and his colleague, Betsy Jack-
Parke, Davis had isolated the new antibiotic and sub- son, found that the antibiotic chloramphenicol inhibited
jected it to thorough testing, the company published its the growth of rickettsia in fertile chicken eggs and in
work jointly with Burkholder and others involved in the mice. This led to his successful treatment of cases of ty-
research in the journal Science. The same antibiotic was phus in Mexico with oral administration of the antibiotic.
also found that same year by a group at the University of Smadel also arranged a field test of the efficacy of
Illinois; the Illinois group subsequently allowed Parke, chloramphenicol as an anti-rickettsial in Kuala Lumpur,
Davis to claim precedence. Malaya (now Malaysia), in March, 1948. By the comple-
The first of the broad-spectrum antibiotics, chloram- tion of the mission in June, dozens of patients had been
phenicol was unique for a number of reasons. Its rela- successfully treated and the effectiveness of the antibi-
tively simple structure was found to contain both an or- otic established. Chloramphenicol was released for pub-
ganically bound chlorine and a nitro-benzene group, lic use in 1949.
which is unusual among natural compounds. It became Chloramphenicol was widely used for a decade be-
the first antibiotic to be synthesized in the laboratory, a fore any significant evidence of toxicity became known.
project headed by Mildred Rebstock at Parke, Davis. Between 1949 and 1951, there had been reports of sev-
Rebstock also discovered that chloramphenicol was de- eral adults having died following the treatment of ty-
rived from dichloroacetic acid, another toxic chemical phoid fever with chloramphenicol, but at the time, these
(previously used in the treatment of warts) not at the time deaths had been ascribed to the severity of the illness. In
known to occur as a natural product. The chemical 1959, however, James Sutherland reported the cardio-
name given to the drug was D-threo-1-paranitrophenyl- vascular collapse and death of three infants after they
2-dichloroacetamide-1,3-propanediol, abbreviated as were treated with chloramphenicol. All exhibited a gray
chloramphenicol; the drug was marketed under the trade pallor (called “gray syndrome”) prior to death. A more
name chloromycetin. Rebstock’s synthesis remained the complete study carried out that year found that of thirty-
basis for mass-producing an effective antibacterial one premature infants treated with the drug, 45 percent
cheaply. Although the substance contained several toxic died exhibiting gray syndrome, while only 2.5 percent of
components, toxicity was not initially found associated a group of untreated infants died. The common feature
with its use. among the fatal cases was the high level of the drug used
Chloramphenicol appeared to be the ideal antibacte- in their treatment: 230 to 280 mg of chloramphenicol per
rial drug. It was rapidly absorbed through the gastroin- kilogram of body weight per day, approximately five to
testinal tract and could reach a therapeutic concentration ten times what later became the recommended dose.
in the blood quickly. It was also found to be capable of Chloramphenicol was subsequently found to interfere
penetrating body cells while continuing its antibacterial with the energy-producing capacity of mitochondria in
activity, a property that made it useful in the treatment of those organs with a high rate of oxygen consumption; the
rickettsial disease. heart, liver, and kidneys were at particular risk. Persons,
Rickettsia bacteria are “energy parasites”: That is, particularly infants, who were unable to detoxify the
though they are bacteria, most rickettsia are incapable of drug efficiently were particularly susceptible to the accu-
independent growth and replicate only within living mulation of toxic levels in the blood.
cells. Among the diseases associated with rickettsial in- Chloramphenicol was also found to be linked to two
fection are various forms of typhus and spotted fevers. forms of bone-marrow toxicity in adults. The first, a
No effective treatment was known for rickettsial disease dose-related cell depression, can result in depressed lev-
in the 1940’s, and few vaccines were available as preven- els of production of any or all of the three major forms of
tive measures. Chloramphenicol appeared to be ideal for blood cells: erythrocytes (red cells), leukocytes (white
testing as a treatment. cells), and platelets. This condition, which is generally
During World War II, scrub typhus (caused by what reversible, results from the combination of the drug’s
688
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 First Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Discovered
antimitochondrial properties and its ability to inhibit he- Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, and the pressure of
moglobin synthesis in developing red cells. The other World War II, eventually led to a solution for these prob-
form of toxicity, an irreversible aplastic anemia resulting lems.
1947
in discontinuation of cell production, is generally fatal; Realizing that bacteria do not flourish in soil, René
the precise cause is unknown, but there may be a genetic Dubos deduced that soil must contain an antibacterial
component to its development. Although these serious substance. He carefully screened soil and isolated the
side effects are rare, a study by the California Medical first antibacterial substance, tyrothricin. Other research-
Association in 1967 found the occurrence of cases to be ers began a systematic screening of soil samples from all
as high as one per twenty-four thousand applications, de- over the world; in 1947, this resulted in Burkholder’s dis-
pending on dose. The accumulation of such data was suf- covery of chloramphenicol.
ficient for the use of chloramphenicol to be restricted, in In its ability to inhibit the growth of a wide range of
the 1960’s, to cases for which there is little alternative bacteria, including some that resisted penicillin, chlor-
treatment. amphenicol represented the first broad-spectrum antibi-
otic. Until the 1970’s, it remained the only consistently
Significance effective antibiotic in the treatment of Salmonella infec-
Prior to the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming tions, including typhoid fever. Though chloramphen-
in 1929, there was little that physicians could do in the icol-resistant strains of bacteria have appeared from time
actual treatment of many diseases. Nevertheless, the es- to time, this has not been as significant a problem as in
sential concept of antibiosis—the inhibition of one mi- the case of other antibiotics.
crobiological agent by another—was certainly not un- The recognized toxicity associated with chloram-
known in the nineteenth century. Observations on the phenicol, first reported in 1959, has resulted in restriction
ability of fungi to inhibit bacterial growth were noted in in its use. Nevertheless, chloramphenicol remains an
the 1870’s by Joseph Lister, who is known primarily for important antibacterial agent in those cases where no
developing the concept of antiseptic surgery, and by his alternative treatment exists. Most rickettsia and other
fellow Englishman William Roberts. In 1877, Louis Pas- bacteria, including chlamydia and spirochetes, both as-
teur noted the ability of organisms from the air to inhibit sociated with sexually transmitted diseases, remain sus-
the growth of anthrax bacilli, even going so far as to sug- ceptible to treatment with therapeutic doses easily
gest a possible means of therapy for disease. It would be a achieved in the bloodstream. The drug is also active
half century, however, before such means would become against many penicillin-resistant bacteria and in treat-
available. ment of patients who may be allergic to penicillin. Fur-
The accidental discovery in 1929 of the antibacterial ther, because of its ability to cross the blood-brain bar-
properties of penicillin represented the first major break- rier, it remains an option in treating bacterial meningitis.
through in the practical application of antibiosis. Flem- Less toxic alternatives would continue to be devel-
ing had been growing staphylococcus in petri dishes in oped. The broad-spectrum antibiotics tetracycline and
his laboratory. In September, 1928, he noticed that a erythromycin have largely replaced chloramphenicol in
mold had contaminated one corner of a dish. In a large common use, such as the treatment of Salmonella or rick-
area around the mold, the staphylococcal colonies had ettsial diseases. Ironically, its very toxicity, which
undergone lysis, a phenomenon uncommon with this slowed the drug’s use and may have retarded the devel-
type of bacteria. As Fleming was unfamiliar with the an- opment of resistant strains of bacteria, has assured
tibacterial substance, he termed it penicillin, after the chloramphenicol’s remaining a backup treatment of
name of a common mold suspected to be its source. choice.
Fleming went on to demonstrate not only that penicillin — Richard Adler
exhibited antibacterial properties against a variety of
pathogenic organisms but also that some bacteria re- Further Reading
mained resistant to it. Böttcher, Helmuth. Wonder Drugs: A History of Anti-
Penicillin was reported in medical literature in 1929, biotics. Translated by Einhart Kawerau. Philadel-
but it required another decade before the drug’s potential phia: J. B. Lippincott, 1964. Gives few specifics on
could be realized. It was difficult to purify in therapeutic chloramphenicol, but presents in an engaging man-
quantities, and cultures of Penicillium differed widely in ner the use of therapeutic agents for illness throughout
how efficiently they could be produced. The work of history.
689
Arab-Israeli War Creates Refugee Crisis The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Brock, Thomas. “Chloramphenicol.” Bacteriological motherapy and of the role played by fortuitous dis-
Reviews 25 (1961): 32-48. The first major work on the covery.
use of chloramphenicol. Provides a review of the Sneader, Walter. Drug Discovery: A History. Hoboken,
early literature on the clinical use of the antibiotic. No N.J.: Wiley, 2005. This work provides an interesting
mention of the drug’s toxicity. narrative of the origins, development, and history of
Levy, Stuart B. The Antibiotic Paradox: How the Misuse drugs with especially significant social and medical
of Antibiotics Destroys Their Curative Powers. Cam- import. Includes discussion of antibiotics.
bridge, Mass.: Perseus, 2001. A leading researcher in Waksman, Selman. The Antibiotic Era. Tokyo: Waks-
molecular biology explores a modern-day evolution- man Foundation of Japan, 1975. Posthumous collec-
ary change in bacteria because of misuse of antibi- tion of papers by Waksman on the discovery and use
otics. of antibiotics as chemotherapeutic agents. Waksman,
Moberg, Carol L., and Zanvil A. Cohn, eds. Launching who coined the term “antibiotic,” discovered strepto-
the Antibiotic Era. New York: Rockefeller University mycin; the book provides an excellent history of the
Press, 1990. A collection of first-person accounts on field.
the discovery of antibiotics and their early use. Based See also: Sept., 1943-Mar., 1944: Waksman Discovers
on a 1989 symposium honoring René Dubos and his the Antibiotic Streptomycin; 1944-1949: Hodgkin
discovery of gramicidin. The chapters on chemother- Solves the Structure of Penicillin; Summer, 1945:
apy include descriptions of the early field trials of Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic;
chloramphenicol. July 2, 1952: Salk Develops a Polio Vaccine; 1957:
Parascandola, John, ed. The History of Antibiotics. Madi- Isaacs and Lindenmann Discover Interferons; 1957:
son, Wis.: American Institute of the History of Phar- Sabin Develops the Oral Polio Vaccine; 1967: World
macy, 1980. Based on a 1979 symposium on the his- Health Organization Intensifies Its Campaign to
tory of antibiotics sponsored by the American Eradicate Smallpox; June, 1967: Scientists Debate
Chemical Society. Focuses on the story of penicillin, the Addition of Antibiotics to Animal Feed; 1969:
but includes discussion of the history of bacterial che- German Measles Vaccine Is Developed.
November 29, 1947-July, 1949

Arab-Israeli War Creates Refugee Crisis
More than 400,000 Palestinians were driven from Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952), chief Zionist delegate
their homeland after the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, to the Paris Peace Conference and first president of
joining those who fled to safety after the United Israel, 1949-1952
Nations initially voted to create Israel as a Jewish David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973), prime minister of
state. Israel, 1948-1953 and 1955-1963
Also known as: First Arab-Israeli War

Summary of Event
Locale: Palestine (now Israel)
As World War I raged in the Middle East, Great Britain
Categories: Immigration, emigration, and
and France signed the Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1916 to
relocation; wars, uprisings, and civil unrest;
divide the region into British and French zones of influ-
expansion and land acquisition
ence. Meanwhile, the British high commissioner of
Key Figures Egypt, Sir Henry McMahon, carried out diplomatic con-
Arthur Balfour (1848-1930), British prime minister, tacts with Hussein ibn Abdallah, emir of the Hijaz,
1902-1905, and foreign secretary, 1916-1919 whereby the British promised the Arabs independence if
Folke Bernadotte (1895-1948), Swedish diplomat and they joined the Allies against the Turks. On November 2,
U.N. mediator 1917, however, British foreign minister Arthur Balfour
Haj Amin al-Husseini (1893/1895-1974), mufti of issued a declaration favoring the idea of establishing a
Jerusalem, 1921-1936, and leader of the Arab Jewish national home in Palestine.
Higher Committee The Balfour Declaration stipulated that nothing would
690
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Arab-Israeli War Creates Refugee Crisis
be done to harm the rights of the indigenous Arab popula- Arab Higher Committee, headed by Haj Amin al-
tion, at the time numbering nearly 575,000, or 92 percent Husseini. The Palestinians resisted the British and the Zi-
of the population. Subsequent events proved otherwise. onist program with a long general strike, followed by the
1947
Violence was already foretold by the King-Crane Com- 1936-1939 revolt. The weakness of the Palestinians, the
mission, dispatched by U.S. president Woodrow Wilson might of the British troops, and the pressure applied by
in the summer of 1919 to investigate conditions of the re- surrounding Arab governments combined to defeat the
gion in preparation for the Paris Peace Conference. revolt.
The Zionist delegates at the conference argued that The Zionist drive to establish a Jewish state in Pales-
Great Britain, not France, should be given the League of tine began to bear fruit. Already the Peel Commission,
Nations’ mandate to rule Palestine. Having been sup- sent in 1937 to investigate the sources of Palestinian un-
ported by the Balfour Declaration, the Zionists were rest, had recommended partition of the country. The
handed their second victory when the British were given United Nations authorized the creation of the United Na-
the mandate to govern Palestine and when the preamble tions Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) to in-
of the mandate contained a copy of the Balfour Declara- vestigate all questions and issues relevant to the Palestine
tion. Article 2 of the mandate gave the British responsi- problem and to make its recommendations to the United
bility “to place the country under such political, adminis- Nations by September, 1947.
trative and economic conditions as will secure the When UNSCOP finally submitted its findings to the
establishment of the Jewish national home.” U.N. General Assembly, it recommended partition of the
Article 4 called for the establishment of a Jewish country into a Jewish state and an Arab state and that Je-
agency “as a public body for the purpose of advising and rusalem become an international city. The Palestinians
cooperating with the Administration of Palestine in such rejected partition on the grounds that it violated their
economic, social and other matters as may affect the es- rights, as it violated the provisions of the U.N. Charter.
tablishment of the Jewish national home.” The agency They pointed out that the proposed Jewish state included
was allowed “to construct or operate, upon fair and equi- 56 percent of Palestine, even though Jews were not in the
table terms, any public works, services and utilities, and majority. Also, Jews owned only 10 percent of the land in
to develop any of the natural resources of the country.” the proposed Jewish state. Despite the misgivings of
Thus, the British were constrained by their commitment some and the total rejection by others, the partition was
to the idea of a Jewish homeland in Palestine from pro- passed on November 29, 1947.
tecting the civil rights and nurturing the national aspira- The partition resolution guaranteed, in theory, the
tions of the indigenous population, as mandate powers civil, political, economic, religious, and property rights
were supposed to do. of the Arabs who were to be included in the Jewish state.
A rural, largely peasant, society long ruled by the Otto- It stipulated, among other things, that no discrimination
man Turks, the Palestinians entered the twentieth century of any kind would be made among the inhabitants on the
ill-equipped to cope with the problems presented by the grounds of race, religion, language, or sex. Palestinians
modern world. The traditional Palestinian leadership con- and Arabs, however, rejected even the right of the exis-
sisted mostly of urban notables, who failed to unite and to tence of the Jewish state and indeed sought immediately
form an effective response either to the British or to the after the partition to exterminate it. Small numbers of
Zionists. Palestinian political parties were divided accord- Arab forces entered Israel to support local Palestinian re-
ing to family or local, rather than national, interests. Fur- sistance almost immediately after the approval of the
thermore, the Palestinians found themselves isolated as partition plan, and were resisted by Israeli army and ir-
the Sykes-Picot Agreement took effect and the new Arab regular forces such as the Irgun, in small-scale actions.
states fell under British and French colonial rule. British forces eventually abandoned the mandate.
The imbalance in the benefits of the British mandate The Arab Liberation Army formed by the Arab
became manifest in the growing ability of the Zionist League undertook largely ineffective attacks in northern
movement and the Jewish Agency to create an infrastruc- Israel, but elsewhere irregular Arab forces had greater
ture for a future state, especially as Jewish immigration success in cutting off the road from Tel Aviv to Jerusa-
increased in the 1930’s. Palestinians and their political lem. Waves of violence resulted throughout the winter
parties became gravely alarmed as the institutional gap and spring months of 1948 and nearly 300,000 Palestin-
between the two communities widened. The parties set ians fled their homes to safer areas before May 14, 1948,
aside their differences and, in 1935, formed the Palestine the date the state of Israel was proclaimed. A significant
691
Arab-Israeli War Creates Refugee Crisis The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
event in this period was the April 9 attack on the Arab vil- During the ensuing war, in which Israel steadily con-
lage of Deir Yassin, on the outskirts of Jerusalem, where solidated and expanded its territory at the expense of
about 120 men, women, and children were massacred. Arab forces, thousands more villagers fled to safety, hop-
News of the massacre spread, raising the level of fear and ing to return soon, but the Arab armies failed to destroy
panic among the population. This Israeli attack was fol- Israel, and so the Palestinians who fled awoke to the hard
lowed four days later by an Arab attack on a Jewish med- reality of indefinite exile. On May 22, the United Nations
ical convoy in which 77 Jewish personnel were killed in ordered a cease-fire, which was affirmed on May 29. In-
what seems to have been a retaliatory action. Having al- termittent truce violations and outbreaks of fighting led
ready lost its leadership and having no institutional sup- to another U.N. Security Council-sponsored cease-fire
port, the Palestinian civil and political authority quickly on July 15. Count Folke Bernadotte, the U.N. special me-
collapsed. Villagers felt defenseless, and the numbers of diator, was charged with the supervision of truce ar-
those fleeing to safety grew. The exodus left some areas rangements. In his attempt to reconcile the two sides,
with no resistance to approaching Zionist forces. Tiberias Bernadotte submitted plans for a settlement advocating
fell on April 18, Safad on May 10, and Jaffa on May 13, the refugees’ right to return home. He argued that “It
1948. would be an offense against the principles of elemental
Neighboring Arab states alternatively supported Pal- justice if those innocent victims of the conflict were de-
estinian guerrilla action, but also at times encouraged nied the right to return to their homes while Jewish immi-
Palestinians to flee on the theory that they would crush grants flow into Palestine.”
the fledgling Jewish state, making room for Palestinians On November 16, with no peace in sight and with
to reclaim all of their land. King Abdullah of Jordan qui- more refugees being forced out of their homes, the
etly opposed the establishment of a Palestinian state and United Nations ordered the establishment of an armistice
eventually claimed areas that came under the control of in Palestine. Armistice agreements between Israel and its
the Transjordanian Army. The full-scale invasion by Arab neighbors were negotiated between February and
about thirty thousand regular Arab forces occurred on July of 1949 with the mediation of Ralph Bunche, who
May 15, after Israel’s declaration of independence, which became U.N. special mediator after Bernadotte’s assas-
was rapidly recognized by both the United States and the sination. By then, Israel controlled 77 percent of Pales-
Soviet Union. tine, and neighboring Arab governments controlled the
rest, leaving Palestinians without
any territory of their own. Estimates
of the total number of refugees range
from 750,000 to 900,000. Most of
them were placed under the care of
the United Nations Relief and Works
Agency for Palestine Refugees in the
Near East (UNRWA), established on
December 9, 1949.
Significance
The war of 1948 is regarded by the
Palestinians as a catastrophe. They
had become a shattered nation. Pal-
estinians who remained under Israeli
rule suddenly found themselves a
defeated minority in their own land.
Palestinian national authority was
destroyed. The majority of Palestin-
ians became stateless refugees, even
when living in areas originally in-
David Ben-Gurion announces the independence of the State of Israel on May 14, tended to be part of the new Palestin-
1948. (Library of Congress) ian state but now occupied by neigh-
692
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Arab-Israeli War Creates Refugee Crisis
boring Arab countries. To add insult to injury, many of The Palestinian question had global repercussions as
these lived in makeshift camps and depended on rations the United States and the Soviet Union supplied arms and
issued by the United Nations. extended, to their respective allies, economic assistance
1947
The Arab host countries were poor and underdevel- and diplomatic backing. During the era of the Cold War,
oped, and were often reluctant hosts. Their fledgling, and the Arab-Israeli conflict remained a dangerous issue for
largely agrarian, economies were unable to absorb the the two superpowers. The PLO, formed in 1964, repre-
sudden influx of refugees. The UNRWA offered food sented the Palestinians after 1967. Arab and non-Arab
and health care, started development programs, and built governments gradually recognized the position of the
schools, among other assistance programs. Once educa- PLO, which was eventually granted observer status at the
tion and vocational training became available to the Pal- United Nations in the continuing effort to find a just solu-
estinians, their social, economic, and political role in the tion to the Palestine question and to redress the loss of
region improved. Many moved to Saudi Arabia and to Palestinian national rights.
the Gulf emirates when these began to develop their oil —Mahmood Ibrahim
economies. Palestinians served in a variety of roles, such
as educators and skilled laborers. Many became wealthy, Further Reading
but they remained stateless, except for those who ac- Abu-Lughod, Ibrahim, ed. The Transformation of Pales-
quired Jordanian citizenship. tine. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press,
Their presence throughout most of the Arab world 1971. Written by a host of scholars, this book contains
was a reminder to the Arab people as well as to various valuable articles on the demography of Palestine, land
governments of the plight of the Palestinians. To the alienation, resistance to the British mandate, and re-
Arab people, the Palestinians became a symbol of their gional and international perspectives on the Arab-
own lack of power and the backward conditions of the re- Israeli conflict.
gion after years of misrule. A bond would be established Flapan, Simha. Zionism and the Palestinians. New York:
between the forces for social change. To the majority of Barnes & Noble Books, 1979. A valuable account of
Arab governments, for whom realization of the Palestin- the relationship of the Zionist movement to the Pales-
ians’ right to return became a humanitarian duty and a tinians before 1948 by a well-known Israeli author.
political necessity, their presence was viewed as a radi- The details that Flapan provides will challenge the
calizing factor. This shaped the relationship of the Pales- myths of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the creation of
tinians to the Arab governments: sometimes champi- the refugee problem.
oned, at other times barely tolerated because of their Heller, Joseph L. The Birth of Israel, 1945-1949: Ben-
influence, and sometimes even expelled, as the Palestine Gurion and His Critics. Gainesville: University Press
Liberation Organization (PLO) was from both Jordan of Florida, 2000. Details the events that led to the
and Syria, when those governments believed the PLO to founding of Israel and features a study of the many
be a threat to their national stability. For the most part, contenders fighting for leadership of this new state.
Palestinians’ civil rights were neglected whether they Included are a bibliography and an index.
were living in refugee camps in the surrounding Arab Hourani, Albert. A History of the Arab People. Cam-
countries or were under Israeli rule. bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991. A
The region experienced revolutionary upheavals after comprehensive history of the Arab people from the
the creation of Israel in 1948, changing the nature of the rise of Islam to the present. Places the political devel-
ruling groups and radicalizing the domestic and interna- opments in the region and their international implica-
tional policies of the Arab states. The Arab-Israeli con- tions in historical perspective.
flict remained alive and led to major wars in 1956, in Khouri, Fred. The Arab-Israeli Dilemma. 3d ed. Syra-
1967 (when Israel took over the West Bank and the Gaza cuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1985. An ex-
Strip), and in 1973. Two major Israeli military operations cellent, well-documented account of the Arab-Israeli
against the Palestinians in Lebanon were carried out in conflict from 1947 through the 1980’s, with chapters
1978 and in 1982. In 1979 Egyptian president Anwar el- on the refugee problem, Jerusalem, and the American
Sadat agreed to the Camp David Peace Accords, by administrations’ involvement. This book has been de-
which Egypt recognized Israel, removing Egypt as a scribed as a model of objectivity.
threat to its security and drastically reducing Arab hopes Laqueur, Walter, ed. The Israel-Arab Reader: A Docu-
of any future military victory. mentary History of the Middle East Conflict. New
693
Invention of the Transistor The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
York: Citadel Press, 1969. An important sourcebook Rouhana, Nadim N. Palestinian Citizens in an Ethnic
for students of the modern Middle East and the Arab- Jewish State: Identities in Conflict. New Haven,
Israeli conflict. It contains excerpts from major works Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997. The author, who
on Zionism, Israel, the Palestinians, Arab-Israeli rela- grew up in Palestine, provides a psychological and so-
tions, Pan-Arabism, and other topics. ciological account of the influences of Israel on its
Morris, Benny. The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Arab minority. Includes appendixes and a bibliog-
Problem: 1947-1949. New York: Cambridge Univer- raphy.
sity Press, 1987. A controversial issue regarding Pal-
estinian refugees is whether they left on their own ac- See also: May 14, 1948: Israel Is Created as a Home-
cord or as a result of their leaders’ urging. Benny land for Jews; Dec. 9, 1949: United Nations Creates
Morris, one of few Israeli scholars to challenge offi- an Agency to Aid Palestinian Refugees; Feb. 1, 1958:
cial claims and Zionist propaganda, shows in this Syria and Egypt Form the United Arab Republic; May
well-documented account that Palestinians were 28, 1964: Palestinian Refugees Form the Palestine
forced out of their homes. Liberation Organization; Dec. 31, 1964-Jan. 7, 1965:
Reich, Bernard, ed. An Historical Encyclopedia of the Fatah Launches Its First Terrorist Strike on Israel;
Arab-Israeli Conflict. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood June 5-10, 1967: Israel Defeats Arab States in the Six-
Press, 1996. Invaluable research tool for examining Day War; Nov. 22, 1967: United Nations Security
many aspects of the Arab-Israeli conflict. Includes a Council Adopts Resolution 242; Dec. 11, 1967:
chronology and extensive bibliographical informa- Habash Founds the Popular Front for the Liberation
tion. of Palestine.
December 23, 1947

Invention of the Transistor
The development of the transistor gave birth to a new computer technology. The invention of the transistor was
era of solid-state electronics. In addition to making also one of the most significant productions of industrial
telephone relaying technology more efficient, the scientific research laboratories, first established by the
device made possible a host of mass-marketed electrical and chemical industries to organize and direct
consumer electronics devices, from the transistor radio the process of scientific research toward the needs of the
to the personal computer. sponsoring corporations.
The Bell Telephone Laboratories (Bell Labs), which
Locale: Murray Hill, New Jersey produced the transistor, were first established in 1925
Categories: Inventions; communications and media; to serve the research and development interests of their
science and technology; engineering co-owners, the American Telephone and Telegraph Com-
Key Figures pany and the Western Electric Company. The Bell lab-
John Bardeen (1908-1991), oratories were systematically organized into research
Walter H. Brattain (1902-1987), and sections, each concentrating on an aspect of the commu-
William Shockley (1910-1989), physicists at Bell nications industry. Their primary corporate goal was the
Telephone Laboratories improvement and expansion of existing communications
Lee de Forest (1873-1961), inventor of the three- equipment.
element vacuum tube Before the invention of the transistor, the expansion of
Mervin J. Kelly (1894-1971), director of research at the telephone system had depended on the vacuum tube.
Bell Telephone Laboratories The main problem in sending telephone messages over
long distances was that the signal lost its strength as it trav-
Summary of Event eled, so that the message became increasingly faint. The
The invention of the transistor in December, 1947, revo- invention of the three-element vacuum tube (triode) in
lutionized the fledgling electronics industry and paved 1906 by a young inventor, Lee de Forest, had permitted
the way for a postwar explosion in communications and the amplification and reamplification of the voice signal;
694
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Invention of the Transistor
with further improvements, the vac-

uum tube had made possible the first
transcontinental telephone call be-
1947
tween New York and San Francisco
in 1915.
By 1936, Mervin J. Kelly, director
of research at Bell Labs, had become
concerned about the limitations of
the vacuum tube. Long-distance tele-
phone transmission required huge
numbers of vacuum tubes as amplifi-
ers. These tubes had serious draw-
backs: They were fragile, bulky, gave To view image, please refer to print edition
off too much heat, consumed too
much electrical power, and failed fre-
quently, disrupting service. Because
the tubes did not last very long, cir-
cuits that used a great many of them
were costly to operate and maintain.
As a result, Bell Labs hired scientists
and engineers explicitly to form a
special interdisciplinary solid-state
research team to develop a better
technology.
Kelly approached a young physi-
cist working at Bell Labs, William
Shockley, with the problem of find- William Shockley (left), one of the inventors of the transistor stands with Lee de For-
ing a cheap and efficient replace- est, who invented the three-element vacuum tube. (AP/Wide World Photos)
ment for the vacuum tube. Shockley
had been working on semiconduc-
tors, which he thought might have the potential for cal charge at the contact point could be made to generate
amplifying electrical signals. (Semiconductors, such as a large current in the semiconductor, thus producing am-
germanium and silicon, have conduction properties in- plification.
termediate between those of insulators, such as glass, and The team’s first experimental device consisted of a
conductors, such as copper.) Shockley began exchanging tiny slab of germanium mounted close to, but insulated
ideas with Walter H. Brattain, another young Bell Labs from, a piece of metal. It failed; it continued to fail, de-
physicist, who also had been working with semiconduc- spite many design changes. Following these failures,
tors. World War II interrupted their research, however, John Bardeen developed a theory explaining the peculiar
and it was not until late in 1945 that they were able to re- movements of electrons on the surface of a semiconduc-
turn to the problem. After the war, they were joined by tor. In an absolutely pure state, a crystal of germanium
John Bardeen, one of Bell Labs’ theoretical physicists. does not easily carry an electric current, because of the
The three decided to begin their investigations with ger- stability of the electron-sharing pattern (covalent bonds)
manium and silicon, two semiconductor solids that had between germanium atoms. If an impurity is present,
been widely used during the war for signal detection. however, this electron-sharing pattern is altered. De-
Shockley and Brattain tried to understand why the pending upon the atomic structure of the impurity, vari-
semiconductors allowed current to flow at points of con- ous numbers of electrons are freed to migrate whenever
tact with certain other metals. Shockley thought that the an electrical charge reaches the crystal. This electron
electrical fields set up by the current at these points of movement allows the electrical current to flow across the
contact might be made to control the amount of current germanium without changing its structure.
flowing through the semiconductor. If so, a small electri- When Bardeen had formulated the solid-state theory,
695
Invention of the Transistor The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Brattain began experiments to confirm it. Months of ex- terials such as silicon; transistors for specific applica-
perimenting went by, as the team pursued what Shockley tions, such as power transistors; and somewhat different
came to call the “creative failure methodology.” On No- technology in several types of field effect transistors.
vember 17, 1947, the last phase of discovery began. Fol- Transistors were used not only in the telephone network
lowing the suggestion of colleague Robert B. Gibney, but also in radios, recorders, computers, calculators, in-
Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen tried generating an strumentation, and medical electronics; new, unexpected
electrical current perpendicular to the semiconductor. products hit the market. Transistor production became
They set their germanium crystal in contact with two internationalized, with both the devices themselves and
wires two-thousandths of an inch apart. When the current whole systems being made overseas; it opened up the
reached the semiconductor, it amplified more than forty Japanese consumer electronics industry. Further devel-
times. The “transistor effect” had been discovered. (The opment led to integrated circuits that could combine mil-
word “transistor” is short for transfer resistor, because lions of transistors on a single chip.
the circuit transfers current from a low-resistance circuit Creation of the point-contact transistor resulted in the
to a high-resistance circuit.) awarding of the Nobel Prize in Physics to the three Bell
By December 23, 1947, the three men were ready to Labs scientists, Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley. As a re-
demonstrate a working model to their colleagues. Their sult of the transistor, all electronic products could be
little device looked primitive. Bardeen had pressed two made much smaller, could run on much less power, and
tiny strips of gold leaf, to act as contacts, onto a germa- could be made much more cheaply. A new sector of tech-
nium crystal, which he then put on top of a piece of metal. nology was built on the tiny crystal, encompassing entire
This was the first transistor. It was a solid-state device, new industries, including the transistor radio and—even-
because it had neither moving parts nor a vacuum. It was tually—the personal computer.
therefore capable of bypassing the limitations of the vac- —Elizabeth Fee and Stephen B. Dobrow
uum tube.
For six months, the invention was kept secret while Further Reading
improvements were made and patents were drawn up. Braun, Ernest, and Stuart MacDonald. Revolution in Min-
On July 1, 1948, Bell Labs reported the discovery. The iature. 2d ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge Univer-
unheralded announcement went virtually unnoticed by sity Press, 1982. An excellent account of the develop-
the general public. After an initial period of concern over ment of transistors.
the cost involved in switching production technology, Dorf, Richard C., ed. Electrical Engineering Handbook.
the electronics industry ultimately responded. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 1993. A handy techni-
cal reference on transistors and related areas.
Significance Gregor, Arthur. Bell Laboratories: Inside the World’s
Impure semiconductors can be of a positive or negative Largest Communications Center. New York: Charles
charge type. Shockley’s subsequent sandwiching of mi- Scribner’s Sons, 1972. A popular, illustrated history
nuscule impure semiconductors with a piece of one type of Bell Laboratories.
in between pieces of the other type yielded the junction Kelly, Mervin J. “The First Five Years of the Transistor.”
transistor in 1951; it proved to be more useful. In the Bell Telephone Magazine 32 (Summer, 1993): 73-86.
early days, both kinds of transistors were limited in their Explains the early types of transistor design and their
applicability, easily damaged, unreliable, and expensive. applications.
Development of techniques to manufacture semiconduc- Mabon, Prescott C. Mission Communications: The Story
tor materials of sufficient purity would require time and of Bell Laboratories. Murray Hill, N.J.: Bell Tele-
money. phone Laboratories, 1975. This official history of Bell
In 1952, when Bell first offered the developed transis- Labs, written by a corporate official, mixes useful in-
tor in a licensing arrangement, all the major vacuum tube formation with a heavy dose of public relations.
manufacturers took out licenses and soon began produc- Marcus, Alan, and Howard Segal. Technology in Amer-
tion. Realizing the potential of the device for military ica: A Brief History. San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt
electronics, the Department of Defense sponsored fur- Brace Jovanovich, 1989. A good overview of the his-
ther research, development, and production of transis- tory of technology in the United States.
tors. Private capital was injected into the field as well, Noble, David F. America by Design: Science, Technol-
leading to new types of junction transistors with new ma- ogy, and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism. New
696
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Aversion Drug Found for the Treatment of Alcoholism
York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977. Analyzes the develop- the scientific and industrial developments behind the
ment of modern technology in the context of corpo- invention of the transistor and its subsequent applica-
rate capitalism. tions in computing and other information-based tech-
Orton, John. The Story of Semiconductors. New York: nologies. Bibliographic references and index.
Oxford University Press, 2004. History of the impact See also: 1953: Morita Licenses Transistor Technol-
of semiconductors upon electronics and human cul- ogy; May, 1954: Bell Scientists Develop the Photo-
ture. Bibliographic references and index. voltaic Cell; Sept. 25, 1956: First Transatlantic Tele-
Riordan, Michael, and Lillian Hoddeson. Crystal Fire: phone Cable Begins Operation; 1957: Sony Develops
The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the In- the Pocket-Sized Transistor Radio; Feb. 16, 1968:
formation Age. New York: Norton, 1998. Account of First 911 Call in the United States Is Made.
1948
1948
Aversion Drug Found for the Treatment of Alcoholism
Researchers accidentally discovered the alcohol violence. Chronic consumption of alcohol causes or-
deterrent properties of disulfiram (marketed as ganic disease of the liver, heart, and nervous system. Al-
Antabuse) and recognized its value in the treatment of cohol abuse is considered to be a top-ranking killer of
alcoholism. A person will become violently ill if he or Americans, ranked closely behind heart disease and can-
she drinks an alcoholic beverage after taking the cer. Alcohol is also an insidiously addictive drug. Years
substance. of moderate-to-heavy drinking are required before the
addiction is manifested.
Also known as: Antabuse; disulfiram Over the centuries, societies have tried to curtail the
Locale: Copenhagen, Denmark excessive use of alcohol by labeling alcoholics as sinful
Category: Health and medicine or weak-willed individuals who have made their own
Key Figures problems and by legal action prohibiting the sale or con-
Eric Jacobsen (1903-1985), Danish physician and sumption of alcoholic beverages. Such approaches have
professor of pharmacology failed to protect either the public or susceptible individu-
Jens Hald (fl. mid-twentieth century), Danish als from the misery and destruction of alcohol abuse. Of
physician and associate of Jacobsen the U.S. population that is of drinking age, the majority
Ruth Fox (1895-1989), psychoanalyst who was the drinks alcoholic beverages to some degree. More than 10
first American physician to use Antabuse as a percent of these social drinkers may have serious prob-
treatment for alcoholism lems with alcohol and millions more are identified as al-
coholics.
Summary of Event The recognition of alcoholism as a disease rather than
Alcoholic beverages have been used by humankind since a moral or legal problem was pioneered by Elvin Morton
the dawn of history. The drinking of beer, wine, and dis- Jellinek, an American biometrician who performed ex-
tilled liquors is an accepted custom in most societies. tensive epidemiological studies of alcoholism and classi-
There is a paradox in this widespread use of alcohol. fied the disease into five types based on dependence of
Families celebrate births and weddings with alcohol, yet alcohol; pattern of use; and the physiological, psycho-
many families are destroyed by it. “Demon rum” is con- logical, and social consequences of its use. In 1960,
demned by many religious groups, yet, at the same time, Jellinek published The Disease Concept of Alcoholism,
wine is often used in religious ceremonies. in which alcoholism was presented as a chronic, fatal,
People drink alcohol for a number of reasons, but a progressive disease, and alcohol was identified as the
portion of the alcohol-consuming population drink alco- cause of the disease, not a symptom of underlying emo-
hol in such quantities or with such frequency that, sooner tional problems.
or later, they lose control over their lives—with destruc- The gradual acceptance by the medical community
tive consequences. Alcoholism is a major factor in sui- that alcoholism is a disease caused by drinking alcohol
cides, automobile fatalities, child abuse, and domestic supports the beliefs expressed by Alcoholics Anony-
697
Aversion Drug Found for the Treatment of Alcoholism The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
mous (AA), a group founded in 1935 by alcoholics to letter to the editor of the Journal of the American Medical
help other alcoholics stop drinking. Alcoholics Anony- Association stating that workers exposed to disulfiram-
mous believes that alcoholics must realize they are pow- like compounds, used as rubber polymerization accelera-
erless over the influence of alcohol. AA maintains that tors, could not drink alcohol in any form. After a glass of
alcoholics can never “recover” and return to a life of so- beer, the workers would experience a flushing of the face
cial drinking; they must abstain from alcohol for the rest and hands, a rapid heartbeat, and their blood pressure
of their lives. would drop twenty points. Williams stated that “men
The treatment of alcoholism has long frustrated the have worked here for years without any complaint other
medical community because of the limited success in than their inability to drink. . . . One wonders whether one
helping the alcoholic abstain from drinking. Since the has discovered the cure for alcoholism.”
1930’s, therapies used to treat alcoholics have included In reply to Williams’s query, the editor curtly stated
psychological approaches (aversion therapy and psycho- that it had long been known that alcohol was a provoca-
analysis) and the prescription of drugs such as tranquiliz- tive agent that demonstrated the toxicity of such sulfide
ers and lithium to help alcoholics overcome their addic- compounds, including the related chemical carbon di-
tion. For a brief period, psychotherapy sessions aided by sulfide. Although the editor missed Williams’s point
administration of the powerful hallucinogen lysergic about using disulfiram as an alcohol-deterring agent, his
acid diethylamide (LSD) were strongly advocated by statements about the relationship between, and toxicity
some researchers in the late 1960’s as a breakthrough in of, compounds such as carbon disulfide and disulfiram
the treatment of alcoholism. None of these medical ap- were correct. Twenty years later, it was discovered that
proaches has survived or had a lasting impact in the treat- in patients who received large doses of disulfiram, sig-
ment of alcoholism. nificant amounts of the toxic chemical carbon disulfide
In 1951, however, the drug Antabuse was approved by actually were being produced in the body as a degrada-
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an ef- tion product, or metabolite, of disulfiram.
fective agent in the treatment of alcoholism. For the first The body’s marked reaction to the combination of
time, physicians had a specific drug available to help treat disulfiram and alcohol is a response to disulfiram’s inter-
alcoholism. The discovery of Antabuse as an effective ference with the normal metabolism (detoxification) of
alcohol deterrent drug was a purely serendipitous event. ethyl alcohol in the liver. In the absence of disulfiram,
In 1947, at the Royal Danish School of Pharmacy in enzymes in the liver rapidly metabolize or convert ethyl
Copenhagen, Eric Jacobsen, a professor of pharmacol- alcohol into acetaldehyde. Acetaldehyde is further con-
ogy, and his assistant Jens Hald were investigating a se- verted into the compound acetate, the final nontoxic by-
ries of compounds such as anthelmintic agents, potential product of ethyl alcohol, by the liver enzyme aldehyde
medicines for treating intestinal parasitic worm infec- dehydrogenase. Disulfiram is a potent inhibitor of the
tions. The chemical compound disulfiram was selected liver enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase. Inhibition of this
for further study, and, as was common in those times, the enzyme by disulfiram breaks the chain of reactions nec-
investigators ingested small doses of the chemical for di- essary to detoxify ethyl alcohol, resulting in a rapid five-
rect observations of potential side effects. No adverse re- to tenfold increase in blood levels of acetaldehyde.
actions were noted. Several days later, these scientists at- A person who has been taking disulfiram and then
tended a cocktail party. Shortly after finishing their first consumes alcohol will experience what is known as a
drink, both men became violently ill. Because they expe- disulfiram-ethanol reaction (DER) within minutes. This
rienced the same illness at the exact same time, Jacobsen profoundly unpleasant illness is characterized by the face
and Hald concluded that a combination of the small dose becoming hot and scarlet, an intense throbbing in the head
of disulfiram ingested days earlier and drinking alco- and neck, and a severe headache. The person may experi-
holic beverages had triggered the illness. The concept of ence difficulty in breathing, chest pain, vomiting, confu-
using disulfiram as a preventive measure in the treatment sion, and blurred vision. The facial flushing is replaced
of alcoholism became clear. In 1948 in the English medi- later by a blanched pallor, and blood pressure may fall se-
cal journal Lancet, Jacobsen and Hald published their verely. Symptoms of the DER may last from thirty min-
preliminary findings supporting the use of the chemical utes to several hours, depending on the individual and
disulfiram in the treatment of alcoholism. amount of alcohol consumed. The victim becomes ex-
There is some irony in the fact that in 1937, E. E. Wil- hausted and sleeps for several hours after the symptoms
liams, physician at a rubber plant in Connecticut, wrote a have worn off. On waking, the person is well again.
698
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Aversion Drug Found for the Treatment of Alcoholism
In rare cases, the DER can be so severe that the victim All patients taking Antabuse must be cautioned to be
dies from cardiovascular collapse and congestive heart on guard against “hidden alcohol” to avoid an accidental
failure. More than twenty such fatalities have been re- DER. Many medications, flavoring agents, and foods con-
ported in medical literature. The threat of this frightening tain ethyl alcohol. Some cough syrups, mouthwashes,
and severe reaction to alcohol is the basis for the use of flavoring agents such as vanilla extract, and various des-
disulfiram (Antabuse) as an adjunct in the treatment of serts, sauces, and soups flavored with wines or liquors
alcoholism. may contain enough alcohol to initiate a severe DER.
Antabuse is not a panacea for treating all alcoholics or all
Significance forms of alcoholism; the drug does not stop or prevent
In 1949, Ruth Fox, a New York City psychoanalyst who the alcoholic’s desire to drink. The drug can help the mo-
specialized in the treatment of alcoholism, obtained tivated alcoholic who desperately wants to stop drinking.
enough disulfiram from colleagues in Denmark to treat By choosing Antabuse therapy, alcoholics only have
1948
about fifty alcoholic patients. In keeping with the current to make one decision a day about drinking—whether or
theories of that time, Fox used disulfiram in an aversion not to take the Antabuse pill. Alcoholics who take the pill
therapy regimen, in which the patient was given alcohol know that “body chemistry” will keep watch over the
in a hospital setting to induce the DER deliberately. This next four or five days to help prevent the compulsive
process was repeated several times on a weekly basis in urge to drink. With this knowledge, Antabuse gives alco-
an effort to produce a conditioned reflex against the use holics time during the difficult transition and adjustment
of alcohol by the alcoholic patient. By 1950, Fox consid- from alcoholism to a life of sobriety.
ered discontinuing disulfiram therapy. It was apparent —Brian L. Roberts
that aversion to alcohol was not occurring, several of her
patients had almost died during a DER episode, and al- Further Reading
most one-third of the patients complained of serious side Bowman, William C., and Michael J. Rand. “Social
effects (headaches, skin rash, impotence). It was quite Pharmacology: Drug Use for Nonmedical Pur-
clear that the only reason the patient remained sober was poses—Drug Dependence.” In Textbook of Pharma-
a fear of the disulfiram-ethyl alcohol reaction. cology. 2d ed. Oxford, England: Blackwell Scientific,
Fox decided to end the alcohol challenges that initi- 1980. Discusses the social and political aspects of eth-
ated the feared DER. Instead, she counseled patients anol use equal to that given the pharmacology and
about the severe reaction that would occur if they drank toxicology of ethanol. One of the few medical phar-
alcohol while taking disulfiram. Furthermore, she re- macology texts that discusses the theory that metabo-
duced the daily dose of disulfiram to a quarter of the rec- lites of ethanol may react with endogenous neuro-
ommended dose. Immediately after implementing these transmitters to form morphine-like compounds in the
changes, patients’ complaints of side effects disappeared brain of the alcoholic.
without the loss of the alcohol-deterring properties of FitzGerald, Kathleen W. Alcoholism: The Genetic Inher-
daily administration of disulfiram. During her career, itance. New York: Doubleday, 1988. Each chapter
Fox used disulfiram to treat more than twenty-five hun- begins with a profile sketch or short story that puts a
dred alcoholic patients; many responded with gratifying human face on alcoholics, their spouses and children,
results. Antabuse—the proprietary brand name of di- and the struggle they face in achieving sobriety. Ar-
sulfiram—is still the only drug currently approved by the gues that alcoholism is a genetic disease, and, to
FDA for specific treatment of alcoholism. Tens of thou- lessen the stigma associated with alcoholism, refers to
sands of people in the United States take Antabuse every it as Jellinek’s disease. No mention of Antabuse.
day in their personal battle against alcoholism. Fox, Ruth, ed. “Disulfiram (Antabuse) as an Adjunct in
Antabuse therapy is not without controversy. Some the Treatment of Alcoholism.” In Alcoholism: Behav-
physicians are reluctant to prescribe a drug that has the ioral Research, Therapeutic Approaches. New York:
potential to induce a violent illness and possibly cause Springer, 1967. A collection of papers presented at
death if the patient ignores the doctor’s advice and drinks several scientific conferences on alcoholism. Good
alcohol. Controlled studies have not shown Antabuse but dated references. Discusses the development and
therapy to be more successful in helping alcoholics than refinement of Antabuse therapy in alcoholism. Down-
conventional forms of counseling or group support pro- plays the adverse side effects of disulfiram and sug-
grams run by AA. gests that even skid-row alcoholics can recover with
699
Fender Introduces the Broadcaster Guitar The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
disulfiram treatment in a half-way house setting. treatment centers. Emphasizes counseling, the role of
Holt, Mack P., ed. Alcohol: a Social and Cultural His- the family in therapy, and the patient-physician rela-
tory. New York: Berg, 2006. Covers a wide range of tionship. Good history of Alcoholics Anonymous.
topics on alcohol and its consumption, including alco- Physicians’ Desk Reference. 60th ed. Montvale, N.J.:
holism and other health effects; efforts to curb drink- Thomson PDR, 2006. Capsule summary of the action,
ing; bars, taverns, and saloons; wine as food and med- indication, and dosage administration of Antabuse.
icine; social drinking; and class issues. Important summary of contraindications and adverse
McNichol, Ronald W., John A. Ewing, and Morris D. effects noted with disulfiram administration.
Faiman. Disulfiram (Antabuse): A Unique Medical Tracy, Sarah W. Alcoholism in America: From Recon-
Aid to Sobriety. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, struction to Prohibition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
1987. Written by three physicians who enthusiasti- University Press, 2005. An interesting history of alco-
cally support the use of Antabuse in alcoholic treat- holism and its treatment in the United States from the
ment. For the reader with a background in the life sci- mid-nineteenth century through the 1920’s. Dis-
ences. Emphasizes the use of disulfiram as a deterrent cusses public hospitals and other facilities for alco-
to impulsive drinking. Excellent chapter on the phar- holics, “boozatoriums,” the vice of alcoholism, and
macodynamics and toxicology of disulfiram. Exten- more.
sive references.
Milam, James R., and Katherine Ketcham. Under the See also: Sept., 1943-Mar., 1944: Waksman Discovers
Influence: A Guide to the Myths and Realities of Al- the Antibiotic Streptomycin; 1944-1953: Sanger De-
coholism. Seattle, Wash.: Madrona, 1981. Uses termines the Structure of Insulin; Summer, 1945:
nontechnical language while presenting a solid scien- Duggar Develops the First Tetracycline Antibiotic;
tific treatise on alcoholism. Offers cautious endorse- Nov., 1947: First Broad-Spectrum Antibiotic Is Dis-
ment of Antabuse as a temporary aid to the recovering covered; July 2, 1952: Salk Develops a Polio Vac-
alcoholic. Argues that physiology, not psychology, cine; Apr. 30, 1954: Wilkins and Kline Discover the
determines whether a drinker will become addicted to First Tranquilizer for Psychosis; Apr., 1956-1957:
alcohol. Birth Control Pills Are Tested in Puerto Rico; 1957:
Nace, Edgar P. The Treatment of Alcoholism. New York: Sabin Develops the Oral Polio Vaccine; Jan. 1, 1966:
Brunner/Mazel, 1987. Written for medical students, Federal Law Requires Cigarette Warning Labels;
psychiatry residents, and counselors in alcoholism 1969: German Measles Vaccine Is Developed.
1948
Fender Introduces the Broadcaster Guitar
With the introduction of the first commercially Charlie Christian (1916-1942), American jazz guitarist
manufactured, solid-body electric guitar, the T-Bone Walker (1910-1975), American blues singer
Broadcaster (renamed the Telecaster two years later), and guitarist
Leo Fender revolutionized the guitar industry and
changed the face of popular music. Summary of Event
Between 1931 and 1937, approximately twenty-seven
Also known as: Telecaster
hundred electric guitars and amplifiers were sold in the
Locale: Fullerton, California
United States. The Electro String Instrument Company,
Categories: Music; science and technology;
run by Adolph Rickenbacker and his designer partners,
manufacturing and industry
George Beauchamp and Paul Barth, produced two of the
Key Figures first commercially manufactured electric guitars—the
Leo Fender (1909-1991), American electric-guitar Rickenbacker A-22 and A-25—in 1931. The Ricken-
designer and manufacturer backer models were what are known as “lap steel,” or
Les Paul (b. 1915), American guitarist and designer of Hawaiian, guitars. A Hawaiian guitar is played with the
solid-body electric guitars instrument laying flat across a guitarist’s knees. By the
700
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Fender Introduces the Broadcaster Guitar
mid-1930’s, the Gibson company had introduced an public-address systems for group gatherings. In 1937, af-
electric Spanish guitar, the ES-150. Legendary jazz gui- ter short tenures of employment with the Division of
tarist Charlie Christian made this model famous while Highways and the U.S. Tire Company, he opened a radio
playing for Benny Goodman’s orchestra. repair company in Fullerton, California. Always looking
Christian was the first electric guitarist to be heard to expand and invent new and exciting electrical gadgets,
by a large American audience. He became an inspiration Fender and Clayton Orr “Doc” Kauffman started the
for future electric guitarists, because he proved that the K & F Company in 1944. Kauffman was a musician and
electric guitar could have its own unique solo sound. a former employee of the Electro String Instrument
Along with Christian, the other electric-guitar figures Company. The K & F Company lasted until 1946 and
who put the instrument on the musical map were blues produced steel guitars and amplifiers. After that partner-
guitarist T-Bone Walker, guitarist and inventor Les Paul, ship ended, Fender founded the Fender Electric Instru-
and engineer and inventor Leo Fender. ments Company.
1948
The first electrical pickups used on a guitar can be With the help of George Fullerton, who joined the
traced back to the 1920’s and the efforts of Lloyd Loar, company in 1948, Fender developed the Fender Broad-
but there was not yet strong interest on the part of the caster. The body of the Broadcaster was made of a solid
American public for the guitar to be amplified. The pub- plank of ash wood. The corners of the ash body were
lic did not become intrigued until the 1930’s. Christian’s rounded, and it was joined to a solid maple neck. There
electric guitar performances in Goodman’s band woke was a cutaway located under the joint with the neck,
up the public to the potential of this new and exciting making it easier for the guitarist to access the higher frets.
sound. It was not until the 1950’s, though, that the elec- The neck was bolted to the body of the guitar, which was
tric guitar became firmly established. Leo Fender would
unusual, since most guitar necks prior to the Broadcaster
turn out to be the right man in the right place at the right
had been glued to the body. Frets were positioned di-
time. He could not have known that his Fender guitars
rectly into designed cuts made in the maple of the neck.
would help usher in a whole new musical landscape.
The guitar had two pickups.
Early electric guitars were really no more than acous-
The Fender Electric Instruments Company made
tic guitars with one or more pickups, which convert
fewer than one thousand Broadcasters. In 1950, the name
string vibrations to electrical signals that can be played
of the guitar was changed from the Broadcaster to the
through a speaker. That is, they were standard, hollow-
Telecaster, as the Gretsch company had already regis-
bodied guitars with built-in devices for amplifying
acoustically produced sounds. Amplification of a guitar tered the name Broadcaster for some of its drums and
made it a more assertive musical instrument. The electri- banjos. Fender decided not to fight in court over use of
fication of the guitar ultimately would make it more flex- the name.
ible, giving it a more prominent role in popular music. Fender has been called the Henry Ford of the solid-
Les Paul, always a compulsive inventor, began exper- body electric guitar, and the Telecaster became known as
imenting with ways of producing an electric solid-body the Model T of the industry. The early Telecasters sold
guitar in the late 1930’s. A solid-body guitar makes al- for $189.50. Besides being relatively inexpensive, the
most no sound independent of electrical power: It uses Telecaster was a very durable instrument. Basically, the
strings as a means of input into an electrical sound- Telecaster was a continuation of the Broadcaster. Fender
producing system, rather than simply amplifying pre- filed for a patent on its unique bridge pickup on January
existing sound produced by the acoustic body of the gui- 13, 1950, and he filed for a patent on the Telecaster’s
tar. In 1929, at the age of thirteen, Paul had amplified his unique body shape on April 3, 1951.
first acoustic guitar. Another influential inventor of the In the music industry during the late 1940’s, it was im-
1940’s, Paul Bigsby, built a prototype solid-body guitar portant for a company to unveil new instruments at trade
for country music star Merle Travis in 1947. It was Leo shows. At this time, there was only one important trade
Fender, however, who revolutionized the electric guitar show, sponsored by the National Association of Music
industry by producing the first commercially viable, Merchants. The Broadcaster was first shown to the in-
solid-body electric guitar, the Broadcaster, in 1948. dustry at the 1948 trade show in Chicago. The industry
Leo Fender was born in the Anaheim, California, area had seen nothing like this guitar before. The new guitar
in 1909. As a teenager, he began to build and repair gui- was the first that existed only to be amplified; it was not
tars. By the 1930’s, Fender was building and renting out merely an acoustic guitar with amplification added.
701
Fender Introduces the Broadcaster Guitar The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Significance electric bass would go on to dominate the market. The

The Telecaster, as it would be called after 1950, re- Fender company has manufactured numerous guitar
mained in continuous production for more years than any models over the years, but the three that stand above all
other guitar of its type and was one of the industry’s best others in the field are the Telecaster, the Precision bass,
sellers. From the beginning, it looked and sounded and the Stratocaster. The Telecaster is considered to be
unique. Electrified acoustic guitars had a mellow woody more of a workhorse, whereas the Stratocaster is thought
tone, whereas the Telecaster had a clean twangy tone. of as the thoroughbred of electric guitars. The Precision
This tone made it popular with country and blues guitar- bass was in its own right a revolutionary guitar. With a
ists. The Telecaster could also be played at a higher vol- styling that had been copied from the Telecaster, the Pre-
ume than previous electric guitars. cision freed musicians from bulky oversized acoustic
Because Leo Fender attempted something revolution- basses, which were prone to feedback. The name Preci-
ary by introducing an electric solid-body guitar, there sion had meaning. Fender’s electric bass made possible,
was no guarantee that his business venture would suc- with its frets, the precise playing of notes; many acoustic
ceed. Fender Electric Instruments Company had fifteen basses were fretless.
employees in 1947. At times during the early years of the The marriage between rock music and solid-body
company, it looked as though Fender’s dreams would not electric guitars was initiated by the Fender guitars. The
come to fruition, but the company persevered and grew. Telecaster, Precision bass, and Stratocaster become syn-
Between 1948 and 1955, with an increase of employees, onymous with the explosive character of rock and roll
the company was able to produce ten thousand Broad- music. The multi-billion-dollar music business can point
caster/Telecaster guitars. Fender had taken a big risk, but to Fender as the pragmatic visionary who put the solid-
it paid off enormously. Between 1958 and the mid- body electric guitar at the forefront of the musical scene.
1970’s, Fender produced more than 250,000 Telecasters. His innovative guitars have been used by some of the
Other guitar manufacturers were placed in the position of most important guitarists of the rock era, including Jimi
having to catch up. Fender had succeeded in developing Hendrix, Eric Clapton, and Jeff Beck. Fender guitars
a process by which electric solid-body guitars could be have also remained best sellers with the public world-
manufactured profitably on a large scale. wide. Amateur musicians purchased them by the thou-
Since the electric guitar was the newest member of the sands for their own entertainment. A large market for
family of guitars, it took some time for musical audi- sheet music from rock artists also developed, partly as a
ences to appreciate fully what it could do. The electric result of the availability of affordable electric instru-
solid-body guitar has been called a dangerous, uncivi- ments such as Fender’s.
lized instrument. The youth culture of the 1950’s found In 1992, Fender was inducted into the Rock and Roll
in this new guitar a voice for their rebellion. Fender un- Hall of Fame. He is one of the few nonmusicians ever to
leashed a revolution not only in the construction of a gui- be inducted. The sound of an electric guitar is the sound
tar but also in the way popular music would be ap- of exuberance, and since the Broadcaster was first un-
proached henceforth. veiled in 1948, that sound has grown to be pervasive and
Always interested in finding new ways of designing a enormously profitable.
more nearly perfect guitar, Leo Fender again came up —Jeffry Jensen
with a remarkable guitar in 1954, with the Stratocaster.
There was talk in the guitar industry that Fender had gone Further Reading
too far with the introduction of the Stratocaster, but it be- Bacon, Tony. “Electric Guitar.” In The New Grove Dic-
came a huge success because of its versatility. It was the tionary of Musical Instruments, edited by Stanley
first commercial solid-body electric guitar to have three Sadie. New York: Grove’s Dictionaries of Music,
pickups and a vibrato bar. It was also easier to play than 1984. A concise yet thorough discussion of the tech-
the Telecaster because of its double cutaway, contoured nology and the history of the electric guitar. Bacon is
body and scooped back. The Stratocaster sold for definitely an expert on the subject, and anyone want-
$249.50. The Stratocaster has undergone some minor ing a solid starting point would be hard pressed to find
changes, but Fender and his staff basically got it right the anything better than this article. A short bibliography
first time: It has remained popular since its introduction. is included.
In 1951, Leo Fender introduced another revolutionary Bacon, Tony, and Paul Day. The Fender Book. San Fran-
guitar, the Precision bass. At a cost of $195.50, the first cisco: GPI Books, 1992. A one-of-a-kind book that
702
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Fender Introduces the Broadcaster Guitar
tells the complete history of Fender’s electric guitars. Fender Precision Bass and its contribution to the evo-
In addition to a chapter on the history of the Fender lution of rock, jazz, and other popular electical music.
company and the life of Leo Fender, the book includes Bibliographic references and index.
a reference listing of all electric models up to 1992, a Smith, Richard R. Fender: The Sound Heard ’Round the
chronology of models, and a directory of guitars. Lav- World. Milwaukee, Wis.: H. Leonard, 2003. Compre-
ishly illustrated with pictures of all guitar models pro- hensive, illustrated study of Fender’s guitars, their de-
duced by Fender. The production dates of certain sign, history, and effects upon popular music. Index.
models, such as the Broadcaster, differ from what the Wheeler, Tom. American Guitars: An Illustrated His-
majority of other secondary sources state, but on the tory. New York: Harper & Row, 1982. All the major
whole this is an indispensable source. guitar companies are included. The section on Fender
Brosnac, Donald, ed. Guitars Made by the Fender Com- is complete and includes an interview with Leo
pany. Westport, Conn.: Bold Strummer, 1986. More a Fender. One of the best sources of its kind.
1948
pamphlet than a book, this source is a detailed history _______. “Electric Guitars.” In The Guitar Book: A
of the Fender guitars. This source will probably be Handbook for Electric and Acoustic Guitarists. New
found only in academic music libraries, but anyone York: Harper & Row, 1974. A solid source that is
willing to search it out will not be disappointed. good at explaining the early years of both Fender and
Evans, Tom, and Mary Anne Evans. “The Electric Gui- Gibson guitars.
tar.” In Guitars: Music, History, Construction, and See also: Jan. 21, 1949-Mar. 9, 1950: Davis Develops
the Players from the Renaissance to Rock. New York: 1950’s Cool Jazz; Spring, 1955: Berry’s “Maybel-
Facts on File, 1977. A splendid historical overview of lene” Popularizes Rock and Roll; 1956-1957: Presley
the electric guitar from the pre-rock era through to its Becomes a Rock-and-Roll Sensation; Jan., 1959:
prominence in 1960’s and 1970’s rock music. Filled First Successful Synthesizer Is Completed; 1963:
with wonderful photographs of numerous guitars and Audiocassette Is Introduced; Jan., 1963-1965: Bea-
the guitarists who played them. tles Revolutionize Popular Music; July 25, 1965:
Murray, Charles Shaar. “Electrifying Music.” In The Dylan Performs with Electric Instruments; July 26
Marshall Cavendish History of Popular Music. New and Sept. 24, 1965: Rolling Stones Release Out of
York: Marshall Cavendish, 1990. A fine overview of Our Heads; May 12, 1967: Hendrix Releases Acid
how the electric guitar changed popular music and Rock Album Are You Experienced?; Aug., 1969: Da-
Leo Fender’s role in those changes. vis Introduces Jazz-Rock Fusion; Aug. 15-18, 1969:
Roberts, Jim. How the Fender Bass Changed the World. Woodstock Music Festival Marks the Climax of
San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2001. Study of the 1960’s Youth Culture.
703
Greene’s The Heart of the Matter Is Published The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1948
Greene’s THE HEART OF THE MATTER Is Published
One of Britain’s leading novelists, Graham Greene, borrow the money for the passage from Yusuf, one of the
published his first significant novel since the outbreak many corrupt African merchants, who is widely sus-
of World War II. It was a specifically Catholic novel, pected of smuggling diamonds. Scobie should tell his su-
raising questions about theological issues, as well as perior, the police commissioner, of his business dealing
about aspects of British colonialism, and paralleling with Yusuf, as it might compromise him in future inves-
Greene’s own life. It was very well received, though tigations. He fails to do so, however. Scobie has a com-
proving controversial. plex relationship with Yusuf. There is some friendship in
it, especially on Yusuf’s side, though Scobie can never
Locale: London, England tell how much is genuine. Scobie until now has enjoyed a
Category: Literature reputation of being incorruptible.
Key Figure A boat is torpedoed, and a small group of survivors
Graham Greene (1904-1991), British novelist lands in the colony soon after Louise’s departure for
Cape Town, South Africa. Among the survivors is Helen
Summary of Event Rolt, a very young woman whose husband died in the
Graham Greene, one of the leading British novelists of wreck. She and Scobie strike up a friendship: Both feel
the mid-twentieth century, had volunteered to work for free to be very open with each other, and this is an imme-
the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) at the beginning of diate relief to Scobie, who has had to pretend to many
World War II. He had been sent as an SIS agent to the emotions to his wife, including love and a strict belief in
British colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa in 1942, Roman Catholic doctrine. Scobie and Helen quickly be-
under the guise of working for the Criminal Investiga- gin an affair, which Scobie must disguise, but various in-
tions Department (CID, the plainclothes police division discretions allow evidence of the affair to come to Yusuf,
equivalent to an American detective squad). (He had alas well as to Scobie’s faithful servant Ali.
ready briefly visited the area in 1935 while trekking Scobie finds himself pressured by Yusuf to pass on a
through Liberia with a cousin.) packet, doubtless containing diamonds, to the captain of
On his return to Britain in 1943, Greene found himself
unable to write further serious novels until the end of the
war and had to content himself with what he called “en-
tertainments.” In 1947, he conceived the idea of using his
Sierra Leone experience either as another entertainment
or as a serious novel. In the end, the serious novel idea tri-
umphed, as did the novel itself in its reception by the gen-
eral public upon its publication in London in 1948: The
Heart of the Matter assured Greene of financial indepen-
dence to pursue further his career as a novelist.
The plot of the novel is somewhat autobiographical. It
centers on Deputy Commissioner of Police Scobie’s ac-
tivities in Sierra Leone, a tropical, underdeveloped col-
ony, whose main commercial industry is its diamond
mines. Scobie has a difficult marriage with Louise. They
lost their only child while Louise was back in England.
She has now joined Scobie, but she dislikes the climate
and the snobbish coterie of expatriates (colonialists) that
make up white society and asks her husband to book her
passage on a ship to South Africa.
Travel is difficult and expensive because of the dan-
ger from German submarines, which are sinking many
ships in the Atlantic Ocean. Finally, Scobie decides to Graham Greene. (©Amanda Saunders)
704
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Greene’s The Heart of the Matter Is Published
a neutral ship returning to Europe. Meanwhile, Wilson, a questioning of traditional Catholic dogma in the light of
young man ostensibly representing a commercial inter- modern human experience, while maintaining the ongo-
est in the colony but in reality a spy, has previously taken ing importance to human life of faith. To this extent,
a great interest in Louise. Now he finds Scobie’s behav- Greene’s work anticipated a loosening of some Catholic
ior more and more suspicious. Louise suddenly returns, teaching by the Second Ecumenical Council of the Vati-
having been warned by an acquaintance of her husband’s can in the 1960’s. Certainly, at the time it was published,
affair. Scobie now has further secrets to hide. Moreover, The Heart of the Matter divided Catholic opinion. Greene
Louise insists, as a test, that he take Communion, which tried to emphasize that many of the opinions expressed in
entails going to confession beforehand. He goes to con- the novel were Scobie’s, not his, but the distinction was
fession, but when the priest insists he give up Helen, he often lost in debate. Greene’s theological perspectives
refuses and so is not given absolution. In the end, he re- were finely nuanced, as later discussion revealed.
ceives Communion unabsolved, which in Catholic doc- At a moral level, most readers, Catholic or not, saw in
1948
trine is a mortal sin. Greene’s novel a new portrayal of pity—as distinct from
In the end, Scobie compromises himself further by al- compassion—as a cruel vice. Greene depicted pity as
lowing Yusuf to have Ali murdered to keep him quiet. something that kills love and leads to dubious moral
Ironically, at this moment Scobie receives a promotion to choices. Scobie’s fall is as much a moral one as a theo-
the rank of commissioner, although he has been passed logical one. In his own life, Greene was troubled by guilt
over many times before. At this stage, Scobie can see no and did attempt suicide at one point, but many readers
way out of his dilemma except suicide, the only unfor- identified more intensely with Scobie’s guilt and saw the
givable sin in Catholic theology. To spare his wife’s feel- character as more heroic than Greene seems to have in-
ings, he tries to disguise his suicide as a heart attack. Af- tended. Greene wanted his readers to see Scobie’s pride,
ter his suicide, it turns out that few people have been rather than his despair.
deceived, and his efforts to spare other people, and even With the advent of postcolonial literary theory, the
God, it is suggested, have been in vain. novel took on a new significance, showing the corrupting
Autobiographical parallels between Greene’s life and influence of colonialism. British colonial rule in the book
elements of the novel abound: for example, the setting and is completely ineffective against the ongoing corruption
the use of Wilson as a spy, as was Greene. Also, in 1942 of the cultures of the colonized peoples of Africa, and it
Greene had both a wife and a mistress, although both were brings its own corrupting influence to make a bad situa-
back in England. However, he was clearly torn between tion worse. The horrific exportation of war is also por-
loyalty to both. A good deal of the character of Louise was trayed as a legacy of colonialism. Yusuf, the merchant,
modeled on Greene’s wife, Vivien. Diamond smuggling, cannot understand the intense significance placed upon
too, was a major issue for Greene while he was in Sierra industrial diamonds, which under normal circumstances
Leone, because the German war effort was dependent would be worth far less than are diamonds for jewelry.
on industrial diamonds to cut the precision tools needed Indeed, Yusuf and his perspective on the British stand at
for its rocket program. As in The Heart of the Matter, the center of any postcolonial interpretation of the novel.
Portugese ships were one of the main means of smuggling Later, in The Quiet American (1955), set in Saigon,
such diamonds. The death by suicide of a minor British of- Greene was to make further criticisms of French and
ficial in the novel has a parallel in Greene’s own experi- American colonialism.
ence as well. Even the cockroach-killing contest between — David Barratt
Wilson and his friend was drawn from a real incident in
Greene’s life. As Greene was finishing the novel, he was Further Reading
engaged in a love affair with an American woman, Cath- Baldridge, Cates. Graham Greene’s Fictions: The Virtue
erine Walston, and it seemed this spurred him in describ- of Extremity. Columbia: University of Missouri Press,
ing Scobie’s passionate inability to give up Helen. 2000. Reconsiders Greene’s novels, trying to set aside
much of the previous criticism. Sees Greene as one of
Significance the leading British novelists of the twentieth century.
The immediate reception of the novel enhanced Greene’s Sharrock, Roger. Saints, Sinners, and Comedians: The
reputation. It was grouped with his prewar The Power and Novels of Graham Greene. London: Burnes and
the Glory (1940; reissued as The Labyrinthine Ways), set Oates, 1984. A literary account that does full justice to
in Mexico. The two novels were seen as part of Greene’s the theological significance of Greene’s work.
705
Mailer Publishes The Naked and the Dead The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Sherry, Norman. 1939-1955. Vol. 2 in The Life of Gra- out material about Greene’s spying activities and his
ham Greene. London: Jonathan Cape, 1994. The offi- ties with master spy Kim Philby, as well as with the
cial biography of Greene. Sherry had unparalleled Hollywood mafia.
access to Greene, his family, and his writings and re-
searched extensively. He does not try to hide the inti- See also: Feb., 1942: Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil
mate details of Greene’s life where they are relevant in The Screwtape Letters; May 28, 1945: Evelyn
to understanding his books. Full notes and index. Waugh Captures Prewar English Life in Brideshead
Sinyard, Neil. Graham Greene: A Literary Life. Basing- Revisited; Feb., 1948: Paton Explores South Africa’s
stoke, Hampshire, England: Palgrave Macmillan, Racial Divide in Cry, the Beloved Country; June,
2003. Sinyard looks to Greene’s novels as a source of 1949: Nineteen Eighty-Four Portrays Totalitarianism
information about the author’s life equal in value to and Mind Control; Sept. 3, 1949: The Third Man Pre-
his memoirs. He sees Greene as an elusive and enig- mieres; 1954: Golding’s Lord of the Flies Spurs Ex-
matic figure. amination of Human Nature; 1958: Things Fall Apart
West, W. J. Quest for Graham Greene. London: St. Mar- Depicts the Destruction of Ibo Culture; 1963: Le
tin’s Press, 1999. West is especially good at digging Carré Rejects the Fantasy World of Secret Agents.
1948
Mailer Publishes THE NAKED AND THE DEAD
Norman Mailer’s publication of The Naked and the critics at the time did not recognize the allegorical impli-
Dead launched the career of a dominant personality in cations of the characters and the metaphoric nature of the
American literature in the second half of the twentieth plot. They eventually discovered, however, that The Na-
century. ked and the Dead was far more than a realistic novel of
men at war. Mailer had written a rich parable of power, a
Locale: New York, New York novel of character that would take its place alongside
Category: Literature other classic, symbolic works of American literature. As
Key Figure Mailer was to say, he had written a symbolic book con-
Norman Mailer (b. 1923), American novelist cerned basically with characters. If it took a while for
most critics to recognize Mailer’s full accomplishment,
Summary of Event though, it was clear from the outset that, in Mailer, a new
In 1948, Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead was literary sensibility had been born.
published. The book was an immediate commercial suc- The Naked and the Dead is a novel about war on a small
cess. It topped the New York Times best-seller list for island in the Pacific. The tale can be read as a metaphor for
eleven weeks and sold 197,185 copies in its first year. much larger concerns—the human condition and strug-
Within a year after he had graduated from Harvard gle to retain some humanity amid the savagery of war. The
University with a degree in engineering sciences, Mailer totalitarianism of the Army generally proves too strong
had enlisted in the U.S. Army, and during World War II he for the book’s individuals; if it does not, fate does.
had served in the Philippines. In The Naked and the Dead, The Naked and the Dead is about the invasion of the
Mailer used his personal military experience and individ- mythical Japanese-held island of Anopopei and the chal-
ual artistic vision to reshape the genre of the war novel. lenge of Mount Anaka on the island. The commander of
Critics agreed that his 721-page book was one of the finest the U.S. Army division that invades Anopopei is General
novels to come out of World War II. Mailer suddenly was Cummings, an egotistical fascist. His adversary is the
considered the best literary mind of the war generation. liberal Hearn, who holds on to style as substance slips
While critics praised The Naked and the Dead, how- away from him. Also pivotal are the aggressive, sadistic
ever, many underestimated the depth and artistry of Sergeant Croft, who finds war is his natural element and
Mailer’s book and focused instead on the effective veri- who shares the will and vision of Cummings, and Croft’s
similitude of the novel. They commented on Mailer’s adversary, Red Valsen.
technical prowess and his ability to record reality. Most The long patrol of a single platoon to Mount Anaka
706
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Mailer Publishes The Naked and the Dead
called A Calculus at Heaven that was the genesis of The

Naked and the Dead. It was one of fifty-one works by
promising writers published in a 1944 anthology. In the
months after his graduation, Mailer wrote a six-hundred-
page novel about mental illness, A Transit to Narcissus,
which went unpublished. When The Naked and the Dead
was published, Mailer was living in Paris with his first
wife. He came back to the United States a famous writer.
After the publication of The Naked and the Dead,
playwright Lillian Hellman tried to adapt the book into a
play with Mailer’s blessing, but she was unsuccessful. In
1958, The Naked and the Dead was made into a film star-
1948
ring Cliff Robertson and Raymond Massey; Mailer told
the journal Film Heritage that the result was one of the
worst films ever made. Despite such difficulties, The Na-
ked and the Dead made Mailer a major literary figure.
Harvard-educated and from a middle-class Jewish
Brooklyn background, Mailer had risen above his eso-
teric heritage to become the voice of a new generation.
Mailer saw the power of authority in both the Army and
society, and he saw the loss of individual possibility and
faith. In The Naked and the Dead, Mailer issued a pro-
vocative alert to the postwar world.
Norman Mailer. (Library of Congress)
Significance
The publication of The Naked and the Dead launched
brings a resolution to their hopes and illusions. At the Mailer as a major artist and personality. He rivaled Er-
end, Hearn is dead, Cummings has not gotten credit for nest Hemingway in the stories told about his personal life
the victory, Croft has failed to conquer or even under- and became recognized as a major twentieth century lit-
stand his mountain, and Valsen is a submissive survivor. erary persona. The Naked and the Dead gave him his
The man who accidentally gets the credit for the victory platform, and he did not relinquish it.
is a mediocre, banal major with foolish ideas. The Naked and the Dead was revolutionary in its
The Naked and the Dead was a controversial novel treatment of obscenity and sex. No novelist had used ob-
because of its language and sexual material. In the novel, scenities as Mailer did. At the time, obscenity charges
the soldiers speak crudely, and the book’s first potential could be brought against a publisher, so Mailer’s frank-
publisher—Little, Brown, and Company—refused to ness was dangerous. Critic Bernard De Voto was sent
print the profanity. Mailer took the book to Rinehart and Mailer’s manuscript by publisher Little, Brown, and
Company, which was also reluctant but less intransigent. De Voto criticized the manuscript for its profanity and
Mailer agreed to cut down his profanity and to use the eu- obscenity and did not support the book’s publication.
phemistic “fug” in place of the more offensive term. Even in the watered-down form published by Rinehart
The Naked and the Dead looked at the moral and and Company, the book was a milestone of explicit lan-
philosophical questions raised by war as no novel ever guage and a harbinger of frankness to come.
had. Mailer was compared favorably to Ernest Heming- When the novel came out, many critics saw Mailer as
way, John Dos Passos, and Joseph Conrad, and his novel influenced by John Dos Passos. Later, others tried to de-
was mentioned as worthy of comparison with Stephen fine The Naked and the Dead by what Mailer subse-
Crane’s The Red Badge of Courage (1895) and Leo Tol- quently wrote and tried to find evidence of his existen-
stoy’s War and Peace (1865-1869). tialism and political liberalism in the novel. Those that
Mailer burst on the scene with his first major full- saw the novel as a parable of power were most convinc-
length publication, but he had written other novels. At ing. Mailer himself said that the source of the novel was
the age of nineteen at Harvard, he wrote a short novel Herman Melville’s Moby Dick: Or, The Whale (1851);
707
Mailer Publishes The Naked and the Dead The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
like the whale in Melville’s novel, the mountain in Work. Boston: Little, Brown, 1971. This collection
Mailer’s book was a symbol of obsession and defeat. of critical essays, seventeen pieces mostly by major
In The Naked and the Dead, Mailer portrayed the critics (all originally published elsewhere), shows
arena of war with new insight. His book showed war and Mailer’s controversial reputation. Effective introduc-
society as creating a new totalitarianism that threatened tion by Lucid. Included are Richard Foster’s notable
the soul of man and society. In The Naked and the Dead, lengthy study and a classic essay by Diana Trilling.
the characters experienced a loss of faith that Mailer sug- Mailer, Norman. The Spooky Art: Some Thoughts on
gested an entire society faced. Writing. New York: Random House, 2003. Mailer
Mailer’s subsequent work was not so well received discusses the art of writing, providing advice for new
critically. His subsequent novels, including Barbary and experienced writers, anecdotes of his own experi-
Shore (1951), The Deer Park (1955), An American ences as a writer, and discussions of many famous au-
Dream (1965), Why Are We in Vietnam? (1967), Ancient thors, from Mark Twain to Samuel Beckett.
Evenings (1983), Tough Guys Don’t Dance (1984), and Marcus, Steven. “Interview with Norman Mailer.” In
Harlot’s Ghost (1991), had uneven, sometimes hostile, Writers at Work, Third Series. New York: Viking
receptions. Mailer was perhaps more successful in com- Press, 1967. This Paris Review interview reveals
posing nonfiction and in mixing elements of nonfiction some of Mailer’s techniques and intentions. Mailer
and fiction. He received critical affirmation as well as discusses his influences, his method of working, and
Pulitzer Prizes for both The Armies of the Night (1968) the writing of The Naked and the Dead.
and The Executioner’s Song (1979); the latter was re- Merrill, Robert. Norman Mailer. Boston: Twayne, 1978.
leased as “A True Life Novel.” Mailer also tried his hand A thought-provoking interpretation of The Naked and
at directing films, but with desultory results. Marilyn: A the Dead emphasizing that the book is a novel of char-
Biography (1973) and The Prisoner of Sex (1971) were acter. Defends Mailer’s ending and argues against
two nonfiction books that gave Mailer more visibility. others’ rejection of it on the grounds that they were
One of the enduring effects of his various publications looking for something Mailer was not trying to do.
and public appearances has been the myth of Mailer. He Mills, Hilary. Mailer. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.
has called himself “a psychic outlaw.” Mailer became a The first full-length biography of Norman Mailer.
large personality, his image fueled by his public actions. Mills presents a view of Mailer in his totality; there is
He had a lengthy feud with Gore Vidal, who once called an effective balance between Mailer the artist and
him “a fake”; in turn, Mailer insulted Vidal on television Mailer the individual. Mills leans a little in the way of
and once threw a drink on Vidal at a party. Mailer earned gossip, but she has much solid factual information
additional notoriety for stabbing one of his wives with a about Mailer’s publication history, his wives, and his
penknife and for campaigning unsuccessfully to become personal and public experiences.
mayor of New York City. Poirier, Richard. Norman Mailer. New York: Viking
With The Naked and the Dead, Norman Mailer began Press, 1972. Poirier ranks Mailer alongside F. Scott
his quest as a cultural warrior, besieged by friends and Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, and William Faulk-
foes and by a diminishing world, trying to redeem moral ner and analyzes Mailer’s literary transformation as a
power. His body of work constitutes a participation in writer as well as performer. Poirier recognizes Mai-
postwar America and shows how he lived and evaluated ler’s mastery of language, but he suggests that Mailer
the experience of a changing America. Mailer has been a has created a system that may have confined him.
man in search of himself, charting his personal Mount
See also: June, 1949: Nineteen Eighty-Four Portrays
Anaka, in search of heroism in a world of many icons but
Totalitarianism and Mind Control; Feb. 26, 1951:
few if any heroes.
From Here to Eternity Wins Wide Readership; 1961:
— Tony Macklin
Catch-22 Illustrates Antiwar Sentiment; Nov., 1962:
Further Reading Solzhenitsyn Depicts Life in a Soviet Labor Camp in
Bloom, Harold, ed. Norman Mailer. Philadelphia: Chel- One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich; 1963: Le
sea House, 2003. Collection of essays by leading Carré Rejects the Fantasy World of Secret Agents;
scholars evaluating Mailer’s life, work, and career. Jan. 25, 1970: M*A*S*H Satirizes Warfare; Feb. 4,
Bibliographic references and index. 1970: Patton’s Historical Realism Leads to Best Pic-
Lucid, Robert F., ed. Norman Mailer: The Man and His ture and Actor Awards.
708
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Merton Publishes His Spiritual Autobiography
1948
Merton Publishes His Spiritual Autobiography,
THE SEVEN STOREY MOUNTAIN
The Seven Storey Mountain catapulted Trappist monk New York with little success or satisfaction. After join-
Thomas Merton into the literary world as a writer ing the Trappists at Gethsemani Abbey in 1941, Merton
whose works on the contemplative life, civil rights, the continued writing. Even before The Seven Storey Moun-
arms race, and the Vietnam War were widely read and tain reached bookshelves, he had published a collection
broadly influential. His 1948 work remains in print. of his poetry and two books from inside the monastery.
The enormous success of his autobiography not only
brought him international acclaim but also quelled any
Categories: Religion, theology, and ethics;
1948
hesitation in the minds of his religious superiors about
philosophy; literature
whether a monk should also be a writer.
Key Figures The Seven Storey Mountain was finished in only six
Thomas Merton (1915-1968), monk, mystic, and months, a testament to Merton’s devotion to the project
author and to his abilities as a writer. The original typed manu-
Naomi Burton Stone (1911-2004), Merton’s literary script numbered 650 pages, all of which had to be written
agent and editor while immersed in the strict regimen of monastic life. In
Evelyn Waugh (1903-1966), novelist this early period of his cloistered life, Merton was allot-
ted only two hours per day for writing.
Summary of Event Both apprehensive and excited about his work, Mer-
The Seven Storey Mountain, Thomas Merton’s spiritual ton approached James Laughlin, his editor at New Direc-
autobiography, became an international best seller when it tions Press, which had published his earlier books, to see
was published in 1948. The book has been translated into if New Directions was interested in publishing the manu-
fifteen languages, and it remains in print. The Seven Storey script. However, on advice from his literary agent, Na-
Mountain details Merton’s early life, his conversion to omi Burton Stone, Merton sent the manuscript instead
Roman Catholicism, and his eventual entry into the to Robert Giroux at Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. The
Cistercian Order of the Strict Observance (the Trappists) change of publishing houses occasioned some embar-
at the Abbey of Our Lady of Gethsemani in Kentucky. rassment for Merton, though he continued to publish
Merton was born in France, the eldest child of the with New Directions and remained friends with Laugh-
painter Owen Merton and Ruth Jenkins. His
mother died when he was six years old and,
after a short time in Bermuda and France with
his father, he lived in Queens, New York Kentucky’s Abbey
(Douglaston), with his mother’s parents until
In The Seven Storey Mountain (1948), Thomas Merton reflects on the
his adolescence. Raised largely by his grand- “voice of silence” he encountered upon entering the Abbey of Our
parents in a household without strong reli- Lady of Gethsemani in Kentucky to begin his life there as a monk:
gious allegiances, Merton attended an Epis-
copalian church only occasionally in those The embrace of it, the silence! I had entered into a solitude that
years with no sign of a monastic vocation. was an impregnable fortress. And the silence that enfolded me, spoke
to me, and spoke louder and more eloquently than any voice, and in
Only after boarding school in Great Britain
the middle of that quiet, clean-smelling room, with the moon pouring
and a dissolute year at Cambridge University its peacefulness in through the open window, with the warm night air,
did he begin to feel the stirrings of a religious I realized truly whose house that was, O glorious Mother of God!
conversion while at Columbia University, How did I ever get back out of there, into the world, after tasting
where he was a student of poet and scholar the sweetness and the kindness of the love with which you welcome
Mark Van Doren (with whom he would re- those that come to stay in your house, even only for a few days, O
main a close friend). Holy Queen of Heaven, and Mother of my Christ!
Merton had tried a career as a writer while It is very true that the Cistercian Order is your special territory.
teaching at St. Bonaventure University in
709
Merton Publishes His Spiritual Autobiography The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
lin until the end of his life. Giroux, who had rejected too scandalous for the consciences of Catholic readers.
several Merton novels before 1941, received this manu- (Merton’s biographer Michael Mott found that he had fa-
script enthusiastically and circulated early proofs among thered a child, and the threat of a breach-of-promise suit
notable Catholic literary figures to garner feedback and was the proximate cause of his departure from Cam-
generate excitement for the work. Bishop Fulton Sheen bridge.) Those passages were stricken from the pub-
compared the manuscript favorably to Augustine’s Con- lished manuscript by his order’s censors, and Merton had
fessions, Graham Greene contributed a blurb that ap- his first encounter with monastic censorship. It would
pears on most editions five decades later, and Evelyn not be his last.
Waugh persuaded a publisher to secure the British rights Merton’s final years saw him bristle occasionally
to the work. Waugh edited the British edition, which was at references to The Seven Storey Mountain and its por-
titled Elected Silence. trait of the serious young monk who desired nothing
The Seven Storey Mountain sits in a well-established more than to leave the world when he entered the cloister.
literary category of spiritual autobiography. Merton, in His writings near the end of his life affirm what he wrote
his earliest correspondence with Laughlin about the convincingly in The Seven Storey Mountain—the Abbey
book, compared it to Dante’s Purgatory, to Franz Kafka, of Our Lady of Gethsemani was his home and always
and to a “medieval miracle play.” Whether the book is would be. Merton had not changed, though the passage
more Augustine or Kafka is a question of less importance of time had led him to a new understanding of his voca-
than the aggregate effect of all of these influences that in- tion. Merton died suddenly of accidental electrocution
clude ancient, medieval, and twentieth century philoso- in 1968 while attending a conference on monasticism in
phy, making Merton’s book one of the most successful Bangkok.
spiritual works of the twentieth century. The first print-
ing of five thousand volumes quickly proved to be inade- Significance
quate because Merton’s worked seemed to tap into an The monastic renewal with which Merton was associ-
emerging “Catholic moment” in American life and cul- ated not only touched contemplative establishments but
ture. Historians have identified the middle of the twenti- also spread across the world of vowed religious within
eth century as a “triumphal” moment in American Ca- the Catholic Church, interacting with the reforms of the
tholicism, with the descendants of Irish and Central Second Vatican Council. In Merton’s mind, this renewal
European immigrants having established themselves and was connected closely to turning religious awareness
garnered cultural acceptance in the years following outward, engaging in and contributing to the world while
World War II. The Seven Storey Mountain tapped that still praying for it. Merton’s own involvement in the
burgeoning cultural trend as much as it also fed it. Ameri- peace movement and his interest in new, experimental
can Catholics read Merton’s book by the millions, and, in monastic communities point toward that focus.
turn, American monastic establishments found them- While the young Merton of The Seven Storey Moun-
selves inundated by new postulants, influenced by Mer- tain might not have imagined it, it was his international
ton’s spiritual journey. best seller that first opened the door to worldly engage-
The Seven Storey Mountain is remarkable for many ment by many new spiritual seekers. Merton’s religious
reasons, perhaps the most notable being its expression of superiors may have recognized the opportunity that this
religious orthodoxy and its emphasis on obedience. These engagement presented even before Merton did, as the
two foci stand in marked contrast to the restlessness Mer- profits derived from Merton’s book sales transformed
ton experienced with his monastic vows in the last years the abbey of Gethsemani into a relatively wealthy mon-
of his life. That restlessness took many forms, such as astery. The book’s influence created an awareness of
difficulty with his vow of stability (a vow literally not to monastic life that swelled the community of Gethsemani
leave the abbey, except in the most exceptional cases) and the community of many other monasteries.
and a short (unconsummated) relationship with a woman Perhaps more important was Merton’s transformation
in 1966. The restlessness, however, was greatest on the into a world religious figure and an avatar for contempla-
subject of his writing, and a controversy that surrounds tive life. Subsequent to the publication of The Seven
The Seven Storey Mountain illustrates the problem well. Storey Mountain, Merton enjoyed the permission of his
Merton’s original draft contained frank descriptions of abbots to write widely. His writings ranged across theol-
his life in the boarding school and at Cambridge, tales of ogy, history, philosophy, politics, mysticism, poetry, and
drinking and sexual relationships that his abbot judged other areas. Outspoken, and frequently controversial,
710
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Morgenthau Advances Realist School of Power Politics
Merton’s voice in The Seven Storey Mountain still New York: Harcourt Brace, 1998. The fiftieth anni-
speaks resonantly among Catholics and others. versary edition of Merton’s spiritual autobiography.
—Steven P. Millies Includes an index.
Mott, Michael. The Seven Mountains of Thomas Merton.
Further Reading
1983. New ed. San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace,
Elie, Paul. The Life You Save May Be Your Own: An
1993. The authoritative, 696-page Merton biography.
American Pilgrimmage. New York: Farrar, Straus
Includes maps, a bibliography, and an index.
and Giroux, 2003. An examination of Merton along-
Shannon, William H., Christine M. Bochen, and Patrick
side Catholics Dorothy Day, Flannery O’Connor, and
F. O’Connell. The Thomas Merton Encyclopedia.
Walker Percy. These writers, taken together, paint a
Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2002. A good resource
vivid portrait of the “Catholic moment” of the mid-
that outlines Merton’s life and writings in an easy-to-
twentieth century.
read encyclopedic format. Includes name and subject
1948
Merton, Thomas. Cistercian Contemplatives: Monks of
indexes and a bibliography.
the Strict Observance at Our Lady of Gethsemani,
Weis, Monica. Thomas Merton’s Gethsemani: Land-
Kentucky, Our Lady of the Holy Ghost, Georgia, Our
scapes of Paradise. Lexington: University Press of
Lady of the Holy Trinity, Utah—A Guide to Trappist
Kentucky, 2005. A pictorial history of the Abbey of
Life. Trappist, Ky.: Abbey of Our Lady of Geth-
Our Lady of Gethsemani in Kentucky. Photographs
semani, 1948. Merton’s own history and study of
by Harry L. Hinkle, introduction by Jonathan Mon-
American Cistercian establishments, published in the
taldo, and a foreword by Patrick Hart. Includes a bib-
same year as The Seven Storey Mountain.
liography.
_______. The Journals of Thomas Merton. 7 vols. New
York: HarperCollins, 1995-1998. Edited volumes of See also: Feb., 1942: Lewis Explores the Mind of Evil
Merton’s journals, from his entry into Gethsemani in in The Screwtape Letters; Apr. 17, 1949: Brothers at
1941 until his death. A fantastic window into Mer- Taizé Take Permanent Vows; 1950: Robinson’s The
ton’s life and into the history of the Trappists. Cardinal Tops Best-Seller List; Dec. 12, 1968: Ka-
_______. The Seven Storey Mountain. 1948. New ed. wabata Wins the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1948
Morgenthau Advances Realist School of Power Politics
After World War II, scholars in the field of Summary of Event
international relations sought a better theoretical The publication of Hans Joachim Morgenthau’s book
basis for understanding conflict and diplomacy. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and
Hans Joachim Morgenthau argued in Politics Peace (1948) was a watershed in the twentieth century
Among Nations that political realism provided theory of international relations. While not the first ex-
the best account of these areas. pression of what is called the realist school of political
theory, Morgenthau’s work caught the attention of schol-
Also known as: Politics Among Nations: The Strug- ars and politicians. The solid intellectual foundation and
gle for Power and Peace the clearly defined principles of political realism made it
impossible to disregard. It was the basis for future dis-
Categories: Political science; publishing and
cussions, whether one agreed or disagreed with Morgen-
journalism
thau. The text was widely used in international relations
Key Figures classes for decades.
Hans Joachim Morgenthau (1904-1980), German-born Western analysis of international relations is often
American political theorist seen as beginning with the ancient historian Thucydides,
George F. Kennan (1904-2005), American political who wrote about the Peloponnesian War (431-404
theorist and diplomat b.c.e.). Writing about and practicing diplomacy during
Kenneth N. Waltz (b. 1924), American political theorist the early sixteenth century, Niccolò Machiavelli is often
Reinhold Niebuhr (1892-1971), American theologian seen as a forerunner of the modern power-politics ap-
711
Morgenthau Advances Realist School of Power Politics The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
proach to international relations. In the Six Principles of Political Realism

seventeenth century, Thomas Hobbes also
espoused a power approach to interna- Hans J. Morgenthau, in Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power
tional relations, while Hugo Grotius put and Peace (1948), outlines the six main points of political realism:
forward an organizational theory as being
1. Political realism believes that politics, like society in general, is
the best way to deal with international un-
governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature. . . .
certainty. Within Europe, the nineteenth 2. The main signpost that helps political realism to find its way
century opened with the Napoleonic Wars through the landscape of international politics is the concept of interest
(1793-1815) and the Prussian unification defined in terms of power. . . .
of the German states (1815-1871), and it 3. Realism assumes that its key concept of interest defined as power is
closed with the British and Germans vying an objective category which is universally valid, but it does not endow
for dominance. The intellectual response that concept with a meaning that is fixed once and for all. . . .
to this situation was to seek an end to war- 4. Political realism is aware of the moral significance of political ac-
fare through organizations such as the Per- tion. It is also aware of the ineluctable tension between the moral com-
manent International Peace Bureau. mand and the requirements of successful political action. . . .
5. Political realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a par-
Although organizations such as the bu-
ticular nation with the moral laws that govern the universe. As it distin-
reau did not prevent World War I, it was
guishes between truth and opinion, so it distinguishes between truth and
believed by many that a stronger interna- idolatry. . . .
tional organization might more effectively 6. . . . Intellectually, the political realist maintains the autonomy of the
promote peace. A basic tenet of this ideal- political sphere. . . .
istic school of thought was that an out-
moded international system or corrupt in-
dividuals were the cause of international
conflict. This was the foundation for the League of Na- or morals of one group cannot be assumed to be those of
tions, through which many sought to change or control all groups. Even though other dimensions of life exist,
the condition that had led to the so-called War to End All politics takes place within its own sphere and must be
Wars. When the league was unable to prevent World seen within this light and not judged by a set of rules that
War II, many looked for a new theory to explain what might apply only to other aspects of life.
had happened and to give political leaders a guide for Politics Among Nations was seen by many as a guide
the future. for the emerging Cold War between the United States
Morgenthau moved into this void, offering an under- and the Soviet Union. The creation of the United Nations
standable if pessimistic analysis. He assumed that anar- at the end of World War II gave some hope to the ideal-
chy was the norm for the international system, which ists. However, events such as the communist victory in
could be made orderly only through the use of power. He China and the invasion of South Korea by North Korea
saw the nation-state as the principal international entity, made many doubt the ability of this organization to be ef-
with organizations and other entities playing secondary fective in world politics. Morgenthau’s contention that
roles. He assumed each nation-state followed its own international relations could be understood rationally
self-interest; thus, competition was to be expected, with gave leaders what seemed to be an approach that would
conflict occurring more often than cooperation. allow them to deal with real events. He also rejected the
From this foundation, Morgenthau developed “Six proposition of those who thought that technology made
Principles of Political Realism,” the first chapter of Poli- the post-World War II era different from previous eras.
tics Among Nations. The six principles put forward in His study of European political history was the reason he
that chapter include the idea that human nature does not believed that the power politics of previous centuries re-
change, which allows rational theories of politics to be mained intact.
developed. Self-interest, moreover, can be viewed in One individual who is believed by many to have
terms of power, which allows the development of politi- helped pave the way for Morgenthau was the Protestant
cal thought. Power is the ability to control others and is theologian Reinhold Niebuhr. Basing his writing on the
seen by Morgenthau as a universal goal. While morality New Testament assertion of humankind’s sinful nature,
is still seen as a part of life, realism understands it to be he saw a desire for power, both individually and collec-
expendable in the pursuit of political success. The goals tively, as the normal state of affairs. Although differing
712
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Morgenthau Advances Realist School of Power Politics
significantly from Morgenthau’s position on morality in government and helped shape world events. For most of
politics, Niebuhr taught that countries must understand the time since the publication of Politics Among Nations,
international power politics. Thus, when Morgenthau American foreign policy has been shaped by those who
put forward what might seem to be a pessimistic view of accept many of its basic tenets. In addition, Morgenthau
world politics, many saw it in the light of the religious shaped the way in which the theory of international rela-
teachings of Niebuhr. tions was discussed during the latter half of the twentieth
If Niebuhr was an important precursor of Morgen- century. It was impossible for scholars to ignore the real-
thau, George F. Kennan was his intellectual follower, de- ist school of thought. Whether their theories supported or
veloping the realist school of political theory in a slightly opposed those put forward by Morgenthau, others had to
different way than did Morgenthau. While Morgenthau respond to the ideas he presented.
was from Europe (he immigrated from Germany in — Donald A. Watt
1937), Kennan’s analysis of the international situation
1948
was based upon an American point of view. He believed Further Reading
that the errors of American idealists were due to their be- Bucklin, Steven J. Realism and American Foreign Pol-
lief that the American system of government had created icy: Wilsonians and the Kennan-Morgenthau Thesis.
a relatively peaceful region of the world. He asserted that Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2001. Monograph on the
it was power politics that had created the relative peace opposed realist and idealistic approaches to foreign
of the Western Hemisphere. Thus, plans for a peaceful policy of Woodrow Wilson and the post-World War II
future should be based on a realist approach to interna- realists. Bibliographic references and index.
tional relations, not an idealistic one that based its hopes Craig, Campbell. Glimmer of a New Leviathan: Total
on international organizations. War in the Realism of Niebuhr, Morgenthau, and
Another individual who built upon the realist school Waltz. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
of thought was Kenneth N. Waltz. Waltz did not focus on Compares Morgenthau’s work to that of Waltz and
human nature as the primary cause for power politics; Niebuhr using the concept of “total war” to discuss in-
rather, his focus was on the anarchy of the international ternational relations in the nuclear age. Bibliographic
system. Thus, the structure international system plays references and index.
the most important role in Waltz’s system in determining Frei, Christopher. Hans J. Morgenthau: An Intellectual
whether or not countries can achieve their goals given the Biography. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University
specific balance of power between them and their rivals. Press, 2001. Initially a standard biography, the latter
portion of the book treats its topic more in terms of
Significance philosophical development and Morgenthau’s devel-
Hans Morgenthau’s expression of political realism oc- oping realist position.
curred when leaders were searching for a new way to un- Lang, Anthony F., ed. Political Theory and International
derstand international relations. The structural solutions Affairs: Hans J. Morgenthau on Aristotle’s “The Pol-
that had been tried in the first half of the twentieth cen- itics.” Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2004. Allows the
tury had failed. The most costly war in history had just reader to gain a fuller understanding of Morgenthau’s
ended, and a new rivalry was heating up. Morgenthau’s political theory, as it is taken from lectures on the ap-
assertion that there was a rational approach to under- plication of Aristotle’s ideas, which he gave over a
standing these issues fit well with the modern mind-set. three-year period.
The fact that military power had just defeated the aggres-
sive Axis Powers in a world war seemed to confirm See also: 1947: Simon Publishes Administrative Behav-
Morgenthau’s ideas. In the minds of many Americans, ior; 1948: Simons Articulates the Chicago School of
the ideology of the Soviet Union could be contained only Public Policy; 1956: Mills Analyzes Political Power in
through the use of power. the United States; 1966: Ardrey Argues That Humans
Thus, unlike the works of some scholars, Morgen- Are Naturally Territorial; 1968: Huntington Exam-
thau’s book directly affected the outlook of the American ines Processes of Change in Developing Countries.
713
Osborn Publishes Our Plundered Planet The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1948
Osborn Publishes OUR PLUNDERED PLANET
Naturalist Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr., sounded a book shares the honor of having alerted the American
timely warning about the dangers humankind was public to the horrors facing humankind if needless envi-
posing to the earth with the publication of his book ronmental destruction continued. The ideas expressed in
Our Plundered Planet. His work called for an these seminal books have become part of the public con-
international effort to conserve resources, find sciousness and are addressed in articles, television and
substitutes for those resources nearing depletion, film documentaries, and classroom lectures; on the Web;
improve methods of distribution, and curtail the global and elsewhere.
population explosion. When these books were published, science and tech-
nology had helped bring about a tremendous increase in
world population while at the same time finding new and
Categories: Natural resources; environmental
improved ways to exploit the environment to support
issues; publishing and journalism
these growing numbers. Human beings, according to
Key Figures Osborn, were becoming their own worst enemies, victims
Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr. (1887-1969), naturalist, of their own success as the dominant species on the planet.
conservationist, and president of the New York They were cutting down the forests, exhausting oil and
Zoological Society coal supplies, polluting the air, overcropping and over-
William Vogt (1902-1968), ecologist and the author of grazing, and poisoning the soil and water with chemicals.
Road to Survival Osborn and his work were of special importance to
the ecological revolution. He was one of the first who had
Summary of Event the broad knowledge to enable him to call attention to
Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr.’s Our Plundered Planet what was happening to the entire planet; consequently,
(1948) has been called one of the classics of the environ- he had the prestige to demand immediate, positive action
mental revolution. Along with William Vogt’s Road to on an international scale to stop the destruction before it
Survival (1948), Harrison Brown’s The Challenge of was too late.
Man’s Future (1954), Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring The obliteration of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by atomic
(1962), Lewis Herber’s Crisis in Our Cities (1965), and bombs in 1945, just a few years before Our Plundered
Paul Ehrlich’s The Population Bomb (1968), Osborn’s Planet was published, had made many people aware for
the first time that human beings actu-
ally had the power to destroy the en-
Plundering the “Good Earth” vironment and bring all life to an
end. Ironically, it was the creation of
Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr., opens Our Plundered Planet (1948) with the fol- the most destructive weapon ever
lowing cautionary words: imagined that motivated people in
every nation to work together to pro-
There is beauty in the sounds of the words “good earth.” They suggest a pic-
mote world peace and international
ture of the elements and forces of nature working in harmony. The imagination
of men through all ages has been fired by the concept of an “earth-symphony.”
cooperation to save the environment.
Today we know the concept of poets and philosophers in earlier times is a real- Osborn warned that humankind
ity. Nature may be a thing of beauty and is indeed a symphony, but above and was on a collision course with disas-
below and within its own immutable essences, its distances, its apparent quiet- ter. Nuclear war was only one of
ness and changelessness it is an active, purposeful, co-ordinated machine. many possible apocalyptic scenar-
Each part is dependent upon another, all are related to the movement of the ios. World War II had been triggered
whole. Forests, grasslands, soils, water, animal life—without one of these the largely by population pressures in
earth will die—will become dead as the moon. This is provable beyond ques- Germany and Japan. The biggest
tioning. Parts of the earth, once living and productive, have thus died at the problem was that human beings were
hand of man. Others are now dying. If we cause more to die, nature will com- too successful as a species. In the fu-
pensate for this in her own way, inexorably, as already she has begun to do.
ture, he cautioned, there would be
more and more people with less and
714
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Osborn Publishes Our Plundered Planet
less to support them. Other species would be wiped out, Significance

with unforeseeable consequences. All over the world, Ecological awareness has served as a recent means of unit-
the same stories were being reported: All kinds of living ing governments in the awareness that they have common
things were being extinguished in one way or another by environmental interests that cross national boundaries and
human beings. In some cases, people were killing these cannot always be resolved by national action alone, but
creatures directly; in many more cases, people were kill- through cooperative efforts. Regard for the future of the
ing them by destroying their habitats. planet has united people across class, racial, and political
In this book, Osborn cites many examples of how the lines. The publication of Our Plundered Planet was sig-
environment is being destroyed by desperate people who nificant because it contributed so strongly to interna-
are so concerned about immediate self-preservation that tional ecological awareness at such an early date.
they cannot concern themselves about the wasteland At the time Osborn published Our Plundered Planet,
they may be leaving to later generations. Osborn displays the world’s future looked grim, from both a political and
1948
the range of his concerns as well as the scope of his an ecological perspective. Many people expected civili-
knowledge by discussing each portion of the world in de- zation to end through a nuclear Armageddon involving
tail. In separate chapters, he discusses the unique prob- the United States, the Soviet Union, China, and a number
lems of Asia, the Mediterranean lands and Africa, Rus- of European nations. There were others who predicted
sia, Europe, England and Australia, and finally the New that the quality of life for all human beings was sure to
World—which, he says, is no longer new but is already plummet because of the earth’s expanding population
experiencing the same kinds of ecological devastation and shrinking natural resources. Partly because of the
that have plagued Asia and Africa for centuries. In addi- eloquent warnings of visionaries such as William Vogt,
tion to describing the current ecological problems of Rachel Carson, Osborn, and others, the doomsday pre-
each of these vast areas, he discusses their histories, dictions made in the years following World War II did
sometimes going back to ancient times to explain the in- not materialize. Enough people listened to the warnings
timate connection between ecology and history. to start working together in a variety of ways.
The author picks out some examples of intelligent Our Plundered Planet set an example that many other
conservation of natural resources; most of his descrip- writers and educators were to follow. Osborn’s father,
tions, however, concern the sad results of the ignorant or Henry Fairfield Osborn, Sr., had been well known in the
arrogant misuse of nature. He writes with scientific au- field of paleontology. Osborn, Jr., had the authority and
thority but with a clear and effective style. the vision to speak not for a merely personal, factional, or
national interest but for the entire human race. He not
Man’s misuse of the land is very old, going back thou- only demanded action to save an abused and plundered
sands of years even to the earliest periods of human his- planet but also demanded that other concerned citizens
tory. It can be read in the despairing chronicle of ruins raise their voices in protest. This demand for sanity and
buried in sand, of rivers running in channels high above social responsibility rose to a crescendo during the turbu-
their surrounding landscapes, of ever-spreading deltas, lent 1960’s and would continue to shape the course of
of fallen terraces which once held productive fields or modern history.
rich gardens. — Bill Delaney
Osborn concludes by stating his conviction that there Further Reading

can be no hope for the future unless people realize that Asimov, Isaac, and Frederik Pohl. Our Angry Earth. New
humankind is a part of one great biological scheme. This York: Tor, 1991. Two well-known writers who were
is the fundamental concept of the ecological revolution influenced by Osborn offer solutions to the ecological
in which Osborn played a leading role. problems created by human population increases.
Our Plundered Planet received widespread praise in Brown, Harrison Scott. The Challenge of Man’s Future:
the United States and abroad because of its important An Inquiry Concerning the Condition of Man During
subject as well as the author’s dignified and learned the Years That Lie Ahead. New York: Viking Press,
style. It was a selection of the Book-Find Club and re- 1954. This classic work in the field of ecology exam-
ceived a citation in the 1949 Gutenberg Awards. It has ines the problems of the relations between population
been translated into many languages and is regarded as a and natural resources. Brown calls for “population by
classic work in the field of ecology. permission.”
715
Roberts Starts the Healing Waters Ministry The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. New York: Houghton Nader, Ralph, Ronald Brownstein, and John Richard,
Mifflin, 1962. This best-selling book utilized many of eds. Who’s Poisoning America: Corporate Polluters
Osborn’s ideas. Carson shocked the nation into de- and Their Victims in the Chemical Age. San Fran-
manding government action to stop the use of cisco: Sierra Club Books, 1981. Seven case studies of
dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT), a pesticide chemical pollution by big corporations. Ralph Nader,
that was killing birds and mammals and even threat- an advocate for consumer rights and environmental
ening human life. protection, contributes a chapter in which he states
Hardin, Garrett. “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Sci- that culprits must be made accountable.
ence 162 (December 13, 1968): 1243-1248. An essay Odum, Eugene P. Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadel-
that attracted wide attention with its appearance in a phia: Saunders, 1953. 5th ed. Belmont, Calif.: Thom-
prestigious scientific publication. Hardin claims that son Brooks/Cole, 2005. A classic text in ecology that
there is no scientific solution to the population prob- utilizes the ecosystem approach.
lem and calls for coercion to limit growth. Stresses the Osborn, Fairfield. Our Plundered Planet. 1948. New
role of educators in teaching birth control. York: Pyramid Books, 1970. Osborn’s classic work,
McKee, Jeffrey K. Sparing Nature: The Conflict Be- in an updated edition that includes a bibliography and
tween Human Population Growth and Earth’s Biodi- list of further readings.
versity. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Vogt, William. Road to Survival. New York: William
Press, 2003. McKee explores the cause-and-effect re- Sloane Associates, 1948. A classic in the field of ecol-
lationship between human population growth and the ogy. One of the first books to show humankind as part
squeezing out of animals and plants, all to the detri- of the total environment and to warn of the grave dan-
ment of a healthy and sustaining life on Earth. gers of “using” the environment irresponsibly.
Malthus, Thomas Robert. An Essay on the Principle of See also: Oct., 1942: Lindeman’s “The Trophic-
Population. Edited by Philip Appleman. 2d ed. Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” Is Published; 1962:
Norton Critical Edition. New York: Norton, 2004. A Bookchin Warns of Health Hazards of Artificial En-
classic often referred to in works on population vironments; Sept. 27, 1962: Carson Publishes Silent
growth, environmental destruction, and related sub- Spring; 1963: Udall Publishes The Quiet Crisis; 1965:
jects. Malthus states that a portion of humanity is Bookchin Publishes Crisis in Our Cities; May, 1967:
doomed to misery because population tends to in- Greenhouse Effect Is First Predicted; Nov., 1967:
crease geometrically, while food supply increases Zero Population Growth Movement Begins; 1968:
only arithmetically. The Population Bomb Is Published.
1948
Roberts Starts the Healing Waters Ministry
By establishing his Healing Waters ministry in 1948, Richard Roberts (b. 1948), American pentecostal
Oral Roberts began a contemporary movement of evangelist and son of Oral Roberts
evangelistic ministries that later set the stage for Ron Smith (fl. mid-twentieth century), one of Roberts’s
televangelism. top advisers
Al Bush (fl. mid-twentieth century), one of the first and
Locale: Tulsa, Oklahoma most influential of Roberts’s advisers
Categories: Religion, theology, and ethics; Wayne Robinson (fl. mid-twentieth century), one of
organizations and institutions Roberts’s top advisers
Key Figures
Oral Roberts (b. 1918), American pentecostal Summary of Event
evangelist who founded Healing Waters The 1948 founding of the Healing Waters ministry, mag-
Evelyn Roberts (Evelyn Lutman Fahnestock; 1917- azine, and radio show by Oral Roberts catalyzed a partic-
2005), wife of Oral Roberts, who participated with ularly American approach to religion, one that has grown
him in television ministry into a multimillion-dollar business of spreading religion
716
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roberts Starts the Healing Waters Ministry
throughout the world by means of the

latest telecommunications technolo-
gies. The Oral Roberts ministry es-
tablished a precedent of employing
radio and television to reach out to au-
diences of millions and thereby cre-
ated a culture of celebrity preachers
who were known around the world To view image, please refer to print edition
and occasionally exercised influence
over heads of state.
Roberts was born in 1918 in Okla-
homa to Ellis and Claudius Roberts,
1948
poor farmers who were involved in
Pentecostal religion. Ellis Roberts be-
came an itinerant preacher, travel-
ing extensively to spread the beliefs
of the Pentecostal Holiness Church.
This church was one of the more con-
servative churches within the Pen- Oral Roberts preaches to a massive crowd gathered under a tent for one of his crusade
tecostal tradition, which differed in meetings in 1962. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
four main ways from mainstream
Protestant churches. Pentecostals
were separated from others by their major belief that which an irate man shot into his tent focused national at-
speaking in tongues was the initial evidence of the bap- tention on the ministry. Several dramatic healing events
tism of the Holy Spirit. Second, they believed in divine further cemented the public’s interest. His revivals were
healing. Third, they believed in “entire sanctification,” not always a success, as evidenced by a huge revival in
which occurred as a separate work of faith after a person Australia in 1956 that met with almost violent public out-
initially was “saved.” Fourth, they believed in the immi- rage and sent Roberts back to the United States to reas-
nent, personal, premillennial second coming of the Lord. sess his entire ministry.
Pentecostals were especially known for their exuberant, During the 1950’s, Roberts began televising his tent
emotional expression of faith. revival meetings and became a media hero. Those were
Oral Roberts was the youngest of five children. He the early years of television, in which the medium was
had no intention to become a preacher until experiencing just beginning to define itself. Roberts was the first to use
a serious bout with tuberculosis that he believed was television to reach millions of Americans with the mes-
cured miraculously. This led to his conversion experi- sage of Pentecostal healing. Roberts’s use of the me-
ence. He became a Pentecostal preacher, married Evelyn dium of television began with professionally written and
Lutman Fahnestock, and became a pastor at several Hollywood-produced thirty-minute programs entitled
churches during the 1940’s. In 1947, he experienced a Your Faith Is Power. Roberts was not pleased with the
major spiritual crisis, and after praying and fasting, he programs and expanded the use of television to cover his
became convinced that the Lord was calling him to have tent revival meetings.
a healing ministry. He decided at that time to leave his Television quickly became a spotlight for celebrities,
pastorate and strike out on his own to establish an evan- and the televising of Roberts’s meetings placed evange-
gelistic, revivalist ministry. lism right in the middle of the spectacles that the Ameri-
Roberts moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma, and established can public was quickly getting used to. That public de-
Healing Waters, a healing ministry. He also published a manded that its spectacles be increasingly elaborate and
magazine, had a radio program, and began nationwide flashy, influencing Roberts’s ministry. The years 1957 to
revivalist campaigns. In its early years, the ministry had 1960 witnessed the largest crowds in his ministry, and he
only local appeal, but once Roberts went on the road with became known as the nation’s “faith healer,” although he
his huge tent to hold revival meetings, the public became always rejected that label as pejorative and inaccurate.
more aware of and interested in him. An incident in His revivals exposed millions of non-Pentecostal people
717
Roberts Starts the Healing Waters Ministry The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
to healing revivalism. They were watched by an entou- ministry led to the emergence of televangelism, a con-
rage of curious reporters and gave Roberts personal concept in which television and evangelism are merged into
tact with Americans who came to know him as a televi- a flashy, miracle-oriented style. Roberts established a
sion celebrity. tradition that has been continued by famous televange-
In 1957, Roberts changed Healing Waters, Inc. into lists such as Jimmy Swaggert, Jim Bakker, Jerry Falwell,
the Oral Roberts Evangelistic Association, Inc. He ex- Pat Robertson, and Kenneth Copeland. Televangelists
panded into a multifaceted ministry emphasizing the have also influenced the style of more conservative evan-
message of the Gospel more than healing. In the mid- gelists such as Billy Graham, who, although never em-
1960’s, Roberts made the decision to stop his television bracing the emphasis on flashy miracles and tear-jerking
show because he thought that the medium was no longer healing, have added singing and dramatic enactments to
useful to his ministry. In the late 1960’s, however, he de- their televised revivals.
cided to return to television. In 1968, he came up with the Roberts’s establishment of Healing Waters and his in-
idea of the “television special” and made a decision to terest in divine healing have had a far-reaching impact on
completely change his use of television to a format of Christianity in the United States and led to a number of
singing and prayer, using top guest singers and an enter- churches investigating the role of healing in the Christian
tainment format featuring the World Action Singers. In faith. Many churches have issued statements regarding
1969, Roberts initiated a Sunday morning half-hour pro- their position on the contemporary healing of individuals
gram under the name Something Good Is Going to Hap- by prayer and the laying on of hands, as a direct result of
pen to You. It included the World Action Singers. the televised healings of Oral Roberts. Many churches
The reaction to Roberts’s new entertainment-oriented established healing ministries, and the laying on of hands
format was mixed. Many traditional Christians were ap- has become a more widely accepted concept. The role of
palled at his use of the worst of the media to express a re- Christ in the healing of Christians received more re-
ligious message. Financially, however, the approach was search and discussion. Many contemporary Christian
extraordinarily successful. Rating services estimated psychologists came to rely on Christ to play a major role
that nearly ten million people viewed the first special. In in healing processes. In addition, Roberts’s healing min-
the years from 1969 to 1975, Roberts’s television spe- istry made the public much more aware of the role of
cials included an impressive array of Hollywood talent, emotions and spiritual health in illness and health, lead-
initially those with a Christian commitment but eventu- ing to a much greater emphasis on healing approaches
ally including those with star power but little commit- that stress psychological and spiritual well-being in addi-
ment. Political personages also appeared on the show, tion to and complementing physical well-being.
seeing it as profitable for their careers and ambitions. Roberts’s ministry also had a major impact on the
Roberts shocked the world when he left the Pentecos- Christian charismatic movement in the United States.
tal church in 1968 and became a Methodist minister, a This movement stresses speaking in tongues, healing,
move that put him back in the mainstream of Protestant- and the role of faith in healing. The charismatic move-
ism in America. The move gave Roberts an opportunity ment was significant in the Episcopal and Catholic
to introduce the charismatic movement into a major de- churches, as well as in other denominations. Roberts had
nomination and also gave him more freedom to pursue a major impact on a consensus charismatic view of the
his television format, which had caused significant con- Holy Spirit and the gifts of the spirit. Roberts in particu-
troversy in the morally conservative Pentecostal church. lar believed that speaking in tongues was a “prayer lan-
Throughout the 1970’s, Roberts’s image became guage” with a practical use and was not symbolic evi-
much more sophisticated and much more mainstream. dence of the baptism with the Holy Spirit.
He gained the respect of religious and political leaders In the late 1970’s, Roberts’s ministry built a huge hos-
and began to spend more time leading the Oral Roberts pital and research center in Tulsa called the City of Faith.
University in Tulsa. His son Richard took an increasing This center was dedicated to the goal of merging prayer
leadership role over the ministry. and spiritual healing with the most advanced technology
of modern medicine. Roberts’s particular concern was to
Significance engage in cancer research. He was convinced that cancer
Oral Roberts’s establishment of Healing Waters had a resulted from demonic sources and was intent on applying
significant impact on Christian practice and on the use of the latest in scientific research to find a cure for it. In addi-
television to spread the Christian message. Roberts’s tion, he was devoted to the concept of worldwide “healing
718
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Roberts Starts the Healing Waters Ministry
teams” that would spread out throughout the world to are still influenced by it. Exposure to this world has re-
bring spiritual and medical help to people everywhere. sulted in building up people’s expectations for charis-
Televangelism has been touted as a particularly matic leadership, dramatic and entertaining worship, and
American phenomenon and has been highly criticized as reassuring messages in their own churches. Televangel-
a distortion of the Christian message and as a glossy ism has, in conclusion, become an important contempo-
package for the Gospel that, many believe, perverts the rary American industry and has stirred controversy
message of the meekness of Christ. Critics maintain that among Christians and non-Christians alike.
televangelism panders to low American culture, which is — Randal Joy Thompson
influenced by high technology, embraces personality
cults, worships success, and stresses individual experi- Further Reading
ence, as opposed to the community involvement of join- Bruce, Steve. Pray TV: Televangelism in America. New
ing an actual, as opposed to televised, church. York: Routledge, 1990. Offers a critical overview of
1948
Televangelism is affected by the medium of television the televangelistic movement in the United States and
itself, a medium that stresses flashy scenes, high drama, what this movement says to the world about Ameri-
and the creation of illusions by the tricks of the trade. can culture.
Television is also expensive, which means that televan- Frankl, Razelle. Televangelism: The Marketing of Popu-
gelistic ministries have to raise enormous sums of money lar Religion. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univer-
to support themselves. Television also captures its audi- sity Press, 1987. Raises many serious issues regarding
ence by its stress on the “television personality,” one how televangelism has adopted many of the high-
likely to dominate the content of the Christian message. tech, slick tactics of contemporary American culture
As critic Quentin Schultze notes, televangelism substi- and in so doing has tainted the religious message that
tutes entertainment for nurture and sorcery for evange- many evangelists sincerely want to convey. The em-
lism, transforms believers into an audience, tells viewers phasis of the ministries on the “hard sell” and media
what they want to hear rather than what they need to hear, gloss has negatively affected much of the television
turns the Gospel into a product and evangelism into mar- audience.
keting, equates spiritual faithfulness with financial sup- Hamon, Bill. Prophets, Pitfalls, and Principles: God’s
port, and sets ministry against ministry in competition Prophetic People Today. Shippensburg, Pa.: Destiny
for audience share. Constantly in the limelight, televan- Image, 1991. Looks into the personal lives of many
gelists are also exposed to enormous power and tempta- television evangelists, examining some of their major
tions of fame. This also distorts the Christian message mistakes and the problems their approach has created
and can give the public a negative view of Christianity, as for religion in America.
illustrated when televangelists Jimmy Swaggert and Jim Harrell, David E., Jr. Oral Roberts: An American Life.
Bakker were caught in immorality and deceit. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985. This
Televangelists mostly come from Pentecostal reli- fascinating biography of Roberts provides an in-depth
gious traditions that stress flashy conversions and spot- look at the man who catalyzed the contemporary char-
light “miracle moments.” Most televangelists are inde- ismatic movement and televangelism. Follows his life
pendent of established denominations and hence do not from the beginning to the 1980’s and explores all fac-
have a church structure to temper their behavior. More- ets of his ministry and personality.
over, televangelists thrive on inflated claims of success. Hayford, Jack W., and S. David Moore. The Charismatic
Unfortunately, the demands of television have often Century: The Enduring Impact of the Azusa Street Re-
made sincere televangelists sometimes not seem sincere. vival. New York: Warner Faith, 2006. Study of the
Oral Roberts was a deeply committed man with deep pentecostal movement in the United States; includes a
conviction, but the “image of television” and the televan- chapter on Roberts. Bibliographic references.
gelism that resulted led some to question him. Peck, Janice. The Gods of Televangelism: The Crisis of
Despite the fact that it has become a new faith shaped Meaning and Appeal of Religious Television. Cress-
by secular norms, televangelism has had an impact on kill, N.J.: Hampton Press, 1992. Another critical look
traditional Christian churches. People have become used at televangelism and whether it is a positive aspect of
to turning on the television and seeing the flash and glit- religion in America. It looks closely at what religious
ter of the world of the televangelist, and although they beliefs are proffered on television and how these com-
may not agree with the style or beliefs of this world, they pare with mainstream religion.
719
Simons Articulates the Chicago School of Public Policy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Roberts, Oral. How I Learned Jesus Was Not Poor. Schultze, Quentin J. Televangelism and American Cul-
Altamonte Springs, Fla.: Strang Communications, ture: The Business of Popular Religion. Grand Rap-
1989. Provides a thorough review of his life and be- ids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1991. Sets out to ex-
liefs and offers marvelous personal insights into a pose televangelism as the new modernism and its
man who arose from dirt poverty to international message as a new religion. Schultze claims that major
fame. The book tends to indicate that Roberts’s be- television ministries are supported by audiences, led
liefs and motives were sincere. by personalities, and oriented toward entertainment.
Schmidt, Rosemarie, and Joseph F. Kess. Television Ad-
vertising and Televangelism: Discourse Analysis of See also: 1945: Billy Graham Becomes a Traveling
Persuasive Language. Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, Evangelist; Feb. 12, 1952-1957, and 1961-1968:
1986. A linguistic analysis of televangelism, compar- Sheen Entertains and Instructs on American Televi-
ing it with advertising and showing how the language sion; Feb. 18, 1954: Hubbard Founds the Church of
that televangelists use is meant to sell and to convince Scientology; May 1, 1954: Moon Founds the Unifica-
the hearers. tion Church.
1948
Simons Articulates the Chicago School of Public Policy
Through his writing and teaching, Henry C. Simons James M. Buchanan (b. 1919), American Ph.D.
helped shape a “Chicago viewpoint” stressing the recipient at Chicago, 1948, and 1986 Nobel laureate
virtues of free competitive markets and monetary in economic science
stability while warning against extensive government Robert E. Lucas (b. 1937), American economics
involvement in the economy. His Economic Policy for professor at Chicago
a Free Society provided the clearest and most Gary S. Becker (b. 1930), American professor of
influential articulation of this viewpoint. economics and sociology at Chicago and Nobel
laureate, 1992
Also known as: Economic Policy for a Free Society
Locale: Chicago, Illinois
Summary of Event
Categories: Economics; publishing and journalism
The publication in 1948 of Economic Policy for a Free
Key Figures Society by Henry C. Simons occurred shortly after the
Henry C. Simons (1899-1946), American economics author’s death. Publication was arranged for by a group
professor at the University of Chicago, 1927-1946 of his former colleagues and students. In his prefatory
Milton Friedman (1912-2006), American economics note, Chicago economist Aaron Director noted that
professor at the University of Chicago, 1946-1977, “Through his writings and more especially through his
and 1976 Nobel laureate in economic science teaching, . . . [Simons] was slowly establishing himself
W. Allen Wallis (1912-1998), American professor of as the head of a school”—meaning a group with strong
economics and statistics at Chicago, 1946-1977, and beliefs on social and political questions. Over the subse-
dean of the Chicago Graduate School of Business, quent forty years, the Chicago School became identified
1956-1962 with forceful and sophisticated defense of free markets
Frank H. Knight (1885-1972), American economics and monetary stability, combined with a carefully rea-
professor at Chicago, 1927-1952 soned critique of government intervention in economic
George J. Stigler (1911-1991), American economics affairs. A measure of the intellectual depth of this pro-
and business professor at Chicago and Nobel gram is the large number of Nobel Prizes in Economic
laureate, 1982 Sciences awarded to scholars identified with the Univer-
Eugene F. Fama (b. 1939), American professor of sity of Chicago.
finance at Chicago Simons, who joined the Chicago faculty in 1927, ex-
Ronald Coase (b. 1910), American economics erted a powerful influence through his teaching, which
professor at Chicago and Nobel laureate, 1991 combined intellectual brilliance with wit, style, and a gift
720
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Simons Articulates the Chicago School of Public Policy
for simplicity and clarity. Most of the students undertak- against extreme inequalities of income and wealth, and
ing graduate work in economics took his course in micro- he urged that the federal tax system be structured to re-
economics as preparation for the more difficult upper- duce inequality. He favored an income tax with gradu-
level required courses in that discipline. As Simons ated rates, with a minimum of loopholes, and with inheri-
developed expertise in tax policy, he taught in the law tances and gifts treated as ordinary income for the
school as well as in the regular economics program. recipients. He was very critical of the “enormous differ-
In the 1930’s, Simons was one of several staff mem- ential subsidies” involved in tariff duties on imports and
bers and students closely associated with Frank H. also urged “limitation upon the squandering of our re-
Knight. Others included Milton Friedman and his wife sources in advertising and selling activities.”
Rose Director Friedman; her brother Aaron Director; Simons also sounded a strong warning against the
George J. Stigler; and W. Allen Wallis. The Friedmans, harm that could result from monopoly power of labor
Stigler, and Wallis left Chicago temporarily, but their re- unions. Through the Wagner Act of 1935 (the National
1948
turn beginning in the 1940’s was an important element in Labor Relations Act), the federal government strongly
the emergence of the Chicago School. encouraged the formation of labor unions. Supporters of
Although Economic Policy for a Free Society ap- this policy believed that union strength would help raise
peared in 1948, much of it consisted of individual essays wages, increase the incomes of low-income families,
published previously. Most notable was “A Positive Pro- stimulate consumption, and help the country out of the
gram for Laissez-Faire,” which originally appeared in Depression. Simons noted that union wage increases did
pamphlet form in 1934, in the depths of the Great De- not go to low-income families, who were in fact more
pression, when the New Deal programs of Franklin D. likely to be damaged by higher product prices and by the
Roosevelt were in high gear. The New Deal philosophy decrease in job opportunities resulting from higher wage
was that the Depression represented a
failure of free markets and competition,
and that this failure could be remedied Defining the Chicago School
by government intervention to encour-
age the formation of large-group coali- The Chicago School has been credited with a number of significant eco-
tions in the major sectors of business, la- nomics and public policy ideas. These advances are listed here in chrono-
bor, and agriculture. logical order, beginning with those developed in the 1940’s and continuing
Simons vehemently disagreed with into the twenty-first century. “The unifying thread in all this,” the Depart-
ment of Economics at the University of Chicago maintains, “is not political
this viewpoint. He argued that the De-
or ideological but methodological, the methodological conviction that
pression reflected a combination of two
economics is an incomparably powerful tool for understanding society.”
factors. The first was an unstable mone-
tary system, which allowed spending for • economic theory of socialism
goods and services to fall. The second • general equilibrium models of foreign trade
was excessive monopoly power of busi- • simultaneous equation methods in econometrics
ness firms and labor unions, which pre- • consumption as a function of permanent income
vented wages and prices from declining, • economics of the household
so that output and employment fell in- • rationality of peasants in poor countries
• economics of education and other acquired skills (human capital)
stead. Simons urged vigorous govern-
• applied welfare economics
ment policy to break up existing monop-
• monetarism
olies and impede creation of new ones. • sociological economics (entrepreneurship, racial discrimination, crime)
To stabilize the monetary system, he • economics of invention and innovation
recommended that banks be required to • quantitative economic history
maintain 100 percent cash reserves • economics of information
against their deposits. Simons urged that • political economy (externalities, property rights, liability, contracts)
monetary policy be conducted on the ba- • monetary approach to international finance
sis of simple, clear-cut rules specified in • rational expectations in macroeconomics
legislation, thereby minimizing use of Source: University of Chicago, Department of Economics. http://economics
discretion by the monetary authorities. .uchicago.edu.
Simons felt strong moral outrage
721
Simons Articulates the Chicago School of Public Policy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
costs. Concern about union power manifested itself in the ment intervention. Friedman proposed that income in-
Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, which took away union power. equality be attacked through a “negative income tax.”
Underlying Simons’s economic views was a goal of Like Simons, Friedman expressed strong opposition to
protecting individual liberty and restricting the power of many of the ideas derived from John Maynard Keynes,
government officials. He saw that government needed to particularly an emphasis on fiscal policy.
have a “positive program” if the free market was to yield Simons’s strong moral convictions regarding the ethi-
high productivity and social justice. cal and functional values of individual liberty were
strongly reinforced when F. A. Hayek came to Chicago
Significance as a professor of social and moral science in 1950.
Crucial to the formation of the Chicago School was the Hayek’s book The Road to Serfdom (1944) was a power-
return of Friedman and Wallis to Chicago as faculty ful warning against collectivism. His best-known contri-
members in 1946. In 1956, Wallis became dean of the bution to technical economics was a demonstration of the
university’s school of business. In 1958, Stigler returned informational efficiency of prices that are determined in
to Chicago with a joint appointment in economics and free competitive markets.
business. Aaron Director was a faculty member in the Within the Chicago law school, emphasis increas-
law school. ingly came to be directed toward evaluating the eco-
A central element in the Chicago viewpoint was mi- nomic consequences of law, looking at the influence of
croeconomic theory. Individuals were assumed to seek law on people’s behavior, going beyond simple concerns
their own advantage through voluntary economic actions for fairness or morality. One focal point was the eco-
as constrained by competition and by an appropriate le- nomic analysis of property rights. George Stigler pio-
gal framework. Contrary to the fashionable views of Ed- neered in developing a novel theory of regulation. He ar-
ward Chamberlin and Joan Robinson, which stressed im- gued that government regulation of a trade or industry
perfections in product markets, the Chicago economists was often imposed at the instigation of the regulated in-
viewed the U.S. economy as a competitive environment, dustry, which could then influence the regulatory pro-
in which the only monopoly problems arose from gov- gram to keep out competitors and obtain higher prices.
ernment intervention rather than private market failure. Ronald Coase helped show that so-called “externalities”
They believed that the private economy worked well; it (arising in situations in which property rights are not well
would achieve efficient production of the goods and ser- defined) such as pollution do not necessarily require gov-
vices desired by people and would distribute products on ernment intervention. If transactions costs are not exces-
the basis of productive contributions. The major excep- sive, persons injured by pollution can join together and
tion that they admitted was the problem of instability, bargain with polluters to pay for desired improvements.
which could result in depression and inflation. Gary Becker extended economic analysis to crime and
An influential 1948 article by Friedman updated punishment, viewing criminal actions as the outcomes of
Simons, endorsing his proposals for 100 percent bank re- personal choices made on the basis of prospective re-
serves, for a monetary policy based on rules, and for a wards and penalties. The Journal of Law and Economics,
graduated income tax, but adding proposals to use gov- launched in 1957 under the editorship of Aaron Director,
ernment transfer payments as automatic fiscal stabiliz- reflected the fusion of disciplines.
ers. Before long, however, Friedman became increas- Within the business school, the Chicago approach
ingly identified with “monetarist” ideas. He argued that was particularly visible in finance. Eugene Fama helped
the private economy would be relatively stable unless popularize the concept of “efficient markets,” in which
disturbed by defective monetary policies, and that a pol- open competitive trading in assets such as stocks and
icy to maintain steady, gradual, and predictable growth bonds produces asset prices that reflect efficient use of
in the money supply would ensure that major depressions available information. In this view, asset prices change
would not occur. only in response to new information, which is unex-
On many specific points, Friedman diverged from pected and random in nature. This leads to the argument
Simons, but Friedman’s two major nontechnical books, that stock prices follow a “random walk” in the short run.
Capitalism and Freedom (1962) and Free to Choose: A This finding helped dramatize the fact that stock-market
Personal Statement (1980), echoed the central message “experts” had on average no better than a random chance
that Simons had developed, stressing individual free- to beat the market, a view that helped bring about the cre-
dom, voluntary private activity, and distrust of govern- ation of index funds, mutual funds that simply invested
722
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Simons Articulates the Chicago School of Public Policy
in a wide sample of stocks, for example those in Standard Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom. Chicago:
and Poor’s index of five hundred stocks. University of Chicago Press, 1962. A good introduc-
Analytically, the Chicago School was a major source tion to Friedman’s philosophy and analysis. Develops
of innovations in economic analysis, often with powerful his monetarist, anti-Keynesian view of economic sta-
policy overtones. Friedman’s monetarism alerted the bilization and his support for a negative income tax to
economics profession to the importance of the money reduce income inequality.
supply, particularly as a cause of inflation. This influence _______. “A Monetary and Fiscal Framework for Eco-
helped prompt the Federal Reserve System to use poli- nomic Stability.” American Economic Review 38
cies in the 1980’s that were less likely to cause inflation. (1948): 254-264. An early and somewhat Keynesian
The strong Chicago emphasis on the virtues of free mar- macroeconomic program showing obvious influence
kets and the dubious virtue of regulatory programs from Simons, who is cited frequently. Friedman’s
helped spark the deregulation movement begun under monetarism developed later and is not much in evi-
1948
President Jimmy Carter. dence here.
Two major developments in economic analysis Friedman, Milton, and Rose Friedman. Free to Choose:
emerged from the Chicago milieu. One was the theory A Personal Statement. New York: Harcourt Brace
of public choice, associated with James M. Buchanan. Jovanovich, 1980. This book evolved in connection
This theory stresses the notion that government offi- with a television series spotlighting Friedman’s views
cials are self-interested and that their actions as legislators, on many issues relating to economics and to individ-
administrators, politicians, and civil servants can be ana- ual freedom and choice. The title highlights the view
lyzed as transactions with voters, taxpayers, and lobbying that people have choices and responsibilities and are
groups. The theory leads to strong doubts that government not helpless victims. Written for a general audience.
economic policies will reflect some “public interest.” The Reder, Melvin W. “Chicago Economics: Permanence
other novel theory was based on the concept of “rational and Change.” Journal of Economic Literature 20
expectations,” associated with Robert Lucas. Starting (March, 1982): 1-38. Reder writes as a longtime par-
with the familiar proposition that people’s economic ac- ticipant in the Chicago environment. Identifies the
tions are based on their expectations, the theory argued central viewpoints associated with the Chicago
that those expectations would be based on appropriate use School and comments on many of the individuals in-
of economic information and economic theory, insofar as volved. Written for professionals, but not highly tech-
individuals could make profits by such appropriate use. nical.
An implication of the theory is that free markets can pre- Stigler, George J. The Citizen and the State: Essays on
dict and respond to any nonrandom government policy. Regulation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
—Paul B. Trescott 1975. This short book of essays presents Stigler’s
general views on the role of government with his cus-
Further Reading
tomary wit and style.
Breit, William, and Barry T. Hirsch, eds. Lives of the
_______, ed. Chicago Studies in Political Economy.
Laureates: Eighteen Nobel Economists. 4th ed. Cam-
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. This
bridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2004. Includes autobio-
volume demonstrates the power and persistence of the
graphical sketches by Chicago laureates Friedman,
Chicago persuasion, particularly the overlap between
Stigler, and Buchanan. Each gives his own recollec-
law and economics, as exemplified in the work of
tions about the Chicago environment. Readable, per-
Richard Posner, a U.S. appeals court judge and lec-
sonal, and sometimes contradictory.
turer in the Chicago law school. Fairly advanced.
Breit, William, and Roger L. Ransom. The Academic
Scribblers. 3d ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univer- See also: 1947: Simon Publishes Administrative Be-
sity Press, 1998. Chapter 13 is devoted to Simons’s havior; 1956: Mills Analyzes Political Power in the
ideas and is a good balance of brevity and detail. United States; 1958: Galbraith Critiques the Creation
Chapter 12, on Frank Knight, and Chapter 14, on of a Society of Mass Consumption; 1968: Huntington
Friedman, help give a general view of the Chicago Examines Processes of Change in Developing Coun-
persuasion. tries.
723
Soviets Escalate Persecution of Jews The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1948
Soviets Escalate Persecution of Jews
Soviet Jews, accused of being disloyal to the Soviet mental part of Stalin’s personality. Having hundreds of
state, were driven from positions of power and thousands of Soviet Jews requesting permission to emi-
responsibility and were imprisoned and executed en grate only confirmed in his mind that he was dealing with
masse by Premier Joseph Stalin’s regime. a threat of worldwide proportions.
The immediate object of suspicion was the Jewish
Locale: Soviet Union Anti-Fascist Committee, which was established in 1942
Categories: Atrocities and war crimes; human as an organization to encourage Jewish support around
rights; cultural and intellectual history the world for the Soviet war effort. During the Soviet
Key Figures Union’s life-and-death struggle with Hitler, Stalin had
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; accepted the need for the committee to have connections
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central with Jews abroad, particularly in the United States, in or-
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet der to drum up much-needed Western support for the war
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 on the Eastern Front. Now that the war was won, those
Andrei Zhdanov (1896-1948), Politburo member connections with the capitalist West quickly became con-
Solomon Mikhoels (1890-1948), Jewish playwright and duits of subversion in Stalin’s mind, and he ordered the
director of the Moscow State Jewish Theater committee dissolved.
With Hitler’s anti-Semitism, promulgated through
Summary of Event the propaganda of Joseph Goebbels and the crude carica-
Although anti-Semitism in twentieth century dictator- tures of Julius Streicher’s newspaper Der Stürmer (1923-
ships is generally associated with Nazi Germany, the So- 1945), Stalin did not dare to say that he was attacking the
viet Union also regularly persecuted its Jewish popula- Jewish people. Instead, he disguised his attacks with var-
tion and frequently executed significant numbers of ious euphemistic catchphrases, the most prominent of
Jews. While the anti-Semitism of Adolf Hitler and his which was “rootless cosmopolitanism,” referring to the
henchmen was based on various pseudoscientific theo- Jewish people having existed without a land to call their
ries of the biological origins of race and of pure and im- own for nearly two millennia (the Romans destroyed the
pure races, Soviet anti-Semitism was the straightforward Temple of Jerusalem in the year 70) and having thus
political and economic hostility to a people who had a lived among the various Gentile nations. Stalin also con-
strong loyalty to an outside entity and who tended to do demned “Zionism,” focusing his attacks on questions of
well even in adversity. the loyalty of Jews to the Soviet Union rather than on
Many of the original Bolshevik leaders were Jewish, their Jewishness. While “rootless cosmopolitans” were
although a number of them adopted Russian-sounding considered to be not loyal to anyone, Zionists were con-
pseudonyms in part to disguise their ethnic origins, as sidered traitors: loyal to Israel while remaining in the So-
well as to keep themselves one step ahead of the viet Union.
Okhrana, the czarist secret police. When Vladimir Ilich Jewish artists and organizations felt the wrath of anti-
Lenin died in 1924 and Joseph Stalin emerged as the win- Semitism during the Zhdanovshchina (Zhdanov Doc-
ner of the resulting power struggle, many of these Old trine, a policy instituted in 1946 by Andrei Zhdanov that
Bolsheviks fell victim to Stalin’s purges. The Great Ter- called for Soviet writers, artists, and the intelligentsia to
ror, however, was primarily directed at eliminating all conform to the Communist Party line). The comprehen-
possible alternative power bases from the country, and sive attack, which peaked in 1948, was aimed at alleged
overt anti-Semitism was not part of its rhetoric, although decadence in the arts and culture in general. The famous
suspicion of Jews was already an important part of Sta- Moscow Jewish Theater, directed by playwright Solo-
lin’s character. Nikita S. Khrushchev noted this charac- mon Mikhoels, was a special target. Yiddish-language
ter in his memoirs. newspapers were shut down because they were believed
It was only after the close of World War II that Stalin to represent the persistence of a cultural viewpoint
began specifically to target Jews for being Jewish. The not firmly rooted in the Soviet Union. Harsh quotas
establishment of the modern state of Israel in 1948 was a were placed on the admission of Jews into a number
powerful trigger for the suspicion that was such a funda- of intellectual pursuits in which they had historically
724
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Soviets Escalate Persecution of Jews
flourished—particularly law, diplomatic services, and larger drama Stalin was planning. It was revealed that in
academia—making life very difficult for the Jewish 1948 a medical technician by the name of Lidia Tima-
communities of Moscow and Leningrad (now St. Peters- shuk had reported that an ailing Andrei Zhdanov was not
burg). receiving proper treatment. His subsequent death under
Many prominent Jews were arrested, exiled, and even mysterious circumstances was seized on as evidence of a
executed during this period. Politician and diplomat vast, sinister conspiracy among the doctors entrusted
Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov’s wife Polina Sem- with the care of the Soviet Union’s leaders. Again, all of
yonovna Zhemchuzhina was arrested for meeting with the doctors and other caretakers were Jewish.
Israeli prime minister Golda Meir and for having spoken
Significance
Yiddish with her during Meir’s September, 1948, visit to
Anti-Semitism remained a central theme of Soviet poli-
the Soviet Union. Molotov was then ordered to divorce
tics, with many of the same catchphrases first introduced
his wife, and they would not see one another again until
1948
by Stalin in 1948 being tossed about by new leaders, even
after Stalin’s death.
those leaders who claimed to disavow Stalin. It is often
Furthermore, the intellectual attack on Jewish “cos-
hypothesized that the so-called Doctors’ Plot, which was
mopolitanism” spread into a general denial that “foreign-
derailed by Stalin’s death in 1953, was in fact intended to
ers” could produce anything of value. This campaign
be the opening act in a massive pogrom against the Jews
soon descended into the depths of absurdity, with Soviet
on a scale to rival the Holocaust.
propagandists claiming that many technological and
In the 1970’s, the plight of the refuseniks, Jews who
other significant inventions were made by Russians, and
were persistently denied exit visas, became a major issue
not by those who had been credited through professional
for international human rights organizations, while in
agreement. For example, the Soviets claimed that it was
the 1980’s during perestroika, openly anti-Semitic and
not Scottish inventor James Watt who invented the steam
quasi-fascist organizations such as Pamyat (memory)
engine but instead a Siberian mechanic. Other Russians
began to appear among the disaffected youth. After the
were credited with the first powered flight and with in-
1991 fall of the Soviet Union, anti-Semitism cropped up
venting the light bulb and the radio. Although some of
repeatedly in post-Soviet Russia, particularly among re-
these claims were based on some evidence behind
actionaries such as the Stalinist bloc, a group that looked
them—such as Boris Rosing’s early experiments in us-
back with nostalgia on the time when their country was
ing a cathode-ray tube to display images, work that was
still feared on the world stage.
inflated into “the invention of electronic television” well
—Leigh Husband Kimmel
before Philo Farnsworth’s 1927 transmissions—most
were so patently absurd as to merit nothing but derision. Further Reading
This “we invented it first” line soon became a staple of Brent, Jonathan, and Vladimir Namurov. Stalin’s Last
satirical humor in the West. Crime. New York: HarperCollins, 2003. A study of
In the Soviet Union, this was no laughing matter, for it the events leading up to Stalin’s death, particularly
was becoming increasingly important to anticipate these the “Doctors’ Plot” and the apparent preparations for
intellectual attacks. Doctoral students were instructed to a major pogrom against the Soviet Jewish population.
remove all references to foreign scientists and inventors Khrushchev, Nikita S. Khrushchev Remembers. Trans-
in their work, replacing the names with vague phrases lated by Strobe Talbott. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970.
such as “scientists have shown.” Soviet scientists and in- A revealing primary source, although with certain
ventors were celebrated as patriots and heros—unless predictable blind spots regarding Khrushchev’s own
one of them should be discovered to have been an enemy complicity in many of the crimes he describes.
of the people, at which time his or her name would vanish Kostyrchenko, Gennadi. Out of the Red Shadows: Anti-
altogether from the dissertation or other work. Semitism in Stalin’s Russia. Amherst, N.Y.: Prome-
By 1950, a new theme began to emerge after the “dis- theus Books, 1995. A study of the lives of Jewish
covery” of a “conspiracy” among doctors at the clinic of intellectuals in Stalinist Russia. Chapters include
the Stalin Automotive Works; also implicated were ex- “Ethnocide,” “Arrests of the Intellectuals,” “The
ecutives and other officials. Interestingly, every one of Closing of the Theaters,” “Attacking the ‘Cosmopoli-
them was Jewish. Although the trial and subsequent exe- tans’” and “Escalation of the Anti-Jewish Purges.”
cutions attracted little attention in the government- Chapters also look at Jews working in journalism, the
controlled press, they were a dress rehearsal for a much arts, the humanities, and industry.
725
Steady-State Theory of the Universe Is Advanced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Lustiger, Arno. Stalin and the Jews: The Red Book. New House, 2004. A study of the relationship of Stalin and
York: Enigma, 2003. A unique book by a survivor of a his chief henchmen.
Nazi death camp that explores Stalin’s desire to elimi- See also: Apr. 19-May 16, 1943: Warsaw Ghetto
nate Soviet Jews. Focuses especially on the Jewish Armed Uprising Against Nazis; Feb. 11, 1945: Soviet
Anti-Fascist Committee. The book’s introduction Exiles and Prisoners of War Are Forced into Repatria-
notes the work is “the most exhaustive, indeed ency- tion; Mar. 5, 1946: Churchill Delivers His Iron Cur-
clopedic, account of the monumental tragedy that be- tain Speech; Feb. 10, 1948: Zhdanov Denounces
fell the Soviet Jews during the rule of Joseph Stalin.” “Formalism” in Music; May 14, 1948: Israel Is Cre-
Montefore, Simon Sebag. Stalin: The Court of the Red ated as a Homeland for Jews; Dec. 9, 1948: United
Tsar. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003. Includes in- Nations Adopts Convention on Genocide; 1949-
formation on Stalin’s henchmen and the Great Terror, 1961: East Germans Flee to West to Escape Commu-
while deflecting attention from himself. nist Regime; July 5, 1950: Israel Enacts the Law of
Rayfield, Donald. Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant Return; Mar. 5, 1953: Death of Stalin; Feb. 25, 1956:
and Those Who Killed for Him. New York: Random Khrushchev Denounces Stalinist Regime.
1948
Steady-State Theory of the Universe Is Advanced
by Bondi, Gold, and Hoyle
Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle By the first half of the twentieth century, it was known
presented the steady-state theory of the universe, which that the sun is a star, one of hundreds of billions of stars
posited that the universe was infinite, eternal, and that form the Milky Way galaxy. It was known that there
unchanging. Although most astrophysicists now reject are billions of galaxies like the Milky Way and that the
the theory in favor of the big bang model (which it was farthest ones are more than a billion light-years away. In
designed to contest), the steady-state universe was his theory of general relativity, Albert Einstein presented
prominent for several years. a framework grand enough that theories of the universe
could be formulated within it. Unfortunately, it allows
Locale: Cambridge, England one to formulate many theories without telling which of
Categories: Astronomy; science and technology the theories, if any, is correct.
Key Figures In 1929, Edwin Powell Hubble showed that only
Fred Hoyle (1915-2001), English astronomer and models which allowed for the expansion of the universe
astrophysicist could be correct, for he showed that distant galaxies in all
Thomas Gold (1920-2004), Austrian-born astronomer directions are receding from the Milky Way and that the
Hermann Bondi (1919-2005), Austrian-born English more distant a galaxy is, the faster it flees from our gal-
mathematician and cosmologist axy. The mathematical expression of these facts is called
George Gamow (1904-1968), Russian-born American the Hubble law. Science, however, has been unable to
physicist come up with a better explanation of these facts other
Georges Lemaître (1894-1966), Belgian astronomer than to suppose that the universe itself is expanding.
and priest An analogy that is frequently used is that of dots
Edwin Powell Hubble (1889-1953), American painted on a partially inflated balloon. If the balloon is
astronomer further inflated, each painted dot becomes farther away
Albert Einstein (1879-1955), German-born physicist from the other dots, because the space between the dots
expands. One could note also that dots that were twice as
Summary of Event far away would recede twice as fast, as Hubble’s obser-
Since at least the time of the ancient Greek philosophers vation requires. It should be understood, however, that
twenty-six centuries ago, these bold questions have been the expansion of space has no effect on the small scale.
asked about the universe: How was the universe made? For example, the Rock of Gibraltar is not growing larger
Has it always been here? If not, where did it come from? because the space within it is expanding. The forces that
726
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Steady-State Theory of the Universe Is Advanced
Fred Hoyle and the Steady State Theory ception of the big bang theory is to
picture the matter of the universe ex-
Ironically, the term “big bang” had been coined by its main adversary— ploding outward into the otherwise
Fred Hoyle himself—during one of his series of BBC radio talks. Hoyle used
empty space of the universe. The big
the term to belittle Gamow’s theory. Hoyle favored a different view: that the
universe, although currently expanding, was infinitely old and in the long term
bang theories of general relativity,
exists in a steady state. Galaxies were not receding from each other as the after- however, allow the whole universe
math of a primordial explosion (which defenders of the big bang held). Rather, to begin as very small.
space was being created between galaxies at a constant rate, and hydrogen was The explosion of the big bang oc-
being created to fill that space, coalescing into nebular clouds that then formed curred over the whole universe—it
young stars and galaxies among the old. was the whole universe. While com-
The problem with this theory was that it contradicted the law of the conser- mon sense seems to demand that
vation of matter: namely, that matter could neither be created nor be destroyed there be some place for the universe
1948
without being converted into energy. In the 1950’s, the discovery of radio gal- to expand to, mathematicians assure
axies by Martin Ryle revealed that galaxies had evolved billions of years ago, astronomers that expansion as such
supporting the big bang theory.
is not necessary. The universe is de-
Once Arno Penzias and Robert W. Wilson discovered the cosmic micro-
wave background radiation, Hoyle’s steady-state theory was largely aban-
fined commonly to include all the
doned in favor of the theory he himself had named: the big bang. Although space there is; to say that it grows
Hoyle revised his theory to account for the background radiation, his once larger does not, of necessity, require
dominant view of the universe was out of favor. Hoyle, however, remained anything to lie beyond the bound-
philosophical to the end: “The Universe eventually has its way over the preju- aries of the universe. Here, the sim-
dices of men, and I optimistically think it will do so again.” ple analogy with the expanding bal-
loon fails completely, for a balloon
and a universe obey different rules.
Motivated by observations of radio-
hold the rock together also keep it from expanding with active decay, Lemaître supposed that at the instant of
space. It is only on the largest scale—that of super- the big bang, all matter had been combined into a gigan-
clusters of galaxies—that the forces composing matter tic nucleus. This nucleus then decayed into the known
are weak enough to yield to the expansion. The distances elements, and thus the surrounding matter had come
between superclusters of galaxies do grow larger as into being.
space expands. In 1948, George Gamow and Ralph Asher Alpher re-
If the universe is expanding, it must have been smaller alized that the big bang must have been incredibly hot. It
in the past. It seems to be a straightforward matter to use followed that the universe must have been filled with a
Hubble’s law to calculate when the universe began. If it primordial fireball of such heat that any element would
is known how far away the parts are and how fast they are have been ripped asunder into its constituent protons and
going, one should be able to calculate how long ago they neutrons. Building upon a theory proposed by Hans Al-
were all together. Using Hubble’s original data, 2 billion brecht Bethe in 1938, they showed how elements could
years was given as the age of the universe. This was some- form in the cooling fireball. Hydrogen would be first to
what embarrassing since the accepted age of the earth was form since its nucleus is a proton or sometimes a proton
far older. The problem lies in measuring the distances to combined with a neutron. Nuclear reactions would then
distant galaxies, a difficult and uncertain process. Using convert about 25 percent of the matter into helium and a
other data, the age of the universe is calculated to be be- trace of lithium. There the process stops because the mat-
tween 10 and 20 billion years, which fits well with the acter of the fireball is no longer dense enough for the reac-
cepted age of the earth of 4.6 billion years. tions to continue.
In 1927, Georges Lemaître proposed an expanding In 1948, the big bang theory seemed unable to explain
universe based upon a prediction of general relativity. He the existence of heavy elements, and it gave an age for
supposed that all of space, matter, and energy had been the universe that was less than that of Earth. A further dif-
crushed together and then exploded outward. It is this ex- ficulty was the problem of forming galaxies. It seemed
plosion that Sir Fred Hoyle later named the “big bang.” unlikely that matter flung outward in the violence of the
Attracting little attention at first, Lemaître’s theory gained big bang would be able ever to coalesce again in clumps
notice only after Hubble’s discovery. A common miscon- large enough to form galaxies. To overcome these diffi-
727
Steady-State Theory of the Universe Is Advanced The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
culties, Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold proposed the port it. Astronomers looking for the distribution of young
steady-state theory in 1948. They based this theory on and old galaxies predicted by the steady-state theory did
what they called the perfect cosmological principle: not find it. Instead, they found that all galaxies close
When considering a large enough volume, the universe enough to be so studied have at least some old stars. It ap-
will appear the same everywhere and at any time. This pears that all galaxies formed at approximately the same
meant that the universe is infinitely old, obviously far time and that there are no intrinsically young galaxies.
older than Earth. Accepting the fact that the universe is Furthermore, the most abundant type of galaxy that is
expanding, they reached the astounding conclusion that dominated by old stars is small.
matter must be continuously created uniformly through- Hoyle, who became the chief spokesman for the
out space. Seeing nothing to prevent it from doing so, it steady-state theory, worked on the problem of the origin
was assumed that the new matter would coalesce to form of the heavy elements. He and others were able to show
new galaxies. that heavy elements can form under the fantastic densi-
Since the most abundant element in the universe is hy- ties and temperatures that exist in the cores of stars and
drogen, Gold and Bondi proposed that the new mass ap- that these elements are flung back into space during su-
pear as hydrogen. Using the best estimate for the rate of pernova explosions. Eventually, heavy elements are in-
expansion of the universe, they calculated that if only corporated into a new generation of stars and perhaps
one new hydrogen atom popped into existence in each planets. It is interesting to contemplate that while hu-
volume of space the size of a living room over every few mankind is made of the dust of the earth, that dust is
million years, then the average number of galaxies in a stardust. At any rate, the origin of heavy elements was no
given volume of space would remain constant. longer a problem for the steady-state theory, but this was
While there was no way to observe directly the cre- also true of the big bang theory.
ation of such a tiny amount of matter, there should still be Another prediction of the steady-state theory was
observable consequences. In more than a billion years or that, by and large, the universe has always been the same.
so, enough matter should collect in the space between Strangely enough, the universe as it was in the past is
galaxies to form new galaxies, while old galaxies should spread out. For example, the Andromeda nebula is more
become giants as they gather in new matter. Thus, the than 2 million light-years away; this means the light that
steady-state theory predicts how galaxies should be reaches Earth now left the Andromeda nebula more than
grouped: There should be a small number of old massive 2 million years ago. Today, one sees this galaxy as it was
galaxies visible to Earth, and these should be surrounded then. Likewise, when one looks billions of light-years
by groups of small, younger galaxies. Later in 1948, out into space, the universe is seen as it was billions of
Hoyle joined the backers of the steady-state model. He years in the past. Contrary to the steady-state theory, as
showed how continuous creation of matter might be fit astronomers looked far out into space, they found in-
into the formidable framework of general relativity. creasing evidence that the universe of long ago was dif-
ferent. Perhaps the most spectacular difference is that
Significance quasars were once abundant in the universe, but there are
The steady-state theory had both a cultural and a scien- scarcely any within a billion light-years of Earth. This
tific impact. It had great philosophic appeal for many be- means that there are few, if any, quasars left today.
cause it proclaimed a universe of order, an infinite and As evidence against the steady-state theory mounted,
eternal universe, one that was fit for astronomers and al- Hoyle and his companions eventually abandoned it. It
ways would be. Its organization was simple: Viewed on a had been useful to stimulate science and to fire the imagi-
grand enough scale, the universe was the same every- nations of many, but its day had passed. With the discov-
where and for all time. The ready market for the many ery of the remnant primordial fireball radiation by Arno
popular books written by Hoyle, Bondi, and others says A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson in 1965, the big bang
something about the public’s fascination with the steady- theory reigned supreme. In its turn, however, the steady-
state theory. According to science historian Wolfgang state theory has since been displaced by a variation of the
Yourgrau, the introduction of the steady-state theory big bang theory called the inflationary theory, which
caused a tremendous sensation among cosmologists holds the promise of overcoming some of the problems
(those who study models of the universe). It stimulated of the old theory. This is the fashion in which science ad-
much theoretical and empirical work as they sought ei- vances.
ther to prove the theory false or to find evidence to sup- — Charles W. Rogers
728
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Steady-State Theory of the Universe Is Advanced
Further Reading Munitz, Milton K., ed. Theories of the Universe: From
Bondi, Hermann. The Universe at Large. Garden City, Babylonian Myth to Modern Science. Glencoe, Ill.:
N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1960. Popular-level book with Free Press, 1957. This is a marvelous historical col-
chapters on stars and gravitation, and several chapters lection of essays on the nature of the universe. Repre-
dealing with cosmology. Recommended for the gen- sentative works by Plato, Aristotle, Copernicus, Gali-
eral reader. leo, Einstein, Lemaître, Gamow, Bondi, Hoyle, and
Bonnor, William. The Mystery of the Expanding Uni- many others are included. Almost all of the articles
verse. New York: Macmillan, 1964. Covers basic ob- are nonmathematical. Highly recommended.
servations and compares them with various cosmo- Singh, Simon. Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe.
logical theories. Includes a fine nonmathematical New York: Fourth Estate, 2004. Comprehensive his-
treatment of the cosmological models of general rela- tory of big bang theory, beginning with an overview
tivity. Good chapter on the steady-state theory. of cosmological theories from antiquity to 1900, delv-
1948
Highly recommended for the interested layperson. ing into the science behind the big bang, and conclud-
Harrison, Edward R. Cosmology, the Science of the Uni- ing with a discussion of unresolved issues. Includes
verse. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University description of the competing claims of big bang and
Press, 1981. This is one of the best general works on solid-state theories of cosmology. Bibliographic ref-
the subject. In addition to discussions of the big bang erences and index.
and steady-state cosmologies, there are discussions of Yourgrau, Wolfgang, and Allen D. Breck, eds. Cosmol-
space, time, cosmic horizons, life in the universe, and ogy, History, and Theology. New York: Plenum Press,
the like. There are numerous helpful diagrams. At the 1977. Cosmological models from the past to modern
end of each chapter are bibliographies, along with a times are discussed, with considerable emphasis on
few pages of thought-provoking quotations. While the latter. As intended, most of the articles will aid in
the general reader will benefit from browsing through placing cosmological theories in cultural perspective,
it, the well-prepared layperson will find it to be a gold especially as it pertains to history and theology. While
mine. a few of the articles are technical, the majority of the
Hoyle, Fred. The Nature of the Universe. Rev. ed. New articles can be recommended for the interested reader.
York: Harper and Brothers, 1960. Popular work about See also: Nov., 1944-Oct., 1948: Reber Publishes the
the solar system, stars, and the universe. There is a First Radio Maps of the Galaxy; Oct. 30, 1948:
fine chapter on the expanding universe that discusses Gamow Develops the Big Bang Theory; 1963-1965:
both the big bang and the steady-state theories. Rec- Penzias and Wilson Discover Cosmic Microwave
ommended for the layperson. Background Radiation.
729
Vogt’s Road to Survival Warns of Overpopulation The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
1948
Vogt’s ROAD TO SURVIVAL Warns of Overpopulation
William Vogt’s Road to Survival was the first post- Road to Survival combined Vogt’s observations as a
World War II publication to awaken concern over the scientist with a passionate and occasionally caustic writ-
conflict between a rising world population and the ing style. He challenged the clichés of modern life and
availability of natural resources. succeeded in portraying people who were presumed to be
doing good for the world, such as doctors, scientists, and
Locale: United States clerics, as purveyors of human misery. Vogt’s method of
Categories: Environmental issues; natural communication, as well as his views on human ecology,
resources; publishing and journalism made the book a best seller.
Key Figures Vogt did not stand alone. His views were advanced on
William Vogt (1902-1968), ornithologist and ecologist the international scene by biologist Sir Julian Huxley
who called for population control and by writer Aldous Huxley. In 1946, Julian Huxley be-
Aldous Huxley (1894-1963), writer who became a came the first director-general of the United Nations
major proponent of limiting population growth Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
Sir Julian Huxley (1887-1975), biologist who raised (UNESCO), and one of his principal undertakings was to
population issues as first director-general of convince the United Nations to give more attention to
UNESCO in the late 1940’s population control. The United Nations, still in its in-
fancy, hesitated to promote the issue with much resolve.
Summary of Event The United Nations found that it had to back down on
William Vogt’s research as an ornithologist led him to some proposals for research in response to stiff opposi-
develop a keen interest in ecology. Beginning in 1939, he tion from the Roman Catholic Church. Aldous Huxley
traveled extensively in Central and South America and wrote several essays on the population topic in the late
was struck by the realization that the burgeoning popula- 1940’s, and in one of them, “The Double Crisis,” he con-
tion in these countries would result in a shortage of food tended that soil erosion was a much greater threat to hu-
and natural resources. He was especially concerned that man survival than was the atomic bomb. There were im-
the local populations seemed unaware of the disaster that mediate rejoinders to this argument from a number of
awaited them. quarters. In fact, both Huxleys were subjected to intense
In 1943, as an acknowledged expert on land use and re- attacks and believed their opinions were vindicated with
sources, Vogt was made chief of the conservation section the publication of Road to Survival.
of the Pan American Union (PAU). This was the forum he Basic to Road to Survival was Vogt’s belief that hu-
needed to make his views known to government leaders mans have put themselves into an ecological trap by ex-
and to the general public. In 1944, he wrote El hombre y la cessive breeding and abuse of land. He assigned respon-
tierra (man and the land) as an attempt to introduce Latin sibility to those whom he believed should be trying to
America to ecology. In this work, Vogt explained how correct the disastrous overpopulation problem. Doctors
humans related to the land and especially how large pop- were infuriated when Vogt used the example of Puerto
ulations contributed to the depletion of productive soil. Rico, which he described as one of the most miserable
In 1946, Vogt produced three reports under the aus- places for human existence, to illustrate physicians’ ig-
pices of PAU that specified the warnings contained in El norance of modern reality. In Puerto Rico, he wrote,
hombre y la tierra. The reports focused on El Salvador, physicians focused all of their energy on improving med-
Costa Rica, and Venezuela, and each report emphasized ical care and sanitation, thus guaranteeing that the popu-
that the populations in these countries were rapidly out- lation would grow beyond all ability to sustain itself.
stripping the capacity of natural resources to sustain There was already less than one-half acre of land for ev-
these populations. The reports shocked and angered po- ery inhabitant on the island of Puerto Rico. Physicians,
litical and civic leaders in Latin America, but Vogt re- Vogt argued, should be less concerned about survival
mained resolute in his position. He had been writing a of patients and more concerned about slowing repro-
general book on human ecology, which he intended for a duction. Such arguments sounded crass and inhumane
broad readership. It developed into the stunning book to many.
Road to Survival (1948). Vogt discusses overpopulation circumstances on five
730
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Vogt’s Road to Survival Warns of Overpopulation
continents in Road to Survival and heaps criticism on highly developed countries use foreign aid programs to
policy makers and decision makers in all five. According promote birth control. It was the responsibility of the
to Vogt, the exhaustion of land will inevitably create un- wealthy countries to take the lead in trying to bring hu-
speakable human misery in Africa, India, and Latin mans into reconciliation with their environment.
America. Somehow, Vogt argues, people and govern-
ments must understand the link that exists between the Significance
quality of human life and the preservation of arable land. Road to Survival received considerable attention when it
The industrialized countries do not escape Vogt’s was published. Vogt’s contentious statements were in-
rapier-like pen. It is a fallacy, he contended, that industri- tended to shock, and they did. The book was given a sig-
alization alone can create higher standards of living. This nificant boost when it became the first of its type to be se-
illusion has been maintained since the Industrial Revolu- lected for the Book-of-the-Month Club. Reviewers were
tion. In fact, excessive industrialization leads to great mixed in their comments, but some expressed the opin-
1948
waste of natural resources through unbridled consump- ion that Vogt’s highly critical comments had weakened
tion. It gives people a false sense of security about the fu- the impact of his legitimate concerns. Shortly after the
ture and leads to irresponsible breeding. Worst of all, book’s publication, Vogt was removed from his post as
wanton industrialization gobbles up arable land. chief of the conservation section of the PAU.
Vogt ridiculed a claim made in 1947 by Winston There were many readers who charged Vogt with be-
Churchill that the earth provided enough for everyone. ing an adherent of Thomas Robert Malthus, an early
This argument minimized the demographic fact that in- nineteenth century British economist who argued that
dustrializing countries typically experience declines in population growth would eventually exceed food sup-
population growth. The United States, too, received plies. In Road to Survival, Vogt praised Malthus for his
harsh words from Vogt. The country as a whole, he said, clearheadedness and generally considered him a prophet.
was overly self-confident. Caught up in a post-World He also agreed with Malthus that either the world must
War II binge, there were very few Americans in govern- accept the imperative for birth control or population will
ment, or even in the scientific societies, who seemed to be reduced through disasters such as famine, plague, or
grasp the peril that lay ahead. warfare for survival.
Vogt traced America’s wasteful attitudes to the very For a time, Road to Survival made Vogt something of
beginning of the nation’s history. “Unfortunately,” he a celebrity. He gave a number of lectures in which he reit-
wrote, “our forefathers . . . were one of the most destruc- erated the themes expressed in his book. Wherever he
tive groups of human beings that have ever raped the went, he created controversy. His stand on birth control
earth.” It took them only a few decades to turn millions of made him quite popular with those who believed in fam-
acres into useless land. Vogt, however, did hold out some ily planning, and he was given a major award by the
hope for the United States. The country, unlike many Planned Parenthood Federation of America. In 1951,
others, still had time to conserve its vast endowment of Vogt became president of Planned Parenthood, and on
natural resources. Vogt was not optimistic that this four occasions during the 1950’s, he was a leading par-
would happen, however, because agencies such as the ticipant at International Planned Parenthood meetings.
National Science Foundation and organizations such as The primary impact of Road to Survival was to stimu-
the American Association for the Advancement of Sci- late public discussion of the population question. After
ence showed no interest in promoting the kind of re- the book’s publication, the level of interest in the subject
search necessary to find solutions for the impending eco- intensified. Vogt achieved his most important objective,
logical disaster. which was to inform an uninformed public about the real-
The solutions that Vogt offered for the dire conditions ity of overpopulation. During the 1950’s, however, Vogt’s
he described were dramatic and controversial. He called position remained distinctly a minority opinion. Powerful
for a complete readjustment of the way humans think and opponents, especially the Catholic Church, were ready to
live. People had to realize that resources were limited oppose Vogt’s ideas whenever they were raised.
and that living well did not mean possessing more mate- In the 1960’s and 1970’s, the West recognized the ac-
rial goods. A change in attitude about the nature of prog- curacy of Vogt’s fears. The creation of population coun-
ress had to be coupled with a determination to control cils, a spate of literature on the subject, U.N.-sponsored
populations and restore resources. To control popula- conferences, research on contraception, and support
tions, Vogt suggested that the United States and other from many Protestant churches all testified to the new
731
Vogt’s Road to Survival Warns of Overpopulation The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
concerns about overpopulation. Many Catholics even Pearson, Frank A., and Floyd A. Harper. The World’s
began to challenge the official stand of the Vatican on Hunger. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1945.
this subject. Emphasizes expanding world populations and dimin-
—Ronald K. Huch ishing land and resources. Stops short of issuing dire
warnings, but the implications in this study cannot be
Further Reading
missed. Clearly written.
Caldwell, Lynton K. In Defense of Earth: International
Sears, Paul H. Deserts on the March. 1935. New ed.
Protection of the Biosphere. Bloomington: Indiana
Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1988. An innovative
University Press, 1972. A well-written account of en-
study by a leading ecologist. In many ways, Sears
vironmental circumstances as they existed in the early
presages the ideas of Vogt. Although lucidly written,
1970’s. Caldwell makes a strong case for an interna-
it was published at a time when Americans were gen-
tional approach to solving major environmental prob-
erally uninterested in Sears’s concerns about the fu-
lems. Excellent notes, index.
ture.
Craven, Avery O. Soil Exhaustion as a Factor in the Ag-
Symonds, Richard, and Michael Carder. The United Na-
ricultural History of Virginia and Maryland, 1606-
tions and the Population Question, 1945-1970. New
1860. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1926. This
York: McGraw-Hill, 1973. A clear discussion of the
foundational work of ecohistory greatly influenced
United Nations’ concerns about overpopulation. The
Vogt’s thinking about population and soil erosion.
authors provide a history and an analysis of the issue
Notes, bibliography, index. Highly recommended.
and explain the reasons for the difficulties individual
McKee, Jeffrey K. Sparing Nature: The Conflict Between
governments and the United Nations had in forcefully
Human Population Growth and Earth’s Biodiversity.
pursuing solutions. Superb footnotes, index. Highly
New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2003.
recommended.
McKee explores the cause-and-effect relationship be-
tween human population growth and the squeezing See also: 1948: Osborn Publishes Our Plundered
out of animals and plants, all to the detriment of a Planet; 1949: Leopold Publishes A Sand County Al-
healthy and sustaining life on Earth. Includes maps manac; Nov. 7, 1952: Rockefeller Founds the Popula-
and other illustrations, a bibliography, and an index. tion Council; Apr., 1956-1957: Birth Control Pills
Osborn, Fairfield. Our Plundered Planet. Boston: Little, Are Tested in Puerto Rico; June 23, 1960: FDA Ap-
Brown, 1948. Published in the same year as Road to proves the Birth Control Pill; Feb. 24, 1961: National
Survival, this work strongly complements Vogt’s Council of Churches Supports Birth Control; Nov.,
writing. It received considerable attention but was 1967: Zero Population Growth Movement Begins;
somewhat overshadowed by Vogt’s book. Highly 1968: The Population Bomb Is Published; Dec. 13,
recommended. 1968: Hardin Argues for Population Control.
732
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Ryle’s Radio Telescope Locates the First Known Radio Galaxy
1948-1951
Ryle’s Radio Telescope Locates the First Known
Radio Galaxy
Martin Ryle’s interferometric radio telescope detected significantly in strength over very short time periods. In
and provided details on the structure of the first contrast to Reber, who had concluded that interstellar hy-
identifiable radio galaxy, located in the constellation drogen between the stars was the source of all celestial
Cygnus. radio signals, Hey argued that the spatial localization and
temporal periodicity of emissions strongly suggested a
Also known as: Cygnus A
localized or starlike object.
Locale: Cambridge, England
In Australia, a similar post-World War II radio astron-
Categories: Astronomy; science and technology omy group was formed under J. L. Pawsey. In 1946, the
1948
Key Figures Australian group verified Hey’s observations of a local-
Martin Ryle (1918-1984), English radio physicist and ized radio source in Cygnus, using one of the earliest ra-
astronomer dio interferometers of the “Lloyd’s mirror” type. An in-
E. Graham Smith (b. 1923), English radio physicist terferometer is essentially a multielement receiving array
and astronomer relying on receiver spacings matching the constructive
Walter Baade (1893-1960), German American interference wavelengths of the emitting source. Further
astronomer “radio stars” were discovered by Pawsey’s group in
Rudolf Minkowski (1895-1976), German American June, 1947, using an improved Lloyd’s mirror, or image-
physicist method, interferometer developed by L. McCready, Paw-
sey, and R. Payne-Scott. This interferometer included a
Summary of Event multisensor aerial mounted atop a high cliff, overlooking
The initial measurements of cosmic radio emission made the ocean, which specifically made use of the Lloyd’s
by Karl G. Jansky and later Grote Reber between 1932 mirror effect of optics and acoustics. The Lloyd’s mirror,
and 1940 showed reasonably close relations between the or image interference, effect comprises the constructive
gross contours of patches of radio intensity and the posi- and destructive interference patterns resulting from in-
tions and structures of galaxies observable by optical terference between direct and multiply reflected radio
telescopes. This led many astronomers to conclude that waves reflected at the ocean’s surface.
most, if not all, celestial radio emissions derived from Almost simultaneously, using a different type of in-
continuously distributed sources, such as interstellar gas. terferometer, Martin Ryle at Cambridge found another
Up to the immediate post-World War II period, probably intense localized radio source in the constellation Cassi-
the greatest weakness of the new subdiscipline of radio opeia. Ryle, together with J. Ratcliffe, J. Finlay, and oth-
astronomy was the very limited accuracy it provided in ers, brought extensive wartime experience in developing
determining the absolute celestial position and structural airborne radar detectors, radar countermeasures, under-
details of detected radio sources. High location accuracy water sonar arrays, and signal detection and localization
was necessary to reduce sufficiently the margin of error equipment. They were joined in 1946 by E. Graham
in designating a portion of the sky that optical astrono- Smith. Ryle’s new interferometer was a multielement ar-
mers could search for the visual counterparts (if any) of a ray whose elements could be moved horizontally to dif-
given radio source. This portion of the sky to be searched ferent separation distances. The receivers included two
was known as an “error box.” groups of four yagi-type antennae separated by five hun-
Immediately following World War II, J. S. Hey used dred meters or more and operating at a receive frequency
receivers from the Army Operational Radar Unit to per- of 80 megahertz. A yagi antenna includes a dipole con-
form initial experiments on some of the extraterrestrial nected by a transmission line to a number of equispaced
radio emissions reported earlier by Jansky and Reber. but unconnected dipoles mounted plane-parallel to the
Subsequently, in 1946, Hey and others published the first first. Ryle’s cosmic radio “pyrometer” was used success-
paper on apparent fluctuations in received radio noise fully in July, 1946, to resolve the angular diameters of a
from the direction of the constellation Cygnus. Hey and large sunspot.
his colleagues reported an observational discovery of Hey and his colleagues remained unable to determine
particular import: that the radio source in Cygnus varied the accurate position of their radio source to better than
733
Ryle’s Radio Telescope Locates the First Known Radio Galaxy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
measure their angular size radiometrically with the great-

est resolution possible: If the objects were, in fact, stars,
their expected angular size would be fractions of a sec-
ond of arc. An angular size in the minutes of arc would
indicate that they were galaxies. Earlier efforts to im-
prove position estimates for radio stars largely depended
on observing a very small part of the object’s celestial
track after it had risen above the horizon. Almost all early
measurements were therefore affected severely by near-
horizon atmospheric refraction not amenable to easy cor-
rection.
In 1949, it was proposed to carry out these measure-
ments for Cygnus A and Cassiopeia by constructing a
very large variable baseline interferometric radio tele-
scope, with a maximum possible baseline separation of
160 kilometers receiving on 124 megahertz, the so-
called long Michelson interferometer of 1950. Because
of the critical importance of relative phase in determin-
ing details of the object’s spatial distribution of radiated
energy, in 1951, Ryle developed a new “phase-switching”
receiver based on 1944 sonar detection efforts. Phase
switching permits the radio receiver to discriminate ac-
curately and reject sources with large angular size and,
thus, better emphasize and locate weaker sources using
larger receiver gains.
Martin Ryle. (AP/Wide World Photos) After Ryle completed the phase-switching prototypes
and tested them again on the Sun, in 1951 R. C. Jennison
and M. K. Das Gupta attempted to take measurements for
2 degrees because of resolution limitations of their radio Cygnus and Cassiopeia. Because both sources were re-
telescope. J. G. Bolton and G. J. Stanley in 1948 also solved clearly with baselines of only a few thousand me-
used the Lloyd’s mirror technique to show that the ters, the radio objects were clearly not stars. These same
Cygnus radio source was a discrete, not a distributed, researchers shortly thereafter discovered that the Cygnus
source. The successful resolution of solar sunspots of A source was actually two distinct sources. Ryle’s phase-
small diameter suggested to Ryle additional radio tele- switched records were such improvements that his col-
scope improvements to improve upon the Hey, Bolton, leagues compiled the first radio-object catalog contain-
and Stanley measurements for Cygnus, as well as his ing more than fifty sources.
own object in Cassiopeia. Smith recollected later that even the confirmation of
In 1948, Ryle, Smith, and others made the first de- the extragalactic nature of the Cygnus radio source had
tailed radio observations of Cygnus A, using an im- little immediate effect in changing the radio “star” con-
proved version of their pyrometric radio telescope. Ryle cept. Unable to measure a parallax for these objects, by
and Smith subsequently published an improved position late 1951, Smith had further localized the coordinates of
for Cygnus Ain 1948 and showed that, unlike the sun, the Ryle’s two radio stars to better than one minute of arc in
Cygnus A and Cassiopeia sources were unpolarized. right ascension and 101.6 centimeters in declination, re-
Ryle and Smith’s measurements included the discovery ducing the original error boxes of Hey and others by a
of short-period radio bursts (of less than 20 seconds dura- factor of sixty. Smith then approached the director of the
tion), which they (incorrectly) used to argue that the ulti- Cambridge Observatory to seek visual identification of
mate radio source must be a radiating star of some as yet the two radio sources.
unrecognized type. While D. Dewiest in 1951 did, in fact, find part of the
Eventually, it was decided that the most direct way to Cassiopeia supernova remnant on a photographic plate
determine more about these radio sources would be to made by a 101.6 centimeter reflector telescope, the poor
734
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Ryle’s Radio Telescope Locates the First Known Radio Galaxy
atmospheric observing conditions in England precluded By the 1958 Solvay Conference on the Structure and
definitive identification. Shortly thereafter, Smith sent Evolution of the Universe, the existence of at least eigh-
his data and his new positions to Walter Baade and teen then-confirmed extragalactic radio objects was ac-
Rudolf Minkowski of the Palomar Observatory in South- cepted as opening a new era in cosmology. The experi-
ern California. Baade and Minkowski’s visual objects ment to look for parallactic motion of assumed radio
were discovered only after many difficulties, being in a stars had become the identification of the first extra-
field rich in many other stars and faint galaxies. In a letter galactic radio sources.
of April 29, 1952, Baade wrote to Smith that the result of —Gerardo G. Tango
the photograph was puzzling. He found a rich cluster of
galaxies, and the radio position coincided closely with Further Reading
one of the brightest members of the cluster. In his letter Baade, W., and R. Minkowski. “Identification of the Ra-
dated May 26, 1952, Baade wrote to Smith that Minkow- dio Sources in Cassiopeia, Cygnus A, and Puppis A.”
1948
ski had obtained the spectrum of the nebula with the new Astrophysical Journal 119 (1954): 206-2 14. The fi-
spectrograph. He believed they had
encountered an extragalactic object
because of the large redshift of the Ryle’s Radio Telescopes
emission lines.
In 1964, Sir Martin Ryle implemented his first history-making radio tele-
Significance scope, the “one-mile telescope,” using the principle of aperture synthesis. Ap-
At first, there was notable skepti- erture synthesis uses small telescope dishes to produce the angular resolution
cism in the optical astronomy and of a much larger telescope dish. A telescope’s angular resolution is its ability
to distinguish between two relatively close point sources of radiation. The
cosmology communities over the no-
method of aperture synthesis keeps one or more small dishes fixed and moves
tion of extragalactic radio sources.
one or more other dishes over Earth’s surface, comparing the phases of the
This climate of disbelief was respon- radiation collected by the fixed and movable dishes. Ryle’s instrument was
sible for the fact that Baade and Min- unique because he accounted for the effects of Earth’s rotation in moving the
kowski’s results could not be pub- array of dishes and provided a baseline for the angular resolution which was a
lished until 1954. Subsequently, it large fraction of Earth’s diameter.
required additional confirmation for The telescope had a resolution superior to that of existing instruments, and it
these and the other purportedly ex- could detect much fainter sources, including quasars. Quasars are among the
tragalactic objects, to foster the leap most distant, and therefore youngest and most powerful, objects in the uni-
of the imagination necessary to place verse. They may represent the stage galaxies go through before their radio radi-
these sources in a cosmological cate- ations subside and they become visible at optical wavelengths. With Allan
Sandage, Ryle developed a technique for identifying quasars at optical wave-
gory. Perhaps the most decisive ra-
lengths, based on the fact that they emit much more ultraviolet energy than sin-
dio data came from Ryle and P. A. G.
gle, normal stars.
Scheuer in 1955. From their 1C and Ryle’s survey of radio sources showed, as suspected, that the number of
2C surveys, they found that the ab- faint sources per unit volume of space increased with distance—but far more
solute radio luminosity of “normal” rapidly than anticipated. This finding supported the big bang theory of the uni-
spiral galaxies is comparable to that verse, which then was in conflict with the prevailing steady-state theory. Over
radiated by the Milky Way galaxy. time, Ryle’s evidence was bolstered by other research, and the big bang theory
Plotting optical versus radio emission is now dominant.
intensity for 1C-2C radio sources In 1974, Ryle won the Nobel Prize in Physics for construction and use of the
showed that most of the normal gal- five-kilometer telescope. Like the one-mile telescope, it consisted of a linear,
axies were grouped in a specific re- east-west array of dishes, some fixed and some movable, all carried by Earth’s
rotation. The resolution of this instrument was, remarkably, one second of arc.
gion, where optical equals radio en-
The new telescope detected fainter and more distant galaxies with greater pre-
ergy. Nevertheless, there were many
cision, allowing many more objects to be used for statistical studies and the ra-
other galaxies—many not different dio and optical components of the most distant objects to be matched. The five-
in their optical appearance from nor- kilometer telescope was also used to study individual stars in the Milky Way
mal galaxies—which were much that were just being “born.” Ryle’s telescopes thus opened a new window on
more powerful sources (termed ra- the universe, revealing previously undetectable objects and insights.
dio galaxies).
735
Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation of Nature The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
nal refinement of the radio position and the establish- key journal articles on radio telescope improvements
ment of the optical galaxy group are discussed. and applications.
Bolton, J. G., G. J. Stanley, and O. B. Slee. “Positions of _______. The Early Years of Radio Astronomy: Reflec-
Three Discrete Sources of Galactic Radio-Frequency tions Fifty Years After Jansky’s Discovery. New
Radiation.” Nature 164 (1951): 101. The first confir- York: Cambridge University Press, 1984. A compre-
mation of the discrete nature of the Cygnus radio ob- hensive collection of the early history of radio astron-
ject is discussed. omy. Contains the Smith-Baade correspondence on
Burke, Bernard F., and Francis Graham-Smith. An Intro- the discovery of the optical counterpart to Cygnus A
duction to Radio Astronomy. 2d ed. New York: Cam- radio source.
bridge University Press, 2002. Survey of the history, Verschuur, Gerrit. The Invisible Universe: The Story of
methodology, and discoveries of radio astronomy. In- Radio Astronomy. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1974.
cludes a chapter on radio galaxies and quasars. Bib- Although an excellent source for contemporary mate-
liographic references and index. rial on radio astronomy, its historical recounting is
Pawsey, J. L., and R. N. Bracewell. Radio Astronomy. limited and biased.
Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1955. Contains a See also: Nov., 1944-Oct., 1948: Reber Publishes the
good introduction to key concepts and mathematics of First Radio Maps of the Galaxy; Early 1950’s: De
aperture synthesis in astronomy. Vaucouleurs Identifies the Local Supercluster of Gal-
Ryle, M., and F. G. Smith. “A New Intense Source of Ra- axies; Early 1955: Franklin and Burke Discover Ra-
dio Frequency Radiation in the Constellation Cas- dio Emissions from Jupiter; 1955: Ryle Constructs
siopeia.” Nature 162 (1948): 462. The original publi- the First Radio Interferometer; Aug. 2, 1957: Jodrell
cation documenting the discovery of intense radio Bank Radio Telescope Is Completed; Early 1959: Ra-
emission. dio Astronomers Transmit Radar Signals to and from
Sullivan, Woodruff T., ed. Classics in Radio Astronomy. the Sun; 1963-1965: Penzias and Wilson Discover
Boston: D. Reidel, 1982. Contains reprints of many Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.
1948-1953
Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation
of Nature
The Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature V. R. Williams (fl. mid-twentieth century), American
was the world’s largest-scale attempt at afforestation soil scientist who influenced Soviet conservation
in an effort to reduce erosion and permanently and agricultural policies
change the climate of the Soviet Union for human
benefit. Summary of Event
In October, 1948, the Soviet Union, under the leadership
Also known as: Great Plan for the Transformation
of Joseph Stalin, announced the first of several policies
of Nature
that came to be known as Stalin’s Great Plan for the
Locale: Soviet Union
Transformation of Nature. The plan had two major ele-
Categories: Environmental issues; agriculture;
ments: the transfer of water that normally flowed to the
government and politics; natural resources
Arctic Ocean in the north to rivers in the southwestern
Key Figures part of the Soviet Union, and an extensive program of
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; tree planting in the steppe, wooded steppe, and semiarid
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central regions of the Soviet Union to protect the country’s vital
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet grain-growing region.
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 The first element of the program was never imple-
Trofim D. Lysenko (1898-1976), biologist who mented. Plans for water transfer from the north to the arid
advocated policies that decreased Soviet south were vague and included proposals that dated back
agricultural production to the nineteenth century. Some of the proposals were
736
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation of Nature
given significant consideration, but high costs and diffi- other, human-made, catastrophes that ravaged the coun-
cult engineering resulted in the postponement of the ma- try’s farms, however. Many of these were created by the
jor interbasin transfer schemes. government itself. Stalin and the government began the
Nevertheless, the key part of the program, articulated process of collectivizing agriculture in the 1920’s and
in an October, 1948, speech by Stalin, was vigorously 1930’s. Rather than give up their farms, many peasants
pursued until Stalin’s death in 1953. An extensive affor- burned their fields, killed their livestock, and revolted.
estation and shelterbelt project was developed that Millions of peasants were run off their farms, killed, or
would take up to fifteen years to complete and cover por- forced to work on enormous collective farms. Many re-
tions of eight Soviet states in the southwestern Soviet searchers suggest that this, more than any other factor,
Union. Under the plan, collective and state farms would impeded Soviet agriculture. World War II also destroyed
plant shelterbelts, long rows of trees up to one hundred much of the country’s productive capacity. In 1917, the
feet wide, on approximately 15 million acres of land, Communists imposed a new standard on scientists that
1948
protecting an additional 300 million acres of farmland. gave them creative powers. Communist officials hoped
Soviet scientists and policy makers believed that the that science could be used to transform the underdevel-
shelterbelts would shield farmland from winds that dried oped, agriculturally based Russian empire into an ad-
out the land and blew away the topsoil. There was also an vanced industrial-agricultural nation. A new Soviet
underlying belief that planting a large number of trees scientific ideology was formed within the broader frame-
would cause an increase in rainfall. (There is, in fact, al- work of communism. Politicians and scientists stressed
most no scientific evidence that shelterbelt planting sig- the need to overcome the physical limitations of the
nificantly increases a region’s rainfall.) harsh Russian environment.
Stalin and the Soviet planners attempted this costly Several scientists with strong political connections
and unpromising program to address problems inherent advocated this new ideology of transforming nature.
in the overall geography of the Soviet Union. In part, Trofim D. Lysenko and V. R. Williams became impor-
they were responding to a history of drought and other tant figures in the development of a new pseudoscientific
catastrophes that had long affected Soviet agricultural ideology, and these two men virtually dictated the gov-
productivity. The enshrinement of science as an ideology ernment’s official agricultural science program. Wil-
with creative powers, the conviction that climate could liams’s controversial theories on grassland agriculture
be changed, and the committed and forceful role of Stalin and Lysenko’s poorly documented theories were indi-
were factors in the implementation of the great plan. rectly incorporated into Stalin’s Great Plan for the Trans-
The Soviet Union faced major agricultural problems formation of Nature. “Lysenkoism,” as it came to be
because of its physical geography. The bulk of the region known, was not completely purged from Soviet scien-
is too northern in latitude or too continental in location to tific circles until the 1970’s. This investiture of science
have temperatures consistent with high agricultural out- with creative powers to serve Communist needs resulted
put. Furthermore, soils in many parts of the region are of in unobjective, often dubious research that ultimately
poor quality. The exception to these rules are portions of hindered the Soviet economy.
the Russian steppe, which is located in the post-Soviet Communist scientists thus provided the research that
countries of Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. In these convinced Stalin and government planners that nature
areas, soils are of high fertility. Unfortunately, however, could be permanently transformed. Dozens of pre-1948
rainfall in this region frequently falls short of what is research studies suggested that, at the very least, the mi-
needed to obtain consistent grain yields. This situation croclimate (the climate in the area around the fields)
periodically contributes to grain shortfalls. could be altered by large-scale shelterbelt planting. Im-
During the first half of the 1900’s, drought haunted plicit in some of these reports, and in the minds of Stalin
the Soviet grain-producing regions. Particularly severe and many politicians, was the belief that shelterbelts
droughts devastated the steppe landscape in 1946 and could result in wholesale climate change in the steppe
1948. Wind erosion in the steppe zone created extensive zone.
dust storms. The droughts and wind convinced Stalin Stalin’s personality and power were significant in the
that only the planting of trees could transform the re- implementation of the Great Plan for the Transformation
gion’s climate and increase agricultural yields. of Nature. Stalin and his cohorts provided the dogma,
Stalin and his planners blamed low agricultural yields motivation, and assurance required for activation of the
on the country’s inhospitable environment. There were plan. Stalin’s forceful and ruthless manner was seldom
737
Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation of Nature The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
questioned. Perhaps the best testament to Stalin’s impor- acres of the 15 million planned acres survived. These
tance to the plan’s adoption is that the plan was largely were generally in the wooded steppe zone and in moister
abandoned after his death in 1953. portions of the region, such as in Ukraine. The drier
The water-transfer portion of Stalin’s plan was never semidesert zones of the Russian steppe, such as in Ka-
implemented, but the shelterbelt portion was partially zakhstan, which could have profited most from the
completed. The afforestation part of the plan aimed to shelterbelts, were unable to sustain afforestation efforts.
plant trees on 10.4 million acres of kolkhoz (collective Even if the entire plan had been carried out, it is highly
farm) land, of which 9 million acres would be planted by unlikely that the climate of the region would have been
the farmers at their own expense. The government would significantly altered. Large-scale water transfers from
plant 1.4 million acres on the farms. By 1955, more than rivers flowing to the Arctic probably would have created
12 million acres were to have been in shelterbelts. a host of other environmental problems. This has been
At the close of 1949, trees had been planted on 1.2 evidenced by intraregional water projects on the Volga
million acres, considerably more than expected. It and other rivers, projects that have resulted in severe and
seemed that the periodic crop failures of the past would costly impacts on the rivers themselves, on the Caspian
become only a dim memory. While the 1949 harvest was Sea, and on the Aral Sea.
below average, excitement for the afforestation project In the long-term, Stalin’s plan contributed to similar
intensified, and the press was forbidden to publish any types of programs aimed at altering the environment for
critical reports on the project. In 1950 and 1951, how- human benefit. While the shelterbelt portion of the pro-
ever, the planting targets fell behind schedule. By 1951, gram officially ended with Stalin’s death, interest in
it appeared that nearly 50 percent of all trees planted in shelterbelts and afforestation continued. Since the
1949 had died. As the peasants became overworked, the 1950’s, dozens of Soviet research reports have been pub-
rate of planting started to decline. Trees were left un- lished on the microclimatic impacts of shelterbelts on
tended. Inadequate watering practices and inappropriate soil temperature and evaporation, water budgets near the
planting stock contributed to the collapse of Stalin’s trees, and wind speed. These studies seldom claim that
plan. The semiarid climate caused the failure of many shelterbelts and forests have large-scale regional clima-
shelterbelts. tic impacts, but rather that they produce a mix of benefi-
After Stalin’s death in 1953, the shelterbelt program cial and detrimental influences on nearby fields.
was discontinued. The state committee in charge of tree- Later attempts at shelterbelt planting were proposed
planting was dismissed, and statistics regarding the pro- under circumstances similar to Stalin’s plan, mainly after
gram were unavailable after 1958. Many shelterbelts periods of drought or low agricultural yields. During the
were left unattended or incomplete. It has been estimated late 1960’s, Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev called for
that 10 percent of the trees planted during Stalin’s Great plans that included the planting of shelterbelts on
Plan for the Transformation of Nature survived. 800,000 acres of gullies and sandy lands.
From its birth, the Soviet government had an affinity
Significance for ambitious projects. Stalin’s plan represented one of
Stalin’s Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature was many. After Stalin’s death, his successor Nikita S. Khru-
essentially an attempt to achieve long-term sustainability shchev implemented the Virgin and Idle Lands Program,
in the grain-growing region of the Soviet Union. In the which brought more than 90 million acres of land into
minds of Stalin and his cohorts, sustainability meant that production between 1954 and 1960. Most of the land was
the Soviet environment would be changed to meet the in areas of marginal rainfall in the southwestern and
long-term needs of Soviet agriculture. Since Soviet sci- southern Soviet Union. While the large-scale Arctic-to-
ence was credited with creative powers, Stalin and his as- south water transfers have largely failed to materialize,
sociates believed that this long-term sustainability could the Soviet government did implement dozens of other
be accomplished quickly, solving the immediate prob- water projects in the south, especially along the Volga
lem of low yields and the more persistent challenges of a and the rivers feeding the Aral Sea. Detailed research
semiarid environment. The plan was not a success; how- continues to be performed on major interbasin water
ever, it did have short-term impacts and long-term impli- transfer schemes.
cations for Soviet agricultural policy. The breakup of the Soviet Union has imposed eco-
Some areas did receive protection from the shel- nomic constraints on the pursuit of similar projects. In
terbelts. Estimates vary, but approximately 1.2 million the long term, however, the need for increased agricul-
738
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Soviets Adopt Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation of Nature
tural production may foster a renewed interest in projects Rostankowski, Peter. “Transformation of Nature in the
that promise quick solutions to enduring geographic and Soviet Union: Proposals, Plans, and Reality.” Soviet
climatic problems. Geography: Review and Translation, June, 1982,
—David M. Diggs 381-390. Accurately describes the Plan for the Trans-
formation of Nature. Difficult to find but well worth
Further Reading
the effort.
Burke, Albert E. “Influence of Man upon Nature—The
Strebeigh, Fred. “Where Nature Reigns.” Sierra, March/
Russian View: A Case Study.” In Man’s Role in
April, 2002. Strebeigh explores the environmental
Changing the Face of the Earth. Vol. 2, edited by Wil-
movement, and environmental degradation, in Russia
liam L. Thomas, Jr. Chicago: University of Chicago
and the Soviet Union. Includes resources for further
Press, 1956. Excellent article on the Russian view of
study. Available at http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/
the environment. Contains substantial material on the
200203/russia.asp.
1948
Plan for the Transformation of Nature.
Symons, Leslie. Russian Agriculture: A Geographic Sur-
Davitaya, F. F. “Transformation of Nature in the Steppes
vey. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1972. Briefly
and Deserts.” In Soviet Geography: Accomplishments
discusses the Plan for the Transformation of Nature.
and Tasks, edited by Chauncy D. Harris. New York:
Focuses on geographic factors affecting Soviet agri-
American Geographical Society, 1962. Provides an
culture.
overview of environmental changes in the semiarid
Volin, Lazar. A Century of Russian Agriculture: From Al-
and arid zones of the Soviet Union. Written in the typ-
exander II to Khrushchev. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
ical Soviet fashion of the time: vague and noncritical.
University Press, 1970. Detailed account of Soviet ag-
Joravsky, David. The Lysenko Affair. 1970. Reprint. Chi-
riculture up to the 1960’s. Well written and researched;
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. Traces the
draws extensively from original documents.
influence of T. D. Lysenko and others in the use of
Weiner, Douglas R. “The Great Transformation of Na-
pseudoscientific ideas in agriculture. Provides a good
ture.” In Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation,
analysis of the political factors that played a role in
and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia. Pittsburgh,
Soviet science. Briefly discusses the Great Plan for
Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000. Examines
the Transformation of Nature.
Stalin’s Plan for the Transformation of Nature. The
Josephson, Paul R. Resources Under Regimes: Technol-
larger work is a study of nature conservation in the So-
ogy, Environment, and the State. Cambridge, Mass.:
viet Union and the Soviet approach to nature in gen-
Harvard University Press, 2004. A unique environ-
eral.
mental history that examines how both industrialized
and developing nations address environmental con- See also: Oct., 1942: Lindeman’s “The Trophic-
cerns. A study in the moral and ethical valuation and Dynamic Aspect of Ecology” Is Published; Nov. 13,
devaluation of the natural world. 1946: First Cloud Seeding Heralds Weather Modifi-
Medvedev, Zhores A. Soviet Agriculture. New York: cation; 1949: Soviet Union Adopts Measures to Re-
W. W. Norton, 1987. Excellent, detailed, and highly duce Air Pollution; Dec., 1968: Soviet Union Opens a
critical examination of Soviet agriculture. Some dis- Tidal Power Station; Jan., 1969: Soviet Union De-
cussion of the Plan for the Transformation of Nature. clares Lake Baikal a Protected Zone.
739
Benelux Customs Union Enters into Force The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
January 1, 1948
Benelux Customs Union Enters into Force
The Benelux Customs Union was created by a treaty was developing into a model of economic integration. By
signed among the governments-in-exile of Belgium, contrast, Luxembourg, a tiny country of just one thou-
Luxembourg, and the Netherlands in London in 1944. sand square miles, was devoted very largely to its well-
Once it entered into force, it provided a model for developed iron and steel manufacturing industries.
many of the customs and economic unions that The Benelux Customs Union had historical roots go-
characterized Europe in the post-World War II era. ing back to the era after World War I. On July 25, 1921,
the governments of Belgium and Luxembourg inked a
Also known as: Benelux Economic Union treaty creating a customs union between the two small
Locale: Belgium; the Netherlands; Luxembourg nations. This customs union went into effect in 1922, and
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations; under its aegis the customs duties of the two countries
economics; trade and commerce merged into a single tariff, and the currencies of the two
Key Figures countries became effectively integrated on a one-to-one
Jean Monnet (1888-1979), Free French minister of basis. Each currency became legal tender in the other
commerce, 1944, and president of the European country.
Coal and Steel Community, 1951-1955 As Allied victory in World War II became more as-
Robert Schuman (1886-1963), French prime minister, sured, the governments-in-exile in England began look-
1947-1948, and foreign minister, 1948-1952 ing to the future. The customs union of 1922, in abeyance
Paul-Henri Spaak (1899-1972), Belgian foreign during hostilities, was revived for the postwar era in an
minister, 1945-1947, and prime minister, 1947-1950 agreement signed in 1944, and it was expanded to in-
clude the Netherlands. The agreement between the Neth-
Summary of Event erlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium was created in part
The catastrophic destruction of World War II left all Eu- under the stimulus of French diplomat and economist
ropeans who survived with an urgent sense of the need Jean Monnet, who was to become the father of European
for collaboration across international boundaries. This economic integration in the post-World War II era in Eu-
sense was most pronounced in the Low Countries— rope.
Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands—whose The inclusion of the Netherlands in the Benelux
governments-in-exile in 1944 banded together to create agreement created the need for some important adjust-
the Benelux Customs Union. The union provided a ments. For example, the Netherlands had had for years
model for later integration initiatives. considerable government control of its agricultural sec-
The three countries that created the Benelux Customs tor. The Netherlands sought access for its agricultural
Union (often simply referred to as “the Benelux”) shared products in Belgium, and although the tariffs of the two
many common features. They were all quite densely countries were soon unified, many quotas remained in
populated, Belgium and the Netherlands being the existence during the first decade of the Benelux’s exis-
world’s two most densely populated nations. A very high tence. Coordination of the nations’ social and economic
proportion of their gross national product (GNP) con- policies took time, and the quotas could be eliminated
sisted of trade, mostly with the European nations adjoin- only as this coordination developed.
ing them; by 1970, trade amounted to nearly 40 percent Belgium hoped to displace Germany as a major
of the GNP of the three countries. In Belgium in particu- source of industrial products in the Netherlands. At the
lar, there was a recognition that tariffs needed to be kept same time, the Netherlands was developing its own in-
low to encourage this trade; no duties, for example, were dustries, and—as with agricultural policy—coordination
levied on raw materials. of industrial policy gradually emerged over the course of
For years, Belgium and Luxembourg had depended the first decade. Likewise, methods had to be developed
on metalworking and textile production, exporting the to deal with the fiscal deficit in the Netherlands, and the
products of these industries to Europe and the rest of the price levels of the two countries needed to converge.
world. At the time the Benelux was created, the Nether- By 1953, capital movements among the Benelux
lands was less industrialized than was Belgium, but this members had been freed up, and this freedom was ex-
situation changed during the years in which the Benelux tended to the movement of labor. All excise duties were
740
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Benelux Customs Union Enters into Force
standardized in 1958. By 1958, the economic conver- mous such union was the German Customs Union, the
gence had been completed: The three nations signed a Zollverein, started in 1834, which played an important
new treaty that year that created a full economic union as role in German unification in 1870-1871. The Benelux
of 1960. This union was called the Benelux Economic Customs Union, however, provided a direct model for
Union. The Benelux was thus well placed to enter into the European Economic Union, which grew out of the
the European Economic Union created by the Treaty of Common Market established by the Treaty of Rome in
Rome in 1957. The gradual implementation of common 1957. The Benelux therefore had an importance that
practices during the development of the Benelux pro- transcended the actual populations it embraced. In par-
vided the model for the European Economic Union, ticular, the Benelux made clear that a gradual approach to
which assigned a longer time frame for convergence in the harmonization of governmental policies affecting na-
the light of the Benelux’s experiences. tional economies offered the best hope of success.
Several contemporary developments contributed to — Nancy M. Gordon
1948
the success of the Benelux “experiment.” The first of
these was the Marshall Plan, in which the United States Further Reading
threw its full weight into the reconstruction of the war- Lewis, David W. P. The Road to Europe: History, Insti-
torn European continent, demanding that all recipients of tutions, and Prospects of European Integration,
Marshall Plan aid should design their own industrial re- 1945-1993. New York: Peter Lang, 1993. Focuses on
suscitation. At the heart of the plan for the Benelux coun- the institutional and diplomatic development of the
tries was the realization that the revival of trade, spurred European Union, but is quite comprehensive.
on by lower customs duties, would play a significant role Neal, Larry, and Daniel Barbezat. The Economics of the
in the economic revival of the Low Countries. Between European Union and the Economies of Europe. New
1948 and 1969, the exports of the Benelux countries York: Oxford University Press, 1998. An overview
grew by 579 percent, and their imports increased by 471 that includes many useful details.
percent. Newcomer, James. The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg:
Asecond concurrent factor contributing to the success The Evolution of Nationhood, 963 A.D. to 1983.
of the Benelux customs union was the signature, in Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1984. A
Geneva in October, 1947, of the first General Agreement long view of the duchy that gives details showing how
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The underlying principles its economy integrated with that of Belgium.
of the GATT were that trade promoted prosperity and Urwin, Derek W. The Community of Europe: A History
that low tariffs promoted trade. The gradual abolition of of European Integration Since 1945. New York:
all internal tariffs in the Benelux countries and the great Longman, 1995. The most concise and useful history
growth in prosperity during the years after the end of of the various efforts to integrate the nations of Eu-
World War II provided support for the fundamental con- rope, including the Low Countries.
cept of the GATT. Vanthoor, Wim F. V. A Chronological History of the
The third concurrent factor was the success of the European Union, 1946-2001. Cheltenham, Glouces-
Schuman Plan, named for Robert Schuman, the French tershire, England: Elgar, 2002. A purely chronologi-
foreign minister. Created under this plan in 1951 in nego- cal listing of important events in the development of
tiations in Paris, the European Coal and Steel Commu- formal economic ties among European nations.
nity (ECSC) brought under international control the op-
erations of the coal, iron, and steel industries of Western
See also: July 1-22, 1944: Bretton Woods Agreement
Europe. The success of the ECSC showed that transna-
Encourages Free Trade; Oct. 30, 1947: General
tional economic organizations were the most effective
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Is Signed; Apr. 3,
way to bring about economic unity.
1948: Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe; Apr. 18,
Significance 1951: European Coal and Steel Community Is Estab-
The Benelux Customs Union was not the first customs lished; Mar. 25, 1957: European Common Market Is
union to play a role in creating greater economic unity Established; Jan. 4, 1960: European Free Trade Asso-
among relatively small political entities. The most fa- ciation Is Established.
741
Gandhi Is Assassinated The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
January 30, 1948

Gandhi Is Assassinated
Mahatma Gandhi, gunned down by Hindu activist dia, where he had been staying in a guest room on the first
Nathuram Godse, was the victim of an assassin and his floor. He was somewhat weakened, since he had com-
coconspirators who believed that Gandhi had betrayed pleted his last fast only twelve days before. This, com-
the Hindu cause in India by promoting reconciliation bined with being seventy-eight years old, had slowed
between Muslims and Hindus. The assassination him on his trek to prayer. Thus, he walked with the assis-
underscored the unstable state of Indian politics in the tance of two young women, whom he humorously re-
months before and after independence. ferred to as his walking sticks. The women were his
grandnieces Manu and Abha, and he joked with them on
Locale: New Delhi, India the way to the prayer service.
Categories: Terrorism; independence movements; The distance to prayer was about two blocks, but be-
religion, theology, and ethics cause he was running late, he had taken a more direct
Key Figures short cut. About a hundred feet short of his destination,
Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), Indian independence Gandhi was confronted by Nathuram Godse, whose
movement leader who advocated civil disobedience hands were pressed together in what first appeared to be
and nonviolence the traditional namasté greeting used in India. However,
Nathuram Godse (1910-1949), Hindu Mahasabha carefully concealed in his hands was a small, black
activist who assassinated Gandhi Beretta pistol. Gandhi pressed his hands together in re-
Narayan Apte (1911-1949), Hindu Mahasabha activist sponse to what he thought was the traditional greeting.
who was a coconspirator in Gandhi’s assassination Godse then exposed the weapon and fired three shots into
Gandhi’s chest. Before falling to the ground Gandhi re-
Summary of Event portedly uttered the following last words: “Hey Rama,”
Mahatma Gandhi, spiritual and political leader for an in- which means “Oh God.” Chaos ensued in the prayer area,
dependent India, was born on October 2, 1869, in and Gandhi died a few minutes after being shot.
Porbandar, India. His work in South Africa in the early Only ten days before, on January 20, another assassina-
twentieth century used mass nonviolent civil disobedi- tion attempt on Gandhi had failed. A Hindu Mahasabha
ence, called satyagraha, to create social and political group of at least eight persons planned to kill Gandhi with
change for the benefit of the poor and powerless. He later a bomb explosion. The group included Godse, Madanlal
applied this philosophy to the political situation in India, Pahwa, Narayan Apte, Vishnu Karkare, Digambar Badge,
where he was a leader in India’s quest for independence Gopal Godse, Vinayak Savarkar, and Shankar Kishtaiyya.
from the British. During India’s final days as a colony, The bombing occurred around prayer time on January 20,
Gandhi served as a voice of reason, repeatedly interven-
ing in an attempt to halt the horrific violence that erupted
between Hindus and Muslims before and during the par- Gandhi’s Assassination
titioning of India and Pakistan.
Caught in the crux of these conflicts, Gandhi’s life Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, ad-
was under constant threat, as he diligently tried to be fair dressed a grieving nation on the radio following the as-
to both groups. However, his opposition to partition an- sassination of the Mahatma Gandhi.
gered many Muslims. At the same time, many Hindus
Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our
believed that he favored Muslims. In early 1948, Gandhi lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not
believed his death was close at hand. His foresight be- quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved
came a tragic reality on January 30. leader Bapu, as we called him, the father of the nation, is
On the day of his assassination, Gandhi was late for no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless,
his prayer service. He despised being late for his daily we will not seek him again, as we have seen him for these
prayer ritual, which was to start at 5:00 p.m. He was al- many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek so-
ready ten minutes late, because he had failed to wear his lace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not for me
watch and, distracted by two visitors, time had slipped by only, but for millions and millions in this country.
too quickly. He exited Birla House, located in Delhi, In-
742
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Gandhi Is Assassinated
but the plan to kill Gandhi failed. The bomb had been Significance
planted on a wall at Birla House and went off about sev- The assassination Mahatma Gandhi was a manifestation
enty feet from where Gandhi was speaking, leaving Gan- of the great division existing between Hindus and Mus-
dhi, who steadfastly continued on with his speech, un- lims in British India as independence neared. Gandhi
harmed. The original plan of the group was to use the was a voice for nonviolence and reason in a time of vio-
bomb as a diversion and then shoot Gandhi during the lence and unreasonableness. The partition of British In-
chaos of the explosion. However, the plot was a total fail- dia and the creation of the independent states of India and
ure and no shots were fired. Pakistan in 1947 was marked by the migration of up to
The group of eight or more who wanted to kill Gandhi seventeen million people who moved for religious rea-
were Hindu extremists who believed that Gandhi favored sons into either India or Pakistan. Up to one million peo-
Muslims over Hindus. Although Gandhi was painstak- ple tragically died in this partitioning process.
ingly evenhanded in his approach to the two religions, Gandhi opposed partition. He used his influence to try
1948
the extremists were angered because Gandhi’s most re- keep the Muslim and Hindu populations together in the
cent fast was devoted to having the new Indian govern- state of India. Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah
ment release funds to the Muslims, funds that were right- strongly opposed the idea of one state. His vision for a
fully theirs. After the failed assassination attempt, the separate Pakistan was carried forward until his dream
group planned their second attempt. The second attempt was realized in August, 1947. After this, Gandhi contin-
would be more difficult, though, because security was ued to advocate for fairness for Pakistan and India. The
tightened for Gandhi after the January 20 attempt. fast that preceded his death by twelve days was con-
The second assassination attempt on Gandhi was suc- ducted to promote fairness for Pakistan.
cessful. At the trial, Godse expressed absolutely no re- Pakistan had been claiming that millions of rupees
morse, saying “I shot Gandhiji. I showered him with bul- were owed it because of the financial settlement that had
lets. I have no regrets. I believe it was the right thing to accompanied partition. India believed that Pakistan
do. . . . On his many fasts he always attached all sorts of would use the funds to conduct raids on India and so re-
pro-Muslim conditions.” This statement echoed the feel- fused to comply with Pakistan’s request. Gandhi started
ings that many Hindu Mahasabha members held, as his fast on January 13 to protest the Indian government’s
thousands celebrated on hearing about Gandhi’s death. decision to withhold the money, and he continued until
The front page of the Hindustan Standard on January India relented on January 18. Godse and other Hindus
31 declared “Gandhiji has been killed. . . . This second were incensed with Gandhi’s choice to fast in support of
crucifixion in the history of the world has been enacted Pakistan, which was mainly a Muslim state. This would
on a Friday—The same day Jesus was done to death, one be one of many conflicts to follow between India and Pa-
thousand, nine hundred and fifteen years ago. Father, kistan, conflicts that have special resonance given that
forgive us!” Later that same day, more than one million both countries are nuclear powers.
people turned out in stunned silence to honor Gandhi. —Douglas A. Phillips
His body was carried through the crowd for cremation.
The funeral pyre at the Raj Ghat (king’s court) memorial Further Reading
in New Delhi was watched not only by the Indian popu- Chadha, Yogesh. Gandhi: A Life. New York: Wiley,
lace but also by the British and others worldwide, as the 1997. A critical examination of Gandhi that also looks
British governor-general of independent India, Louis at his flaws. Provides a well-documented account of
Mountbatten, sat cross-legged on the ground in respect to the assassination and the killers.
the fallen Gandhi. The world also mourned as Gandhi’s Dalton, Dennis. Mahatma Gandhi. New York: Colum-
ashes were gathered and later released into waters around bia University Press, 2000. Details the development
the country. of Gandhi’s thinking and philosophy, including sat-
The trial of the eight accused and charged, held at the yagraha and swaraj. Applies Gandhi’s thought to the
Red Fort in Delhi, began June 22. Godse and Apte were ideas of contemporary thinkers such as Martin Luther
found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging, which King, Jr.
occurred on November 15, 1949, at Ambala jail in Hary- Easwaran, Eknath. Gandhi, the Man: The Story of His
ana, India. One member of the group, Savarkar, was Transformation. Tomalas, Calif.: Nilgiri Press, 1997.
found not guilty. The other five members of the group Provides a history of the development of Gandhi’s
were all given life sentences. thinking and actions.
743
Paton Explores South Africa’s Racial Divide The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Khosla, G. D. The Murder of the Mahatma and Other sity Press, 2002. Explores a wider context for under-
Cases from a Judge’s Note-Book. London: Chatto & standing how Gandhi approached partition and the
Windus, 1963. Khosla, the appeals court judge for the India and Pakistan conflict.
defendants convicted of assassinating Gandhi, writes See also: Aug. 15, 1947: India Gains Independence
about the cases. from the United Kingdom; Oct. 27, 1947-Dec. 31,
Varshney, Ashutosh. Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: 1948: India and Pakistan Clash over Kashmir; Nov.
Hindus and Muslims in India. New Haven, Conn.: 26, 1949: Indian Government Bans Discrimination
Yale University Press, 2003. Athorough review of the Against Untouchables; 1955-1956: Indian Parliament
history of ethnic conflict between Hindus and Mus- Approves Women’s Rights Legislation; Feb., 1961:
lims in India, with a focus on conflict in a civil society. Tamils Protest Discrimination in Ceylon; Jan. 24,
Wolpert, Stanley. Gandhi’s Passion: The Life and Leg- 1966: Gandhi Serves as India’s First Female Prime
acy of Mahatma Gandhi. New York: Oxford Univer- Minister.
February, 1948
Paton Explores South Africa’s Racial Divide in CRY, THE
BELOVED COUNTRY
Alan Paton’s Cry, the Beloved Country presented a who has left his rural homeland to seek his fortune in Jo-
compelling story of two fathers in South Africa—one hannesburg.
white, the other black—whose individual stories Paton’s first attempt at writing a novel was wholly
merged in a tragedy of unintended murder. The book successful: Cry, the Beloved Country was quickly and
cast light on the social inequities of South Africa’s widely accepted as a literary classic. Upon reading the
system of apartheid. manuscript in 1946, Maxwell Perkins immediately ar-
ranged for its publication in the United States by Charles
Locale: New York, New York Scribner’s Sons. In 1949, Pulitzer Prize-winning writer
Categories: Literature; social issues and reform Maxwell Anderson and German composer Kurt Weill
Key Figures adapted the novel into the Broadway musical Lost in the
Alan Paton (1903-1988), South African author Stars. Film versions of the novel were released in 1952
Maxwell Perkins (1884-1947), American editor (also known as African Fury) and in 1995. The novel be-
Kurt Weill (1900-1950), German composer came assigned reading in American and British college
Maxwell Anderson (1888-1959), American playwright literature courses and exposed the racist apartheid gov-
ernment that would rule South Africa for the next forty-
Summary of Event six years.
Alan Paton wrote Cry, the Beloved Country (1948) just In the novel, Kumalo is a kind and naïve man, as a re-
prior to the establishment of the Afrikaans Nationalist sult of his sheltered life in the village of Ixopo, located in
Party’s apartheid government in South Africa in 1948. the Drakensberg mountain area of northern South Africa.
Social conditions in South Africa at that time were deter- As he travels from country to mining camp, city, shanty-
mined by race, as the white minority government sepa- town, and back home, he encounters the Zulu, Afrikaans,
rated South Africans’ living and working areas accord- and English languages—a hint at the cultural complexity
ing to racial designations of white, colored Asian, and of living in South Africa at that time, even for a simple
black. The institutionalized discrimination against black rural pastor. The story begins with Kumalo’s plans to
South Africans and the forced segregation of South Afri- find his son and a wayward sister in the distant city of Jo-
can society led to the demise of indigenous South Afri- hannesburg. Neither sister Gertrude nor son Absalom
can cultures, including the breakup of tribal clans, fami- has written or sent word to the family in years. At the
lies, and villages. This demise and the ensuing migration train station in Johannesburg, Kumalo’s naïveté is dem-
of black South Africans to urban mining and industrial onstrated as he is cheated by a con artist while trying to
townships formed the background for Paton’s story of buy a bus ticket to the mission house where he will stay.
Zulu pastor Steven Kumalo searching for a missing son As his search for Absalom begins, Kumalo quickly
744
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Paton Explores South Africa’s Racial Divide
James Jarvis, a farmer from the same area of South Af-

rica as Kumalo. Kumalo finds Absalom in prison, ar-
rested for the murder to which he confesses. He has been
living with his pregnant girlfriend and has been involved
in criminal activity with his cousin—the son of John
Kumalo—and another young man. All three had entered
the house of Arthur Jarvis, but it was Absalom who had
shot Jarvis after discovering that the house they had en-
tered was occupied. The two other young men obtain le-
gal assistance with the help of John Kumalo and deny
that they were part of the crime, leaving Absalom to bear
the sentence of death for murder while personifying the
1948
new values by refocusing blame rather than facing the
truth.
Kumalo arranges for the marriage of his son. He
brings his new daughter-in-law and the abandoned child
of his sister back to Ixopo to live. There, he resumes his
ministry, and as his son’s sentence is carried out, he be-
comes transformed and newly committed to helping his
parishioners thrive in hopes that they will not need to
leave the shelter of their Zulu home. Nonetheless, the de-
struction of the land brought about by drought and lack of
education hangs over his head as he befriends the young
son of Arthur Jarvis. The young boy wanders into Ku-
malo’s yard one day, beginning a relationship that holds
great significance for Kumalo, his people, and the boy’s
grandfather, James Jarvis. Through this friendship and
Alan Paton. (Library of Congress) through the efforts of the elder Jarvis, the Zulu people are
provided with milk, education, and even a new church
that represents new hope for the congregation’s ability to
realizes his tribal ways are obsolete in this urban world, rise above the looming threat of apartheid policies.
finding improper living arrangements, prostitution, and In the years preceding the publication of Cry, the Be-
thievery—among other illegal and immoral activities— loved Country, young men and women left their country-
at every turn. His brother John has become a political side villages and tribal lifestyles, while the tribal chiefs
leader, trying to provide new values for the displaced became increasingly influenced by government policy.
population of blacks in Johannesburg and openly dis- Although other accounts of migration and urban life for
carding the conservative views of his pastor brother. The black South Africans focused on the theme of social
more Kumalo learns about his missing son, the more he change, Cry, the Beloved Country presented the harshest
realizes that as young people leave the shelter and influ- view of the material and moral destitution that had en-
ence of their tribes, they need something to replace the gulfed black South Africa. Imagery based on real land-
moral authority and the cultural institutions now missing scapes served as a metaphor for the breakdown of the
from their lives. When Kumalo’s sister Gertrude is found tribal family, as Paton described failing crops, over-
working as a prostitute and bootlegger, he encourages grazed valleys, and eroded soil.
her to find redemption through rejuvenating her family In contrast, the 1949 film African Jim (also known as
ties. In the end, however, she abandons her infant child Jim Comes to Jo’burg) depicted fertile cornfields, fat
and disappears again, alleging that she wants to enter a cattle, happy children, and good hunting. The reason
convent in order to avoid the temptations of the world. given for the young rural man’s journey to Johannesburg
As the pastor gets close to finding Absalom, news ar- (or Jo’burg) is to earn money for marriage, since he must
rives of a murder by “native” burglars of a white social abide by the tradition of giving cattle to the bridal family.
reformer named Arthur Jarvis. The victim is the son of African Jim implies commercial and romantic success
745
Paton Explores South Africa’s Racial Divide The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
for Jim in a happy ending quite different from the fate of via the journey of Steven Kumalo in Cry, the Beloved
Kumalo’s son Absalom, one that represents tradition and Country. Paton won critical acclaim for using Kumalo’s
modernity as wholly compatible. journey as a metaphor for South Africa’s potential trans-
Mine Boy, a 1946 novel by Peter Abrahams, also tells formation to democracy. His novel is therefore consid-
of a migration to urban and township life from the rural ered an exceptional contribution to both literary and po-
homeland. Poverty in the rural north leads the main char- litical history.
acter, Xuma, from his home to Johannesburg seeking —Susan W. Mills
work and opportunity. In the end, the struggles of the
miners and other inhabitants of the mining camp where Further Reading
Xuma stays are redeemed by the author’s establishment Alexander, Peter. Alan Paton: A Biography. New York:
of a humane and nonracial portrait of life in urban town- Oxford University Press, 1994. A study of Paton’s
ships. personal and professional nature, not only as an ac-
In Cry, the Beloved Country, criticism of the race- claimed author and revered political reformer, but
based government and of the tribal chiefs as pundits for also as a man struggling with the travails of everyday
the Union of South Africa are couched within dialoue, life.
speeches, essays written by the late Arthur Jarvis, and Baker, Sheridan, ed. “Cry, the Beloved Country”: The
poetic prose that appears to be the musings of Kumalo. Novel, the Critics, the Setting. New York: Scribner,
The novel’s harshest literary critics pointed to the por- 1968. The novel is presented alongside a collection of
trayal of the murder victim, his father, and other benevo- literary criticism and analysis of the novel.
lent white characters that appear and provide generosity, Gerstung, Estella, ed. Readings on “Cry, the Beloved
kindness, free legal advice, and gestures of friendship. Country.” San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press,
White South Africans thus were represented as heroic, 2001. Anthology of different interpretations of the
but black South Africans were portrayed in various novel by scholars in the field. Bibliographic refer-
lights: Some characters were aimless (such as the son of ences and index.
Kumalo), some were wayward (such as the sister of Ku- Seekings, Jeremy, and Nicoli Nattrass. Class, Race, and
malo), and some were selfserving (such as the brother of Inequality in South Africa. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
Kumalo). University Press, 2005. Chapter 2, “On the Eve of
While Paton made it clear that his liberal Christian Apartheid,” compares the three literary accounts of
view of white benevolence was desperately needed to black migration to Johannesburg during the pre-apart-
transform the Union of South Africa into a truly unified heid era discussed above.
nation, he left the issue of blame open to include both
black and white South Africans, a decision that reflects
See also: May 11, 1942: Faulkner Publishes Go Down,
his bias, according to literary critics, and provides the
Moses; June 21, 1951: South Africa Begins Separate
great controversy contained in his novel. True to charac-
Development System; 1952: Ellison’s Invisible Man
ter, Paton became a founding vice president of the South
Is Published; 1958: Things Fall Apart Depicts the De-
African Liberal Party in 1953 and eventually served as
struction of Ibo Culture; July 11, 1960: Lee’s To Kill a
president of the party.
Mockingbird Calls for Social Justice; 1963: Baldwin
Significance Voices Black Rage in The Fire Next Time; Aug. 18,
The exposure of the racist regime controlling South Af- 1964: South Africa Is Banned from the Olympic
rica and the presentation of the complex and multiple Games; Nov., 1965: The Autobiography of Malcolm X
perspectives of the South African people was delivered Is Published.
746
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Ceylon Becomes an Independent Dominion
February 4, 1948
Ceylon Becomes an Independent Dominion
In 1948, Ceylon, largely internally self-governing since The island was then populated primarily by Sinhalese, an
1929, achieved dominion status as an independent ethnic group from northern India who had settled there
parliamentary state under the British crown. Burdened around 500 b.c.e. and had converted to Buddhism. There
by a shaky cash-crop economy and deep ethnic, were also substantial numbers of Hindu Tamils from
religious, and social divisions between the Sinhala southern India and Muslims of North African origin.
majority and the immigrant Tamil minority, Ceylon Ceylon possessed two advantages for Britain: the
failed to realize the hopes of British postcolonial fine harbor at Trincomalee, ideally suited as a naval
policy makers and its native founding statesmen for a base in the days of sailing ships, and good mid-elevation
model democratic state in the Third World. agricultural land suitable for tea cultivation. The late
1948
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw explosive
Locale: Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) development of plantations of tea and rubber, labor-
Categories: Independence movements; wars, intensive crops that brought a high return on the world
uprisings, and civil unrest; diplomacy and market.
international relations Since native Sinhalese peasants shunned laboring
Key Figures for others for subsistence wages, plantation owners, Sin-
Sir Henry Monck-Mason Moore (b. 1887), governor of halese and British alike, imported Tamils from south-
Ceylon, 1944-1948, and governor-general, 1948- ern India. The new arrivals, who became the dominant
1950 ethnic group in plantation districts, differed in physical
D. S. Senanayake (1884-1952), father of Sri Lankan appearance, language, and religion from the native ma-
independence and prime minister, 1947-1952 jority. As long as the British colonial administration
Sir Oliver Ernest Goonetilleke (1892-1978), the first denied a political voice to all but a small native elite,
native Sinhalese governor-general and as long as an expanding economy minimized direct
Sir John Kotelawala (1897-1980), prime minister, competition, friction between Tamils and Sinhalese sel-
1953-1956 dom erupted. In addition to setting the stage for ethnic
S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike (1899-1959), Sinhalese conflict, importing laborers meant increasing depen-
nationalist and prime minister, 1956-1959 dence on imported rice. Ceylon’s first native government
Sirimavo R. D. Bandaranaike (1916-2000), prime inherited a country that was overpopulated relative to
minister, 1960-1965, 1970-1977, 1994-2000, the food production and dependent upon a single crop, tea,
world’s first elected female head of state for the foreign exchange needed to purchase basic ne-
Herwald Ramsbotham (First Viscount Soulbury; 1887- cessities of life.
1971), English statesman and governor-general of In the 1920’s, Britain, conscious that its paternalistic
Ceylon, 1949-1954 administration in Ceylon was breaking down, estab-
lished the Donoughmore Commission, which, after con-
Summary of Event siderable study, drafted a constitution establishing an
The Crown Colony of Ceylon ceased to exist at midnight elected legislature entrusted with most of the internal af-
of February 3, 1948. The following morning, the former fairs of Ceylon. Elections were held under the Do-
British governor, Sir Henry Monck-Mason Moore, re- noughmore constitution in 1931. The provisions of this
sumed office as governor-general of the Dominion of constitution ensured that all ethnocultural groups had a
Ceylon. The transition, marked by ceremony, celebra- voice at the expense of a strictly representational system.
tions, and a visit from the duke of Gloucester, who for- During this period, the men who were later to become
mally opened the new dominion’s parliament on behalf leaders of independent Ceylon gained experience as leg-
of his brother King George VI of England, culminated islators and cabinet members.
two decades of gradual transfer of governmental respon- Support for complete independence was strong as of
sibilities from British colonials to the native Sinhalese the outbreak of World War II. Occupying a key strategic
elite. position as a naval staging point and supplier of raw ma-
Britain had governed Ceylon since 1795, having terials, Ceylon prospered economically and escaped be-
seized it from the Dutch during the Napoleonic Wars. coming an actual theater of war. Because supporting
747
Ceylon Becomes an Independent Dominion The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Britain and defeating Japan was so clearly in everyone’s idly a member of the economic elite, Bandaranaike se-
interest, Ceylon’s left-wing and communist elements, ceded from the UNP in 1952 to found the Sri Lanka Free-
which were strong among Tamil laborers, never devel- dom Party, which later merged with several other groups
oped into a militant antigovernment force. Indeed, real- to form the People’s United Front. He became prime
izing that greater autonomy for a Sinhalese majority un- minister when that party won a majority in the 1956 elec-
der the leadership of an economic elite spelled trouble for tions. The government signaled its socialist intent by na-
an economically disadvantaged ethnic minority, Tamil tionalizing key industries, causing foreign investors to
legislators voted against the draft constitution of 1944, withdraw. The British closed the naval base at Trinco-
which was adopted with some revisions in 1946. malee, throwing large numbers of people, mainly Tam-
In 1944, the British Parliament authorized a com- ils, out of work. The legislature passed a law making
mission headed by Herwald Ramsbotham (later Vis- Sinhala the only official language of a country whose
count Soulbury) to draft an interim constitution prepa- name became Sri Lanka.
ratory to full independence; the Soulbury constitution In May, 1958, Sinhalese-Tamil tensions erupted in vi-
became law in 1946. The elections of 1947, the first olence, triggered by attempted relocation of Tamils from
held on a strictly representational basis, resulted in a the Trincomalee base. Hundreds died in violence that
signal victory for the United National Party (UNP), spread throughout the country, and a state of emergency
headed by D. S. Senanayake. One of the first acts of was declared. On September 25, 1959, a Buddhist monk,
this legislature was to disenfranchise recent Indian im- as part of a conspiracy within the Sinhalese nationalist
migrants, a move initiated by Sinhalese nationalists but movement, assassinated Bandaranaike. He was suc-
supported by Senanayake because it undercut commu- ceeded by his wife, Sirimavo R. D. Bandaranaike, who
nist influence in the legislature. Thus, at the time of inde- became history’s first elected female head of state, con-
pendence, legislative trends were already in place that tinuing her husband’s socialist policies with heavy-
were consistent with a formal democratic process but handed ability. Her defeat in the elections of 1977 and a
tended to erode the political, economic, and social posi- belated return to free-market capitalism are thought by
tion of the Tamils, 1.5 million of Ceylon’s 6 million some analysts to be the principal factors triggering the
inhabitants. civil war between Sinhalese nationalists and Tamil sepa-
Under Senanayake’s leadership, the country em- ratists. That war began in 1983 and would continue into
barked on an ambitious program of development in- the twenty-first century.
tended to make Ceylon self-sufficient by building hydro-
electric dams, clearing and irrigating large tracts in dry Significance
areas, and resettling peasants on their own land. These Beginning with Canada in 1867, Great Britain granted
projects involved massive indebtedness and failed to in- dominion status to a number of former colonies popu-
crease agricultural productivity significantly. Ceylon lated primarily by English settlers, as well as one (South
continued to be dependent on imported food and to subsi- Africa) where the power structure was entirely white.
dize its price to the consumer. Senanayake, a universally Ceylon was the first dominion in which the reins of
respected figure, died prematurely in a riding accident in power were handed to the original inhabitants of the
1952. He was succeeded by Sir John Kotelawala, also of country. Considerable effort went into preparing the
the UNP, who continued Senanayake’s domestic eco- country for the political transition. In granting Ceylon
nomic policies. Kotelawala is best known for having complete independence under the nominal aegis of the
been instrumental in bringing Ceylon into the United Na- British crown, the British Parliament hoped to set a pre-
tions in 1955 and for being an important figure at the cedent whereby other British possessions in Asia and Af-
Bandung Conference (also in 1955), at which the non- rica might achieve autonomy in an orderly manner while
aligned nations of Asia met and formulated policies for remaining economic and political allies and retaining
economic cooperation in the face of the Cold War. This British-style political and legal systems. To a consider-
period also saw the appointment of Sir Oliver Ernest able degree, these hopes were realized. If having a stable
Goonetilleke, one of the chief architects of Ceylonese in- representative government, developing a Western legal
dependence, as the first native governor-general. system, and being a cooperating participant in the larger
Deteriorating economic conditions in the 1950’s fed a international community were all that were required to
growing leftist Sinhalese nationalist movement, headed ensure domestic tranquillity, Ceylon might have become
by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike. Raised a Christian and sol- a model postcolonial nation.
748
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in Music
True liberty includes the liberty to make mistakes. political history of the immediate postindependence
Had Ceylonese leaders looked to the rest of the world, in- period.
cluding the United States, for examples of the negative Ponnambalam, Satchi. Dependent Capitalism in Crisis:
effects of excluding a large segment of the working pop- The Sri Lankan Economy, 1948-1980. London: Zed
ulation from the democratic process, they might have Press, 1980. A strongly leftist book critical of imme-
forestalled not only the rise in ethnic tensions that even- diate postindependence economic policies.
tually led to civil war but also the unwise economic deci- Wickramsinghe, Nira. Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A
sions that fed those tensions. Conversely, the history of History of Contested Identities. Honolulu: University
Ceylonese independence provides a valuable object les- of Hawaii Press, 2006. Emphasis on the etiology of
son in the pitfalls associated with creating a state in most ethnic conflicts, tracing their roots to the colonial and
of the world today. immediate postcolonial period.
—Martha A. Sherwood Winslow, Deborah, and Michael D. Wood, eds. Econ-
1948
omy, Culture, and Civil War in Sri Lanka. Indianapo-
Further Reading
lis: University of Indiana Press, 2004. Emphasizes
Jeffries, Sir Charles. Ceylon: The Path to Independence.
post-1983 developments; several papers also cover
New York: A. Praeger, 1973. Detailed political back-
economic policies of the 1940’s and 1950’s.
ground, including coverage of the Donoughmore and
Soulbury constitutions; offers little information on See also: 1943-1944: Famine Decimates Bengal; Dec.
post-1948 developments. Jeffries was a colonial offi- 14, 1955: United Nations Admits Sixteen New Mem-
cial personally involved in negotiations for indepen- bers; Feb., 1961: Tamils Protest Discrimination in
dence. Ceylon; Sept. 1-5, 1961: Nonaligned Movement
Ludowyk, E. F. C. The Modern History of Ceylon. New Meets; May 25, 1963: Organization of African Unity
York: Praeger, 1966. Useful for tracing the tangled Is Founded.
February 10, 1948

Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in Music
The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Summary of Event
Soviet Union published a decree opposing On February 10, 1948, the newspapers of the Soviet
“antidemocratic formalism” in the music of the Union published a decree on music by the Central Com-
country’s leading composers. mittee of the Soviet Communist Party. The decree was
preceded by a three-day conference presided over by
Locale: Moscow, Soviet Union Andrei Zhdanov, Joseph Stalin’s heir apparent, even
Categories: Music; government and politics though both Zhdanov’s health and his power were in
Key Figures decline. At that conference, the works of internationally
Andrei Zhdanov (1896-1948), Soviet politician famous Soviet composers—Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; Shostakovich, Aram Khachaturian, and Nikolai Mia-
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central skovski in particular—were denounced and musical
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet modernism or formalism was condemned explicitly.
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 The Soviet Union emerged from World War II con-
Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953), Soviet composer siderably enlarged in territory but suffering from the im-
Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975), Soviet composer mense destruction of four years of intense, total war with
Aram Khachaturian (1903-1978), Armenian Soviet Nazi Germany and its allies. Attempts to subvert the gov-
composer ernments of neighboring countries to increase Soviet
Nikolai Miaskovski (1881-1950), Soviet composer dominance led to a reaction by the Western countries, in
Tikhon Khrennikov (b. 1913), president of the Union of particular the Truman Doctrine (1947) to prevent further
Soviet Composers Soviet expansion through subversion in Turkey and
Vano Muradeli (1908-1970), Georgian Soviet Greece and the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty
composer Organization in 1949. Western reaction against Soviet
749
Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in Music The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
expansionism, poor harvests in the devastated western ment of the era of imperialism.” His speech closed with
parts of the Soviet Union, and fear of popular disaffec- attacks on Igor Stravinsky, Paul Hindemith, Arnold
tion resulted in an intensification of dictatorial controls Schoenberg, Olivier Messiaen, and such younger com-
after an initial relaxation of wartime stringencies. Stalin posers as Benjamin Britten and Gian Carlo Menotti.
cut the Soviet Union and its client states off from contact One composer of popular music asked whether the
with the West, encouraged Russian nationalism, and pro- workers in factories and on collective farms loved the
claimed hostility to all foreign influences. symphonies of Shostakovich and Prokofiev. Others at-
Stalin’s actions usually took place behind the scenes tacked the ultraindividualist conception of life, derived
and were revealed only obliquely by others, whose role from bourgeois idealism, artistic snobbishness, neoclas-
was to take public initiatives in denouncing trends to sicism as musical escapism, a desire to startle with spicy
which Stalin was hostile. Andrei Zhdanov was assigned and scratchy harmonies, and a cult of form and technique,
to this role. The period of control over the arts, sciences, the latter described by many as “bourgeois formalism.”
and philosophy between 1946 and 1948 has been called Examination of individual works criticized reveals
the Zhdanovshchina, or Zhdanov’s purge. Zhdanov at the grounds for these criticisms. Prokofiev’s Sixth Sym-
this time was engaged in a power struggle with Georgi phony (1945-1947) is not an optimistic and accessible
M. Malenkov, minister for heavy industry, and Lavrenty work like the wartime Fifth Symphony; it is grim, with
Beria, head of the secret police, to succeed Stalin, who moments of horror in the first two movements and with a
was in his late sixties. barely concealed menace in the seemingly lighthearted
Music actually was one of the last areas to be placed finale, which ends with the sad theme of the first move-
under tight state control. By early 1948, Zhdanov was in ment. The symphony seems to be not a celebration of vic-
poor health, with a heart condition exacerbated by years tory but a portrait of the horrors of war. Shostakovich’s
of heavy drinking. His political influence had waned; his symphonies of the 1940’s displayed even sharper con-
chief claim to influence was the marriage of his son to trasts. The Seventh (“Leningrad”) Symphony of 1941 is
Stalin’s daughter. The Soviet people, however, did not a textbook example of Socialist Realism (although de-
know about Zhdanov’s eclipse, and his very appearance nounced in 1948 as doing a better job of depicting the ad-
before the Union of Soviet Composers as a senior mem- vancing Nazis than of showing the resistance of the Sovi-
ber of the governing Politburo signaled official govern- ets), whereas his Eighth Symphony of 1943 is a gloomy,
ment sanction of his decrees. austere work with inner movements that almost graphi-
Zhdanov’s speech opening the general assembly of cally depict the terrors of war. The Ninth Symphony of
Soviet composers in January, 1948, began, as did the at- 1945, lightheartedly neoclassical in tone, was criticized
tack by the Central Committee, with denunciation of the three years later as frivolously mocking the victory of the
opera Great Friendship by Vano Muradeli, a Georgian Soviet people (there are amusing parodies of military
composer of limited gifts, for its lack of melody, misuse march idioms in some movements), though the second
of the orchestra, dissonant harmonies, and lack of folk movement did receive praise for its lyricism.
music to characterize the North Georgian peoples. He Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Muradeli, Khachaturian,
compared portions of the work to “noise on a building and the other composers made dutiful obeisance in pub-
lot, at the moment when excavators, stone crushers and lished statements in which they repented their errors. The
cement mixers go into action.” congress summed up its work in a letter to Stalin in which
Zhdanov did not attack any other composers by name. its members acknowledged the justness of the Commu-
This was left to Tikhon Khrennikov, the new president nist Party’s criticism of Soviet music and apologized for
of the Union of Soviet Composers. He referred to an forgetting the traditions of Russian musical realism.
article in Pravda in 1936 condemning Shostakovich’s ex-
cesses and attacked the “formalistic distortions and anti- Significance
democratic tendencies” in the postwar music of the lead- For two months in 1948, none of the music of any of the
ing Soviet composers, whose works were well known and denounced composers was performed publicly in Mos-
popular in the West as well—Prokofiev, Khachaturian, cow, a most effective way of showing what government
Shostakovich, and others. He also denounced the over- control could mean to composers suspected of the slight-
emphasis on abstract music at the expense of program est dissidence. Prokofiev’s first wife (Spanish by birth)
music on subjects of Soviet life, and the “anti-realistic was even arrested as a spy and sentenced to eight years in
decadent influences . . . peculiar to the bourgeois move- the labor camps of the gulag.
750
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in Music
A few of Prokofiev’s works subsequently were per- The most frequently performed is the Eighth, written
formed that year. He devoted most of his time, limited during a visit to Dresden (in what was then the German
because of his declining health, to writing vocal works Democratic Republic); the sight of the ruins left by the
on topics fitting the Communist Party line, such as his or- Allied bombardments in 1945 provoked the composer to
atorio On Guard for Peace (1950). The main work of his dedicate the quartet to the victims of war and Fascism.
final period is a reworking of an earlier cello concerto as The quartet includes citations from several of his earlier
the Sinfonia Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1950- works, including the First and Fifth symphonies, the Vi-
1952), written for the young Russian cellist Mstislav olin Concerto, and the E Minor Piano Trio, which Sho-
Rostropovich. Prokofiev’s death from a cerebral hemor- stakovich wrote in 1944 after reading about the atrocities
rhage on March 5, 1953, ironically was on the same day in the Majdanek extermination camp. Its opening move-
as Stalin’s death. ment and especially the last two movements have been
Miaskovski turned to a simpler style in his last piano compared to a lunar landscape, whereas the second move-
1948
sonatas, teaching pieces for children, and his twenty- ment is an intensely terrifying war piece (like the third
seventh and last symphony. Khachaturian continued to movement of the Eighth Symphony) and the third is a
compose, but none of his subsequent works achieved the nightmare waltz. Other important quartets include the
popularity of his colorful scores of the 1940’s such as the Twelfth, with its experimentation with serial techniques,
piano and violin concertos of the Gayaneh ballet, from and the last, the Fifteenth, composed of six slow move-
which the “Saber Dance” remains his most popular comments with no fast movement to relieve the prevailingly
position. gloomy atmosphere.
Shostakovich, after a duly submissive letter to Stalin, The decree on music from the Central Committee was
composed film music and Party-line works such as the not rescinded until 1958. Stalin, and secondarily Ma-
oratorio Song of the Forests and extremely simple and lenkov and Beria, were blamed for the 1948 resolution,
accessible works such as the Fourth String Quartet, very with its harsh judgments cited as examples of the nega-
placid in contrast to the grotesqueries of the preceding tive traits that marked the period of the cult of personal-
quartet. He was sent to the United States in 1949 as part ity, a code phrase for Stalinism. The composers once
of a peace delegation but withheld his Tenth Symphony condemned were officially rehabilitated.
from performance until after Stalin’s death. The tone of Khrennikov continued to serve as president of the
this work is darkly brooding, with a sense of forced gai- Union of Soviet Composers, surviving under the regimes
ety in the finale. One frightening portion is said to be a from Joseph Stalin through Mikhail Gorbachev and able
musical portrait of Stalin. to tell composers what and how they had to write if they
The thaw of the Nikita S. Khrushchev years permitted wanted their music played. Many of the younger com-
Shostakovich to rewrite his earlier controversial opera posers emigrated as a result. In 1992, after the breakup of
that had gotten him into trouble with Stalin in 1936, Lady the Soviet Union, the Union of Soviet Composers was dis-
MacBeth of the Mtsensk District, as Katerina Izmailova. solved. Khrennikov reportedly found a position teaching
His two epic symphonies on the genesis of the Commu- composition part time at the Moscow Conservatory.
nist revolution, the Eleventh (“The Year 1905”) and The decree of 1948 did much damage to Soviet music
Twelfth (“The Year 1917”), were followed by the con- and also to the reputation of the Soviet Union abroad. Al-
troversial Thirteenth, which includes a setting of Yev- though the Red Army had stopped Adolf Hitler and con-
geny Yevtushenko’s poem “Babiy Yar,” in which the tributed markedly to his eventual defeat, the following
poet condemned not only the Nazis but their local ac- crackdowns on literature, art, science (especially genet-
complices as well. Such a condemnation angered the ics), philosophy, and finally music repelled many intel-
Leonid Brezhnev regime, and the poet was compelled to lectuals in the West who originally had been grateful to
change the text. The Fourteenth Symphony is a chamber the Soviets for the defeat of fascism and were attracted
symphony with solo voices; the Fifteenth, one of the to communism for its alleged support of the arts, as op-
composer’s farewell works, contains quotations from posed to the commercial orientation of the West.
Gioacchino Rossini’s William Tell Overture and the —R. M. Longyear
“Fate” motive from Richard Wagner’s Die Walküre
(1856; the Valkyrie). Further Reading
Shostakovich’s greatest postwar works are his string Edmunds, Neil. The Soviet Proletarian Music Move-
quartets. Only two of these were written before 1945. ment. New York: Peter Lang, 2000. Study of Soviet
751
Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in Music The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
proletarian composers, official state policy, and the Robinson, Harlow. Sergei Prokofiev: A Biography. New
evolution of music under the Communist Party. Bib- York: Viking Press, 1987. A discussion of the com-
liographic references, discography, index. poser’s life more than of his music, this very readable
Hahn, Werner G. Postwar Soviet Politics: The Fall of biography places him in the Soviet context during the
Zhdanov and the Defeat of Moderation, 1946-1953. various changes of government.
Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982. The au- Schwarz, Boris. Music and Musical Life in Soviet Russia,
thor advances the thesis that Zhdanov was a moder- 1917-1970. New York: W. W. Norton, 1972. An ex-
ate, locked in a power struggle with such hard-liners cellent study that shows the impact of Zhdanov’s
as Malenkov and Beria, and that the attack on music purges in all areas of Soviet musical life.
came after Zhdanov had been stripped of most of his Volkov, Solomon. Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri
influence. Shostakovich. New York: Harper & Row, 1979.
Kuhn, Laura. Music Since 1900. 6th ed. New York: These memoirs have been attacked as an ideological
Schirmer Reference, 2001. Contains the texts of the anti-Communist tract, but many passages give a
resolutions, speeches, and letters of Soviet musical strong feeling of the paranoia of the Soviet Union in
policy in 1948 and the document of rescission in 1948. Prokofiev, Muradeli, and other composers are
1958. assailed.
MacDonald, Ian. The New Shostakovich. Boston: North- Werth, Alexander. Musical Uproar in Moscow. London:
eastern University Press, 1990. Emphasizes Sho- Turnstile Press, 1949. Reprint. Westport, Conn.:
stakovich as a dissident who used a covert musical Greenwood Press, 1973. Contains a valuable discus-
language of dissent against communism. sion of Zhdanov by the Moscow correspondent of The
Moor, Paul. “A Reply to Tikhon Khrennikov.” High New Statesman and the speeches of attack and de-
Fidelity/Musical America 36 (August, 1986): 52-54, fense made at the January, 1948, meeting preceding
79. Shows the control that Khrennikov continued to Zhdanov’s denunciation.
exercise over Soviet music even into the years of Gor-
bachev’s glasnost. See also: Mar. 12, 1947: Truman Doctrine; Apr. 4,
Norris, Christopher. “Shostakovich: Politics and Musi- 1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization Is Formed;
cal Language.” In Shostakovich: The Man and His Mar. 5, 1953: Death of Stalin; Oct., 1957: Pasternak’s
Music. Boston: Marion Boyars, 1982. The author sug- Doctor Zhivago Is Published; Nov., 1962: Sol-
gests that a new form of artistic biography is neces- zhenitsyn Depicts Life in a Soviet Labor Camp in One
sary for this composer, wherein the central themes are Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich; 1967: Soviet Intel-
impulse and commitment. lectuals Begin to Rebel Against Party Policy.
752
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Communists Seize Power in Czechoslovakia
February 25, 1948

Communists Seize Power in Czechoslovakia
A coalition government set up under President Edvard country. In the 1920’s, the new democracy flourished
Beneš after World War II was undermined by both politically and economically. Czech light industrial
Communist Party members under Prime Minister goods found ready markets in the West, and Masaryk’s
Klement Gottwald, who seized the chance to transform statesmanship kept the center and moderate left coalition
the Czechoslovak Republic into a communist state stable.
modeled on the Soviet Union. The Soviets held great In 1921, the Social Democrats split and a Czech Com-
influence in Eastern and Central Europe after the munist Party (the KS%) was formed. Although the KS%
region was designated a Soviet “sphere of interest” never became part of the ruling coalition, it nevertheless
after World War II. participated in parliamentary procedures and enjoyed a
1948
large membership. In 1929, Klement Gottwald became
Locale: Prague, Czechoslovakia (now Czech the party’s secretary-general, and under him the party be-
Republic) gan to model itself more on the model of the Soviets.
Categories: Cold War; wars, uprisings, and civil In the 1930’s the worldwide economic depression led
unrest; government and politics to unrest. The rise of Nazi Germany, however, was much
Key Figures more of a threat to the stability of the small country, as
Edvard Beneš (1884-1948), president of the Sudeten Germans became increasingly Nazified.
Czechoslovakia, 1935-1938, 1940-1945, and They had suffered economically in the various social
1945-1948 land reforms in the 1920’s, and this was used by Adolf
Klement Gottwald (1896-1953), secretary general of Hitler to accuse the Czech government of oppression. In
the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, 1929- the end, Hitler demanded the incorporation of the
1945, first post-World War II premier, 1946-1948, Sudeten German lands into Germany, to which the lead-
and president of Czechoslovakia, 1948-1953 ers of France and Britain agreed at Munich on September
Jan Masaryk (1886-1948), a leading noncommunist, 29, 1938. This capitulation disenchanted the Czechoslo-
son of the founder of Czechoslovakia, and foreign vaks with the Western powers.
minister in Gottwald’s cabinet In March, 1939, German troops occupied the remain-
ing Czech lands, despite Masaryk’s desperate attempts at
Summary of Event diplomacy. The Slovaks, increasingly restless under the
At the end of World War I, the Treaty of Versailles of Czech majority, asked for autonomy, and the Nazis al-
1919 created a number of new countries in Central Eu- lowed them a puppet state. From this point on, the demo-
rope out of the remains of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. cratic republic of Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. Edvard
One of these new countries was Czechoslovakia, formed Beneš, Masaryk’s deputy, fled to London and was soon
out of the Czech lands previously incorporated into the joined by other refugees and by air force officers, form-
German-speaking Austrian part of the empire, and ing a government in exile recognized by the Allied
Slovakia, previously part of the Hungarian part of the Powers. The Communist Party leadership fled to Mos-
empire. The Czechs and the Slovaks were racially and cow, while a number of Czechs formed an army brigade
linguistically similar, but the Czechs had more experi- that would fight in the Soviet Red Army.
ence in self-rule and in the democratic process. Also, In December, 1943, Beneš, realizing that any future
Czech lands—the provinces of Bohemia and Moravia— government for a newly constituted Czechoslovakia
were more industrialized. In drawing the country’s new would need to include communists, flew to Moscow and
boundaries, the Allied Powers included several sizable held talks with Gottwald. They agreed on the continua-
minority groupings, such as the Sudeten Germans, who tion of the democratic system that had worked well in the
were living along the borders with Germany. 1920’s, except that any party that had collaborated with
Czechoslovakia’s new constitution established it as a the Nazis was to be excluded. In effect, this eliminated all
democracy, using the system of proportional representa- right-wing parties, reducing eligible parties in Slovakia
tion in voting, which led to a series of coalition govern- to only two. In 1944, the Allied Powers held a summit at
ments. The first president was Tomáš Masaryk, whose Yalta, in the Russian Crimea, to discuss the future of a
drive had persuaded the Allied leaders to agree to the new postwar Europe. “Spheres of interest” were established,
753
Communists Seize Power in Czechoslovakia The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Young Czechs parade through Prague carrying banners depicting Klement Gottwald (left) alongside Joseph Stalin. (National Ar-
chives)
and the Soviets were allocated Eastern and Central Eu- the Slovak Communists supported central government
rope. In effect, this sealed Czechoslovakia’s fate and from Prague, as did all the Czech parties, a centralized
dealt a deathblow to Masaryk’s original vision of the government took office, with Gottwald as prime minis-
country becoming a bridge between East and West. ter. His cabinet consisted of representatives of all the par-
The Russian army was the first to reoccupy Czecho- ties, with eight posts going to the Communists. There
slovak territory, advancing from the east in early 1945. was now effectively no opposition to the new coalition.
Although the U.S. army reached western Czechoslova- Gottwald appointed Communists to the key interior min-
kia soon after, the Soviet armies entered Prague first and istry, which included the police, and the information
were greeted as liberators. The Czechoslovak Republic ministry, which included control of radio.
was founded April 4, 1945, and a provisional govern- A generally socialist policy was promulgated, includ-
ment was installed. ing land redistribution, wage equality, and nationaliza-
Political activities soon resumed. In the 1946 election of the larger industries and businesses. The new pol-
tions, the Communist Party did well in the Czech lands, icy was beneficial to the working class, as it increased its
receiving some 40 percent of the votes and emerging as wage level and helped it acquire land. Many working-
the largest party, though in Slovakia, the Communists class people joined the Communist Party, whose mem-
were soundly defeated by the Nationalists. However, as bership rose rapidly. A crisis soon developed between
754
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Communists Seize Power in Czechoslovakia
the Communists and non-Communists, however. The bly. In March, Jan Masaryk, the former foreign secretary
Marshall Plan was being instituted to provide U.S. aid to and the leading noncommunist (who was also the son of
a devastated Europe, and Czechoslovakia was invited to Tomáš Masaryk), reportedly committed suicide, though
send a delegation to discuss its inclusion in the plan. On many suspected he was assassinated. In September,
orders from Moscow, though, Gottwald had to refuse the Beneš died after falling ill.
invitation, and instead, he demanded further nationaliza- Moscow soon exercised its control over Gottwald,
tion and land reform. and in the new Cold War atmosphere, compliance was
The non-Communist cabinet ministers tried to with- absolute. Further nationalization followed, as did land
stand Gottwald’s demands, but by this time the trade reform, so that effectively the vast majority of the popu-
unions were under Communist control, and large-scale lation was employed by the government. The army and
demonstrations were organized. “Local committees,” security forces were purged of noncommunists, as was
demanded by the Communists in 1945, had effectively the Communist Party itself, especially whose socialist
1948
replaced many local non-Communist officials and bu- tradition was not Soviet in nature. Also purged from the
reaucrats with Communists, so that the non-Communist party were many people who had fought with the resis-
power base was relegated to the ballot box alone. New tance in World War II. Before the purge, the resistance
elections were due in May, 1948, and the non-Commu- made up a privileged cadre.
nist ministers, hoping the party was losing popularity A five-year economic plan was implemented that
among the middle class, took the calculated risk of re- shifted the economy to one of heavy industry, and all
signing en masse, hoping to force President Beneš to call trade was directed from the West to the Soviet Union and
elections early. Beneš, however, knew nothing of this its satellites. Independent political opinion was sup-
and refused to accept their resignations or to declare pressed, as were the independent voices of church lead-
early elections. ers and academics, already decimated under the Nazis.
Instead, various local committee members, aided by The Czechoslovak experience of democracy died, and it
factory-based militias, took over the ministries of those would not be revived for another generation. In 1993, the
ministers who had resigned. The police, under Commu- nation divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
nist leadership, made it clear they would suppress further — David Barratt
demonstrations, and the army’s general, a Communist
sympathizer, confined all non-Communist officers to Further Reading
barracks. Gottwald declared a state of emergency and Abrams, Bradley F. The Struggle for the Soul of the Na-
mobilized police forces. Beneš felt he had no option but tion: Czech Culture and the Rise of Communism.
to ask Gottwald to appoint new cabinet ministers. The Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. A study
list Gottwald submitted consisted almost entirely of of the political thought that accompanied Czechoslo-
Communists. He declared on February 25, at a town vakia’s transformation from a democratic republic to
square in Prague, that the Communist Party was now in a Communist state. Includes the chapters “The Reori-
charge of the government. entation of National Identity: Czechs Between East
and West” and “Socialism and Communist Intellec-
Significance tuals: the ‘Czechoslovak Road to Socialism.’”
The May, 1948, elections did take place, but voters were Dowling, Maria. Czechoslovakia. New York: Oxford
offered only a limited choice of candidates, all vetted by University Press, 2002. Part of the Brief Histories se-
the Communist Party. However, the mood of the country ries, this work forms a good updated overview of
was still largely sympathetic to communism and the Czechoslovakia’s history as a nation. Includes maps,
party. The Soviets were considered liberators, and the a bibliography, and an index.
Red Army had quickly withdrawn from the country Fowkes, Ben. Eastern Europe, 1945-1969: From Stalin-
in 1946. Memories of Western betrayal in 1938 were ism to Stagnation. New York: Longman, 2000. Pro-
strong, and throughout Europe there was a strong left- vides a detailed history of Eastern Europe after World
wing surge, in the hope of a more just society. A new con- War II. Discusses the profound influence of the Sovi-
stitution was passed May 9, 1948, making Czechoslova- ets and of socialism on the region. Examines the for-
kia a one-party state. mation of Czechoslovakia as a Communist nation.
Beneš resigned in June and Gottwald was immedi- Held, Joseph, ed. The Columbia History of Eastern
ately voted in as new president by the National Assem- Europe in the Twentieth Century New York: Colum-
755
Costa Rica Endures Its Bloodiest Civil War The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
bia University Press, 1992. Chapter four discusses communist nation in 1948. Written by leading Czech
Czechoslovakia in the context of twentieth century historians under the editorship of a respected modern
European history. An excellent overview. historian of Europe.
Krej5í, Jaroslav, and Paul Machonin. Czechoslovakia,
1918-1992: A Laboratory of Social Change. New See also: 1943-1948: Soviets Take Control of Eastern
York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. Examines Czechoslo- Europe; Feb. 4-11, 1945: Yalta Conference; July 17-
vakia’s attempts to solve the political and social prob- Aug. 2, 1945: Potsdam Conference; Mar. 5, 1946:
lems endemic to Central Europe after World War I. Churchill Delivers His Iron Curtain Speech; Apr. 3,
Leff, Carol Skalnik. National Conflict in Czechoslova- 1948: Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe; Sept.
kia: The Making and Remaking of a State, 1918-1987. 21-Oct. 7, 1949: Germany Splits into Two Republics;
Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988. May 14, 1955: Warsaw Pact Is Signed; Oct. 23-Nov.
Discusses particularly the Czech-Slovak conflicts 10, 1956: Soviets Crush Hungarian Uprising; Aug.
and how these conflicts shaped the course of Czecho- 13, 1961: Communists Raise the Berlin Wall; Dec. 3,
slovakian history. 1963: Havel’s The Garden Party Satirizes Life Under
Stone, Norman, and Eduard Strouhal, eds. Czechoslova- Communism; Aug. 20-21, 1968: Soviet Union In-
kia: Crossroads and Crises, 1918-88. New York: St. vades Czechoslovakia; Nov. 12, 1968-Dec., 1989:
Martin’s Press, 1989. Chapters nine through eleven Brezhnev Doctrine Mandates Soviet Control of Satel-
examine the transformation of Czechoslovakia into a lite Nations.
March 12-April 19, 1948

Costa Rica Endures Its Bloodiest Civil War
Acting on years of frustration with the political system Summary of Event
in Costa Rica, José Figueres Ferrer launched an Costa Rica emerged from the nineteenth century as an
armed rebellion against President Teodoro Picado anomaly among Central American countries. As opposed
Michalski. Inspired by a disputed election in 1948 and to its neighbors, Costa Rica enjoyed relative political sta-
with aid from other Central American governments, the bility, democratic governance, social mobility, and eco-
Army of National Liberation conducted a bloody forty- nomic independence based on its vast coffee and banana
day revolution that ended with victory for Figueres. plantations. However, Costa Rica still suffered from the
vast unemployment and widespread poverty that was
Also known as: War for National Liberation
characteristic of other Central American countries.
Locale: Costa Rica
The 1930’s witnessed the rise of a devoted Costa Rican
Categories: Government and politics; wars,
Communist Party in spite of fears that it would undermine
uprisings, and civil unrest
the nation’s traditional religious and political institutions.
Key Figures The authoritarian practices of President León Cortés
José Figueres Ferrer (Don Pepe; 1906-1990), Costa Castro from 1936 through 1940 caused a rift between the
Rican revolutionary leader and president, 1948- country’s political parties, as the anti-Communist Castro
1949, 1953-1958, and 1970-1974 routinely cast aside election results that favored his oppo-
Rafael Angel Calderón Guardia (1900-1970), nents. Promising electoral reform and a return to democ-
president of Costa Rica, 1940-1944 racy, Rafael Angel Calderón Guardia, a devout Catholic
Teodoro Picado Michalski (1900-1960), president of and capitalist, was elected president in 1940.
Costa Rica, 1944-1948 While much of the world was engaged in World
Otilio Ulate Blanco (1891-1973), president of Costa War II, a steady growth in population created a housing
Rica, 1949-1953 shortage in Costa Rica, and the country’s traditional agri-
Nathaniel P. Davis (1895-1973), U.S. ambassador to cultural economy could not keep pace with the rest of the
Costa Rica, 1947-1949 world’s industrial marketplace. Costa Ricans were be-
León Cortés Castro (1882-1946), president of Costa coming increasingly aware of their own lack of opportu-
Rica, 1936-1940 nity and expected the government to intervene and lift
756
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Costa Rica Endures Its Bloodiest Civil War
the nation out of despondency. A reform to the political, ments from Guatemala throughout the war. The National
economic, and social structures was deemed necessary to Liberation Army worked its way north on the Pan Ameri-
prevent a violent and destructive insurrection. can Highway, capturing small towns along the way. Its
President Calderón Guardia instituted sweeping re- efforts progressed with little real opposition from the
forms aimed at solving many of his country’s problems, central government, which was busy strengthening de-
but he was stymied by resistance from the elite upper fenses in the capital.
class, who felt threatened by the prospect of social The first real opposition to the National Liberation
change. Calderón Guardia received his toughest opposi- Army came on April 12 in Cartago, the second-largest
tion from Partido Acción Demócrata (PAD; Democratic city in Costa Rica, located just twelve miles from San
Action Party), whose constituents supported social José. A fierce firefight ensued, but the rebels eventually
change but not in the form offered by the existing politi- overran the city, bringing themselves within striking dis-
cal entities. The founder and self-appointed leader of tance of the capital. The following day, a cease-fire was
1948
PAD was José Figueres Ferrer, better known as Don called, as the Picado administration faced certain de-
Pepe. Figueres accused the government of corruption struction by Figueres’s multinational force. A diplomatic
and advocated the formation of a socialist state in Costa corps was assembled, led by U.S. ambassador Nathaniel
Rica. After speaking out against the Calderón Guardia P. Davis. On April 19, President Picado signed a peace
government in 1942, Figueres was exiled to Mexico. He treaty and stepped down from office. Six days later,
returned in 1944 following the election of Calderón Figueres and the National Liberation Army entered San
Guardia’s successor, Teodoro Picado Michalski. José as victors.
While in exile, Figueres plotted the downfall of the In the end, an estimated two thousand men lost their
Costa Rican government. He worked closely with the lives in the conflict, with fewer than one hundred of those
governments of the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, being from the revolutionary ranks. Figueres would
and Guatemala, who agreed to aid in the overthrow of serve as the interim president of Costa Rica for eighteen
Picado and Calderón Guardia. If the revolution was suc- months, at which time he abdicated to Ulate Blanco,
cessful, Costa Rica would serve as the staging ground for whom he regarded as the rightfully elected president.
future revolutions in Central America. The end result, ac- Figueres would be elected to two additional terms as
cording to Figueres, would be a federated republic of president, from 1953 to 1958 and from 1970 to 1974.
Central American states. This alliance was later known
Significance
as the Caribbean League.
During his tenure as interim president, Figueres estab-
Partido Acción Demócrata merged with Centro para
lished the Partido de Liberación Nacional (PLN; Na-
el Estudio de los Problemas Nacionales (Centro; Center
tional Liberation Party). The PLN served as Figueres’s
for the Study of National Problems) in 1945 to become
party in both of his election campaigns, and in 1994, José
the Social Democratic Party. The Social Democratic
María Figueres Olsen, the son of the former president,
Party ran Otilio Ulate Blanco against President Picado in
was elected as the PLN candidate. This is indicative of
the 1948 elections. The stage was set for revolution on
the course of events following the 1948 revolution. Un-
February 8, 1948—election day in Costa Rica. By the
der Figueres and a steady stream of moderate govern-
time the polls closed that night, all indications were that
ments, Costa Rica continued the trend of being the most
Ulate Blanco had won a decisive victory. However, by
stable, peaceful, and democratic country in Central
the next day, Picado, at the urging of Calderón Guardia,
America. While its neighbors witnessed countless coups,
declared the election a fraud and refused to concede the
revolts, dictators, and wars, the reforms instituted under
presidency. Supporters of both candidates protested the
Figueres and continued by his successors have ensured
results, and violence seemed inevitable. Figueres seized
relatively peaceful conditions.
this opportunity, taking full advantage of the rising ten-
— Cody W. Sherman
sions, to launch his “War of National Liberation.”
Armed conflict began on March 12, 1948, as two fac- Further Reading
tions of Figueres’s National Liberation Army set out Ameringer, Charles D. Don Pepe: A Political Biography
from Tarrazú, a small town in southern Costa Rica. One of José Figueres of Costa Rica. Albuquerque: Univer-
group seized the town of San Isidro, while the other, in sity of New Mexico Press, 1978. Comprehensive bi-
the nation’s capital, San José, requisitioned three air- ography of the man who led Costa Rica’s bloody civil
planes that were used to transport arms and reinforce- war. Adds insight into Figueres’s life and his motiva-
757
Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
tions for wanting to see Costa Rica liberated from cor- nificant attention is paid to the 1948 Costa Rican rev-
rupt politicians. Bibliography and index. olution as a case study. Extensive bibliography and
Bell, John Patrick. Crisis in Costa Rica: The 1948 Revo- index.
lution. Austin: The University of Texas Press, 1971. Longley, Kyle. The Sparrow and the Hawk: Costa Rica
Detailed and comprehensive study focusing on the and the United States During the Rise of Jose Fi-
1948 revolution. Lacks a section on the aftermath of gueres. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press,
the war. Selected bibliography and index. 1997. Uses a variety of sources from the United States
Booth, John A. Costa Rica: Quest for Democracy. Boul- and Costa Rica. Examines the relationship between
der, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998. Examines Costa Figueres and the United States. Provides a clear ex-
Rica’s status as the most democratic country in Cen- planation of a rather complex series of events. Bibli-
tral America. Traces the development of political par- ography and index.
ties, personalities, and institutions. Thoroughly in- See also: Feb. 24, 1946: Perón Creates a Populist Polit-
dexed. ical Alliance in Argentina; Apr. 9, 1948: La Violencia
Holden, Robert H. Armies Without Nations: Public Vio- Begins in Colombia; Apr., 1952: Revolution Grips
lence and State Formation in Central America, 1821- Bolivia; May, 1954: Military Coup Begins Thirty-
1960. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Dis- Five Years of Dictatorship in Paraguay; June 18-27,
cusses the role of violence as a tool for political 1954: United Fruit Company Instigates a Coup in
change as a theme in Central American history. Sig- Guatemala; Oct. 9, 1967: Execution of Che Guevara.
April 3, 1948
Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe
The Marshall Plan was an American economic aid Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov (Vyacheslav
program for Europe. Meant both to relieve suffering Mikhailovich Skryabin; 1890-1986), Soviet
resulting from World War II’s economic devastation commissar of foreign affairs, 1939-1949 and 1953-
and to contain the Soviet Union by strengthening 1956
Western Europe’s ability to resist Soviet expansion, the
plan was largely successful on both counts. Summary of Event
In the winter of 1946-1947, European nations struggled
Also known as: European Recovery Program; Euro-
to recover from the widespread devastation of World
pean Recovery Act of 1948
War II. The conflict had leveled cities, destroyed thou-
Locale: United States; Western Europe
sands of factories, disrupted transportation and commu-
nication systems, and rendered machinery for extracting
economics; banking and finance
raw materials useless. The European standard of living
Key Figures had fallen drastically below prewar levels, even in na-
George C. Marshall (1880-1959), U.S. secretary of tions that had not borne the brunt of the fighting. In the
state, 1947-1949 spring of 1947, two million British industrial workers
George F. Kennan (1904-2005), U.S. State were unemployed, and many others were underem-
Department’s director of policy planning, 1947- ployed because of shortages in raw materials. In Italy, in-
1949 dustrial production stood at 20 percent of prewar levels.
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United In Germany’s Ruhr region, coal production had dropped
States, 1945-1953 to 45 percent of its previous level, and similar declines
Ernest Bevin (1881-1951), British foreign minister, elsewhere affected industrial production and transporta-
1945-1951 tion systems throughout Europe. Millions of homeless
Joseph Stalin (Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; and displaced citizens strained the existing social ser-
1878-1953), general secretary of the Central vices beyond their limits.
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet The unusually severe European winter of 1946-1947
Union, 1922-1953, and premier, 1941-1953 exacerbated the hardships brought through war. Food
758
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe
shortages existed in most nations and, consequently, Truman made his speech, the newly appointed secretary
food rationing was widely instituted. Politically, France of state, General George C. Marshall, led an American
and Italy faced growing leftist movements whose popu- delegation to the Moscow Conference of Allied Leaders
larity increased as a result of these economic hardships. to negotiate the future of Germany. After weeks of futile
European governments that had managed vast colonial discussions, Marshall on April 15 took the American
regions before the war could no longer adequately man- proposals directly to Joseph Stalin, the Soviet premier.
age even their internal affairs. These harsh conditions Since he had known Stalin during the war and had
produced despondency that only increased the nations’ earned the premier’s respect, Marshall believed that per-
economic problems. sonal diplomacy had a reasonable chance of success. He
European industrial workers witnessed a diminished found Stalin polite but vague and noncommittal, how-
standard of living, as postwar inflation significantly out- ever, and he left the meeting with the view that Stalin saw
paced wage increases. Worker productivity declined. no need for compromise. The Soviet leader seemed to
1948
Farmers, unable to purchase fertilizer and farm equip- think that time was on his side in Europe. After returning
ment, converted their fields to pastureland, resulting in a to the United States, Marshall established a strategic
sharp decrease in agricultural productivity. Meanwhile, think tank within the State Department called the Policy
although the United States had lost many soldiers and Planning Staff. The staff was headed by George F.
much wartime equipment, the land and its civilian popu- Kennan, who had recently earned recognition in the in-
lation had been left untouched by the destruction of ner circles of government as an expert on the Soviet
World War II. The U.S. economic picture was therefore Union. Within eight weeks, the staff produced a general
one of prosperity and rapid growth. Despite a large post- policy statement that addressed the economic crisis in
war debt, the economy quickly responded to the release Europe.
of pent-up demand for goods and services following the
war. There was, however, concern within the govern-
ment about the postwar settlement in Europe and particu-
larly about the Soviet role and influence in Europe.
Soviet positions on the withdrawal of their forces
from countries such as Iran, on the nature of Eastern
European governments, and on war reparations from
Germany created apprehension within the administra-
tion of President Harry S. Truman. Political unrest on the
fringes of Europe, especially in Greece and Turkey, be-
came America’s concern after the United Kingdom took
the position that it could no longer afford to aid those
countries’ governments against communist-backed guer-
rilla insurgencies. Truman addressed Congress on March
12, 1947, in an appeal for more than $300 million in aid
to these nations. The occasion marked the inauguration
of what became known as the Truman Doctrine, which
committed the United States to defend governments
throughout the world when they were threatened with
communist subversion.
The open-ended nature of Truman’s commitment to
fight communist insurgency internationally left many in
Congress and the State Department bewildered, since
militarily the United States had demobilized and was in
no position to make such a global military commitment.
Within the State Department, moreover, diplomats had
already begun to formulate the concept that in the loom-
ing East-West conflict, American economic power
would prove to be the decisive factor. In the same month General George C. Marshall. (Library of Congress)
759
Kennan’s policy statement proposed to return the Eu- fuel shortages in European cities were severe and people
ropean standard of living to its prewar level and to ensure there were badly undernourished—he proposed that the
that the European economic system would be capable of United States should aid all European nations, even those
sustained growth. The idea was to work in cooperation in Eastern Europe, provided that they presented a joint
with existing European governments by offering aid that plan clarifying their needs and explaining their priorities.
would restore a measure of prosperity—not by providing From the American standpoint, this proposal had the ad-
direct relief to suffering people but by attacking the prob- vantage of avoiding a piecemeal economic solution that
lems of those people through improving their national evaluated the needs of each nation on an ad hoc basis. It
economies. Not content to require government-to- also required a degree of cooperation among European
government cooperation between the United States and nations that Americans believed essential to Europe’s
other nations, moreover, the policy makers devised a long-term economic health.
procedure that would require a measure of cooperation In response to Marshall’s proposal, Ernest Bevin, the
among the European nations themselves. British foreign minister, arranged a meeting of European
On June 5, General Marshall, in a commencement administers to plan a response. Nothing in Marshall’s
dress at Harvard University, delivered the essence of the speech excluded the Soviet Union or its satellites, and at
Marshall Plan. Since he had the complete confidence of the first European planning session in June the Soviets
the president, Marshall made the proposal on his own were represented by Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Molotov,
without prior clearance. After describing the effects of the Soviet foreign minister. However, rather than dis-
war on European economies—pointing out that food and close details of their national economic condition and
needs, the Soviets quickly withdrew
from the meeting, as the Americans,
Truman Calls for the Marshall Plan British, and French had hoped they
would. After long negotiations, which
U.S. president Harry S. Truman signed the European Recovery Act, better were made more difficult by the con-
known as the Marshall Plan, in 1948. In a message to Congress on Decem- cerns of France over the inclusion of
ber 19, 1947, Truman outlined his rationale for the plan. aid to West Germany, the European na-
tions presented a plan to the United
In considering the requirements for the rehabilitation of Europe the phys-
ical loss of life, the visible destruction of cities, factories, mines, and rail- States. Following revisions suggested
roads was correctly estimated, but it has become obvious during recent by American officials, the plan became
months that this visible destruction was probably less serious than the dislo- the basis for the European Recovery
cation of the entire fabric of European economy. For the past 10 years condi- Act of 1948.
tions have been highly abnormal. The feverish maintenance of the war effort The act created the European Recov-
engulfed all aspects of national economics. Machinery has fallen into disre- ery Program (ERP), popularly known
pair or is entirely obsolete. Under the arbitrary and destructive Nazi rule, as the Marshall Plan, providing approx-
virtually every possible enterprise was geared into the German war ma- imately $13.3 billion over a period of
chine. Long-standing commercial ties, private institutions, banks, insurance four years for European economic relief
companies and shipping companies disappeared, through the loss of capital,
in seventeen nations. Since the Ameri-
absorption through nationalization or by simple destruction. In many coun-
can federal budget was less than $100
tries, confidence in the local currency has been severely shaken. The break-
down of the business structure of Europe during the war was complete. . . . billion at the time, this sum represented
Aside from the demoralizing effect on the world at large and the possibil- a substantial commitment. Over the
ities of disturbances arising as a result of the desperation of the people con- nearly four years of the plan’s exis-
cerned, the consequences to the economy of the United States should be ap- tence, the aid provided to Europe annu-
parent to all. It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able ally amounted to 1.2 percent of the total
to do to assist in the return of normal economic health in the world, without U.S. gross national product (GNP).
which there can be no political stability and no assured peace. Our policy is Once the ERP had been formulated,
directed not against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, the president, the cabinet, and many
desperation, and chaos. Its purpose should be the revival of working econ- other officials threw their support be-
omy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social condi-
hind it. The program provided that most
tions in which free institutions can exist.
food, raw materials, and machinery
would be purchased in America and
760
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Marshall Plan Provides Aid to Europe
thus promised a substantial increase in American ex- term. By providing raw materials from the United States
ports. For this reason, the program also found wide- for British factories, it enabled British workers to remain
spread support among business and agricultural leaders. productively employed. Through promoting a fourfold
Many political leaders viewed it as a means of containing increase in the number of tractors in France, it contrib-
communism through the use of American economic uted to the elimination of hunger in France and in other
strength. Their reasoning became more compelling af- countries as well. Through providing the machinery and
ter heavy-handed Soviet intervention and repression in transportation necessary for German coal production, it
Czechoslovakia in the fall of 1947. Polls taken at the ensured that affordable energy was available during pe-
time, however, showed that a majority of the American riods of inclement weather. By making labor more effi-
people supported the ERP primarily on humanitarian cient, American experts helped retard inflation during a
grounds. Whatever the reason, Congress was swayed, period of economic expansion, thus enabling European
and the European Recovery Act passed overwhelmingly workers to retain their purchasing power.
1948
on April 3, 1948. From a broader policy perspective, the American con-
sultants sought to decrease the power of industrial car-
Significance tels, to increase the productive efficiency of European
The Marshall Plan had a significant impact on European workers, and to promote free trade. These objectives
economic and cultural history, although scholars con- were partially achieved, though the measure of success
tinue to disagree about the precise nature of that impact. depended heavily on conditions in each nation. West
For one thing, economic results varied considerably Germany, for example, was still under American mili-
from nation to nation. During its first year, the ERP tary government, so breaking the power of cartels in that
added more than 10 percent to the GNP of two nations, country was relatively easy.
Austria and the Netherlands, and more than 5 percent to The ERP was by no means the sole cause of European
the GNP in five other nations, France, Iceland, Ireland, postwar recovery, for economies as depressed as those of
Italy, and Norway. In nations that suffered acute food Europe were almost certain to improve, given existing
shortages—West Germany, Austria, and the United conditions. Most scholars agree, however, that the ERP
Kingdom—more than one-third of Marshall Plan aid provided a powerful stimulus that hastened the recovery
went for food supplies. In other nations, funding for raw and alleviated human suffering. In addition, American
materials, energy, and machinery surpassed that for food influence furthered policies that American politicians
imports. believed were in the interest of the long-term economic
By bringing significant quantities of American capi- health of the region. Politically, in nation after nation,
tal and goods into Europe, the ERP contributed to a 32 economic resurgence had the effects that American plan-
percent rise in the GNP of the participating nations be- ners had desired. As hopes for prosperity became reality,
tween 1948 and 1951. Food rationing disappeared, and elections produced centrist and rightist governments at
the standard of living rose rapidly throughout the four the expense of communists and their allies. Although
years of the program. By 1950, most European nations these governments did not invariably assure all the free-
had exceeded their prewar agricultural production levels. doms found in the United States, they provided greater
The ERP stimulated American investments and influ- freedoms to their citizens than did the governments of
ence in Europe. American corporate investments in- Eastern Bloc nations. On the whole, they preserved free-
creased more than twice as rapidly in Europe as in doms of speech, religion, and the press.
any other area. In addition to the large exports of ma- In this respect, the ERP contributed to the American
chinery and supplies, the United States sent thousands policy of containment and to the American view of a
of experts overseas. A major objective of the plan was world order that assured fundamental political and eco-
to increase the productivity of the economies by increas- nomic freedoms. In another respect, the ERP benefited
ing their efficiency. In the American view, it was neces- both the United States and Europe by establishing a
sary to increase efficiency, which lagged far behind that mode of cooperation that made mutual defense more pal-
of the United States, in order to prevent a rapid rise in atable. The cooperation and mutual planning mandated
inflation while external aid was stimulating economic by the ERP contributed significantly to the formation of
growth. the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)in 1949.
The Marshall Plan aided people indirectly, using a On the downside, the ERP leaders tacitly acknowledged
systems approach, and its objectives were for the long the split in Europe between West and East and prompted
761
the Soviet government to consolidate Eastern Europe Pogue, Forrest C. George C. Marshall: Statesman, 1945-
into its own economic and defense plans and to refuse the 1959. New York: Viking Press, 1987. The fourth and
extension of Marshall Plan benefits to areas under its final volume of the standard biography of Marshall, it
control. gives an account of the formulation of the ERP. Pogue
—Stanley Archer clarifies Marshall’s contribution, differentiating it
from the roles of other prominent diplomats and offi-
Further Reading
cials. Useful appendix, bibliography, notes, and in-
Bonds, John Bledsoe. Bipartisan Strategy: Selling the
dex. Illustrated.
Marshall Plan. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002.
Price, Harry Bayard. The Marshall Plan and Its Mean-
Study of the U.S. domestic campaign to convince
ing. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1955. A
Congress to pass the Economic Recovery Act. Biblio-
general and optimistic study of the ERP and its ef-
fects, the book places the Marshall Plan within the
Gimbel, John. The Origins of the Marshall Plan. Stan-
context of American aid throughout the world. Al-
ford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1976. This an-
though many of Price’s findings encountered later
alytical book traces the origins of the ERP to Ameri-
challenges, this early volume is still useful. Biblio-
can policy makers and to specific postwar events.
Gimbel sees the East-West conflict as a minor in-
Schain, Martin, ed. The Marshall Plan: Fifty Years
fluence on the development and implementation of
Later. New York: Palgrave, 2001. Compilation of es-
the Marshall Plan. Includes notes on unpublished
says devoted to revisiting the ERP, both to reevaluate
sources, extensive notes on published sources, and a
its effects at the time and to examine its long-term im-
good index.
pact on the Cold War and European economic history.
Hogan, Michael J. The Marshall Plan: America, Britain,
and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947-
Wexler, Imanuel. The Marshall Plan Revisited: The Eu-
1952. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
ropean Recovery Program in Economic Perspective.
In his carefully researched and comprehensive analy-
Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983. Wexler
sis of the ERP, Hogan takes into account the argu-
places the Marshall Plan in broad economic context
ments of its critics and concludes that it achieved its
and traces factors other than American aid that pro-
major economic and political purposes. Very exten-
moted or hindered economic recovery. His assess-
sive but unannotated bibliography. Good index.
ment finds that the ERP achieved a large measure of
Mee, Charles L., Jr. The Marshall Plan: The Launching
success. Good notes, usefully divided bibliography,
of the Pax Americana. New York: Simon & Schuster,
and brief index.
1984. Mee provides a clearly written and balanced
account of the formulation and adoption of the Mar- See also: Mar. 12, 1947: Truman Doctrine; Oct. 30,
shall Plan, incorporating data and figures into the 1947: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Is
text. For the average reader, this book is perhaps Signed; Jan. 1, 1948: Benelux Customs Union Enters
the best introduction to the subject. Offers two use- into Force; Jan. 25, 1949: Soviet Bloc States Establish
ful appendixes including Truman’s address and Mar- Council for Mutual Economic Assistance; Apr. 4,
shall’s Harvard speech as well as notes, bibliography, 1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization Is Formed;
and index. July 1, 1950: European Payments Union Is Formed;
Milward, Alan S. The Reconstruction of Western Eu- Apr. 18, 1951: European Coal and Steel Community
rope, 1945-1951. Berkeley: University of California Is Established; Oct. 22, 1951: United States Inaugu-
Press, 1984. A detailed study of all aspects of the Eu- rates Mutual Security Program; Mar. 25, 1957: Euro-
ropean economic recovery, the book provides numer- pean Common Market Is Established; Jan. 4, 1960:
ous tables showing progress of the recovery in detail. European Free Trade Association Is Established;
Milward gives the background of the Marshall Plan Sept. 30, 1961: Organization for Economic Coopera-
and assesses its effects. Useful bibliography focuses tion and Development Forms; Dec., 1969: Birth of the
on international sources. Brief index. European Monetary Union Project.
762
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 La Violencia Begins in Colombia
April 9, 1948
La Violencia Begins in Colombia
The Dance of the Millions, a period of rapid economic Indian and European) who had been struggling to survive
expansion, led to political unrest among rural people for decades. The death of their champion darkened al-
that exploded into violence after the assassination of ready dim hopes for recovery from the ravages of years
populist leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán in 1948. Tens of of disruptive economic change.
thousands of people died during the years of violence Gaitán’s death was not the sole cause of La Violencia.
throughout Colombia. Its origins challenge even the most sophisticated analy-
sis. Some perpetrators of violent acts were angry Liberal
Locale: Colombia supporters whose frustrations from their defeat in Gaitán’s
Categories: Wars, uprisings, and civil unrest; crime presidential campaign in 1946 exploded with his assassi-
1948
and scandal; social issues and reform; economics; nation. Others took advantage of their nation’s state of
indigenous peoples’ rights near anarchy to engage in criminal acts. A large number of
Key Figures the participants came from the rural poor, who attacked
Jorge Eliécer Gaitán (1902-1948), leftist champion of the Conservative government after having been driven to
the rural poor the margins of society by intrusive economic change.
Laureano Gómez (1889-1965), Conservative Party The rapid economic expansion, or “Dance of the Mil-
leader and president of Colombia, 1950-1953 lions,” of the 1920’s was an object lesson in economic
Manuel Quintín Lame (1883-1967), indigenous activist overexpansion based on imprudent investments. Colom-
who started a grassroots movement in the 1920’s bia found the economic means to recover from its disas-
Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (1900-1975), general who trous civil war (1899-1902) and the painful loss of com-
seized power in 1953 at the height of the violent mercially important Panama (1903). The nation’s
unrest productive coffee lands had found markets in the United
Alfonso López Pumarejo (1886-1959), Liberal Party States and Europe, and its petroleum potential rivaled
leader and president of Colombia, 1934-1938 and those of Mexico and Venezuela. U.S. investors saw a
1942-1945 bright future in the land of El Dorado, but they were mis-
taken. The worldwide depression of the 1930’s spoiled
Summary of Event their prognosis, and the repercussions of their massive
Jorge Eliécer Gaitán was the symbol of hope for the rural injections of investment capital into coffee production
poor of Colombia. In a nation torn by decades of partisan contributed to the social and economic dislocations that
strife, the assassination on April 9, 1948, of this populist spawned La Violencia.
leader on a street in the nation’s capital, Bogotá, brought a By the early part of the twentieth century, the Native
wave of revulsion against the Conservative government American population of Colombia had fared little better
then in power. An enraged mob beat the assassin to death than had the Native Americans of the United States. The
minutes after Gaitán fell. The existence of a plot behind Chibcha civilization, located around present-day Bo-
the assassination has never been proven, but the immedi- gotá, succumbed to Spanish conquest in the 1530’s. The
ate consequences of Gaitán’s death were obvious. surviving Chibcha and other American Indian groups be-
The international delegation to the Ninth Interna- came laborers in Spaniards’ mines and on their hacien-
tional Conference of American States, including United das. Only a few reservations, generally located in iso-
States secretary of state George C. Marshall, watched lated zones to the south and east of the richer central
with a mixture of fear and shock as violence over- mountain areas, provided havens for indigenous com-
whelmed their host city. The aroused masses directed munities. These reservations were segregated from the
their hostility against the incumbent Conservatives. Po- rest of Colombia and provided a subsistence living at
litical outrage merged with urban violence to become a best. By 1900, the Indian population amounted to less
bloody civil war that spread into already unstable rural than 10 percent of the national total.
areas. Two hundred thousand people eventually died, Under pressure from aggressive, land-hungry coffee
and property damage was immense. La Violencia (the vi- planters in the early decades of the twentieth century, the
olence) swept up displaced indigenous peoples and dis- Indians attempted to meet the challenges to their reserva-
possessed mestizos (a biological or cultural mixture of tions and their cultural traditions. With the influx of for-
763
La Violencia Begins in Colombia The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
eign investments in the 1920’s, the Dance of the Millions altogether. Peasants protested such usurpations but had
raced through the commercial centers of Medellín and only minimal success in the frenzied Dance of the Mil-
Cali to the previously isolated mountains, where the In- lions of the 1920’s.
dians had maintained their marginal existence. State and In the depression-ridden 1930’s, however, peasant
local governments, often in collusion with the coffee in- protests spread from local communities into an expan-
terests, revised the reservation laws to open the lands for sive but amorphous national movement. The Liberal ad-
sale in the private sector. Armed with a superior knowl- ministration of President Alfonso López Pumarejo was
edge of the new regulations, an eager following among sensitive to this unrest and passed the nation’s first land-
certain politicians, and large capital reserves, the plant- reform legislation. This law promised to make the na-
ers took control of what had been Indian reservation tional government the chief protector of small properties,
lands and, in the process, reduced the Indians to tenant but the enforcement of this statute in rural areas involved
farmers, wage laborers, or homeless drifters. land surveys, property assessments, and other complexi-
Indians tried to resist commercial encroachments. ties that the powerful estate owners blocked or delayed.
Native leader Manuel Quintín Lame formed a militant The rural poor found a new leader in Gaitán, who car-
resistance movement in south-central Colombia. Al- ried their cause much further than had either Pumarejo or
though Lame was an Indian traditionalist, he collabo- Lame. Gaitán was a mestizo whose law degree and politi-
rated for several years with communists to form an In- cal ambitions elevated him above his lower-middle-class
dian community, San José de Indias, and to attempt to background. He was a hypnotic speaker with a charis-
strengthen nearby reservations. His success was brief, matic personality. He appealed to the mestizo, the In-
however. In 1931, white landowners had him jailed and, dian, and the urban worker, thereby attracting a follow-
after serving two years in prison, he returned to find San ing that posed a real challenge to the nation’s landed
José de Indias destroyed and the future of the Indian peo- elite. His ideology was a combination of populism and
ple even more dismal than it had been a decade earlier. socialism in which the national government was to pro-
Mestizos were a factor in Colombian history from the tect the disadvantaged against the onrush of commercial
colonial era and, by the twentieth century, made up prob- expansion.
ably half of the nation’s population. Unlike the isolated Gaitán maintained his appeal to rural folk from the
Indians, the mestizos were direct participants in the early 1920’s until his assassination in 1948. His cam-
economy, serving as laborers on the coffee plantations paign for the presidency in 1946 aroused the hopes of the
and working as independent peasant farmers. In the last mestizo and Indian masses, and his defeat was a devas-
half of the nineteenth century, mestizo peasants moved tating blow. The bitter rivalry between the Gaitán wing
to unoccupied areas in the southern mountain region of of the Liberal Party and the victorious Conservatives
the country and cleared land for farming. They eventu- erupted in sporadic violence as early as 1946, but Gai-
ally formed squatter communities along this frontier, tán’s dramatic death ignited an explosion of violence un-
where they used simple farming techniques to produce precedented in Colombian history.
corn, beans, and yucca for their own consumption and
coffee, tobacco, and wheat for sale in markets. They pro- Significance
duced a significant part of the food consumed in Colom- The economic dislocations and human suffering caused
bia in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. Each community by the Dance of the Millions of the 1920’s and the de-
centered on a chapel, a market, and perhaps a school or a pression of the 1930’s were greatly intensified by the epi-
local government building. The peasants’ lives were hard demic of bloodshed in La Violencia. From 1950 to 1953,
and their work was difficult, but they had a sense of own- the Conservative government of President Laureano
ership and independence. Gómez became increasingly unstable as disorder spread
Their lives, however, were beginning to change in into rural areas. Police and military units met stalemate
ways that brought frustration and disappointment. The and even defeat in their confrontations with antigovern-
expansion of the large coffee plantations soon disrupted ment guerrillas. In 1953, Gómez went into exile as Gen-
and, in some cases, destroyed many of the peasant com- eral Gustavo Rojas Pinilla took charge in Bogotá.
munities. Using their legal and political connections to The near paralysis of the national government left
full advantage, coffee entrepreneurs secured title to peas- many rural districts without police protection. The exact
ant land and forced once-independent farmers to become causes of the violence that erupted under these condi-
tenants or wage laborers, or to be expelled from the land tions are too complex for easy generalization. Appar-
764
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 La Violencia Begins in Colombia
ently much of the violence came out of local conflicts Fluharty, Vernon. Dance of the Millions: Military Rule
that varied from region to region. and the Social Revolution in Colombia. Pittsburgh,
The dictatorship of Rojas Pinilla generally attempted Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1957. Pioneering
to impose military solutions in rural areas, but with little study of La Violencia that retains utility in its discus-
success. The army’s battlefield victories were short- sion of political events even though its conclusions on
lived, as many guerrillas resorted to banditry in some social and economic factors have been superseded by
cases in order to survive and in other cases to exact re- later studies.
venge. By the early 1950’s, an ominous phenomenon ap- Green, W. John. Gaitanismo, Left Liberalism, and Popu-
peared: roving groups of outlaws who plundered and lar Mobilization in Colombia. Gainesville: Univer-
murdered with no apparent motive. These criminal ele- sity Press of Florida, 2003. Examines the develop-
ments inflicted a reign of terror on many defenseless ru- ment and sustainment of the populist movement
ral communities. inspired by Gaitán among the peasants and the poor of
1948
The generations-old peasant struggle for land met an- Colombia. The movement is called Gaitanismo in
other severe setback in La Violencia. Banditry mutated honor of the leftist activist. Includes discussion of La
into land grabbing through violence and threats of vio- Violencia. Highly recommended.
lence. Small farmers abandoned nearly 400,000 parcels Henderson, James D. When Colombia Bled: A History of
of land to protect themselves and their families. Al- the Violencia in Tolima. Tuscaloosa: University of
though the fate of these farm properties is difficult to de- Alabama Press, 1985. A well-written examination of
termine in every case, large estates gained considerable the causes and consequences of La Violencia in To-
quantities of land in this process. Colombia lost an im- lima. Henderson explains the conflict in a national
portant part of its independent productive peasantry in context and emphasizes its political origins.
these years. LeGrand, Catherine. Frontier Expansion and Peasant
The impact of the tumultuous four decades that Protest in Colombia, 1830-1936. Albuquerque: Uni-
spanned the Dance of the Millions of the 1920’s and La versity of New Mexico Press, 1986. Historical analy-
Violencia of the 1940’s and 1950’s on the lives of Co- sis of the struggle for land along Colombia’s frontier.
lombia’s Indian and mestizo peoples gives little cause for LeGrand concludes that peasant farmers generally
optimism. Although the reservation Indians and the mes- lost out to agricultural entrepreneurs even in Law 200
tizo peasants of the early twentieth century did not enjoy of 1936, which she sees mainly as a victory for the
anything approaching an idyllic existence, they were de- large estates.
veloping means of coping with the spreading commer- Oquist, Paul. Violence, Conflict, and Politics in Colom-
cial economy. The surge of coffee expansion in the bia. New York: Academic Press, 1980. An interpre-
1920’s, however, often deprived them of land, and the tive study that employs social science methodology to
civil war of the 1940’s and its transformation into ran- explain the violence from 1946 to 1966. Oquist
dom, criminal violence left many of them on the edge of stresses the importance of interclass conflict and the
survival. Several of the small rural communities formed breakdown of the national government.
by settlers a half century earlier disintegrated. Palacios, Marco. Between Legitimacy and Violence: A
—John A. Britton History of Colombia, 1875-2002. Translated by Rich-
ard Stoller. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press,
Further Reading 2006. A history of Colombia focusing on the nation’s
Braun, Herbert. The Assassination of Gaitán: Public Life struggles with violence and turmoil. Includes exten-
and Urban Violence in Colombia. Madison: Univer- sive discussion of La Violencia and its aftermath.
sity of Wisconsin Press, 1986. An analysis of the ca- Sánchez, Gonzalo, and Donny Meertens. Bandits, Peas-
reer and activism of Jorge Eliécer Gaitán and the ants, and Politics: The Case of “La Violencia” in Co-
eruption of violence following his assassination. In- lombia. Austin: University of Texas Press, Institute of
cludes a bibliography and an index. Latin American Studies, 2001. Examination of La
Fals Borda, Orlando. “Violence and the Break-up of Tra- Violencia within the broader sociological context of
dition in Colombia.” In Obstacles to Change in Latin banditry and revolution.
America, edited by Claudio Veliz. New York: Oxford Sharpless, Richard E. Gaitán of Colombia: A Political
University Press, 1970. Broad analysis of the impact Biography. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh
of violence on previously resilient colonial traditions. Press, 1978. Clearly written and based on careful re-
765
ABC Begins Its Own Network Television Service The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
search. Sharpless places Gaitán within the national Zamosc sees their factionalism as one of the many
political and cultural trends and gives considerable problems in the process of land redistribution.
emphasis to his connections in rural areas in his early
career. See also: Feb. 24, 1946: Perón Creates a Populist Polit-
Zamosc, Leon. The Agrarian Question and the Peasant ical Alliance in Argentina; Mar. 12-Apr. 19, 1948:
Movement in Colombia: Struggles in the National Costa Rica Endures Its Bloodiest Civil War; Apr.,
Peasant Association, 1967-1981. New York: Cam- 1952: Revolution Grips Bolivia; Nov. 3, 1964: Re-
bridge University Press, 1986. A leftist sociologist’s formist Bolivian President Paz Estenssoro Is Top-
study of peasant activism in land reform since La pled; Oct. 9, 1967: Execution of Che Guevara; Dec.
Violencia. Although sympathetic to the peasants, 13, 1968: Brazil Begins Era of Intense Repression.
April 19, 1948

ABC Begins Its Own Network Television Service
The American Broadcasting Company was created by From this radio base came the ABC television net-
the divestment of the National Broadcasting work. This network, which consisted at first of four inde-
Company’s Blue Network of radio stations. The pendent affiliates, started broadcasting on April 19,
company launched a television network five years 1948, when it aired On the Corner, starring Harry Mor-
later, and under the leadership of Leonard Goldenson gan. ABC’s flagship station in New York—the first tele-
in the 1950’s, it became one of the “Big Three” vision affiliate to be owned by the network—went on the
American networks. air in August, 1948. Noble and his aides scrambled to
pick up affiliates in cities where NBC and the Columbia
Locale: New York, New York; Hollywood, Broadcasting System (CBS) already had lined up the
California strongest television stations. Having fewer affiliates than
Categories: Radio and television; manufacturing NBC-TV and CBS-TV, ABC-TV started from a base of
and industry smaller audiences and thus was at a disadvantage in the
Key Figures new television world. As television began to expand, the
Leonard Goldenson (1905-1999), head of United best-known radio, music, and film stars naturally gravi-
Paramount Theatres and later of ABC tated to CBS or NBC with their large audiences. Program
Robert E. Kintner (1909-1980), television network packagers developed shows for NBC and CBS, rarely
executive, first at ABC and later at NBC risking investments on the third-place ABC.
Walt Disney (1901-1966), creative head of Walt The ABC television network was further crippled by a
Disney Studios delay in its growth caused by the Federal Communica-
tions Commission (FCC), which froze television license
Summary of Event allocations in 1949. From 1949 through 1952, no new
The American Broadcasting Company television net- television stations were permitted to go on the air, while
work (ABC-TV) is the youngest of the three surviving the FCC decided how to proceed on the many applica-
early over-the-air television networks, and for much of tions it had received. During the freeze, many major cit-
its history it was the weakest. It was begun not by cre- ies had only one or two television stations, leaving ABC
ative entrepreneurship but by government order. The without affiliates in those markets. Lucky pioneer televi-
first government-forced action took place in 1943, when sion stations took only the top shows on NBC and CBS,
the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) was or- shutting out ABC. Even when the FCC freeze ended in
dered to give up one of its two radio networks. Edward April, 1952, ABC-TV was forced to accept affiliation
John Noble, famous as the father of Life Savers candy, with weaker, ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) stations at a
purchased NBC’s Blue Network, the weaker of the two, time when most television sets did not have the proper
for $8 million. In 1945, he formally changed the name tuning mechanism for UHF signals.
of the network to the American Broadcasting Company, Through the late 1940’s and early 1950’s, ABC-TV
or ABC. made do with low-cost programming such as broadcasts
766
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 ABC Begins Its Own Network Television Service
1948
ABC intentionally courted the youth market with programs such as American Bandstand, hosted by Dick Clark (upper left). (AP/Wide
World Photos)
of roller derbies and professional wrestling. In the 1951- United Paramount Theatres used the money it raised
1952 television season, as CBS pioneered the sitcom by selling movie theaters to buy ABC for $25 million.
with I Love Lucy, ABC was forced to run Wrestling from ABC got not only an infusion of cash but also a set of ex-
Columbia Park, starring announcer Dennis James. perienced show-business managers: Goldenson, the for-
Against Ed Sullivan’s popular Toast of the Town variety mer head of Paramount’s one-thousand-theater chain,
show, ABC did not even compete; the network gave the and his assistant, Robert E. Kintner. Goldenson and
time slot back to its affiliates to air local programming. Kintner shepherded ABC through tough times with a
As late as 1954, ABC had affiliations with only forty skill that perhaps deserves more credit than that given to
of the more than three hundred television stations on the their more famous rivals, David Sarnoff of NBC and
air. This shortfall was reflected in advertising. In 1954, William S. Paley of CBS.
ABC-TV had one-tenth of the network billings, while Goldenson relied on techniques he learned at Para-
NBC-TV and CBS-TV split the rest. ABC-TV had to mount: finding a niche audience not served by larger
make do with such prime-time fare as The Chicago Sym- rivals and targeting that audience with specialized
phony Chamber Orchestra, Industries for America, and programming (a technique that would later be called
Harness Racing. “narrowcasting”). Thus, ABC, seeing the baby boomers
ABC-TV might have failed, as did the DuMont televi- abandoned by advertisers, NBC, and CBS, sought out the
sion network, had it not been for Leonard Goldenson and youth market with programs such as American Band-
his United Paramount Theatres. Under the Supreme stand, Maverick, and—in the most fortuitous deal the
Court’s ruling in United States v. Paramount Pictures, company made—Disneyland. Disneyland (later known
Inc. (1948), the Paramount Pictures studio had to sell its as The Wonderful World of Disney) spawned several
chain of movie theaters. Goldenson took charge of the di- other shows for the network, including The Mickey
vested theater company and merged it with ABC. Mouse Club. ABC stars included Edd “Kookie” Byrnes
767
ABC Begins Its Own Network Television Service The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
of 77 Sunset Strip and Ricky Nelson, among other teen hour television series for ABC-TV. The Disney television
heartthrobs. Critics attacked The Untouchables for its vi- show aired on Wednesday nights on ABC-TV beginning
olence, but that simply garnered ABC publicity it could in October, 1954. It moved to Friday nights in 1958 and
not afford through normal means. ABC-TV aimed at the then to Sunday nights in 1960, and it would remain a
bottom line, appealing to the mass of television viewers Sunday-night fixture for more than two decades. The
with a variety of offerings, rather than aiming program- show gave ABC-TV its first top twenty ratings hit, finish-
ming at the elite. ing sixth overall in the ratings for the television season
The rise of ABC-TV was remarkable. At the time of that ran from September, 1954, through May, 1955.
the ABC-United Paramount Theatres merger in Febru- This pioneering television series was designed to kin-
ary, 1953, the company owned only two television sta- dle interest in the Disneyland theme park, which opened
tions in major markets and shared a third. In 1952, ABC in July, 1955. ABC-TV took a one-third financial interest
had lost more than $140,000 and had $12 million of debt in the park, as well as all profits from food concessions
on its books. Despite continual innovations, Goldenson for the first ten years, in exchange for providing financ-
and Kintner daily battled to raise ad sales, boost affiliate ing. Disneyland and the Disneyland show proved to be
relations, and not follow DuMont out of business. ABC- instant hits, forever transforming ABC-TV.
TV slowly built up. As more stations went on the air after One new segment of the Disney television effort on
the FCC freeze was lifted, they had no choice but to affil- ABC-TV surpassed all expectations. The December,
iate with ABC-TV, because the other two networks al- 1954, “Davy Crockett: Indian Fighter” episode, shown
ready had affiliates in most major markets. These new during “Frontierland,” created a national obsession of
stations tended to be weaker UHF stations, however, so enormous proportions. By mid-1955, “The Ballad of
even as ABC-TV’s coverage grew it could not match that Davy Crockett” had become a pop music hit, coonskin
of NBC-TV or CBS-TV through the 1950’s. caps were atop nearly all baby-boom children, and the
Goldenson compensated for the weaknesses of his actor who played Davy Crockett, Fess Parker, had be-
network by turning ABC-TV into a showcase of new tal- come one of television’s first true stars. In the process,
ent. If there was a turning point, it came in 1953, when television set owners scrambled to tune in ABC-TV.
Danny Thomas’s I Love Lucy knockoff, Make Room for With the Disney success, Goldenson was able to con-
Daddy, went on the air. The show soon proved that the vince Warner Bros. to produce television shows for his
third network was capable of creating a prime-time hit. network. Cheyenne, 77 Sunset Strip, Surfside 6, and Mav-
Deals with Walt Disney and Warner Bros., however, erick enabled ABC to begin making a profit. Soon after
were what carried ABC-TV over the financial hump. came Hawaiian Eye and The Roaring Twenties. ABC was
In April, 1954, Walt Disney and ABC-TV announced not only surviving but also looking forward to thriving.
plans for their Disneyland television series. Network
television was a means to an end for Disney. Disney rec- Significance
ognized that the baby boom was creating a large new au- It was not until the mid-1970’s that ABC would finally
dience and that the demographic shift in the postwar rank alongside NBC and CBS in terms of market share.
years placed an extremely large segment of that audience Goldenson’s pioneering efforts through the 1950’s, how-
in the suburbs. He conceived a new type of theme park ever, revolutionized American television. His greatest
that would cater to the automobile-owning suburban achievement was to unite television with Hollywood.
family of the 1950’s. His brother, Roy O. Disney, had ap- Until Goldenson was able to sign Disney and then War-
proached banks but could not convince their conserva- ner Bros. to produce shows, ABC-TV survived on expe-
tive loan officers that Disney would build something dient moves and the exploitation of fads. The production
more than another Coney Island. The financial institu- deals with the studios, however, made the network finan-
tions therefore turned the Disney brothers down; they cially stable.
wanted no part of the proposed Disneyland. Prior to the ABC deals with Disney and Warner Bros.,
Searching for another source of capital to build Dis- moreover, Hollywood had tried to take over television.
neyland, Walt and Roy Disney tried to interest a television ABC proved that a “marriage of convenience” was the
network in their plans. David Sarnoff at NBC-TV and Wil- best arrangement, in the long run, for all concerned. The
liam Paley at CBS-TV were not interested. The Disney network brought Hollywood into the television business
brothers then turned to Goldenson, who agreed to back and ensured that Hollywood would remain at the center
Disneyland if the Disney company would produce a one- of television production thereafter: In the years imme-
768
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 ABC Begins Its Own Network Television Service
diately following the success of Disneyland and the Barnouw, Erik. The Image Empire. Vol. 3 in A History
Warner Bros. entries, the other major Hollywood studios of Broadcasting in the United States. New York: Ox-
entered television production as well. By 1960, televi- ford University Press, 1970. The final volume of the
sion production was primarily a Hollywood effort. The Barnouw trilogy covering the basic history of radio
days of live television drama, broadcast from New York and television.
City, were over. Disney and ABC made Hollywood and Castleman, Harry, and Walter J. Podrazik. Watching TV:
its studios the center of television production. Four Decades of American Television. New York:
ABC skillfully copied its larger rivals. When CBS pi- McGraw-Hill, 1982. Presents a remarkable amount of
oneered with I Love Lucy, ABC found similar, cheaper basic information on the early history of television.
sitcoms produced by independent companies headed by The rise of ABC as a television power is treated in
Ozzie Nelson and Danny Thomas. In time, The Adven- some detail throughout.
tures of Ozzie and Harriet would run 435 episodes on Goldenson, Leonard H. Beating the Odds. New York:
1948
ABC, Make Room for Daddy 336 episodes, and The Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1991. A candid autobiogra-
Donna Reed Show 274 episodes. phy by the man who created ABC-TV. The deal with
Goldenson innovated of necessity as a result of his Disney is described in some detail, as is the impact on
need to compete with larger, richer networks. He ran news ABC-TV in particular and on the television industry
on Sunday nights against Ed Sullivan’s highly popular in general. This should be read in conjunction with In-
Toast of the Town, thereby anticipating the genre of inside ABC by Quinlin.
vestigative news shows such as 60 Minutes. He was bold Grover, Ron. The Disney Touch. Homewood, Ill.: Busi-
enough to telecast—live—the Army-McCarthy hearings. ness One Irwin, 1991. This well-written book offers a
With ABC’s growing profits, Goldenson purchased business portrait of the fascinating history of the Dis-
television stations in Detroit and San Francisco, so ABC ney company, from its founding to the late 1980’s.
would have a base of operations in the major American This is no corporate puff piece but a serious analysis
cities to match CBS and NBC. The ABC-owned-and- of why the Walt Disney Company succeeded.
operated stations were all on channel 7, because in the MacDonald, J. Fred. One Nation Under Television: The
early years of television many broadcasters believed that Rise and Decline of Network Television. New York:
“high band” channels (those beginning with channel 7) Pantheon Books, 1990. Offers a basic survey history
were inferior to the original allocations on channels 2 of television and includes a great deal of information
through 6. The technical distinction proved not to matter, on ABC. This is a comprehensive and well-docu-
and in time ABC’s owned stations became a reliable mented study.
source of financial support for the ABC-TV network. In Quinlin, Sterling. Inside ABC: American Broadcasting
time, ABC-TV joined NBC-TV and CBS-TV in stature as Company’s Rise to Power. New York: Hastings
one of the three dominant networks in American televi- House, 1979. A serious history, tendered by a former
sion. vice president of the company. Quinlin offers signifi-
—Douglas Gomery cant detail on the rise of ABC-TV and its dealings
with Hollywood. Should be read in conjunction with
Further Reading
Beating the Odds by Goldenson.
Abramson, Albert. The History of Television, 1942 to
2000. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2003. Includes See also: May 2, 1941: FCC Licenses Commercial
separate chapters on World-War-II-era television, Television; May 2, 1941: NBC Is Ordered to Divest
postwar development, the rise of color, and the divi- Itself of a Radio Network; July 17, 1955: Disneyland
sion in format between the United States and Europe. Amusement Park Opens.
769
Dead Sea Scrolls Are Unearthed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
April 26, 1948

Dead Sea Scrolls Are Unearthed
The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls provided themselves into what would become known as Qumran
archaelogists and religious scholars with primary and Cave 1. The floor was covered with debris, but along one
secondary biblical sources that were about one wall were several narrow jars. They looked into one and
thousand years older than any previous such tore the cover from another but found nothing. Another
documents. They therefore illuminated one thousand contained dirt. Finally, from one they pulled out three
years of Hebrew and Christian textual history, smelly, old leather scrolls wrapped like mummies. They
revolutionizing the study of both Judaism and early could not read them. Hopes for hidden treasure faded.
Christianity. The Bedouins could not know that the Hebrew and
Aramaic scrolls they had found were the oldest known
Locale: Khirbat Qumran, Palestine (now in the West copy of the biblical book of Isaiah in Hebrew, a commen-
Bank) tary on the biblical book of Habakkuk, and a religious
Categories: Archaeology; religion, theology, and sect’s book of guidelines, called the Manual of Disci-
ethics pline. A few weeks later, one of the young men returned
Key Figures with other Bedouins to find and remove four more
Muwammad adh-Dhib (fl. mid-twentieth century), scrolls. These included a second scroll of Isaiah; a dam-
Bedouin shepherd aged but fascinating narrative in the first person, called
Kando (Khalil Iskander Shahin; d. 1993), Syrian Genesis Apocryphon; a book of thanksgiving psalms;
antiquities dealer and a work titled The War of the Sons of Light Against the
Millar Burrows (1889-1980), visiting director of the Sons of Darkness. The Bedouins could only hope that
American School of Oriental Research in perhaps some scholar or collector of antiquities might
Jerusalem, 1931-1932 and 1947-1948 want the writings on these rolled-up sheepskins.
Eliezer Sukenik (1889-1953), Polish-born Israeli The political unrest in Palestine did not favor trade or
professor of archaeology at the Hebrew University archaeological investigation. British rule was ending, and
Mar Athanasius Yeshue Samuel (1907-1995), the Jews desired to establish an independent state of Israel.
archbishop in the Syrian Orthodox Church The British, Jews, and Arabs turned against one another.
Roland de Vaux (1903-1971), French Dominican priest Acts of terrorism were common, and war was looming.
and archaeologist In the middle of this upheaval in early 1947, two of the
John Strugnell (b. 1930), American professor of Bedouins brought the first three scrolls and two of the
Christian origins at Harvard University Divinity jars to Bethlehem with hopes of selling them. They con-
School and chief editor of the scrolls since 1987 tacted two Syrian Orthodox Christians, George Isaiah
and Kando (Khalil Iskander Shahin), who agreed to han-
Summary of Event dle the scrolls for one-third of the eventual sale price.
Accounts of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls do not During Holy Week, George Isaiah mentioned the
always agree. The number of people involved and the po- scrolls to the Syrian Orthodox archbishop, Mar Athana-
litical upheaval at the time seem to have clouded the event, sius Yeshue Samuel, at St. Mark’s Monastery in Jerusa-
leading to both exaggeration and omission. In the spring lem. Within the week, the Manual of Discipline was
of 1947, young Bedouins of the Ta4amireh tribe watched brought to the archbishop. Samuel could not read the lan-
their goats and sheep graze among the cliffs in the wilder- guage of the leather scroll but decided to buy the lot.
ness near Khirbat Qumran. Some of the flock had climbed Kando agreed and left with the sample. Weeks passed,
up the cliffs by the end of the day. As Muwammad adh- and the clergyman began to wonder if he would hear
Dhib and a friend climbed after the animals, they found a more of the scrolls.
cave. Without much thought, one of the shepherds threw Despite increased violence, Kando and the Bedouin
a rock inside and was surprised by the sound of break- shepherds brought the scrolls to Jerusalem in July. One
ing pottery. The lateness of the day and awkward entry of the fathers at St. Mark’s, however, not realizing his
prevented further exploration, but with hopes of hidden archbishop’s interest, turned Kando away, and some of
treasure, the shepherds resolved to return. the scrolls transferred to yet another dealer. This dealer
Days later, they returned and with effort lowered contacted Eliezer Sukenik, a professor of archaeology at
770
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Dead Sea Scrolls Are Unearthed
the Hebrew University. Sukenik eventually was shown The Bedouins were not as careful as the archaeologists.
four pieces of leather inscribed in a type of Hebrew script There was even evidence of deliberate destruction dur-
used between 100 b.c.e. and 100 c.e. In November, ing ancient times. Cave 4, the main library, contained fif-
Sukenik risked traveling to see more scrolls and two of teen thousand postage-stamp-sized scraps of some seven
the jars from the cave. He recorded in his diary that this hundred different writings. Professor Frank Cross rightly
was one of the greatest finds ever made in Palestine. called the situation “the ultimate in jigsaw puzzles.”
Sukenik was able to purchase three of the seven scrolls. Restoring some of the scrolls required the latest tech-
He correctly judged them at a time when faked docu- nologies available. For example, the gooey, black Gene-
ments were common. sis Apocryphon scroll looked as though coffee had been
Archbishop Samuel, in the meantime, had purchased spilled all over it. Nevertheless, when heated with back
the other four scrolls from Kando but had not been able to lights, the carbon-based ink on the scroll absorbed more
determine their value. In late January, 1948, Sukenik heat than the surrounding leather, so the scroll’s writing
1948
asked to see them. He recognized the scrolls as belonging became visible on infrared film. Noah’s words after the
with those he had already purchased. Assurance was Flood appeared: “. . . we gathered together and went . . . to
given that he would have the first chance to purchase see the Lord of Heaven . . . who saved us from ruin.”
them. Archbishop Samuel, still not sure of the scrolls’ Father Roland de Vaux, an archaeologist who also ex-
value, called on John Trever at the American School of plored the caves, excavated the nearby ruin of Qumran.
Oriental Research. Trever excitedly sent photographs to Pottery from the caves matched pottery found at Qum-
William Foxwell Albright of Johns Hopkins University. ran. Coins found at Qumran allowed dating. Things be-
Albright airmailed his reaction: “incredible . . . there can gan to fall into place. Qumran was occupied shortly
happily not be the slightest doubt in the world about the before and during the life of Jesus. The Manual of Disci-
genuineness.” The discovery of the scrolls was con- pline (a book of rules for a sect) and the Damascus Docu-
firmed by Millar Burrows, the Winkley Professor of ments (found in both Qumran and Cairo) indicated that a
Biblical Theology in the Yale Divinity School, who was group of Jews had split off from the sect. The ancient his-
serving as the director of American School of Oriental Re- torians Pliny, Josephus, and Philo had recorded that a
search in Jerusalem for the 1947-1948 academic year. group called the Essenes lived near the Dead Sea. Many
Burrows announced the discovery of the scrolls to
the world on April 26, 1948.
With thoughts of reaping more profits, Bedouins Locations of the Dead Sea Scrolls
began to comb the hills around Khirbat Qumran,
r
Jo rd a n R i v e r
Lebanon
ve
and in 1952 they found a second cave at Murabbaat.

Ri
i
By 1956, Bedouins and archaeologists had found Littan
Nahariyya Syria
eleven caves with approximately eight hundred
Akko
scrolls. Clearly, an ancient library was being dis- Tiberias Golan
covered. Interesting, all books of the Hebrew Scrip- Haifa Heights
Mediterranean
Nazareth
tures, or Old Testament, were represented at least in Sea of
part, except for Esther. Many copies of some books S e a Galilee
Hadera
seemed to indicate favorite writings. About one- Netanya
J or d a n R i v e r
Nablus
third of the scrolls were biblical. Others included Herzliyya
commentaries on the books of the Bible, a copper Tel-Aviv West
Bank
scroll that told of hidden treasure, religious writ- Ramla
ings, a marriage contract, and correspondence by Ashdod Cave site
Jerusalem
Simeon ben Kozibah (Bar Kokhba), the leader of Ashqelon
Bethlehem
the second revolt against the Romans. The manu- Gaza Hebron Dead
scripts were in Aramaic, Hebrew, and even Greek. Strip Gaza Sea
Each writing was given a code that indicated cave Rafah
number, geographical area, and title. For example, Beersheba Jordan
the “4QSam” scroll was taken from cave 4, near Dimona
Qumran, and contained the book of Samuel. Egypt Israel
Oron
Many scrolls were damaged and incomplete.
771
Dead Sea Scrolls Are Unearthed The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
scholars concluded that the scrolls were the library of this Many questioned if the scrolls would change religious
group. Qumran evidently functioned as a religious center belief; however, no major or widespread changes in the-
that emphasized baptism, a facility where scribes copied ology or doctrine occurred. Judging by the scrolls and the
scrolls, and a pottery center to make storage jars. later extent texts, the standards for making copies of the
Scriptures were high. The scrolls thus did not seem to dif-
Significance fer in important respects from the Scriptures as they were
The Dead Sea Scrolls have proved extremely important known at the time of the scrolls’ discovery. Minor variant
for understanding the text of the Hebrew Scriptures, the readings were found that excited scholars, however, and
background to early growth of Christianity, and the na- new theories that explained the relationships of the texts
ture of Judaism at that time. Before the discovery of the were developed.
scrolls, scholars had to be content with ninth century me- Insights into the time during which Jesus lived were
dieval texts of the Hebrew Scriptures, called Masoretic also gained. The Pharisees, Sadducees, and Zealots were
texts. Comparisons were often made, however, to an relatively familiar figures, but not the Essenes. Ethelbert
older Greek translation called the Septuagint, which Stauffer of Erlangen University points out that the Man-
dated from 285 to 246 b.c.e., and a third reference source ual of Discipline taught to “love all sons of light” and
was the Samaritan Pentateuch. Actual original manu- “hate all the sons of darkness.” Jesus may have been
scripts of the Bible are lacking. The scrolls at Khirbat thinking of Essene teaching when he proclaimed, “You
Qumran, however, allowed investigators to see a thou- have heard that it was said, ‘Love your neighbor and hate
sand years beyond the previous Hebrew texts and opened your enemy.’ But I tell you, always love your enemies
a new era in textual studies and comparisons. and always pray for those who persecute you” (Matthew
One of the Dead Sea Scrolls, telling the story of the “war of the sons of light against the sons of darkness.” (Library of Congress)
772
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Dead Sea Scrolls Are Unearthed
5:43). There is no evidence, however, of any direct con- scholars have interpreted these differences. They con-
nection or contact between Jesus and the Essenes. clude that the meaning of the passages is not affected
Most have concluded that the Essenes operated the by variants.
settlement and caves at Qumran, but serious questions Golb, Norman. “The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Perspec-
still remain. Some Essene doctrines, such as celibacy, di- tive.” American Scholar 58 (Spring, 1989): 177-207.
vorce, and monogamy, parallel teachings of the early Not all investigators believe that the Essene sect was
Church. Publication of the Damascus Documents, which involved with the Qumran artifacts. Golb calls for
correlate with documents found in Egypt, promises fur- consideration of an alternative hypothesis that the
ther understanding of Qumran teachings. Jews generally hid their writings because of Roman
Slow publication of the remaining scrolls led restless oppression. He lists his arguments. His initial objec-
scholars to criticize the exclusive assigning of docu- tion was also reported and summarized in Scientific
ments to one investigator. Editor John Strugnell believed American 242 (June, 1980): 85.
1948
that funds and war were partly to blame for the delay. Lim, Timothy H. The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short In-
Even after every single scroll is published, the full theo- troduction. New York: Oxford University Press,
retical implications of the document discovery of the 2005. Overview of all the issues and problems related
twentieth century will not be clear for years to come. to the scrolls. A useful introduction to orient further
— Paul R. Boehlke exploration. Bibliographic references and index.
Mathews, K. A. “The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll
Further Reading from Qumran.” Biblical Archaeologist 50 (March,
Coss, Thurman L. Secrets from the Caves: A Layman’s 1987): 45-54. Shows and discusses an example of
Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls. New York: Abingdon variant readings with resulting English translations
Press, 1963. A question-answer approach to the sub- among the Masoretic, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the
ject of the scrolls provides quick, nontechnical infor- Greek Septuagint, and the Leviticus (11QpaleLev)
mation on various basic issues that are often raised by scroll. Hebrew practices such as placing dots be-
the discoveries. Good introduction to the scrolls. tween words, “hanging” the letters on lines made
Davies, Philip R. “How Not to Do Archaeology: The with a sharp instrument, and using different script
Story of Qumran.” Biblical Archaeologist 51 (De- for the name of God (which was not to be read) are
cember, 1988): 203-207. Davies cites slowness in explained.
publication, lack of objectivity, jumping to conclu- Schuller, Eileen. The Dead Sea Scrolls: What Have We
sions, and preoccupation with dating as problems at Learned? Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox
Qumran. He objects to Qumran being called a reli- Press, 2006. Summarizes the state of scholarship, in-
gious center and suggests that it looks more like an ag- cluding the relationship between the scrolls and the
ricultural settlement that was strategically placed for Christian Scriptures (New Testament), as well as their
defensive purposes. importance to Judaism. Bibliographic references and
Gaster, Theodor H. The Dead Sea Scriptures. 2d ed. Gar- index.
den City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976. Gaster furnishes Shanks, Hershel. “Leading Dead Sea Scroll Scholar De-
English translations with notes on some of the scrolls nounces Delay.” Biblical Archaeological Review 16
that have not been known previously through the (March/April, 1990): 18-25. Recognized scholars ex-
Bible or Apocrypha. The Memoirs of the Patriarchs pressed their frustrations with the slowness of the
(also known as Genesis Apocryphon) is particularly publication of “4Q” materials and especially the lack
interesting. The hymns (psalms) show strong reflec- of access they have had to the scrolls. Highly recom-
tions of the familiar Scriptures and are thought by mended to anyone with an interest in biblical archae-
Gaster to be the most original literary work found in ology. The approach is nontechnical and the illustra-
the scrolls. tions are excellent.
Geisler, Norman L., and William E. Nix. From God to Tushingham, Douglas A. “The Men Who Hid the Dead
Us: How We Got Our Bible. Chicago: Moody Press, Sea Scrolls.” National Geographic 64 (December,
1974. Two recognized scholars review the history of 1958): 784-808. The illustrations by Peter V. Bianchi
both testaments of the Bible. Chapter 17 discusses the are very well done. Findings of the excavations by Fa-
differences among the Septuagint, the Masoretic text, ther Roland de Vaux at Qumran are explained. Pro-
the Samaritan, and the Dead Sea Scrolls and how vides background on the environment of the settle-
773
Organization of American States Is Founded The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
ment and its people. The difficult sorting of the scroll See also: 1941: Bultmann Offers a Controversial Inter-
fragments at the museum is shown. pretation of the Christian Scriptures; Mar. 4, 1949:
Wise, Michael. “The Dead Sea Scrolls, Part 1: Archaeol- Libby Introduces the Carbon-14 Method of Dating
ogy and Biblical Manuscripts.” Biblical Archaeolo- Ancient Objects; Nov. 1, 1950: Pius XII Proclaims
gist 49 (September, 1986): 140-154. This two-part ar- the Doctrine of the Assumption; June, 1959: Price
ticle discusses the site of Qumran and reviews the Identifies an Ancient Astronomical Computer; 1964:
biblical and nonbiblical texts found there. Details Renfrew, Dixon, and Cann Reconstruct Ancient Near
abound concerning inkwells, the long work tables for Eastern Trade Routes; 1965: Anthropologists Claim
scribes, the number of copies of each book of the Bi- That Ecuadorian Pottery Shows Transpacific Contact
ble found, pottery types, and the areas of historical rein 3000 b.c.e.
search that are affected by the scrolls.
April 30, 1948

Organization of American States Is Founded
The creation of the Organization of American States, interested primarily in hemispheric security, whereas the
or OAS, established a vehicle for all nations in the Latin American nations wanted to further their own in-
Americas to work toward common goals. From its ternal economic development.
inception, the OAS has championed human rights by This principle of hemispheric defense had been con-
attempting to prevent warfare between member nations firmed by the Act of Havana of July, 1940. The agree-
and by condemning human rights violations within ment, signed by the twenty-one republics of the Pan-
these nations. American Union, provided that the republics of the
Americas, individually or collectively, should control
Locale: Bogotá, Colombia and administer any European possession in the Western
Categories: Diplomacy and international relations; Hemisphere threatened by any act of aggression. After
organizations and institutions; human rights the bombing of Pearl Harbor by the Japanese on Decem-
Key Figures ber 7, 1941, most Latin American nations had declared
Alberto Lleras Camargo (1906-1990), first general war on Germany and Japan, thus causing pan-American-
secretary of the OAS, acting president of Colombia, ism to be strengthened. This wartime cooperation was
1945-1946, and president, 1958-1962 continued by such agreements as the Act of Chapultepec
George C. Marshall (1880-1959), U.S. secretary of of March 3, 1945, which recognized that aggression
state and chief U.S. delegate to the Bogotá against any American nation was aggression against all
conference of them. Two years later, negotiations were undertaken
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), president of the United for the purpose of creating a permanent defensive alli-
States, 1945-1953 ance.
Jorge Eliécer Gaitán (1902-1948), leader of the On June 3, 1947, U.S. president Harry S. Truman an-
Liberal Party of Colombia nounced that the United States was willing to negotiate
an inter-American mutual defense pact. Working to se-
Summary of Event cure this end, in August a conference of twenty-one
After World War II, the traditional preeminence of Latin American nations convened at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
American countries in U.S. diplomacy was replaced by U.S. secretary of state George C. Marshall spoke for the
the demands of Europe and the Far East upon U.S. United States. Faced by clamor demanding a Marshall
money and military strength. Latin America was not for- Plan for Latin America, the secretary of state asked that
gotten, but the United States concentrated on the com- such economic questions be postponed temporarily. The
munist threat to Western Europe and gave highest prior- principal result of the conference was the signing, on
ity to economic and military aid in that region. This September 2, of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal
change would lead to difficulties with Latin America. In Assistance providing for active cooperation in the event
the years between 1945 and 1948, the United States was of any attack on an American nation. Members agreed to
774
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Organization of American States Is Founded
consult together if the threat of aggression arose against clear distinctions in theory and in practice between the
any of their number, and eventually all twenty-one Amer- OAS and the old Pan-American Union.
ican republics ratified the treaty. Under the OAS charter, all American nations that rati-
This pact became the model for later mutual security fied it agreed to certain basic principles: international
agreements, but it failed to set up methods by which sig- law and order govern inter-American relations, espe-
natories of the pact could be convened or make decisions cially the idea of equality of member states; an act of ag-
and carry out resolutions. The questions left unanswered gression against one will be considered to be aggression
at the Rio de Janeiro conference were held over for the against all; any controversy between states shall be de-
Ninth International Conference of American States, cided by peaceful means; and the well-being of the
which met at Bogotá, Colombia, in the spring of 1948. American peoples depends on social justice, political de-
This conference led to the formation of the Organization mocracy, economic welfare, and mutual respect for na-
of American States (OAS). The charter was signed by tional cultural values. The most important provisions of
1948
twenty-one founding-member states on April 30, and the charter were those that created the machinery for car-
members elected then-former president of Colombia, rying out its principles. Six organizations were estab-
Alberto Lleras Camargo, as the first general secretary of lished: the Inter-American Conference, the Meeting of
the OAS. (Lleras Camargo would become Colombian Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Special-
president again, in 1958.) ized Conferences, the OAS Council, the Pan-American
Soon after the delegates arrived for the Bogotá con- Union, and Specialized Organizations. The first three
ference, riots broke out in the Colombian capital, which bodies were given responsibility for issues of a political,
almost disrupted the meeting. Secretary of State Mar- economic, or general nature. The Meeting of Consulta-
shall, who again headed the U.S. delegation, addressed tion of Foreign Ministers was an emergency assembly re-
the second plenary session. Describing the tremendous served for matters of extreme urgency, such as an armed
economic, military, and humanitarian responsibilities threat to hemispheric peace.
that the United States was undertaking all over the world,
Marshall confessed that U.S. resources were limited. He Significance
bluntly admitted that a Marshall Plan for Latin America The organization thus created was less than an autono-
was not possible. Europe was the critical front, and suc- mous international body. The OAS could exercise au-
cess there would ensure universal economic stability. thority only in limited areas; it was the creature of those
The most critical topic at Bogotá was the establish- nations that brought it into existence. Nevertheless, for-
ment of permanent machinery for hemispheric coopera- mation of the OAS did strengthen cooperation among the
tion. Discussions of this important matter were inter- republics of the Western Hemisphere, and increasingly it
rupted abruptly on April 9, when Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, has become the vehicle for majority action in the political
leader of the opposition Liberal Party in Colombia, was and military realms.
assassinated in downtown Bogotá. The violence pro- Although the OAS was founded in 1948, its charter
voked a riot that soon spread out of control. For several actually took force on December 13, 1951. Since that
days, the visiting delegations were besieged in their em- time, as economic, social, and political views have
bassies and hotel rooms. Much of Bogotá lay in ruins by evolved, the OAS has restructured, reformed, and mod-
the time that the Colombian army gained control of the ernized to stay abreast of events and address issues as
situation. On April 14, the conference was able to resume they arise. In 1967, the Protocol of Buenos Aires enabled
its meetings in a boys’ school near the U.S. embassy. the inclusion of new ideas in economic, social, educa-
The major achievement of the conference was the cre- tional, scientific, and cultural fields. In 1985, the Proto-
ation of the OAS, which was accomplished by renaming col of Cartagena called for representative democracy
and reorganizing an existing organization, the sixty- within the already established policy of nonintervention.
year-old Pan-American Union. The charter of the OAS An example of this in action was the organization’s ef-
consolidated into one organization what previously had forts to assure peaceful and democratic elections in Haiti
been an informal association acting on matters of com- in December, 1995. An OAS observation mission spent a
mon concern, but it replaced the flexibility of the former month in Haiti before the elections, observed voting
inter-American system with a rigid, more coherent pat- throughout the country on election day, and monitored
tern of rights and obligations. Although the OAS was not the vote counts. The Managua Protocol, which was
an entirely new inter-American organization, there were adopted on June 10, 1993, calls for a cooperative effort to
775
Organization of American States Is Founded The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
Organization of American States: Members and Years of Signature

Antigua and Barbuda Colombia (1948) Guyana (1991) St. Lucia (1979)
(1981) Costa Rica (1948) Haiti (1948) St. Vincent and
Argentina (1948) Cuba (1948) Honduras (1948) Grenadines (1981)
Bahamas (1982) Dominica (1979) Jamaica (1969) Suriname (1977)
Barbados (1967) Dominican Republic Mexico (1948) Trinidad and Tobago
Belize (1991) (1948) Nicaragua (1948) (1967)
Bolivia (1948) Ecuador (1948) Panama (1948) United States (1948)
Brazil (1948) El Salvador (1948) Paraguay (1948) Uruguay (1948)
Canada (1989) Grenada (1975) Peru (1948) Venezuela (1948)
Chile (1948) Guatemala (1948) St. Kitts and Nevis (1984)
encourage development and eliminate abject poverty Hall, 1963. A thorough look at the United States and
from the Western Hemisphere; this policy was ratified its relationship with members of the OAS in Latin
upon the approval of two-thirds of the members and was America.
officially put in place on January 29, 1996. The OAS re- Melish, Tara. Protecting Economic, Social, and Cultural
mained active in Haiti through the political instability ex- Rights in the Inter-American Human Rights System: A
perienced there in 2004-2005, in an effort to monitor Manual Presenting Claims. New Haven, Conn.: Yale
elections in that troubled country. With the rise of demo- Law School, 2002. A practical guide to the inter-
cratic governments, the OAS is frequently engaged with American human rights system and its functioning in
member states to ensure free and fair elections. the early twenty-first century.
Other measures of great interest within the OAS in- Mower, A. Glenn, Jr. Regional Human Rights: A Com-
clude human rights, the rights of women, an end to do- parative Study of the West European and Inter-Ameri-
mestic violence, and an end to the use of violence as a can Systems. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
way to overthrow governments. The Protocol of Wash- Considers the question of human rights, a subject of
ington, which was adopted in 1992, calls for suspending increasing importance in international relations.
the rights of any member of the organization’s councils Muñoz, Heraldo. The Future of the OAS. New York:
if that member’s government has been overthrown by Twentieth Century Free Press, 1993. Discusses the
force. This protocol, which entered into force in 1997, is anticipated role of the OAS in the twenty-first cen-
designed to pressure countries into settling disagree- tury.
ments and ousting unpopular or corrupt governments Palmer, Bruce, Jr. Intervention in the Caribbean: The
by peaceful means, such as through the ballot box. Dominican Crisis of 1965. Lexington: University
—Theodore A. Wilson and Kay Hively Press of Kentucky, 1989. A thoughtful look at one of
the most important crises to face the OAS, and how
Further Reading that crisis was handled by the organization.
Connell-Smith, Gordon. The Inter-American System. Shaw, Carolyn M. Cooperation, Conflict, and Consensus
New York: Oxford University Press, 1966. An infor- in the Organization of American States. New York:
mative study of how the inter-American system Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. A study of conflict man-
works, and a good presentation of the original Bogotá agement and global security among OAS member-
meeting in 1948. states.
Harris, David J., and Stephen Livingstone, eds. The Stoetzer, O. Carlos. The Organization of American
Inter-American System of Human Rights. New York: States: An Introduction. New York: Praeger, 1965.
Oxford University Press, 1998. Anthology exploring An easy-to-understand, introductory examination of
the history and status of human rights in the Americas the OAS.
and the international treaties and laws designed to en- Thomas, Christopher R. The Organization of American
force those rights. States in Its Fiftieth Year: Overview of a Regional
Matthews, Herbert L., ed. The United States and Latin Commitment. Washington, D.C.: Organization of
America. 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice- American States, 1998. In-house report of the fifty-
776
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man
year anniversary of the organization. Includes a bibli- ica; Aug. 12-18, 1959: Inter-American Commission
ography. on Human Rights Is Created; Oct. 22-28, 1962: Cu-
ban Missile Crisis; Apr. 28, 1965: U.S. Troops Oc-
See also: May 2, 1948: American Declaration on the
cupy the Dominican Republic; Nov. 22, 1969: Inter-
Rights and Duties of Man Is Adopted; Apr. 27-May
American Court of Human Rights Is Established.
15, 1958: Nixon Faces Riots on Tour of Latin Amer-
May 2, 1948
American Declaration on the Rights and Duties
of Man Is Adopted
1948
The Ninth International Conference of American which it was held. The assassination in 1948 of Liberal
States, which established the Organization of politician Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, who had been denied a
American States (OAS), adopted the American seat in the Colombian delegation to the conference, trig-
Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man. While gered rioting and accelerated the period of violence,
the declaration failed to prevent human rights abuses called La Violencia, that engulfed Colombia from 1946
by American dictatorships in the near term, it was a to 1958. The rioting put the capital city in chaos, and the
landmark document in the history of human rights, turmoil spread to other cities in Colombia. While the mil-
preceding even the United Nations declaration on the itary defended the government, the national police took
subject. arms with the antigovernment Gaitán supporters. The
military and the government prevailed, but not before
Locale: Bogotá, Colombia thousands had died.
Categories: Human rights; diplomacy and Foreign Minister Laureano Gómez was a Conserva-
international relations tive rival to Gaitán and opened the conference as its pres-
Key Figures ident. The April, 1948, disturbances prompted the relo-
George C. Marshall (1880-1959), U.S. secretary of cation of the conference to a more secure site in the
state, 1947-1949 outskirts of Bogotá. Colombians, in the midst of pro-
Alberto Lleras Camargo (1906-1990), president of found threats to their lives and security, thus hosted a
Colombia, 1945-1946 and 1958-1962, and director- conference that eventually affirmed the right to life, lib-
general of the Pan-American Union erty, and personal security.
Rómulo Betancourt (1908-1981), president of The origins of the 1948 declaration date at least as far
Venezuela, 1945-1948 and 1959-1964, and chair of back as the 1936 Inter-American Conference for the
the Venezuelan delegation to the Ninth International Maintenance of Peace, at which a proposal affirming the
Conference of American States right to life, liberty, and freedom of religion, as well as
the duty of states to protect those rights for all, was con-
Summary of Event sidered but rejected. In early 1945, the American states
From March 30 to May 2, 1948, the Ninth International met in Mexico City for the Inter-American Conference
Conference of American States met in Bogotá, Colom- on Problems of War and Peace. Among the results of that
bia, to consider a wide range of agenda items. Perhaps conference was a call for the development of a declara-
the most consequential outcomes of the conference were tion on the international rights and duties of man. In the
the signing of the charter of the Organization of Ameri- preamble to the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal As-
can States (OAS) and the signing of the American Decla- sistance (the “Rio Pact” of 1947), signatories affirmed
ration on the Rights and Duties of Man. The latter event the importance of the protection of human rights but did
was significant in that it was the first international decla- not bind themselves to upholding them.
ration on human rights, preceding the United Nations Responding to the call of the Mexico conference, the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was Inter-American Juridical Committee developed a draft
signed later the same year. resolution, the final version of which was presented to
The conference was notable not only for what it the Ninth International Conference. In the preparation of
achieved but also for the social and political context in this document, much of the debate centered on the degree
777
Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
to which it would be legally binding. Some states, includ- tive statement on human rights. Approximately three
ing Guatemala, Uruguay, and Brazil, sought effective hundred officials, representing all twenty-one member
enforcement mechanisms and strong language concern- states, attended the Bogotá conference to consider,
ing human rights. The United States, among others, among other documents, the charter and the draft decla-
urged more moderate language, successfully opposing, ration. The United States delegation was led by Secretary
for example, a statement on the right of resistance to op- of State George C. Marshall. Marshall stayed for the ma-
pression. On the question of the right to health, the U.S. jority of the nearly five-week-long conference, indicat-
delegation successfully inserted a statement disavowing ing the priority of such matters on the foreign policy
any preference between public and private health care agenda of President Harry S. Truman. Alberto Lleras
systems. Camargo, director-general of the Pan-American Union
During the drafting of the declaration, central ques- and soon to be secretary-general of the new Organization
tions concerned whether the statement would have the of American States, was also a delegate to the confer-
force, and enforcement mechanisms, of a treaty, and ence. The subcommittee concerned with the rights and
whether human rights should be extensively incorpo- duties of man was chaired by Chile’s Enrique Bernstein.
rated into the Charter of the Organization of American Former (and later) Venezuelan president Rómulo Betan-
States. Most states, including the United States, favored court headed his country’s delegation.
a nonbinding declaration with no enforcement mecha- The final declaration was adopted as Resolution 30 of
nisms. On the question of the charter, most states held the the Final Act of the Conference and was signed on May
view that it should be confined to matters of organiza- 2, 1948. The preamble to the declaration asserts that “all
tional purpose, structure, and function. The OAS Charter men are born free and equal” and notes the interrelation-
does, however, make some mention of human rights, ship of rights and duties: “While rights exalt liberty, du-
most notably in article 5(j), which states: “The American ties express the dignity of that liberty.” The declaration
States proclaim the fundamental rights of the individual contains thirty-eight articles, twenty-eight of which pro-
without distinction as to race, nationality, creed or sex.” claim the rights of people and the remaining ten of which
The preamble to the charter proclaims a desire for “indi- describe the duties of individuals.
vidual liberty and social justice based on respect for the Among the rights affirmed by the declaration are
essential rights of man.” those to life, liberty, and personal security; to equality
Despite such rhetoric found in the charter, the Decla- before the law; to religious freedom; to a family and its
ration on the Rights and Duties of Man is a more defini- protection, specifically protection for mothers and chil-
dren; to residence and freedom of
movement; to the preservation of
health; to education; to take part in
the cultural life of the community; to
work and to receive fair remunera-
tion; to social security; to enjoy basic
civil rights; to a fair trial; to vote; to
assemble peaceably; to petition; and
to protection from arbitrary arrest.
To view image, please refer to print edition Those duties spelled out by the dec-
laration include those toward chil-
dren and parents; to vote; to obey the
law; to serve the community and na-
tion; to pay taxes; to work; and to re-
frain from political activities in an-
other country.
The declaration thus considers
the rights and duties of humanity to
be social, political, and, to some de-
gree, economic. Many of the princi-
Venezuelan president Rómulo Betancourt. (Hulton Archive/Getty Images) ples spelled out in the declaration are
778
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man
also contained in the constitutions of various American be surprising, therefore, that the declaration did not take
states, a fact that the declaration observes. Resolution 31 the form of a more potent and controversial convention
of the Final Act, which was unsuccessfully opposed by or treaty. Although not possessing the legal power of a
the United States, sought to create an inter-American convention or a treaty, the declaration did clarify hemi-
court to guarantee human rights and thereby enhance the spheric goals with respect to human rights and laid the
possibilities of implementation of the declaration. This groundwork for the United Nations Universal Declara-
resolution called upon the Inter-American Juridical tion. As a symbolic gesture, if not a substantive one, the
Committee to prepare a draft statute creating the court, to document was an important contribution to human rights
be presented to the Tenth Inter-American Conference. in the inter-American system.
Resolution 32, supported by the United States and The human rights situation in the Americas did not
consistent with the nascent cold war atmosphere of the improve dramatically in the years following the declara-
postwar era, effectively endorsed the efforts of several tion. While the late 1950’s and early 1960’s appeared to
1948
Latin American nations to outlaw Communist parties. be, in the words of one observer, the “Twilight of the Ty-
The years preceding the declaration had seen a hesitant rants,” the human rights situation worsened considerably
and, as it turned out, short-lived movement in several under the many military governments of the late 1960’s
Latin American nations toward the establishment of and 1970’s. In any case, the commitment of the Ameri-
broader political rights, at least among non-Communist can states to the principles laid down in the declaration
parties and their members. Nowhere was this trend better did not appear noticeably stronger in the years following
exemplified than in Venezuela, which between 1945 and its signing. The Inter-American Juridical Committee
1948 experimented with popular democracy under the chose not to pursue the matter of an inter-American court
leadership of Rómulo Betancourt and his Acción Demo- after the Ninth International Conference, deciding that
crática party. such a body would be a premature addition to the inter-
Venezuela’s first free elections were held in 1947, and American system. The declaration did become the prece-
the populist Acción Democrática won a resounding vic- dent, however, for several more potent documents and
tory. Peasants seeking land and all those seeking the right structures with regard to human rights in the hemisphere.
to a voice in government saw the election as a harbinger —Robert B. Andersen
of a brighter future. A military coup in 1948, however,
delayed the reality of Venezuelan democracy for another Further Reading
decade, forced many of Acción Democrática’s leaders Ball, M. Margaret. The OAS in Transition. Durham,
underground and into exile, and led to the brutally repres- N.C.: Duke University Press, 1969. An amply docu-
sive dictatorship of General Marcos Pérez Jiménez. This mented, legalistic description of the creation of the
triumph of dictatorship in many ways set the tone for Organization of American States which gives appro-
Latin American governments for years to come. priate attention to the development of human rights in
the years leading up to and following the creation of
Significance the OAS. Footnotes, index, bibliography, appendixes.
The American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Bethell, Leslie. “From the Second World War to the Cold
Man, for the precedent that it set, was a landmark state- War, 1944-1954.” In Exporting Democracy: The
ment. By the time the document was signed, however, United States and Latin America, edited by Abraham
the momentum toward meaningful civil and political F. Lowenthal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
rights begun in 1945 and 1946 had slowed considerably. Press, 1991. Insightful overview of a crucial period in
Dictatorships in such places as Nicaragua and the Do- U.S.-Latin American relations, noting the inconsis-
minican Republic not only survived but, by 1948, tencies in U.S. support for democracy in the region at
seemed to be strengthened as well. The Somoza family the time of the signing of the declaration. Footnotes,
dynasty in Nicaragua, launched in the 1930’s, would last index included.
until the 1979 revolution. Rafael Trujillo in the Domini- Claude, Richard Pierre, and Burns H. Weston, eds. Hu-
can Republic would control that country until 1961. man Rights in the World Community. Philadelphia:
Leslie Bethell notes that although many Latin Ameri- University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989. Several of
can nations at the time were respectful of the right to vote the articles in this volume are useful for placing the
in elections, in most such “democracies” the rights of re- American Declaration and other aspects of inter-
formists and leftists were severely curtailed. It should not American human rights into a broader international
779
Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios to Divest Theaters The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
and comparative perspective. The selection coau- Slater, Jerome. The OAS and United States Foreign Pol-
thored by Weston explicity compares the inter- icy. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1967. Ex-
American system with other regional approaches. amines the uses to which the United States has put the
Includes bibliography and index. OAS, noting the positions taken with respect to dicta-
Harris, David J., and Stephen Livingstone, eds. The Inter- torship, democracy, and other facets of human rights.
American System of Human Rights. New York: Oxford Critical and at times cynical toward the patterns of
University Press, 1998. Anthology of essays exploring U.S. foreign policy. Bibliography, index included.
the history and status of human rights in the Americas Thomas, Ann Van Wynen, and A. J. Thomas, Jr. The Or-
and the international treaties and laws designed to en- ganization of American States. Dallas: Southern
force those rights. Bibliographic references and index. Methodist University Press, 1963. Considers the
Inter-American Institute of International Legal Studies. structure, principles, and functions of the OAS, in-
The Inter-American System: Its Development and cluding its role in the development of an inter-
Strengthening. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana, 1966. American system of human rights. The chapter dis-
Straightforward, legalistic presentation of interna- cussing democracy and human rights pays particular
tional law in the Americas, with an extensive chapter attention to the American Declaration. Appendixes,
devoted to human rights and representative democ- footnotes, and index included.
racy. Useful appendixes and bibliography. No index. See also: Apr. 30, 1948: Organization of American
Melish, Tara. Protecting Economic, Social and Cultural States Is Founded; Dec. 10, 1948: United Nations
Rights in the Inter-American Human Rights System: A Adopts the Universal Declaration of Human Rights;
Manual Presenting Claims. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Apr. 27-May 15, 1958: Nixon Faces Riots on Tour of
Law School, 2002. A practical guide to the inter- Latin America; Aug. 12-18, 1959: Inter-American
American human rights system and its functioning in Commission on Human Rights Is Created; Oct. 22-
the early twenty-first century. Bibliographic refer- 28, 1962: Cuban Missile Crisis; Nov. 22, 1969: Inter-
ences. American Court of Human Rights Is Established.
May 3, 1948
Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios to Divest Theaters
The U.S. Supreme Court determined that it was a Summary of Event
violation of antitrust laws for a film studio to own a During the 1930’s, the motion picture industry was
chain of movie theaters. The major studios were dominated by five major studios, Radio-Keith-Orpheum
therefore ordered to divest themselves of the theaters (RKO), Warner Bros., Paramount, Loew’s, and Twenti-
they owned. eth Century-Fox, that produced, distributed, and ex-
hibited motion pictures. Three other minor firms—
Also known as: United States v. Paramount Pic- Columbia, United Artists, and Universal—produced and
tures, Inc. distributed significant numbers of motion pictures but
Locale: Washington, D.C. did not own any theaters. The five major studios owned
Categories: Motion pictures and video; laws, acts, theaters accounting for about 45 percent of U.S. film
and legal history; trade and commerce rentals; they owned 70 percent of first-run theaters in cit-
Key Figures ies with populations larger than 100,000 and 60 percent
William O. Douglas (1898-1980), associate justice of in cities with populations between 25,000 and 100,000.
the United States, 1939-1975 The major studios’ theaters were operated by franchise
Augustus N. Hand (1869-1954), judge of the U.S. agreements in which film rental charges were assessed as
Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, 1928-1953 a percentage of overall receipts. The contracts were de-
Felix Frankfurter (1882-1965), associate justice of the tailed and provided circuits (groups of theaters) with op-
United States, 1939-1962 tions that were not granted to independent theaters.
Barney Balaban (1887-1971), president of Paramount Distribution of films to independent exhibitors was,
Pictures, 1936-1964 nevertheless, an important activity if the profit from a
780
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios to Divest Theaters
film was to be maximized. Since distributors leased bers of new theaters. It was stipulated that conflicts over
rather than sold films, a film distributor had to be con- clearances were to be resolved by independent arbitrators.
cerned not only with existing leases but also with sched- Complaints from independent exhibitors continued
uling future leases. Typically, a film was publicized, then after the consent decree, and in August, 1944, the gov-
distributed to large, high-gross theaters for a “run,” and ernment asked the studios if they would agree to amend
then distributed to smaller, low-gross theaters (known as the consent decree to mandate that they sell their the-
“second-run theaters”) for additional runs. Because aters. The studios rejected the proposed breakup of their
some days of the week generated larger attendance than vertically integrated firms, and the government re-
others and because transportation of films was a time- sponded by reviving the 1938 antitrust case. The eight
consuming, costly process, efficient scheduling of all the different cases resulting from this decision were consoli-
runs of a given film at different theaters was a critical ac- dated as United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. They
tivity. were tried before a three-judge panel of the U.S. District
1948
The five major and three minor studios developed nu- Court for the Southern District of New York beginning
merous business practices to maximize the profits they on October 8, 1945. Augustus N. Hand—a judge on the
realized through film distribution. These included speci- U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit who had
fying admission prices to be charged by the theater; leas- previously sat on the district court—was temporarily re-
ing packages of films on an all-or-nothing basis, a prac- assigned to the district court to head the panel. On June
tice known as “block-booking”; providing the exhibitor 11, 1946, Hand issued the opinion of the court. The panel
of a film with a promise not to show the film at another had decided that the studios had not monopolized the
theater in the same market for a stipulated period of time, production of motion pictures. The court also found,
a practice known as “clearance”; and joint operation of however, that the distribution practices of the five major
theaters in a given market area or a pooling of their reve- studios did violate the Sherman Antitrust Act.
nues. Theater owners complained regularly to the Justice Once this opinion was issued, the trial continued to a
Department and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) judgment phase, in which the court heard arguments and
that these business practices excluded entrants in the pro- solicited proposals from all parties as to the appropriate
duction and distribution of films and provided the stu- remedy for the studios’ distribution monopoly. The dis-
dios with monopoly power in film exhibition. trict court’s final ruling was issued on January 22, 1947:
During the early 1930’s, the Justice Department filed It ordered both the major and the minor studios to cease
numerous antitrust suits against firms in the motion pic- practices such as block-booking, dictating minimum
ture industry, alleging the use of monopolistic contract- ticket prices, requiring “arbitrary” runs and clearances,
ing practices in particular markets. After a five-year in- making “formula deals” that tied a film’s rental fee to a
vestigation of monopolistic practices in the motion percentage of its national gross revenues, and pooling the
picture industry, the department decided to use a more management of allegedly competing theaters. The court
systematic approach. In July, 1938, the Justice Depart- also ordered the major studios to institute competitive
ment filed an antitrust suit against the eight largest inte- bidding in film distribution.
grated motion picture firms. The suit alleged a conspir- Both sides appealed the case to the U.S. Supreme
acy to fix prices in first-run theaters in major cities and to Court, and on May 3, 1948, the Court, by a 7-1 vote, af-
restrict the access of independent distributors to first-run firmed portions of the district court’s decision and re-
films produced by the eight producers charged in the suit. versed other portions of the decision. Writing for the
The complaint asked that production and distribution be Court, Justice William O. Douglas condemned many of
divorced from exhibition of films. the trade practices employed by the studios and observed
The government and the five major studios reached a that small independent operators “have been the victim
voluntary agreement, in which the Justice Department is- of the massed purchasing power of the larger units in the
sued a consent decree, on November 20, 1940. The con- industry.” Douglas rejected, however, the district court’s
sent decree—a judicially sanctioned agreement between proposed remedy for the violations, that film distribution
two parties—prohibited block-booking of more than five be conducted by competitive bidding. He argued that
feature films, licensing films without first showing them firms with the deepest pockets would possess too large
to exhibitors (a practice known as blind-booking), or ty- an advantage and noted practical difficulties with such
ing the lease of a short film to the lease of a feature film. It auctions. The Court then remanded the case back to the
also forbade the studios from acquiring substantial num- district court for reconsideration of the appropriate rem-
781
Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios to Divest Theaters The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
edy for the violations. Justice Felix Frankfurter dissented vided on a daily basis by network television. To encour-
in part, claiming that, because the lower court had read age parents to take time away from their busy lives to see
thousands of pages of evidence that the high court had a film, the experience had to represent a distinct im-
not seen, the Court should not presume to second guess provement over two hours of television. Hollywood re-
the district court’s judgment. sponded by producing more quality motion pictures,
In 1949, Judge Hand ruled for the district court that di- with larger budgets.
vestiture by the studios of their exhibition businesses was The move away from B-films may help explain why
necessary to restore competition in the industry. Be- admission prices increased at the same time that overall
tween 1948 and 1953, four of the five majors divested attendance was falling. Individuals were willing to pay
their exhibitor subsidiaries. Divestiture of theaters by more to see a film if the average quality was expected to
Loew’s was delayed by arguments over the allocation of be higher. The average price of a film at an indoor theater
its debt between the two new production and exhibition rose from $0.36 in 1948 to $1.24 in 1967, an increase
companies, but its spin-off of theaters was completed in substantially greater than the increase in the consumer
1959. price index. The higher prices of films may also have re-
sulted from the closure of competing theaters in some
Significance market areas, increased distribution costs brought about
It is particularly difficult to judge the impact of the Para- by changes in distribution practices mandated by the
mount case because of the other massive changes in the Paramount case, or increased markups imposed by
film industry that occurred in the post-World War II pe- newly independent exhibitors who could set their own
riod. The most obvious factor affecting the motion pic- ticket prices.
ture industry was the rise of a new and powerful competi- The Paramount case also subjected the defendants to
tor in the entertainment business: television. Between a large number of private antitust suits. Federal courts al-
1946 and 1953, average weekly attendance at film the- lowed independent exhibitors to use the Paramount de-
aters fell from eighty-two million to forty-six million cision as evidence that the studios had conspired to vio-
people. Exhibitor net income fell from $325 million to late antitrust laws prior to 1948. An exhibitor needed
$46 million over the same period. Between 1946 and only to prove that it had been harmed by the conspiracy
1955, consumers reduced the share of their income de- and show the extent of its damages. Damages in private
voted to theater tickets and concessions by one-half, to antitrust suits were trebled, representing substantial po-
0.5 percent. The number of theaters remained roughly tential liabilities for the studios. Simon Whitney reported
constant, at about nineteen thousand, between 1946 and that total claims in these private antitrust suits amounted
1955, but about four thousand indoor theaters were to $600 million but that most claims were ultimately set-
forced to close as a result of competition from a similar tled at a deep discount.
number of new drive-in theaters. The drive-ins were of- Another major postwar trend in the motion picture in-
ten operated by new entrepreneurs, and owners of indoor dustry was the decline in the number of foreign and do-
theaters complained that these theaters were receiving mestic feature films released. From an average of 476 an-
the business they had expected to receive after the Para- nual releases between 1937 and 1942, the number of
mount decisions. releases declined to 295 in 1954 and 283 in 1955. Most of
Television was not the only reason for the film indus- the decline in output was concentrated among the eight
try’s decline. The postwar baby boom left young parents largest producers, and much of it was related to the de-
with less leisure time. Hiring babysitters to care for cline in demand for motion picture entertainment.
young children raised the cost of seeing movies substan- Some exhibitors attributed the “product shortage” to
tially. Innovations in other entertainment industries, the forced sale by the five major studios of their exhibitor
such as nighttime baseball games, created new diver- subsidiaries. It was alleged that the studios had less of an
sions during a time when people traditionally viewed interest in filling theater screens, since they no longer
movies. Movement to the suburbs also meant that indi- owned those screens. Ironically, during the early 1950’s
viduals spent more time commuting and working on their a trade association of exhibitors (Theater Owners of
homes, leaving less time for motion pictures. America) attempted to contract with independent pro-
The rise of television also changed the product that ducers to ensure a steady flow of films. In 1955, a second
consumers demanded from Hollywood. Much of the trade association of exhibitors (Allied States Association
type of entertainment provided by B-films was now proof Motion Picture Exhibitors) called upon the Justice De-
782
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Antitrust Rulings Force Film Studios to Divest Theaters
partment to allow the newly independent exhibitor firms provide a careful analysis of the business practices
to begin producing their own films. that were attacked by the Justice Department in the
The Justice Department had argued in the Paramount Paramount case.
case that the business practices of the five majors had Calvani, Terry, and John Siegfried. Economic Analysis
acted to prevent independent producers from gaining and Antitrust Law. 2d ed. Boston: Little, Brown,
access to theaters. If the decision in fact restored compe- 1988. Presents short excerpts from many important
tition to the industry, one would likely observe more in- articles by economists analyzing the impact and effi-
dependent firms entering the production business. En- ciency of antitrust law. Chapter 4 provides a general
trance may well have been stymied by the decline in the analysis of the business practices that the Justice De-
film industry after the war. Nevertheless, it is interesting partment attacked in the Paramount case.
to observe that after the major studio divestitures, inde- Kindem, Gorham, ed. The American Movie Industry:
pendent firms produced a smaller proportion of domestic The Business of Motion Pictures. Carbondale: South-
1948
feature films. Between 1942 and 1945, independents ern Illinois University Press, 1982. Presents the views
produced 31 percent of domestic motion picture re- of established scholars from several fields on the his-
leases; between 1952 and 1955, independents produced tory, marketing strategies, product innovations, in-
only 21 percent of the total. In addition, over the same dustry structure, and contracting practices of the
period, independents distributed a smaller proportion of American film industry. Simon Whitney’s chapter on
foreign feature films. antitrust policies and the motion picture industry pro-
After the 1950’s, it became much more difficult to vides an excellent analysis of the Paramount case’s
make meaningful comparisons. By 1960, the studio sys- impact.
tem that had been in place for more than forty years was Lev, Peter. Transforming the Screen, 1950-1959. His-
coming to an end. Studios ceased to be self-contained en- tory of the American Cinema 7. New York: Charles
tities in which actors, writers, directors, and all other key Scribner’s Sons, 2003. Discusses the state of the
occupations were under contract. As the nature of film motion-picture industry throughout the 1950’s in
production changed, its relation to distribution changed painstaking detail. Contextualizes the results of the
as well. Paramount decision by explaining the general changes
—Sumner J. La Croix in cinema in the 1950’s.
Schatz, Thomas. Boom and Bust: American Cinema in
Further Reading
the 1940’s. History of the American Cinema 6. Berke-
Adams, Walter, ed. The Structure of American Industry.
ley: University of California Press, 1999. Part of a de-
11th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice
finitive series on the history of the American motion-
Hall, 2005. Presents the history, structure, and eco-
picture industry; provides a comprehensive overview
nomics of twelve major American industries. Con-
of the state of the industry in the 1940’s. Essential
tains a thoughtful chapter by Barry Litman analyzing
context for the Paramount case.
the structure, conduct, and performance of the motion
Waldman, Don E. The Economics of Antitrust: Cases
picture industry.
and Analysis. Boston: Little, Brown, 1986. Waldman
Balio, Tino, ed. The American Film Industry. Rev. ed.
presents excerpts from major twentieth century anti-
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985. An
trust cases and uses economic theory to analyze the
excellent review of the film industry’s development,
principles used by judges to decide these cases.
including discussions of the industry’s early days, its
development into an oligopoly during the 1930’s, and See also: May 2, 1941: NBC Is Ordered to Divest Itself
its reorganization after World War II. Contains a of a Radio Network; Mar. 12, 1945: Alcoa Is Con-
chapter by Michael Conant analyzing the impact of victed of Violating the Sherman Antitrust Act; 1946-
the Paramount case on the motion-picture industry. 1960: Hollywood Studio System Is Transformed;
Blair, Roger, and David Kaserman. Antitrust Economics. Dec. 29, 1950: Celler-Kefauver Act Amends Anti-
Homewood, Ill.: R. D. Irwin, 1985. Uses fundamental trust Legislation; May 22, 1961: U.S. Supreme Court
principles of economics to analyze major issues in an- Orders Du Pont to Disburse GM Holdings; Apr. 11,
titrust law. Provides an assessment of numerous con- 1967: Supreme Court Rules Against a Procter &
troversial business practices and presents original Gamble Merger; Jan. 16, 1970: Flood Tests Base-
analysis of important antitrust cases. Chapters 11-16 ball’s Reserve Clause.
783
Olivier’s Hamlet Is Released to Acclaim and Controversy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
May 4, 1948
Olivier’s HAMLET Is Released to Acclaim and Controversy
The second of Laurence Olivier’s major that Shakespeare’s plays could not effectively be trans-
Shakespearean films, Hamlet, although controversial, lated into the medium of film, and he confessed that he
was a milestone in the presentation of William was “frightfully snobbish about films.” His attitude
Shakespeare’s plays on film and influenced many later changed, however, after he had some successful movie
film versions. roles (notably as Heathcliff in 1939’s Wuthering Heights
and as Lord Nelson in 1941’s Lady Hamilton). He then
Locale: London, England took on the task of making a film version of Shake-
Category: Motion pictures and video speare’s Henry V (1944). The film, which Olivier di-
Key Figures rected and in which he also played the title role, was a re-
Laurence Olivier (1907-1989), British producer, sounding critical and popular success.
director, and actor In tackling the far greater challenge of making a film
Alan Dent (1905-1978), British script editor version of Hamlet, Olivier was at first reluctant to play
Roger K. Furse (1903-1972), British production the part of Hamlet himself. He later remembered that he
designer thought his style of acting was more suited to “stronger
William Walton (1902-1983), British composer of character roles, such as Hotspur and Henry V, rather than
Hamlet’s original music to the lyrical, poetical role of Hamlet.” Also, Olivier did
Basil Sydney (1894-1968), British actor who played not want the audience to link his film Hamlet with his
Claudius earlier portrayal of Henry V; this was one reason he dyed
Eileen Herlie (b. 1920), British actor who played his hair blond for his role as Hamlet. (Another reason was
Gertrude to make himself conspicuous in long shots.)
Jean Simmons (b. 1929), British actor who played The basic idea for the film came to Olivier with a visu-
Ophelia alization of the film’s final shot, of Hamlet’s funeral bier
Felix Aylmer (1889-1979), British actor who played on the battlements of the castle. After that glimpse,
Polonius Olivier saw how the whole film could be built up. He de-
Terence Morgan (1921-2005), British actor who cided to film in black and white rather than in color, in
played Laertes part because that would enable him to use deep-focus
Peter Cushing (1913-1994), British actor who played photography, which ensured that figures in the back-
Osric ground could be seen with great clarity. The technique
also enabled the production team to shoot unusually long
Summary of Event scenes.
By the time he decided to make a film adaptation of Wil- “The core of Hamlet,” Olivier wrote in 1986, “is his
liam Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (pr. c. loneliness and desolation after the death of his father, and
1600-1601), Laurence Olivier had been acclaimed as the his feeling of alienation from the new court.” Olivier re-
leading Shakespearean actor of the century on both stage garded Hamlet as “a nearly great man—damned by lack
and screen and had also established himself as a Shake- of resolution.” This interpretation was made explicit at
spearean director. Since his first leading Shakespearean the beginning of the film, when Olivier speaks as a voice-
role, as Romeo in 1935, Olivier had appeared on stage as over nine lines of Hamlet’s speech from act 1, scene 4 of
Macbeth, Henry V, Coriolanus, Iago, Sir Toby Belch, the play; the lines concern how a man can be overthrown
Hotspur, and King Lear, and had in 1937 twice played by “the stamp of one defect” in his character. The words
the part of Hamlet (once at London’s Old Vic Theatre also appear on the screen. This speech is immediately
and once in Elsinore, Denmark). followed by Olivier’s own capsule summary of the
Olivier had also become the leading exponent of theme of the film: “This is the tragedy of a man who
Shakespeare on film. This aspect of his career had not could not make up his mind.”
had an auspicious start. His first role was as Orlando in a Hamlet’s desolation, his restlessness, and his inability
1936 film version of As You Like It directed by Paul to find a stable point of reference in his world are con-
Czinner, but the film was not a success either with critics veyed by the seemingly endless movement of the cam-
or at the box office. At the time, Olivier himself believed era. As it peers down passages and tracks across large
784
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Olivier’s Hamlet Is Released to Acclaim and Controversy
Hamlet identifies with him. This in-

terpretation is emphasized in the film
by lingering close-up shots of the
marriage bed and by a display of
emotions between mother and son
that go beyond what might be con-
sidered normal.
One major problem Olivier had to
face was how to cut the text of the
play, which runs for more than four
hours, in order to produce a two-and-
a-half-hour film. The editing princi-
1948
ple he adopted with Alan Dent was
To view image, please refer to print edition based, Olivier wrote, on “making a
new but integral pattern from the
original, larger pattern of the play
itself.” According to Dent, the re-
sult “must be utterly respectful to the
spirit of Shakespeare and to the audi-
ence’s consciousness of Hamlet. . . .
One has to choose between mak-
ing the meaning clear to 20,000,000
cinemagoers and causing 2,000
Shakespearean experts to wince.”
Because of the drastic nature of
the cuts (half of Shakespeare’s text
was discarded), Olivier thought that
the film should be regarded as an
“Essay in Hamlet” rather than as a di-
rect interpretation of Shakespeare’s
play. The characters of Rosencrantz,
Guildenstern, Fortinbras, Reynaldo,
Laurence Olivier delivers the “To be or not to be” soliloquy in his film adaptation of and the second gravedigger were
William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. (AP/Wide World Photos) eliminated from the film version. The
omission of Fortinbras virtually elim-
inated the political aspects of the play
empty rooms, the camera seems to become emblematic (including the conflict between Denmark and Norway)
of Hamlet’s own searching consciousness. The austere and left Horatio to assume the Danish throne at the film’s
and abstract settings added to this effect. “Olivier wanted end. Two of Hamlet’s soliloquies, “O what a rogue and
a dream-like, cavernous place as the setting for a drama peasant slave am I” and “How all occasions do inform
which is centered in shadowy regions of the hero’s against me,” were omitted, as was most of Shakespeare’s
mind,” wrote Roger K. Furse, the film’s designer. play-within-the-play. The omission of the second solilo-
The shadowy regions of Hamlet’s mind are also em- quy meant that one plausible reason for Hamlet’s hesita-
phasized by Olivier’s acceptance of the Freudian theory, tion—he fears the ghost of his father that has appeared
applied to Hamlet by the psychoanalyst Ernest Jones, of may have been a devil—is never mentioned.
the Oedipus complex. The Oedipal view postulates that Twenty-five words that Olivier believed would be un-
Hamlet has a subconscious desire to kill his father and familiar to a film audience were modernized. (For exam-
engage in sexual relations with his mother; he thus finds ple, Claudius’s line “For like the hectic in my blood he
it almost impossible to kill Claudius, because his uncle rages” was changed to “For like the fever in my blood he
embodies this buried aspect of his own personality, so rages,” and Ophelia’s words to Laertes, “recks not his
785
Olivier’s Hamlet Is Released to Acclaim and Controversy The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
own rede,” became “minds not his own creed.”) Another ing of Shakespeare’s text. McCarten added that “it will
Olivier innovation was to illustrate events that in Shake- be a presumptuous movie director indeed who attempts
speare’s play are merely described—such as Ophelia’s to improve upon the effort Olivier has made.”
description of Hamlet’s coming to her closet, a sea fight Critical reception of the film was not unanimously fa-
involving Hamlet and pirates, and Ophelia’s death— vorable. In the Kenyon Review, for example, Parker Ty-
while retaining Shakespeare’s description as a voice- ler, though acknowledging the “superior intelligence”
over. that went into the production, asserted that Hamlet was a
The film premiered in London on May 4, 1948. It “bad movie simply because it is far more conscious of
opened in the United States that fall and by the end of the being traditional cinema than of being traditional the-
year had been seen on screens in Germany, Italy, Swe- ater . . . and on the whole, it is poorly acted, especially by
den, France, Finland, Denmark, and Austria. Olivier, whose face is revealed by the intimate camera as
less expressive than one might have hoped.” Tyler also
Significance argued that by accepting the Oedipal interpretation of
Hamlet was made at a time when many Shakespeare pur- Hamlet, Olivier “utterly relieved himself of the obliga-
ists, in spite of the success of Olivier’s Henry V film, still tion of a personal interpretation.” R. Herring complained
doubted whether Shakespeare’s greatest plays could be that the film failed because Olivier’s “use of the medium
adequately conveyed on the screen. Olivier’s Hamlet is not, fundamentally, cinematic.” Had Olivier chosen to
seemed to settle the issue once and for all, and it is proba- utilize the full resources of film, Herring argued, he would
bly no coincidence that the film marked the beginning of have created a film with more striking visual images.
a great flowering of cinematic versions of Shakespeare. Olivier’s film nevertheless had a marked influence on
Eight films of Shakespearean plays were made in the subsequent film treatments of the play. The versions di-
nine years immediately following Hamlet, including rected by Franz Wirth (1960) and Tony Richardson
Olivier’s own Richard III (1955). Moreover, for millions (1970) both used abstract settings that recalled those in
of filmgoers, many of whom had probably never seen a the Olivier film. Olivier’s use of the voice-over for Ham-
stage production of Shakespeare’s play, Hamlet forever let’s “to be or not to be” soliloquy—which, he said,
became, thanks to Olivier, “the tragedy of a man who seemed to be the most natural way in the world of con-
could not make up his mind.” veying it—was also used by the Russian director Gregori
The influence of the film was so great that one college Kozinstev in his 1964 film version. The film continued to
professor complained that he was tired of hearing his stu- influence other filmmakers through the end of the twenti-
dents, year after year, insist that Gertrude knowingly eth century. As the single most widely seen realization of
drank the poisoned wine in the play’s final scene. The Shakespeare’s play, it influenced subsequent stage pro-
students had all seen Olivier’s film, in which Gertrude ductions as well.
guesses the treachery of the king in advance and drinks — Bryan Aubrey
the wine in an act of self-sacrifice and atonement. This,
however, is not even hinted at in Shakespeare’s play, and Further Reading
critics of Olivier’s film pointed out that such an interpre- Agee, James. Agee on Film. New York: Grosset &
tation attributes a strength of character to Gertrude that is Dunlap, 1969. Appreciative review by one of Amer-
out of keeping with her behavior in the play as a whole. ica’s leading film critics. Argues that the film man-
Olivier’s Hamlet was highly acclaimed in the film in- ages to strike a balance between the screen, the stage,
dustry. It received five Oscars, including one for Olivier and literature. Olivier’s performance is one of the
as best actor, and also won an award at the Venice Film most beautiful ever put on film, although a few crucial
Festival. In addition, many reviewers were enthusiastic passages are disappointing.
about Olivier’s achievement. James Agee, for example, Barbarow, George. “Hamlet Through a Telescope.”
wrote in Time magazine that Hamlet was “a sternly beau- Hudson Review 2 (Spring, 1949): 98-104. One of the
tiful job, densely and delicately worked,” and concluded more harshly critical views of the film. Argues that
that “a man who can do what Laurence Olivier is doing the cutting of the text weakens the main element of the
for Shakespeare is certainly among the more valuable drama, the conflict between Hamlet and Claudius,
men of his time.” In The New Yorker, John McCarten since Claudius is made too weak. Also criticizes the
shared Agee’s positive view, praising the “fine acting, moving camera, which fragments the action and con-
remarkable sets, superb music” as well as Olivier’s par- fuses the viewer, and the presentation of soliloquies.
786
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Olivier’s Hamlet Is Released to Acclaim and Controversy
Cross, Brenda. The Film “Hamlet”: A Record of Its Pro- is one of the fullest critical discussions of the film to
duction. London: Saturn Press, 1948. Contains Oliv- appear. Argues, among other things, that the Freudian
ier’s own comments on the film and articles by those interpretation does not narrow the character of Ham-
involved in all aspects of its making: casting, camera let as much as has sometimes been said and that the
and lighting, design and costumes, music, script edit- film effectively captures the inner Hamlet. Jorgens,
ing. Actors Harcourt Williams (the Player King), though, criticizes the simplification of the ending,
Stanley Holloway (the gravedigger), and Jean Sim- which gives a sense of fulfillment rather than the mix-
mons (Ophelia) also contribute short pieces. Includes ture of triumph and defeat that Shakespeare’s play
more than thirty photographs. conveys. Compares Olivier’s film to the 1964 Hamlet
Eckert, Charles, ed. Focus on Shakespearean Films. En- of Gregori Kozintsev.
glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1972. Contains two Manvell, Roger. Shakespeare and the Film. New York:
articles about Hamlet. Mary McCarthy regrets the Praeger, 1971. Argues that of the three Shakespearean
1948
omission of Fortinbras and also comments that Olivier films directed by Olivier, Hamlet, in spite of its faults
sees Hamlet as an immature boy; as a result, she argues, (too drastic cutting of the text, excessive camera
the drama becomes a kind of initiation ceremony. Peter movement), is the one that most rewards detailed ex-
Alexander sees a tension in the film caused by the dif- amination. Cites sets, photography, acting, music.
ferences between popular and scholarly approaches. Olivier, Laurence. On Acting. London: Weidenfeld and
Henderson, Diana E., ed. A Concise Companion to Nicolson, 1986. Olivier emphasizes the importance
Shakespeare on Screen. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, of deep-focus photography, praises the performances
2006. Compilation of scholarly essays, including two of his fellow actors, and explains the principles be-
discussing the political and cultural stakes in screen hind the editing of the film, including his practice—
adaptations of Shakespeare in general and Hamlet in criticized by some—of providing visual images to ac-
particular. Bibliographic references and index. company passages of descriptive verse (such as the
Jackson, Russell, ed. The Cambridge Companion to drowning of Ophelia).
Shakespeare on Film. New York: Cambridge Univer- See also: Dec. 30, 1948: Porter Creates an Integrated
sity Press, 2000. Collection of essays on cinematic ad- Score for Kiss Me, Kate; 1949-1951: Ealing Com-
aptations of Shakespeare’s plays. Includes an essay edies Mark a High Point in British Film; 1961: Royal
on adaptations of Hamlet and one on Olivier’s films. Shakespeare Company Adopts a New Name and Fo-
Bibliographic references, filmography, index. cus; Aug. 9, 1962: Britain Establishes the Royal Na-
Jorgens, Jack J. Shakespeare on Film. Bloomington: In- tional Theatre; Apr. 8, 1963: Lawrence of Arabia
diana University Press, 1977. The chapter on Hamlet Wins Best Picture.
787
Israel Is Created as a Homeland for Jews The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
May 14, 1948

Israel Is Created as a Homeland for Jews
The independence of Israel—among the first countries the ages, as summarized in the famous lines of the medi-
to gain national liberation from colonialism after eval poet Judah ha-Levi, “I am in the West but my heart is
World War II—created a Jewish homeland for the first in the East,” or in the traditional conclusion of the Pass-
time in modern history, but it did so by displacing over Seder, “Next year in Jerusalem.” Actually, there
hundreds of thousands of Palestinians, creating a long- was always a Jewish presence in Palestine, amplified by
term dispute over the proper dispensation of the land. devout individuals and groups who came throughout the
centuries to settle. By the mid-nineteenth century, they
Locale: Israel formed an absolute majority in Jerusalem. Nevertheless,
Categories: Expansion and land acquisition; not until the late nineteenth century did the move toward
colonialism and occupation; independence the “in-gathering of the exiles” and the formation of a
movements Jewish state take practical form.
Key Figures Zionism, as that movement came to be known, of-
David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973), prime minister of fered answers to two problems raised by the historical
Israel, 1948-1953 and 1955-1963 processes by which the modern state system of Europe
Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952), president of Israel, was taking shape. The granting of legal citizenship in
1949-1952 many states, coupled with cultural and political boundary-
Arthur Balfour (1848-1930), British prime minister, setting processes, forced upon the Jews the necessity to
1902-1905, and foreign secretary, 1916-1919 reset their own boundaries and to define their identity in
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904), Austrian Jewish journalist relation to their environments. At the same time, the rise
and writer and a founder of Zionism of national and racial, as distinct from religious, anti-
Semitism placed the new issues firmly in the context of
Summary of Event the accumulated history of persecution.
From a human rights perspective, the founding of the The two problems reinforced each other to prompt the
state of Israel has a fourfold significance: It marked the formulation by a secular Jewish intelligentsia of a doc-
return of a scattered people to its homeland after two trine that was related to other European nationalisms and
thousand years of exile, it signaled the success of one of yet radically different from them. Whereas European na-
the earliest nationalist movements of postcolonial libera- tionalists based their demands on existing national terri-
tion in the Middle East, it offered an asylum for the survi- tories and cultures, Zionism proposed cultural rebirth in
vors of the Holocaust, and it instituted a state sanctuary a territory still to be resettled, followed by renewed sov-
for all Jews threatened by anti-Semitic persecution. ereignty. Zionist activity took the form of encouraging,
After their forcible expulsion by the Romans from financing, and settling immigrants. Immigrants came
their native land, the Jews became the prototype of a primarily from Central and Eastern Europe, where anti-
diasporic people, one dispersed as a minority in other na- Semitism was rife, but also from Western and Middle
tions and lacking the territorial contiguity of a land of Eastern countries. Immigration increased the Jewish
their own. Such people, exemplified also by the Armeni- population from about 50,000 in 1900 to about 650,000
ans and Gypsies, are perpetually vulnerable and are lia- by 1948, more than 250,000 of whom left Germany in the
ble to suffer legal, economic, and cultural disadvantages. early years of the Nazi regime.
The additional factor of religious animosity exacerbated In effect, the Yishuv, as the Palestine Jewish commu-
the persecution of Jews in Europe from earliest times. nity was called, became a state in the making, with its
Examples include the Crusader massacres; the expul- own political institutions and a large degree of authority
sions from England in the thirteenth century, from despite the lack of the sanctions available to a sovereign
France in the fourteenth century, and from Spain in the state. It set up such crucial services as education, health,
fifteenth century; and the Cossack pogroms of the seven- employment, and welfare; established its own trade
teenth century. unions, banking, and marketing systems; and created the
This diasporic experience may explain the yearning machinery for the rapid demographic and economic de-
for spiritual redemption in the land of Israel that became velopment of a society distinct from that of the Arabs.
a central theme of Jewish religious identity throughout Concurrently, Zionism pursued official recognition of
788
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Israel Is Created as a Homeland for Jews
the Jewish right to return to Palestine. Its greatest early conducted against the military and police, which were
victory was the November, 1917, declaration submitted trying to prevent such illegal immigration.
by British foreign secretary Arthur Balfour on behalf of Meanwhile, the internecine warfare between Arabs
the British cabinet: “His Majesty’s Government view and Jews intensified. Faced with a country steadily be-
with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national coming ungovernable, the British decided to refer the
home for the Jewish people, and will use their best en- problem to the United Nations, which nominated a spe-
deavors to facilitate the achievement of this object.” cial committee to study the crisis and to recommend so-
This commitment was formally confirmed in 1922 by lutions. The outcome was a new partition plan which was
the League of Nations as a condition of the granting of a again rejected by the Arabs and accepted as the “indis-
mandate over Palestine to Britain. Nevertheless, in the pensable minimum” by the Jews. This time, however, the
same year the British government issued, under Arab proposal was not dropped but was brought before the
pressure, an interpretation of the declaration limiting im- General Assembly, which endorsed it by a majority of
1948
migration because it could otherwise overtax the econ- more than two-thirds, including the Soviet Union and the
omy. The British also defined the national home not as United States.
Palestine itself but as an entity within it. The next
two decades saw the steady increase of hostility
between Arabs and Jews, each of whom accused Israel, 1947-1948
the British authorities of siding with their oppo- Lebanon
er
Jo rd a n R i v e r
nents. Hostilities culminated in 1936 in the out-
iv
R
Lita ni
break of virtual civil war. Mediterranean Syria
In 1937, a royal commission headed by Lord
Sea
Peel issued a report proposing, as the only viable GOLAN
Haifa
solution, the partition of Palestine into a small Jew- HEIGHTS
ish state and a large Arab one. This proposal was Nazareth
Sea of
denounced by the Palestinian leadership, as well as Galilee
Jenin
by radical Zionist elements. The mainstream lead-
J or d a n R i v e r
Nablus
ership, including Chaim Weizmann of the World
Jewish Agency and David Ben-Gurion of the Tel Aviv WEST
Yishuv itself (later the first president and the first BANK
Amman
prime minister of Israel, respectively), endorsed the
Jerusalem
plan in principle as a recognition of the Jewish right
Bethlehem
to sovereignty. After the failure of the partition GAZA Dead
scheme, and constrained by the ongoing violence, STRIP Hebron Sea
the British government issued a new policy in May,
1939, limiting Jewish immigration to seventy-five Beersheba
thousand immigrants over five years, after which
such immigration would be forbidden altogether. Israel
Jordan
The Arab leadership refused even this conces-
sion, demanding the cessation of all immigration
and the declaration of Palestine as an Arab state. Egypt N E G E V
The Jews too rejected the new policy as denying D E S E R T

the “right to rebuild their national home . . . and a
surrender to Arab terrorism.” Toward the end of
World War II and even more so after the peace, the S I N A I
= Israel in 1947
sense of betrayal was deepened by the revelation D E S E R T
= Independent Israel in 1948
of the extent of the Holocaust and the huge num-
bers of death-camp survivors denied immigration
Elat
elsewhere. This sense of betrayal exploded in the
Gulf of Saudi
form of massive attempts to smuggle immigrants Aqaba Arabia
into the territory and in underground activities
789
Israel Is Created as a Homeland for Jews The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
any Jew could immigrate to the new nation at

any time, and no such Jewish immigrant would
be denied Israeli citizenship.
Significance
The creation of Israel was taken as at best an af-
front and at worst an act of war by the Arab na-
tions of the Middle East. It led to several Arab-
Israeli wars, beginning in the year of Israel’s
founding, and to a great deal of violence perpe-
trated by both sides between the wars them-
selves. In large part, the Israeli position in rela-
tion to Palestinian and other Arabs stems from a
central goal of Zionism: the desire to form a ma-
jority Jewish state in which a completely demo-
cratic government would be just as completely
dominated by Jews.
Indeed, much of the history of Israel since
1948 has been a function of its efforts to realize
its original goals, those of serving as a sanctuary
for persecuted Jews and of providing a national
center for the gathering of a dispersed people.
The initial deluge of refugees that poured in
with the opening of the gates was made up of
Holocaust survivors, including those who were
caught trying to enter illegally into Palestine
and were kept by the British in concentration
camps in Kenya and Cyprus. They were fol-
lowed by Jewish refugees from the Arab coun-
In the late 1950’s, thousands of Israelis take to the streets of Tel Aviv to tries at war with Israel. By the third year of the
celebrate the anniversary of their nation’s independence. (National Ar- state’s existence, its Jewish population had more
chives) than doubled.
The central commitments of the May 14,
1948, Proclamation of Independence were put
The resolution terminated the British mandate as of into effect by the Law of Return of 1950 and its amend-
August, 1948, at the latest and authorized the establishments. These guarantee the right of every Jew to settle in
ment, two months after the evacuation of the British Israel as a full-fledged citizen from the moment of land-
armed forces, of independent Arab and Jewish states and ing and in effect obligates the state to provide immigrants
a special international regime for Jerusalem. The procla- with the full range of services required for their absorp-
mation of Israeli independence was issued in Tel Aviv on tion. The coin, however, has a reverse face. Following
May 14, 1948, on the night preceding the date fixed by the invasion of Israel by five Arab armies on the very first
the British as the termination of the mandate. In that day of its independence, approximately 700,000 Pales-
proclamation, the Provisional State Council, forerunner tinian Arabs fled, according to the UN Relief and Works
of the Knesset (Israeli parliament), announced that “the Agency (UNRWA) that was established to assist them.
recent Holocaust, which engulfed millions of Jews in Eu- The vast majority of them became refugees in the neigh-
rope, proved anew the need to solve the problem of the boring Arab states for many decades to come. The out-
homelessness and lack of independence of the Jewish come was the creation of a new diaspora people, a further
people . . . the state of Israel will be open to the immigra- complication of the Arab-Israeli dispute, and a civil rights
tion of Jews from all countries of their dispersion.” It was problem still awaiting its own solution.
thus one of the founding principles of modern Israel that — Jonathan Mendilow
790
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 Israel Is Created as a Homeland for Jews
Further Reading ugal and centripetal forces that activated it, and its
Ben-Gurion, David. Rebirth and Destiny of Israel. New function as a state in the making.
York: Philosophical Library, 1954. Offers an insight Karsh, Efraim, ed. Israel’s Transition from Community
into the formation and birth of Israel, the problems at- to State. Vol. 1 in Israel: The First Hundred Years.
tending them, and the ideals of Israel’s founders. Sig- Portland, Oreg.: Frank Cass, 2000. A study of Zion-
nificant as coming from the prominent leader of the ism, Arab nationalism, and the struggle to transform
Jewish community in Palestine and the first prime the Jewish community in Israel into an Israeli state.
minister of the new state. Bibliographic references and index.
Bethell, Nicholas. The Palestine Triangle: The Struggle Laqueur, Walter, ed. The Israel-Arab Reader. Rev. ed.
for the Holy Land. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York: Viking Penguin, 1984. A comprehensive
1979. A detailed analysis and interpretation of the collection of documents relating to the formation of
struggle between Jews, Arabs, and the British from Israel and to the Israeli-Arab conflict. The first three
1948
1935 to the independence of Israel. sections are of particular relevance to students of
Cohen, Mitchell. Zion and State: Nation, Class, and the the formation of Israel as a homeland for the Jewish
Shaping of Modern Israel. New York: Basil Black- people.
well, 1987. Analysis of the relationship between Marshall, Edgar S., ed. Israel: Current Issues and His-
nation, state, religion, and class in the emergence of torical Background. Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nova Science,
Israel, and of the struggles to shape the new state. 2002. Details the history of modern Israel’s formation
Elazar, Daniel. Israel: Building a New Society. Bloom- from the point of view of the early twenty-first cen-
ington: Indiana University Press, 1986. An examina- tury conflicts to which it forms the background. Bib-
tion of the historical development of the Israeli polity liographic references and index.
from the pre-Zionist era to the founding of the state.
Explores the basic cleavages Israel inherited when a See also: Nov. 29, 1947-July, 1949: Arab-Israeli War
“new society” was formed. Creates Refugee Crisis; Dec. 9, 1949: United Nations
Hertzberg, Arthur, ed. The Zionist Idea. Garden City, Creates an Agency to Aid Palestinian Refugees; Feb.
N.Y.: Doubleday, 1959. An anthology of writings of 1, 1958: Syria and Egypt Form the United Arab Re-
the fathers of Zionism. Especially noteworthy is the public; May 28, 1964: Palestinian Refugees Form the
lengthy philosophical examination by the editor of the Palestine Liberation Organization; Dec. 31, 1964-
central concepts of Zionism and its development and Jan. 7, 1965: Fatah Launches Its First Terrorist Strike
significance in Jewish history. on Israel; June 5-10, 1967: Israel Defeats Arab States
Horowitz, Dan, and Lissak Moshe. Origins of the Israeli in the Six-Day War; Nov. 22, 1967: United Nations
Polity: Palestine Under the Mandate. Chicago: Uni- Security Council Adopts Resolution 242; Dec. 11,
versity of Chicago Press, 1978. A brilliant, in-depth 1967: Habash Founds the Popular Front for the Liber-
sociopolitical study of the Jewish Yishuv, the centrif- ation of Palestine.
791
General Motors and the UAW Introduce the COLA Clause The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
May 25, 1948

General Motors and the UAW Introduce the COLA Clause
The 1948 labor contract between General Motors and profits. Ever since the government had guaranteed work-
the United Auto Workers introduced a cost-of-living ers the right to organize during the 1930’s, mass produc-
allowance (COLA) as a trade-off for labor peace and tion industries had been forced to accept unionization,
management’s right to control the company. but they still objected to the roles union leaders had taken
in the government’s interventions in the economy. With
Also known as: Cost-of-living allowance the war winding down, business looked for a rollback of
Locale: Detroit, Michigan union incursions on management prerogatives.
Categories: Business and labor; manufacturing and With this background, it was to be expected that each
industry side would be wary as the war ended in 1945. The UAW
Key Figures made the first move. The union demanded a 30 percent
Walter P. Reuther (1907-1970), president of the UAW, raise for members at GM. When the company balked, the
1946-1970 UAW called a strike on November 21, 1945.
Charles E. Wilson (1890-1961), president of General GM had been singled out by the UAW as the first tar-
Motors, 1941-1953 get for several reasons. Walter P. Reuther, at the time a
Alfred P. Sloan (1875-1966), chairman of General UAW vice president in charge of the GM division, ar-
Motors, 1937-1956 gued to other union leaders for a “one-at-a-time” strat-
egy, which entailed striking one of the larger auto pro-
Summary of Event ducers while the company’s rivals were allowed to
The 1948 labor contract between General Motors (GM) continue production. The fact that these competitors
and the United Auto Workers (UAW) ended a period of would be stealing market share while struck plants re-
strife between the company and the union that had been mained idle would, presumably, put pressure on the firm
engendered as the U.S. economy retooled for peacetime. to settle quickly. Further, as Reuther told the press, GM,
The contract, which was to run for five years, granted la- the industry’s leading firm, had the “ability to pay.” That
bor a hedge against inflation while giving management a is, it could raise wages without increasing prices.
longer period of peace than would a one-year contract, as The previous August, President Harry S. Truman had
well as the right to control the business. requested that there be no immediate price increases after
As World War II concluded, labor and management the war, while at the same time saying that labor should
had girded for battle. Each side believed that the wartime be allowed modest wage hikes. Reuther’s statements
freeze on industrial relations had been to its deficit and about GM’s capabilities were made in the light of this
that the inequities thus generated should now be re- presidential directive. The company shot back that its fi-
dressed. For labor’s part, during the conflict it had nancial picture was not as rosy as the union thought.
largely abided by a no-strike pledge that had been made Reuther countered with the demand that the firm “open
so that labor would not hinder the nation’s military effort. the books” and allow the union to examine the com-
Unable to force wages up with a strike threat, workers pany’s accounting. This demand, flatly refused by GM,
had watched inflation eat into their earnings, despite the represented an even greater attempt at encroachment on
price controls instituted to prevent wartime inflation the company’s autonomy than the union had made previ-
from running amok. Labor had, however, enjoyed an ously.
economy with nearly full employment and a high level of The strike was drawn out, ending on March 11, 1946.
union enrollment. In 1945, with the country facing a dif- It finished with relative success for the union, which ob-
ficult conversion to peace, the unions prepared to detained an 18.5 percent raise for its membership. The vic-
mand a bigger share of the pie while hoping to hold on to tory greatly advanced the fortunes of Reuther, who,
the influential role they had been playing in helping to distressing his militant handling of the strike, unseated the
rect production through participation on wartime gov- incumbent president of the union, Rolland J. Thomas, at
ernment boards. the 1946 UAW annual convention. The GM agreement,
Businesses had also been doing well. Massive needs however, was not the beginning of a period of conquest
for expendable military equipment had ushered in full for the UAW. The next important confrontation for the
plant utilization, while cost-plus contracts ensured large group began in April, 1946, with the Allis-Chalmers ag-
792
The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970 General Motors and the UAW Introduce the COLA Clause
ricultural implement company. A strike the union con- threatened when contracts had shorter lives. The union
ducted against this firm was defeated after fights broke would not have to wonder, when it came to the bargain-
out between the union locals and the union’s central ex- ing table, whether the wage hike it had negotiated would
ecutives and after effective “red-baiting” (accusation of be lost to inflation. It was with this last factor in mind that
communist sympathy) against the autoworkers by the Emil Mazey, acting as temporary head of the union while
company. Reuther was in the hospital recovering from an assassi-
Thus, by the time of the 1948 labor negotiation be- nation attempt, accepted GM’s terms and put this historic
tween GM and the UAW, both sides had tasted defeat and compromise into effect.
were willing to compromise. GM, in this case, took the
initiative by offering a novel set of contract proposals. Significance
These proposals were the brainchild of Charles Erwin Both General Motors and the United Auto Workers had
Wilson, president of the firm. Some years before, while something to gain from the 1948 contract, particularly if
1948
laid up in the hospital with a broken leg, Wilson had things went well, but it was the union that would lose if
mulled over ways to dampen industrial antagonism by the economy weakened. For this reason, there was not
making a unique pact between labor and management. wholehearted acceptance of the cost-of-living adjust-
His plan was embraced by Alfred P. Sloan, GM’s chair- ment (COLA), or “escalator” clause, in the new contract.
man, who was already noted for his innovative methods. The benefits to be derived from the escalator depended
It was Sloan who first developed the policy of yearly car on price rises, and these were linked to an expanding
model changes. The end result of this policy, as far as it economy. Various UAW dissidents objected to what
was effective, would be to ensure a stable consumer de- would happen if the economy contracted. Consumer
mand. Sloan saw that Wilson’s ideas would offer the prices would fall, and the membership’s wages would be
same stability for the company’s relationship with the lowered. This was not a groundless worry. In February,
UAW. 1949, the Cost of Living Index did drop, and GM em-
The plan, as presented to the UAW, had three main ployees took a pay cut of two cents per hour.
components. First, automatic wage adjustments were to On the whole, the calculations of Wilson and Sloan
be carried out for the life of the contract. Each time the were well founded. The economy and the auto industry
Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Cost of Living Index rose were to embark on a time of expansion. With labor peace
1.14 percent, hourly wages would be increased by one guaranteed, the Big Three automakers—Ford, Chrysler,
cent. The opposite would hold if the index declined, but and General Motors—wiped out or absorbed the smaller
wages could drop no farther than five cents per hour be- firms, such as Studebaker and Kaiser-Fraser, and came to
low the rate in effect on May 29, 1948. Although the base share 90 percent of the U.S. car market. Throughout the
pay raise offered in this contract was lower than ex- 1950’s, the demand for cars seemed insatiable, fueled by
pected, workers would never have to see, as they often incessant model changes and the transformation of what
had, their gains on a new contract whittled away by infla- had been extras, such as power steering, into standard
tion. features. Bigger cars were called for, and more highways
Second, the contract was to extend for five years. This were built to accommodate them.
was a marked change from previous practice, in which This is not to say that the provisions of the 1948 agree-
labor/management agreements had been for one- or two- ment alone kept the peace between the auto industry and
year periods. Such a long-term compact would be invalu- its unions. The agreement set the ground rules by estab-
able to management, since it would allow company plan- lishing what both sides could anticipate in future con-
ners to make calculations of labor costs well in advance. tracts. Unions consistently agreed to longer-term con-
The third point was that further wage increases, beyond tracts and automation, receiving in exchange increased
cost-of-living adjustments, would be tied to productivity pay and benefits. Key new benefits, first worked out with
gains. Such gains would be linked to the introduction of Ford and then accepted by the other companies, included
labor-saving methods; in agreeing to this provision, the a guaranteed minimum retirement income for those who
union gave management considerable control over the had worked a certain number of years—established in
organization of work. 1949—and, in 1955, a supplement to unemployment
Both sides stood to gain stability. The company benefits.
would neither have to fight the union over changes at the The cozy relationship of labor and management
workplace nor worry about the frequent strikes that would endure as long as prosperity reigned. Postwar
793
General Motors and the UAW Introduce the COLA Clause The Twentieth Century, 1941-1970
boom conditions were based both on the robustness of bor process. The examination begins with the 1948
the American economy and on the place of the United contract, since the author sees it as primary in setting
States in the world. After the war, the United States’ for- the pattern for later formulations.
mer main industrial competitors in Europe and Japan Mann, Eric. Taking on General Motors: A Case Study of
were prostrate. As the European and Japanese economies the Campaign to Keep GM Van Nuys Open. Los An-
were repaired and healed, however, they began to offer a geles: Institute of Industrial Relations, University of
serious threat. The gradual weakening of the U.S. auto- California, 1987. Although this work is largely con-
mobile industry in the face of global competition, first cerned with an attempt to forestall the closing of a
felt in the late 1960’s, also gradually weakened labor- California General Motors plant in the 1980’s, the
management cooperation and introduced a new round of first hundred pages provide a careful exploration o

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July, 1937-September 2, 1945, World War II: Pacific Theater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

December 7, 1941, Japan Begins Attacks on Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

1942, International League for the Rights of Man Is Founded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

March 31, 1943, Oklahoma! Opens on Broadway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Mid-1940’s, First Modern Herbicide Is Introduced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

1947, Construction Starts on Brookhaven Nuclear Reactor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608

April 28-August 7, 1947, Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641

1948, Aversion Drug Found for the Treatment of Alcoholism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

February 10, 1948, Zhdanov Denounces “Formalism” in Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

Early 1950’s, De Vaucouleurs Identifies the Local Supercluster of Galaxies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961

1952, Peale Promotes the Power of Positive Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165

1953, Keep America Beautiful Is Founded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255

1954, Drucker Examines Managerial Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1346

May 1, 1954, Moon Founds the Unification Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1391

Mid-1950’s, Li Isolates Human Growth Hormone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459

1956, Fromm Publishes The Art of Loving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1582

1958, Theatre Workshop Presents Behan’s The Hostage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807

Early 1960’s, Quant Introduces the Miniskirt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971

Early 1961, Disposable Diapers Are Introduced to U.S. Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2118

June 23, 1961, Antarctic Treaty Goes into Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2201

1962, Bookchin Warns of Health Hazards of Artificial Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2246

1963, Arendt Speculates on the Banality of Evil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2335

1964, Gell-Mann and Zweig Advance Quark Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2457

October 13-14, 1964, Khrushchev Falls from Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2603

September 24, 1965, Affirmative Action Is Expanded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2703

1966, Ardrey Argues That Humans Are Naturally Territorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2764

October 21, 1966, Mining Debris Buries Welsh Village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2846

Early 1967, Davis Constructs a Solar Neutrino Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2869

October 9, 1967, Execution of Che Guevara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2991

1968, Canada Establishes the Experimental Lakes Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3021

August 20-21, 1968, Soviet Union Invades Czechoslovakia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3130

1969, German Measles Vaccine Is Developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3195

Personages Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III

Michael Adams Frank W. Andritzky Mary Pat Balkus

Bland Addison George P. Antone Jane L. Ball

Olutayo C. Adesina Stanley Archer Grace A. Banks

Rebekah Jane Adler Frank Ardolino Art Barbeau

Richard Adler Gerald S. Argetsinger Russell J. Barber

Alvin K. Benson Michael R. Bradley Charles Cameron

Richard P. Benton John Braeman Gary A. Campbell

Charles Merrell Berg Anthony Branch Edmund J. Campion

Milton Berman Thomas C. Breslin Byron Cannon

Victor W. Chen Stephen Cresswell David M. Diggs

Peng-Khuan Chong Ralph D. Cross Lesa Dill

Eric Howard Christianson Edward R. Crowther Marcia B. Dinneen

Ronald J. Cima Jennifer L. Cruise Fredrick J. Dobney

Lawrence I. Clark Jim Cullen Stephen B. Dobrow

B. Mawiyah Clayborne LouAnn Faris Culley J. R. Donath

Loring Emery Dale L. Flesher Mitchel Gerber

Suzanne Knudson Engler Richard A. Flom Judith R. Gibber

Victoria Erhart Donald W. Floyd Karl Giberson

David G. Fisher Susan Frischer Noreen A. Grice

Linda E. Fisher Keith Garebian Johnpeter Horst Grill

Richard D. Fitzgerald Roberto Garza Jimmie F. Gross

George J. Fleming Elizabeth Gaydou-Miller Manfred Grote

Scot M. Guenter Glenn Hastedt David Wason Hollar, Jr.

Robert E. Haag P. Graham Hatcher Donald Holley

Robert L. Jenkins Nancy D. Kersell Douglas A. Lea

Jeffry Jensen Leigh Husband Kimmel Martin J. Lecker

K. Sue Jewell Richard D. King Joseph Edward Lee