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7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the basic process of motivation;
2. Explain the needs and processes approach to motivation;
3. Discuss the contribution of the different models of motivation; and
4. Describe how behaviour modification can be used for increasing or
reducing behaviour in organisations.
INTRODUCTION
According to Williams (2000), motivation consists of powers that are able to
move, direct and enable a person to be diligent in their effort to achieve goals.
For example, an employee might be motivated to work hard in order to produce
as many outputs as possible while other employees are only motivated to
perform just enough of the work required. Managers must understand the factors
that form these differences. Managers are usually confused in differentiating
between motivation and performance. In industrial psychology, normal work
performance is represented by the following equation:
gain satisfaction and feel motivated. Soon, the need fulfilled can no longer
motivate the individual and when this condition occurs, the individual will shift
to other needs that have not yet been fulfilled.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
After reading the segment above, do you still remember reading on the
contribution by Frederick Taylor in the previous lesson? What were his
contributions towards management?
(a) Need-based models are motivation models that emphasise the specific
needs of humans or internal factors that give power to direct or stop action.
Need-based approaches explain motivation as a phenomenon that takes
place internally. There are three important models in this approach:
TOPIC 7 MOTIVATION 123
Prioritise requirements for security rather than other requirements, that is Theory
X is of the opinion that people define work only as a necessity to live and will
avoid work whenever possible.
According to Theory Y, people will be satisfied with their jobs if the working
environment is suitable and they could implement their responsibilities well.
EXERCISE 7.1
Needs Hierarchy
Physiological This need exists at the lowest level of the hierarchy. Examples of
Needs this need are the need for food, water, air and sleep. Organisations
can help individuals to fulfil this need by preparing sufficient
income to obtain food, shelter and a comfortable working
environment. People will focus on fulfilling these needs before
fulfilling the needs in the following level.
Safety Needs This need is related closely to acquiring a safe physical and
emotional environment. Examples of this need are employment
network, health insurance and retirement plans used to fulfil the
safety needs of employees.
Social Needs After physiological and safety needs been fulfilled, social needs
will become the main source of motivation to people. This need
includes desire towards friendship, love and the feeling of
belonging. An example of social need is when an employee
establishes friendship in the workplace and feels a part of the
organisation.
Esteem Needs The needs at this level include the needs for status and
recognition. This need can be fulfilled through success. Esteem
needs are fulfilled when one is given recognition and respect by
other people. For example, organisations can help in fulfilling this
need through promotion or providing a spacious work station to
the employee. People in need of recognition want themselves to
be accepted based on their abilities and want to be known as
being capable and efficient.
Self-actualisation This need is at the highest level of the hierarchy. This need means
Needs that people value high achievement based on their self-potential
by using capability and interest to the maximum level in order to
perform work in the environment. As an example, a challenging
task can assist in satisfying a person towards the achievement of
self-actualisation needs.
According to Maslow, when a particular need has been fulfilled it will no longer
motivate the behaviour of employees. For example, when an employee has
gained confirmation in his work place, then a new retirement plan may become
less important to him compared to the opportunity of having new friends and
joining the informal group in the organisation. It is the same when the lower-
level needs are not fulfilled, most people will pay attention to those particular
needs. For example, an employee who is trying to fulfil the need for self-
recognition by holding an important position in a particular department
suddenly finds out that the department and position he is going to hold may be
eliminated, hence the employee may find that the chances of not being
126 TOPIC 7 MOTIVATION
MaslowÊs model identified that individuals have different needs which can be
motivated by different matters or activities. Unfortunately, this model can only
provide basic guidelines to managers. Many following studies conducted found
that hierarchy level differs between individuals in different cultural environments.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
For example, employees will feel dissatisfied if they believe that their work
place is not safe; but if the condition of the workplace is improved,
employees may not necessarily become satisfied. If employees are not given
any recognition, feelings of dissatisfaction may not exist. At the same time
although they may not feel satisfied but when recognition is given,
employees will feel more satisfied.
This theory suggests that managers should use two approaches in order to
increase motivation. Firstly, they must ensure hygiene factors such as work
environment are policies that are clearly stated and can be accepted by the
employees. This practice will reduce dissatisfaction of employees. For
second step, managers must use motivational factors such as recognition
and additional responsibilities as tools to increase satisfaction and
motivation.
In conclusion, this approach shows that motivation comes from the individual
himself. Attention towards hygiene factors will help individuals to reduce
excessive dissatisfaction. Both factors of motivation and hygiene need to exist
together to promote motivation. The result of this study found that this two-
factor model is effective in a professional workplace environment but is less
effective in a clerical or manufacturing environment.
EXERCISE 7.2
Need for achievement is the desire to perform much better and more efficiently
than before. The level of achievement motivation in a person depends on
factors such as childhood, personal experiences and education and the type of
organisation joined.
Need for power refers to the desire to control, influence or be responsible over
other people.
Need for affiliation relates to the desire to maintain close and personal
relationships. This need can involve personal authority or institutional authority.
Meanwhile, the need for social acceptance is the desire for creating relationships
with other people.
(a) Valence ă EmployeesÊ belief regarding the value of outcome or simply how
far the particular reward or outcome is attractive or desired.
(b) Expectancy ă EmployeesÊ belief that their effort will incline towards the
level of performance desired or the assumption of the association between
effort and performance.
This model suggests that in order to become a highly motivated person, the three
factors or beliefs must also be high. If any one of the factors declines, the overall
motivation will also decline. Managers are able to use this model to motivate
employees through systematic gathering of information regarding what employees
want out of their job by creating a clear and simple association between rewards
and individual performance, and also granting power or authority for the
employee to make decisions. The measures mentioned will increase the expectancy
of employees that hard work and effort will bring about excellent performance.
130 TOPIC 7 MOTIVATION
Reward Reward
< Inequality
Input Input
Reward Reward
> Inequality
Input Input
For example, a graduate who has just completed his studies received a job offer
to work with a company with a starting salary of RM24,000 per annum, having
the facility of a company car, and sharing an office room with another employee.
If he finds out that there is a new employee reporting for duty given the same
salary and remuneration he received, he will feel that the treatment given is
equal. But if the opposite happens, that is, if the new employee reporting for duty
is given a salary of RM30,000 per annum, a bigger company car and a specific
office room for himself, the particular employee will feel that inequality has
taken place. For an individual who experiences equal treatment, the ratio of
comparison may not necessarily be the same relatively. Based on the previous
example, the employee who initially feels that there is inequality when the new
employee receives a better remuneration will be able to alter that feeling when he
finds out that the new employee has higher work experience and qualifications
than himself hence he deserves the bigger remuneration based on his
contributions towards the company.
TOPIC 7 MOTIVATION 131
This theory also states that the existence of inequality can result in pressure
equivalent to the level of inequality felt by the employee. This pressure will
motivate a person to achieve equality or reduce inequality. There are several
actions that can be taken to reduce inequality such as reducing inputs or
contribution if it is much higher compared to the input and outcome received by
other people, increasing input if input is much lower compared to others,
demanding compensation such as a pay rise or deciding to resign from the job.
EXERCISE 7.3
Explain the main differences between the expectancy theory and the
equity theory.
The basic components for a goal-setting model are that goals must be specific,
challenging and acceptable; have performance feedback; and gives at the correct
time. As a motivation tool, goal-setting can help employees in three ways: as a
guideline and propeller of behaviour to support the goals of the organisation;
provide challenges and standards that can be used to make evaluations; and for
stating something important and preparing the framework for planning.
(c) Elimination
Elimination involves the absence of positive outcome or effect, or drawing
back the positive outcome that used to give effect from the desired
behaviour.
(d) Punishment
Punishment is the negative effect that is a result from the occurrence of
undesired matters. As an example, an employee who is always late for
work can be suspended or have his pay detained. Both forms of elimination
reinforcement and punishment can be used to reduce the frequency of
undesired behaviour. There are many studies conducted that show that
rewards can increase the level of satisfaction and motivation compared to
punishment.
Figure 7.6 illustrates a summary of the reinforcement theory that was discussed
above.
EXERCISE 7.4
Essay Question
As a manager, you have decided to reduce the undesired behaviour of
a particular employee. What are the types of reinforcements that are
suitable to be used and why?
Motivation Caselet
There are two main approaches for explaining the aspects of motivation.
The three needs-based models discussed were the hierarchy of needs model,
two-factor model and achievement of needs model.