Chapter 4

* Mathematical modeling

z Transfer function method: for linear system

z State variable method: for linear and nonlinear

system

Mathematical modeling of the control system:

- system is modeled by a set of mathematical eq.s.

based on physical laws. ( usually differential eq.s)

4-2 Modeling of Electrical networks

Ex) 4-1 RLC network

 - Kirchhoff’s law

di ( t ) 1 t
e (t ) = i (t ) R + L + ∫ i (τ )dτ
dt c −∞
Initial conditions i ( 0 ) = i0 , vc ( 0 ) = vc 0

- state space representation

Choose i ( t ) and vc ( t ) as state variables.

( state variables are related to energy storage devices.

Note that initial conditions)

dvc ( t ) 1
= i (t )
dt c
di ( t ) 1 R 1
= − vc ( t ) − i ( t ) + e ( t )
dt L L L

- In vector matrix form

⎡ 1 ⎤
⎡vc ( t ) ⎤
 ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎡vc ( t ) ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
⎥ + ⎢ 1 ⎥ e (t )
c
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢
⎢⎣i ( t ) ⎥⎦ ⎢ − 1 − R ⎥ ⎢⎣i ( t ) ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥

⎣L⎦
⎣⎢ L L ⎦⎥
⎡vc ( t ) ⎤
y ( t ) = [1 0] ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ i ( t ) ⎦⎥
- State diagram of RLC network

- Transfer Function (using Mason’s gain formula)

1
M1 =
LCS 2
⎛ R 1 ⎞
Δ = 1− ⎜ − 2 ⎟
⎝ LS LCS ⎠
Δ1 = 1
1
MΔ LCS 2 1
∴M = 1 1 = =
Δ 1+
R
+
1 LCS 2
+ RCS + 1
2
LS LCS
4-3 Modeling of Mechanical system elements

1. Mass

- Newton’s law of motion

d2y d 2θ
∑ fi = M 2 = Ma
dt
∑τ i = J dt 2

2. spring

f ( t ) = ky ( t ) + k1 y 2 ( t ) + ... y ( t ) = extension of spring

If y ( t ) is small
f ( t ) ≅ ky ( t )
3. frictions

a) Viscous friction. b) Static friction. c) Coulomb friction

y
f = By f = ± F (y = 0) f =F (y ≠ 0)
y
b s s c c

4-3-3 Conversion between Translational and Rotational

motion

- lead screw

- rack and pinion

- belt and pully

• lead screw

2
⎛ L ⎞
J = Mr = M ⎜
2
⎟
⎝ 2π ⎠

• rack and pinion.

Point mass case

J = Mr 2 and
τ
τ = r⋅ f → f =
r
d2y
f =M 2
dt

- Belt and pulley

-
4-3-4 Gear Trains, Levers, and Timing Belt

r2 N 2 θ r
= , 2 = 1
r1 N1 θ1 r2
work done
w = T1θ1 = T2θ 2
N
T2 = J 2θ2 + B2θ2 and T1 = 1 T2
N2
but T = J θ + B θ + T
1 1 1 1 1

N
(
= J1θ1 + B1θ1 + 1 J 2θ2 + B2θ2
N2
)
⎛  = N1 θ and θ = N1 θ ⎞
⎜ and θ 2 1 2 1⎟
⎝ N2 N2 ⎠
 2 2
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
∴ T = J1θ1 + B1θ1 + ⎜ 1 ⎟ J 2θ1 + ⎜ 1 ⎟ B2θ1
⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎝ N2 ⎠
⎛ ⎛ N1 ⎞ ⎞  ⎛
2
⎛ N1 ⎞
2
⎞

⎜
= J1 + ⎜
⎜ ⎟ T2 ⎟ θ1 + ⎜ B1 + ⎜
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ B2 ⎟⎟ θ1
⎝ ⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎠

4-3-5 Backlash and Dead zone

4-4 Equation of Mechanical Systems

d2y dy
M 2 = ∑ fi = f ( t ) − ky − B
dt dt
2
d y B dy K 1
+ + y = f (t )
dt 2 M dt M M
⎡ x1  y
⎢
⎢ x2  dx1 = dy
⎢⎣ dt dt
⎡ dx1 ⎤
⎢ dt ⎥ ⎡ 0 1⎤
⎡ x ⎤
⎡0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ K B ⎥ 1 + ⎢ 1 ⎥ f (t )
⎢ ⎥
⎢ dx2 ⎥ ⎢ − − ⎥ ⎣ x2 ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ dt ⎥⎦ ⎣ M M⎦ ⎣M ⎦

State Diagram
* Thermal system

Q2 − Q1 ⎛ v2 − v1 ⎞
q= ⎜ i = ⎟
R ⎝ R ⎠
θ : temperature ( v )
q : rate of heat flow (i )
R : thermal registance ( r )
c : thermal capacitance ( c )

dθ ⎛ dv ⎞
q=C ⎜ i = C ⎟
dt ⎝ dt ⎠
- Perfect insulator

θi − θ dθ
=C
R dt
1 θ
∴θ + θ= i
RC RC

if θi = us ( t ) and θ ( 0 ) = θ 0

1 1
then Sθ − θ 0 + θ=
RC RCS
θ0 1
∴θ = +
s+
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ s+ ⎟ RCS
RC ⎝ RC ⎠
θ0 1 1
= + −
1 s s+ 1
s+
RC RC
−
1
⎛ −
1
t ⎞
∴θ ( t ) = θ 0 e
t
RC
+ ⎜1 − e RC
⎟
⎝ ⎠
4-5 Sensors and Encoders in Control system

4-5-1 Potentiometer

Mechanical displacement → electric voltage

- rotary potentiometer

- linear potentiometer
- Electric circuit representation of a potentiometer.

(a) a position indicator.

(b) to sense the position difference of two shafts.

Block diagram representation

4-5-2 Tachometer

Voltage generator with the output voltage

proportional to the magnitude of angular velocity

dθ
et ( t ) = kt = kt w ( t )
dt
4-5-3 Encoder

angular displacement → digital code or pulse signal

- absolute encoder ; digital code

- Incremental encoder; pulse signal

• count the number of pulses

• simple structure

• no direction information
 - Dual channel encoder

2 sets of output pulses

4-6 DC motors

- AC motor : hard to control ( current characteristics are

Nonlinear, simple, high power)

- DC motor : complicated (need commutator, expensive,

low power)

4-6-1 Fleming’s law (left hand rule)

Dc motor : a torque transducer that converts

electric energy into mechanical energy.

Torque : proportional to field flux and armature

current
 T = K φi
m m a

Fleming’s law ( right hand rule)

- When the torque is developed, if the conductor

moves in the magnetic field, voltage is generated

across its terminal. ( Even though the torque is

developed, if the rotor does not rotate, then no

voltage is generated.)

The voltage is called back emf.

eb = kmφ wm
* PM DC motor (Cross-section view)
4-6-3 Mathematical modeling of PM DC motor

τ = ki i input : ea
eb = kb w output : θ
 - Kirhhoff’s law

di
ea = Ri + L + eb
dt
- Newton’s law

d 2θ dθ
∑ i dt 2
τ = J = τ − B
dt
d 2θ di
2
, → 3rd order differential eg
dt dt

Let x1  i
x2  θ
dθ
x3 
dt
y  x2 = θ
dx1
Then ea = Rx1 + L + kb x3
dt
dx3
ki x1 = J + Bx3
dt

R k 1
∴ x1 = − x1 − b x3 + ea
L L L
x2 = x3
ki B
x3 = + x1 − x3
J J
* In vector matrix form
⎡ R kb ⎤ ⎡1⎤
− 0 −
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎢ L L ⎥ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎢ L ⎥
⎢ x ⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
0 1 ⎥ ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ + ⎢ 0 ⎥ ea
⎢ 2⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ki B ⎥ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 0 − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ J J⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤
y = [ 0 1 0] ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦

- Block diagram and State diagram

 - Transfer function

θ ( s) K
m
= i

E (s)
a
L J s + ( R J + B L )s + ( K K + R B )s
a m
3

a m m a
2

b i a m

* relationship between ki and kb

electrical power consumed in armature.

P = eb ( t ) i ( t )

Mechanical power developed

P = τ (t ) w (t )

⎛τ ⎞
∴ ebi = ( kb w ) ⎜ ⎟ = τ w
⎝ ki ⎠
k
∴ b =1 ∴ kb = ki
ki

Using the horse power unit

746
kb = ki = 1,356ki
550
4-7 Linearization

Consider a class of nonlinear system given below.

dx
= f ( x, r ) f : n × 1 function vector
dt

z Taylor series expansion about a nominal operating

point. x 0
So, f ( x, r ) is expanded at ( x , r ) , as:
0 0

dx ∂f ∂f
= f ( x0 , r0 ) + ( x − x0 ) + ( r − r0 )
∂x ∂r
x0
dt r0 x0
r0

1 ∂2 f ∂2 f
+ ( x − x0 ) + 2 ( r − r0 ) + ...
2 2

2 : ∂x 2 ∂r
x0
r0

dx0
Since f ( x0 , r0 ) = , neglecting HOTs
dt
⎛ ∂f ⎞ ⎛ ∂f ⎞
x − x0 = ⎜ ⎟ ( x − x0 ) + ⎜ ⎟ ( r − r0 )
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ⎠

define + x  x − x0 +r = r − r0

⎛ ∂f ⎞ ⎛ ∂f ⎞
then + x = ⎜ ⎟+ x + ⎜ ⎟+r
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ⎠

⎡ ∂f1 ∂f1 ⎤ ⎡ ∂f1 ∂f1 ⎤

⎢ ∂xn ⎥ ⎢ ∂r ... ∂r ⎥
∂f ⎢ ∂x1 ⎥ ∂f ⎢ 1 p
⎥
where = =
∂x ⎢ ∂f n ∂f n ⎥ ∂r ⎢ ∂f n ∂f n ⎥
⎢ ∂x ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ∂xn ⎦⎥ ∂
⎣ 1r ∂r p ⎦
Ex. 4-11

d2y i2
M 2 = Mg −
dt y
di
e = Ri + L
dt

dy
let x1  y x2  x3  i
dt
Then x1 = x2
1 x32
x2 = g −
M x1
R 1
x3 = − x3 + e
L L
Equilibrium point : y0 is given ( x10 = y0 )
x = 0
∴ x20 = 0
1 x30 2
g− =0
M x10
R 1
− x30 + e0 = 0
L L
∴ x30 2 = Mgx10 = Mgy0
x30 = Mgy0
e0 = Rx30 = R Mgy0

⎡ y0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
∴ x0 = ⎢0 ⎥ e0 = R Mgy0
⎢ ⎥
⎣ Mgy0⎦

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢0 1 0 ⎥ ⎡ ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
⎢x 2x ⎥ ⎢ g g ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A* = ⎢ 30 0 − 30 ⎥ = ⎢ 0 −2 , B *
= ⎢0 ⎥
Mx Mx10 y My0 ⎥ ⎢1⎥
⎢ 10 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ R ⎥ ⎢ R ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
− 0 − ⎣L⎦
L ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0
L ⎦
4-8 Transportation lags (time delays)

d
b ( t ) = y ( t − td ) Td =
v
B ( s ) = Y ( s ) e −Td s
1 2 2
e −Td s = 1 − Td s + Ta s − ...
2:
≅ 1 − Td s
( if Td is small enough for the S in the region of interest )
 x ( t ) − x ( t − Ta )
x ( t ) ≅
Td
x − e − STd x
sx =
Td
∴ e − STd = 1 − Td S

4-9 Op amp

* ideal Op-amp

gain A=∞ e0 = Aei

input impedance : ∞
output impedance : 0
 * input impedance of voltmeter

- Voltmeter internal resistance should be very large

- It takes a small amount of energy from the system

and excite the moving coil and so that the needle

of the meter
- output impedance

Battery : R << R → e = e
i o i

logic circuit : too many loads cause fan-out