Atomic Structure

The text provides a historical perspective of how the internal structure

of the atom was discovered. It is certainly one of the most important
scientific discoveries of this century, and I recommend that you read
through it. However, we will begin our discussion of the atom from the
modern day perspective.

All atoms are made from three subatomic particles

 Protons, neutron & electrons.

These particles have the following properties:

Particle Charge Mass (g) Mass (amu)

Proton +1 1.6727 x 10-24 g 1.007316

Neutron 0 1.6750 x 10-24 g 1.008701

Electron -1 9.110 x 10-28 g 0.000549

In the above table I have used a unit of mass called the atomic mass unit
(amu). This unit is much more convenient to use than grams for describing
masses of atoms. It is defined so that both protons and neutrons have a
mass of approximately 1 amu. Its precise definition will be given later.

The important points to keep in mind are as follows:

 Protons and neutrons have almost the same mass, while the electron
is approximately 2000 times lighter.
 Protons and electrons carry charges of equal magnitude, but
opposite charge. Neutrons carry no charge (they are neutral).

It was once thought that protons, neutrons and electrons were spread out
in a rather uniform fashion to form the atom (see J.J. Thompson’s plum
pudding model of the atom on page 42), but now we know the actual
structure of the atom to be quite different.

What does an atom look like?

Protons and neutrons are held together rather closely in the center of
the atom. Together they make up the nucleus, which accounts for nearly
all of the mass of the atom.

Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus and constitute almost the
entire volume of the atom. Although quantum mechanics are necessary to
explain the motion of an electron about the nucleus, we can say that the
distribution of electrons about an atom is such that the atom has a
spherical shape.

Atoms have sizes on the order of 1-5 � (1 angstrom = 1 � = 1  10-10 m)

and masses on the order of 1-300 amu.

To put the mass and dimensions of an atom into perspective consider the
following analogies. If an atom were the size of Ohio stadium, the nucleus
would only be the size of a small marble. However, the mass of that
marble would be ~ 115 million tons.

What holds an atom together?

The negatively charged electron is attracted to the positively charged

nucleus by a Coulombic attraction.

The protons and neutrons are held together in the nucleus by the strong
nuclear force.

How many electrons, protons and neutrons are contained in an atom?

Atoms in their natural state have no charge, that is they are neutral.
Therefore, in a neutral atom the number of protons and electrons are the
same. If this condition is violated the atom has a net charge and is called
an ion.
The number of protons in the nucleus determines the identity of the
atom. For example all carbon atoms contain six protons, all gold atoms
contain 79 protons, all lead atoms contain 82 protons.

Two atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of
neutrons are called isotopes.

How does the structure of the atom relate to its properties?

Chemical reactions involve either the transfer or the sharing of electrons

between atoms. Therefore, the chemical reactivity/ properties of an
element is primarily dependent upon the number of electrons in an atom
of that element. Protons also play a significant role because the tendency
for an atom to either lose, gain or share electrons is dependent upon the
charge of the nucleus.

Therefore, we can say that the chemical reactivity of an atom is

dependent upon the number of electrons and protons, and independent of
the number of neutrons.

The mass and radioactive properties of an atom are dependent upon the
number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

Note: The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom

completely determine its properties and identity, regardless of how and
where the atom was made. So it is inaccurate to speak of synthetic atoms
and natural atoms. In other words a lead atom is a lead atom, end of
story. It doesn’t matter if was mined from the earth, produced in a
nuclear reactor, or came to earth on an asteroid.

Symbolism

There is a symbolism or shorthand for describing atoms which is

universally used across all scientific disciplines

Atomic Number (Z)  The # of protons

Mass Number (A)  [The # of protons] + [the # of neutrons]

The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom are uniquely

specified by the following symbol

A
SyC

where:

 Sy = The elemental symbol (i.e. C, N, Cr)  defines the # of protons

 A = The mass number  [# of protons] + [# of neutrons]
 C = The net charge  [# of protons] – [# of electrons]

Example

Lets start with a neutral boron 10 atom  10B

Since the atom is a boron atom the periodic table tells us that there
are 5 protons in the nucleus Z = 5.

The atom is neutral so that the number of electrons must balance the
number of protons, 5 electrons.

The mass number is 10, so that the number of neutrons is A - Z = 10 - 5

= 5 neutrons.
Atoms Are Building Blocks

Atoms are the foundation of chemistry. They are the basis for
everything in the Universe. As you know, matter is composed
of atoms. Solids are made of densely packed atoms while gases
have atoms that are spread out. We're going to cover basics
like atomic structure and bonding between atoms. As you learn
more, you can move to the reactions and biochemistry pages
and see how atoms form compounds that help the biological
world survive.

Are there pieces of matter that are smaller than atoms? Sure
there are. Super-small particles can be found inside the pieces
of atoms. These subatomic particles
include nucleons and quarks. Nuclear chemists and physicists
work together at particle accelerators to discover the
presence of these tiny, tiny, tiny pieces of matter. However,
science is based on the atom because it is the smallest distinct
unit of matter.

Three Easy Pieces

Even though many super-tiny atomic
particles exist, you only need to
remember the three basic parts of an
atom: electrons, protons,
and neutrons. What are electrons,
protons, and neutrons? Electrons are
the smallest of the three particles that
make up atoms. Electrons are found in
shells or orbitals that surround the
nucleus of an atom. Protons and
neutrons are found in the nucleus. They group together in the
center of the atom. That's all you have to remember. Three
easy pieces!

There are almost 120 known elements in the periodic table.

(117 as we write this) Chemists and physicists are trying to
make new ones every day in their labs. The atoms of different
elements have different numbers of electrons, protons, and
neutrons. Every element is unique and has an atomic number.
That number tells you the number of protons in every atom of
the element. The atomic number is also called the proton
number.

Charges of Atoms
You can see that each part of the atom
is labeled with a "+", "-", or a "0."
Those symbols refer to the charge of
the particle. Have you ever heard
about getting a shock from a socket,
static electricity, or lightning? Those
are all related to electric charges.
Charges are also found in tiny particles
of matter.

The electron always has a "-", or negative, charge. The proton

always has a "+", or positive, charge. If the charge of an entire
atom is "0", or neutral, there are equal numbers of positive and
negative charges. Neutral atoms have equal numbers of
electrons and protons. The third particle is the neutron. It has a
neutral charge, also known as a charge of zero.

Since the number of protons in an atom does not change,

fewer or extra electrons can create a special atom called
an ion. Cations have fewer electrons and have a positive
 charge. Anions have extra electrons that create a negative
charge.

atomic structure
 Word Origin
noun, Physics.
1.

the structure of an atom, theoretically consisting of a positively charged nucleus

surrounded and neutralized by negatively charged electrons revolving in orbits
at varying distances from the nucleus, the constitution of the nucleus and the
arrangement of the electrons differing with various chemical elements.

All substances are made from atoms. Each atom is made of a nucleus - containing
protons and neutrons - surrounded by electrons.
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. The elements are arranged in
the periodic table in ascending order of atomic number.
The mass number of an atom is the total of protons plus neutrons. Atoms of the same
element with different numbers of neutrons (and hence different mass numbers) are
called isotopes of that element.

Atomic structure
All material things are made from atoms. There are just over one hundred different types of
atom, called elements. Atoms can join together in millions of different combinations to
make all the substances on Earth and beyond.

Structure of the atom

Every atom is made of a nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons. The nucleus is
surrounded by electrons. Protons and electrons are oppositely charged. Neutrons have no
charge. This means the nucleus of an atom is always positively charged.
An atom has a neutral overall charge because it has the same number of electrons as protons.
Protons and neutrons have the same mass. Electrons have such a small mass that this can
usually be taken as zero.

Comparing the charge and mass of electrons, protons and neutrons

Proton Neutron Electron

Charge +1 0 -1

Mass 1 1 0.0005 (almost zero)

The atomic number (also called the proton number) is the number of protons in an atom.
The mass number (also called the nucleon number) is the total number of protons and neutrons
in an atom.
The elements are arranged in the periodic table in ascending order of atomic number so it's easy
to find the name or symbol for an atom if you know the atomic number.

ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND ATOMIC NUMBERS

The integer that you find in each box of the Periodic Chart is the atomic number. The
atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom. Notice that there
is one and only one integer from 1 - 110 or so in each element box, so we have found
all the elements. Each element fits neatly into its niche in the Periodic Table.

Another number that you can often find in the box with the symbol of the element is
usually not an integer. It is oversimplifying only a little to say that this number is the
number of protons plus the average number of neutrons in that element. The number
is called the atomic weight or atomic mass.

How can it be that an element must have an averaged atomic weight? The number of
protons defines the type of element. If an atom has six protons, it is carbon. If it has
92 protons, it is uranium. The number of neutrons in the nucleus of an element can be
different, though. Carbon 12 is the commonest type of carbon. Carbon 12 has six
protons (naturally, otherwise it wouldn't be carbon) and six neutrons. The mass of the
electrons is negligible. Carbon 12 has a mass of twelve. Carbon 13 has six protons and
seven neutrons. Carbon 14 has six protons and eight neutrons. Carbon 14 is
radioactive because, as other atoms with the wrong percentage of neutrons to protons,
it is unstable. The nucleus tends to pop apart. The proper ratio of protons to neutrons
is about one to one for small elements and about one proton to one and a half neutrons
for the larger elements. Types of an element in which every atom has the same
number of protons and the same number of neutrons are called isotopes. Carbon 14 is
a radioactive isotope of carbon. Any carbon 14 that was made at the time the earth
was formed is now almost all gone. Carbon 14 is continuously made from high energy
electromagnetic radiation hitting nitrogen atoms in the ozone layer of the earth. This
carbon 14 when taken into plants as CO2 will also be taken into animals. We can find
out how much carbon 14 that normally is in a living plant or animal and from there we
can find the actual amount of carbon 14 left in a plant or animal long dead. We can
get a very good idea of how long ago that plant or animal was living from the amount
of carbon 14 remaining in the dead body. This process is called "carbon dating." The
stable, non-radioactive isotopes of carbon play no part in this. As a whole element,
carbon has a more or less fixed proportion of the various carbon isotopes. For this
reason, we can determine a weighted average of the isotopes for all elements. On a
periodic chart you may see some atomic weights that are integers or in parentheses.
These are usually on the very large or very rare or very radioactive elements. That is
not really an integer atomic weight, but the atomic weight has been estimated to the
nearest integer.

Back to the beginning of Atomic Structure.

FORMULA WEIGHT OR MOLECULAR WEIGHT OR

FORMULA MASS OR MOLAR MASS
Now with the atomic weight information we can consider matching up atoms on a
mass-to-mass basis. Let's take hydrogen chloride, HCl. One hydrogen atom is
attached to one chlorine atom, but they have different masses. A hydrogen atom has a
mass of 1.008 AMU and a chlorine atom has a mass of 35.453 AMU. Practically
speaking, one AMU is far too small a mass for us to weigh in the lab. We could weigh
1.008 grams of hydrogen and 35.453 grams of chlorine, and they would match up
exactly right. There would be the same number of hydrogen atoms as chlorine atoms.
They could join together to make HCl with no hydrogen or chlorine left over. If we
take one gram of a material for every AMU of mass in the atoms of just one of them,
we will have a mol (or mole) of that material. One mol of any material, therefore, has
the same number of particles of the material named, this number being Avogadro's
number, 6.022 E 23.

The formula weight is the most general term that includes atomic weight and
molecular weight. In the case of the HCl, we can add the atomic weights of the
elements in the compound and get a molecular weight. The molecular weight of HCl
is 36.461 g/mol, the sum of the atomic weights of hydrogen and chlorine. The unit of
molecular weight is grams per mol. The way to calculate the molecular weight of any
formula is to add up the atomic weights of all the atoms in the formula. CuSO4 · 5H2O
is the formula for copper II sulfate pentahydrate. The formula has one copper atom,
one sulfur atom, nine oxygen atoms, and ten hydrogen atoms. To get the formula
weight of this compound we would add up the atomic weights. Copper II sulfate
pentahydrate is not a molecule, strictly speaking, but you will hear the term
"molecular weight" used for it rather than the more proper "formula weight." Since
the unit of formula weight is grams per mol, it makes good sense to use the formula
weight of a material as a conversion factor between the mass of a material and the
number of mols of the material.

Back to the beginning of Atomic Structure.

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
Protons have a positive charge and electrons have a negative charge. Free
(unattached) uncharged atoms have the same number of electrons as protons to be
electrically neutral. The protons are in the nucleus and do not change or vary except in
some nuclear reactions. The electrons are in discrete pathways or shells around the
nucleus. There is a ranking or hierarchy of the shells, usually with the shells further
from the nucleus having a higher energy. As we consider the electron configuration of
atoms, we will be describing the ground state position of the electrons. When
electrons have higher energy, they may move up away from the nucleus into higher
energy shells.

A hydrogen atom has only one proton and one electron. The electron of a hydrogen
atom travels around the proton nucleus in a shell of a spherical shape. The two
electrons of helium, element number two, are in the same spherical shape around the
nucleus. The first shell only has one subshell, and that subshell has only one orbital, or
pathway for electrons. Each orbital has a place for two electrons. The spherical shape
of the lone orbital in the first energy level has given it the name "s" orbital. Helium is
the last element in the first period. Being an inert element, it indicates that that shell is
full. Shell number one has only one s subshell and all s subshells have only one
orbital. Each orbital only has room for two electrons. So the first shell, called the K
shell, has only two electrons.

Beginning with lithium, the electrons do not have room in the first shell or energy
level. Lithium has two electrons in the first shell and one electron in the next shell.
The first shell fills first and the others more or less in order as the element size
increases up the Periodic Chart, but the sequence is not immediately obvious. The
second energy level has room for eight electrons. The second energy level has not
only an s orbital, but also a p subshell with three orbitals. The p subshell can contain
six electrons. The p subshell has a shape of three dumbbells at ninety degrees to each
other, each dumbbell shape being one orbital. With the s and p subshells the second
shell, the L shell, can hold a total of eight electrons. You can see this on the periodic
chart. Lithium has one electron in the outside shell, the L shell. Beryllium has two
electrons in the outside shell. The s subshell fills first, so all other electrons adding to
this shell go into the p subshell. Boron has three outside electrons, carbon has four,
nitrogen has five, oxygen has six, and fluorine has seven. Neon has a full shell of
eight electrons in the outside shell, the L shell, meaning the neon is an inert element,
the end of the period.

Beginning again at sodium with one electron in the outside shell, the M shell fills
its s and p subshells with eight electrons. Argon, element eighteen, has two electrons
in the K shell, eight in the L shell, and eight in the M shell. The fourth period begins
again with potassium and calcium, but there is a difference here. After the addition of
the 4s electrons and before the addition of the 4p electrons, the sequence goes back to
the third energy level to insert electrons in a d shell.

The shells or energy levels are numbered or lettered, beginning with K. So K is one, L
is two, M is three, N is four, O is five, P is six, and Q is seven. As the s shells can only
have two electrons and the pshells can only have six electrons, the d shells can have
only ten electrons and the f shells can have only fourteen electrons. The sequence of
addition of the electrons as the atomic number increases is as follows with the first
number being the shell number, the s, p, d, or f being the type of subshell, and the last
number being the number of electrons in the subshell.

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p
6
It is tempting to put an 8s2 at the end of the sequence, but we have no evidence of an
R shell. One way to know this sequence is to memorize it. There is a bit of a pattern in
it. The next way to know this sequence is to SEE IT ON THE PERIODIC CHART.
As you go from hydrogen down the chart, the Groups 1 and 2 represent the filling of
an s subshell. The filling of a p subshell is shown in Groups 3 through 8. The filling of
a d subshell is represented by the transition elements (ten elements), and the filling of
an fsubshell is shown in the lanthanide and actinide series (fourteen elements).

Here is a copy of the periodic chart as you have usually seen it.

And here is the same chart re-arranged with the Lanthanides and Actinides in their
right place and Group I and II afterward. Both of these charts are color coded so that
the elements with the 2s subshell on the outside (H and He) are turquoise. All other
elements with an s subshell on the outside (Groups I and II) are outlined in blue.
Lanthanides and actinides are in grey. Other transition elements are in yellow, and all
of the elements that have a p subshell as the last one on the outside are in salmon
color.
A SIMPLE VIEW OF ATOMIC
STRUCTURE

This page revises the simple ideas about atomic structure that
you will have come across in an introductory chemistry course
(for example, GCSE). You need to be confident about this
before you go on to the more difficult ideas about the atom
which under-pin A'level chemistry.

The sub-atomic particles

Protons, neutrons and electrons.

relative mass relative charge

proton 1 +1
neutron 1 0
electron 1/1836 -1

Beyond A'level: Protons and neutrons don't in fact

have exactly the same mass - neither of them has a mass of
exactly 1 on the carbon-12 scale (the scale on which the
relative masses of atoms are measured). On the carbon-12
scale, a proton has a mass of 1.0073, and a neutron a mass
of 1.0087.

The behaviour of protons, neutrons and electrons in electric

fields

What happens if a beam of each of these particles is passed

between two electrically charged plates - one positive and one
negative? Opposites will attract.

Protons are positively charged and so would be deflected on a

curving path towards the negative plate.

Electrons are negatively charged and so would be deflected on

a curving path towards the positive plate.
Neutrons don't have a charge, and so would continue on in a
straight line.

Exactly what happens depends on whether the beams of

particles enter the electric field with the various particles having
the same speeds or the same energies

If the particles have the same energy

If beams of the three sorts of particles, all with the same energy,
are passed between two electrically charged plates:

 Protons are deflected on a curved path towards the

negative plate.
 Electrons are deflected on a curved path towards the
positive plate.

The amount of deflection is exactly the same in the

electron beam as the proton beam if the energies are the
same - but, of course, it is in the opposite direction.

 Neutrons continue in a straight line.

If the electric field was strong enough, then the electron and
proton beams might curve enough to hit their respective plates.

If the particles have the same speeds

If beams of the three sorts of particles, all with the same speed,
are passed between two electrically charged plates:

 Protons are deflected on a curved path towards the

negative plate.
 Electrons are deflected on a curved path towards the
positive plate.
 If the electrons and protons are travelling with the same
speed, then the lighter electrons are deflected far more
strongly than the heavier protons.

 Neutrons continue in a straight line.

Note: This is potentially very confusing! Most chemistry

sources that talk about this give either one or the other of
these two diagrams without any comment at all - they don't
specifically say that they are using constant energy or
constant speed beams. But it matters!

If this is on your syllabus, it is important that you should

know which version your examiners are going to expect, and
they probably won't tell you in the syllabus. You should look
in detail at past questions, mark schemes and examiner's
reports which you can get from your examiners if you are
doing a UK-based syllabus. Information about how to do this
is on the syllabuses page.

If in doubt, I suggest you use the second (constant speed)

version. This actually produces more useful information
about both masses and charges than the constant energy
version.

The nucleus

The nucleus is at the centre of the atom and contains the

protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are collectively
known as nucleons.

Virtually all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus,

because the electrons weigh so little.

Working out the numbers of protons and neutrons

 No of protons = ATOMIC NUMBER of the atom

The atomic number is also given the more descriptive name

of proton number.

No of protons + no of neutrons = MASS NUMBER of

the atom

The mass number is also called the nucleon number.

This information can be given simply in the form:

How many protons and neutrons has this atom got?

The atomic number counts the number of protons (9); the mass
number counts protons + neutrons (19). If there are 9 protons,
there must be 10 neutrons for the total to add up to 19.

The atomic number is tied to the position of the element in the

Periodic Table and therefore the number of protons defines what
sort of element you are talking about. So if an atom has 8
protons (atomic number = 8), it must be oxygen. If an atom has
12 protons (atomic number = 12), it must be magnesium.

Similarly, every chlorine atom (atomic number = 17) has 17

protons; every uranium atom (atomic number = 92) has 92
protons.

Isotopes

The number of neutrons in an atom can vary within small limits.

For example, there are three kinds of carbon atom 12C, 13C
and 14C. They all have the same number of protons, but the
number of neutrons varies.
 protons neutrons mass number
carbon-12 6 6 12
carbon-13 6 7 13
carbon-14 6 8 14

These different atoms of carbon are called isotopes. The fact

that they have varying numbers of neutrons makes no difference
whatsoever to the chemical reactions of the carbon.

Isotopes are atoms which have the same atomic number but
different mass numbers. They have the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons.

The electrons

Working out the number of electrons

Atoms are electrically neutral, and the positiveness of the

protons is balanced by the negativeness of the electrons. It
follows that in a neutral atom:

no of electrons = no of protons

So, if an oxygen atom (atomic number = 8) has 8 protons, it

must also have 8 electrons; if a chlorine atom (atomic number =
17) has 17 protons, it must also have 17 electrons.

The arrangement of the electrons

The electrons are found at considerable distances from the

nucleus in a series of levels called energy levels. Each energy
level can only hold a certain number of electrons. The first level
(nearest the nucleus) will only hold 2 electrons, the second
holds 8, and the third also seems to be full when it has 8
electrons. At GCSE you stop there because the pattern gets
more complicated after that.

These levels can be thought of as getting progressively further

from the nucleus. Electrons will always go into the lowest
possible energy level (nearest the nucleus) - provided there is
space.
To work out the electronic arrangement of an atom

 Look up the atomic number in the Periodic Table - making

sure that you choose the right number if two numbers are
given. The atomic number will always be the smaller one.
 This tells you the number of protons, and hence the
number of electrons.
 Arrange the electrons in levels, always filling up an inner
level before you go to an outer one.

e.g. to find the electronic arrangement in chlorine

 The Periodic Table gives you the atomic number of 17.

 Therefore there are 17 protons and 17 electrons.
 The arrangement of the electrons will be 2, 8, 7 (i.e. 2 in
the first level, 8 in the second, and 7 in the third).

The electronic arrangements of the first 20 elements

After this the pattern alters as you enter the transition series in
the Periodic Table.

Two important generalisations

If you look at the patterns in this table:

 The number of electrons in the outer level is the same as

the group number. (Except with helium which has only 2
electrons. The noble gases are also usually called group
0 - not group 8.) This pattern extends throughout the
Periodic Table for the main groups (i.e. not including the
transition elements).

So if you know that barium is in group 2, it has 2 electrons

in its outer level; iodine (group 7) has 7 electrons in its
 outer level; lead (group 4) has 4 electrons in its outer
level.

 Noble gases have full outer levels. This generalisation will

need modifying for A'level purposes.

Dots-and-crosses diagrams

In any introductory chemistry course you will have come across

the electronic structures of hydrogen and carbon, for example,
drawn as:

Note: There are many places where you could still make
use of this model of the atom at A'level. It is, however, a
simplification and can be misleading. It gives the impression
that the electrons are circling the nucleus in orbits like
planets around the sun. As you will find when you look at the
A'level view of the atom, it is impossible to know exactly how
they are actually moving.

The circles show energy levels - representing increasing

distances from the nucleus. You could straighten the circles out
and draw the electronic structure as a simple energy diagram.

Carbon, for example, would look like this:

An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical
element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are
very small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (a ten-billionth of a meter, in the short scale).
Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics – as if they
were billiard balls, for example – gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to quantum effects.
Through the development of physics, atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better
explain and predict the behavior.
Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus
is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons are
called nucleons. More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a
positive electric charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no
electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If
an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge,
respectively, and it is called an ion.
The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic
force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a different force,
the nuclear force, which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively
charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force
becomes stronger than the nuclear force, and nucleons can be ejected from the nucleus, leaving
behind a different element: nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation.
The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs: for
example, all copper atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the
element. The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom. Atoms can attach
to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules. The
ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed
in nature and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Matter has mass and takes up space. Atoms are basic building blocks of matter, and
cannot be chemically subdivided by ordinary means.

The word atom is derived from the Greek word atom which means indivisible. The Greeks concluded that
matter could be broken down into particles to small to be seen. These particles were called atoms

Atoms are composed of three type of particles: protons, neutrons, and electron.
Protons and neutrons are responsible for most of the atomic mass e.g in a 150 person
149 lbs, 15 oz are protons and neutrons while only 1 oz. is electrons. The mass of an
electron is very small (9.108 X 10-28 grams).

Both the protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus. Protons have a postive (+)
charge, neutrons have no charge --they are neutral. Electrons reside in orbitals around
the nucleus. They have a negative charge (-).
It is the number of protons that determines the atomic number, e.g., H = 1. The
number of protons in an element is constant (e.g., H=1, Ur=92) but neutron number
may vary, so mass number (protons + neutrons) may vary.

The same element may contain varying numbers of neutrons; these forms of an
element are called isotopes. The chemical properties of isotopes are the same,
although the physical properties of some isotopes may be different. Some isotopes are
radioactive-meaning they "radiate" energy as they decay to a more stable form,
perhaps another element half-life: time required for half of the atoms of an element to
decay into stable form. Another example is oxygen, with atomic number of 8 can have
8, 9, or 10 neutrons.

What are elements?

All matter is made up of elements which are fundamental substances which cannot be
broken down by chemical means. There are 92 elements that occur naturally. The
elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are the elements that make up most
living organisms. Some other elements found in living organisms are: magnesium,
calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium.

By the late 1800's many elements had already been discovered. The scientist Dmitri
Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, proposed an arrangement of know elements based on
their atomic mass. The modern arrangement of the elements is known as the Periodic
Table of Elements and is arranged according to the atomic number of elements.

Here is an Interactive Table of Elements where you can learn more about each of the elements.

What makes each element unique?

Every atom would like to have an electron configuration like a noble gases. In noble
gases the outer electron shell is complete. This makes the element chemically inert.
Helium is an example of a noble (inert) gas. It is not present in organisms because it is
not chemically reactive.

Historical Models of the atom

BOHR MODEL
Bohr model shows electrons circling the nucleus at different levels or orbitals much
like planets circle the sun. Electrons move from one energy state to another but can
only exist aft defineite energy levels. The energy absorbed or released when electrons
change states is in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

THE WAVE MODEL AND QUANTUM THEORY

The Bohr model was only able to explain the very simplest atoms, like hydrogen.
Today's modern day theory is based on mathematics and the properties of waves. The
wave model forms the basis for the Quantum Theory

. This theory gives the probability of locating electrons in a particular location, unlike
assuming electrons orbit the nucleus as in the Bohr model.

How are electrons organized around the nucleus?

All atoms would like to attain electron configurations like noble gases. That is, have
completed outer shells. Atoms can form stable electron configurations like noble
gases

by:

1. losing electrons
2. sharing electrons
3. gaining electrons.

For a stable configuration each atom must fill its outer energy level. In the case of
noble gases that means eight electrons in the last shell (with the exception of He
which has two electrons).

Atoms that have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer levels will tend to lose them in
interactions with atoms that have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer levels. Atoms that
have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer levels will tend to gain electrons from atoms
with 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer levels. Atoms that have 4 electrons in the outer
most energy level will tend neither to totally lose nor totally gain electrons during
interactions.

This Periodic Table of Elements will show you the electron configuration for any
element you click on.
 Visualizing Atomic Orbitals

The atomic orbitals of the hydrogen atom can be visualized as a cloud around the
nucleus. The orbital represents a probability of finding the electron at a particular
location. Darker regions signify a greater probability. Shown below are the 1s (lowest
orbital and the 2s orbital.

1s 2s

Atomic orbitals do not always have the shape of a sphere. Higher orbitals have very
unusual shapes.

2px 3px
Energy levels and shells
Electrons are arranged in different shells around the nucleus. The innermost shell - or lowest
energy level - is filled first. Each succeeding shell can only hold a certain number of electrons
before it becomes full. The innermost shell can hold a maximum of two electrons, the second
shell a maximum of eight, and so on. The table gives the maximum capacity of the first three
shells.

Maximum capacity of the first three shells

energy level or shell maximum number of electrons

first 2

second 8

third 8

A lithium atom, for example, has three electrons. Two are in the first energy level, and one in
the second.
A carbon atom has six electrons. Two are in the first energy level, and four in the second energy
level.

Arrangement of electrons in a lithium atom

 Electronic structure 2
Below are some more electronic structures. Remember - you need to learn the electronic
structures of the first 20 elements.
The number of electrons in the highest occupied energy level of each atom is the same as the
element's group number.

Electronic structures of elements

Element Numeric Electrons Periodic

format table group

F 2,7 Fluorine atoms have nine electrons. Two of Group 7

these fit into the first energy level. The
remaining seven fit into the second energy
level.

Ne 2,8 Neon atoms have ten electrons. Two of Group 0 -

these fit into the first energy level. The that is, the
remaining eight electrons fit into the second eighth group
energy level. Because its highest occupied
energy level is full, neon is stable and
unreactive.
 Element Numeric Electrons Periodic
format table group

Na 2,8,1 Sodium atoms have 11 electrons. Two of Group 1

these fit into the first energy level, eight into
the second energy level. The last one fits
into the third energy level.

Ca 2,8,8,2 Calcium atoms have 20 electrons. Two of Gr

these fit into the first energy level, eight into
the second energy level, another eight into
the third energy level. The last two fit into
the fourth energy level.

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Electronic structure and the periodic table

As you have seen, there is a link between an atom's electronic structure and its position in the
periodic table. You can work out an atom's electronic structure from its place in the periodic
table.

Periodic table related to electronic structure

The diagram shows a section of the periodic table, with the elements arranged as usual in the
order of their atomic number, from 2 to 20. The red numbers below each chemical symbol show
its electronic structure.

Moving across each period, you can see that the number of occupied energy levels is the same
as the period number.
As you go across each period from left to right, an energy level gradually becomes filled with
electrons. The highest occupied energy level contains just one electron on the left-hand side of
the table. It is filled by the time you get to the right-hand side.

Moving down each group, you can see that the number of electrons in the highest occupied
energy level is the same as the group number.

Each element in a group therefore has the same number of electrons in its highest occupied
energy level. Group 0 is a partial exception to this rule. Although it comes after Group 7, it is not
called Group 8 - and it contains helium, which has only two electrons in its outer shell.

Working out an element's electronic structure

Here is how to use the periodic table to work out an electronic structure:

1. Find the element in the periodic table. Work out which period it is in, and draw that
number of circles around the nucleus.
2. Work out which group the element is in and draw that number of electrons in the outer
circle - with eight for Group 0 elements - except helium.
3. Fill the other circles with electrons. Remember - two in the first, eight in the second and
third, and 18 in the fourth.
4. Finally, count your electrons and check that they equal the atomic number.