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1124Equation Chapter 24 Section 1Chapter 24 Quantum Physic

24.1 Photons
24.2 Wave-particle duality
24.3 Atomic structure
24.4 X-rays
24.5 Nano science

Introduction
1. During nineteenth century there was a particle model to explain the properties of matter
and a wave model to explain light.
2. Mechanics and electromagnetism together appeared to be able to explain everything. All
that remained was to find a link between the two and the Theory of Everything would be
complete. But the physic world was shocked with the new finding. The new finding were:
a. Black body radiation
b. Photoelectric
3. These two problem can be solve by the creation of a Photon

24.1 Photons
(a) describe the important observations in photoelectric experiments;
(b) recognise the features of the photoelectric effect that cannot be explained by wave
theory, and explain these features using the concept of quantisation of light;
(c) use the equation E=hf for a photon;
(d) explain the meaning of work function and threshold frequency;
1 2
hf =W + mvmax
(e) use Einstein's equation for the photoelectric effect 2
1
eV s= mv2max
(f) explain the meaning of stopping potential, and use 2

The Creation of Photons

Black-body radiation
1. All hot bodies radiate. An ideal radiator is called a black body and the spectrum of
radiation from a black body was well known to 19th-century physicists. The problem was to
derive the spectrum from mechanics and electromagnetism.
2. Until 1899, no one had managed to do this, not because they don’t try, and The obstacle
they had encountered became known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.
3. The blackbody spectrum of radiation:

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Figure 24- 1

The spectrum of radiation emitted by a perfect radiator (black body) proved

impossible to derive from the assumptions of classical physics. Classical physics
assumed that the thermal energy of a hot body is shared out among the atoms,
making them vibrate, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic waves. The
equations that came out of this were a good fit to the black-body spectrum at long
wavelengths but did not work for short wavelengths. In fact they predicted that an
infinite amount of energy would be radiated at short wavelengths. This was
obviously wrong (among other things, it violated the law of conservation of energy),
and it came to be known as the ultraviolet catastrophe (because ultraviolet light has
a shorter wavelength than visible light).

4. In 1900 Max Planck, a German physicist. He showed that an accurate equation for the
spectrum could be derived as long as one new assumption was added to those of classical
physics. He assumed that the oscillators that emit radiation can only have discrete energies.
Each oscillator can have zero energy or some multiple of a fixed amount (quantum) which
depends on the frequency f of oscillation according to the formula
E=nhf
n is an integer, 0, 1, 2, ..., and
h is a new constant, now known as the Planck constant: h = 6.626 x 10-34J s
5. How does this fix the ultraviolet catastrophe? The shorter wavelengths correspond to
higher frequencies, so the oscillators responsible for radiation in this part of the spectrum
need a lot more energy to get into even the first vibration state than those emitting radiation
at a longer wavelength (lower frequency). Thermal energy is randomly distributed, so the
chance that high-frequency oscillators will get enough energy to start vibrating (at least h f )
is much smaller than for the lower frequency oscillators. The result is that if energy is
quantized in this way the high frequency oscillators are 'switched off and the intensity of the
spectrum at high frequencies drops down rapidly to zero - exactly as observed. (In classical

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physics all oscillation frequencies would have been excited, and the cumulative effect was
the ultraviolet catastrophe.)
6. Planck and other physicists were uneasy about this new idea, but there seemed to be no
other way to explain the black-body spectrum. The inescapable conclusion was that
• electromagnetic radiation is emitted in discrete energy packets or quanta.

Photoelectric Effect : photoemissive effect

1. Metals emit electrons when supplied with sufficient energy. Thermionic emission is about
supplying the required energy by heating. Another way of emitting the electron is by the
light illuminate on some metal surfaces. This is called the photoelectric effect. The emitted
electrons are called photoelectrons. This phenomena have become a challenge for a
classical physic.

Figure 24- 2. Photoelectric experiment

2. Figure above shows a clean zinc plate placed on the cap of a gold-leaf electroscope and
illuminated with UV from mercury lamp.

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Figure 24- 3. Each diagram is of a charged gold-leaf electroscope illuminated by ultraviolet or

visible light. Neither ultraviolet nor visible light emits electrons from iron. Electrons are only emitted
from the negatively charged electroscope with the zinc plate when it is illuminated with ultraviolet light

3. According to wave theory, light energy is spread evenly across the wavefront, so
electrons should be emitted only if enough energy is delivered close to an electron on the
surface. Also, the ejection should depend only on the intensity of the incident light, and not
on its frequency. Neither of these expectations was borne out in practice. Experiments led to
these photoelectricity or photoelectric effect concept.
(i) For any metal, electrons are only emitted if the frequency of the incident light is
above some threshold value f0. (So weak ultraviolet can emit electrons from zinc,
whereas very intense infrared cannot, even though it is delivering far more energy
per second to each unit area of the zinc surface.)

Figure 24- 4. Ejection of e depend on frequency.

(ii) The threshold frequency depends on the metal and is usually lower for more
reactive elements (so electrons are emitted from potassium more readily than from
zinc, and from zinc more readily than from copper).

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Figure 24- 5. Frequency depend on reactive element (type of metal)

(iii) The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends only on the
frequency of the incident radiation and is proportional to the difference between the

light frequency and the threshold frequency: K max α( f −f 0 )

Figure 24- 6. Kinetic energy of ejected electron depend on change of illuminated light
frequency and threshold frequency.

4. Einstein who was aware of Planck's work, tackled the photoelectric effect in 1905. He saw
that all the experimental laws could be explained if it was assumed that atoms can only
absorb light energy in discrete ‘energy packets' or quanta, and that the size of one quantum
is proportional to the frequency of the light and given by
E=hf
These quanta became now known as photons.
Photon
A particle with zero rest mass consisting of a quantum of electromagnetic radiation
energy.

Photoelectric effect that explained by Einstein using Photons is:

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Figure 24- 7
(i) The wave theory cannot explain the threshold frequency, or how low-amplitude
waves can cause high-KE electrons. Einstein's quantum explanation Each photon
delivers a quantum of energy, hf, which is absorbed by an electron. Energy  is
needed to free the electron from the surface. If hf is more than this, the remainder
is available to the electron as KE (though most electrons lose some KE before
emission because they interact with other atoms). So Work Function,  Energy
needed to free electron from the surface of metal.

(ii) Einstein’s photoelectric equation:

hf = +

Energy Energy
delivered needed to free KE of electron
by photon electron from
surface

Note:
a) The number of electrons emitted is proportional to the number of photons
absorbed.
b)  is called the work function.
Work function Energy needed to free electron from surface
Work function Materials with a low  emit electrons in visible light. Those with
a higher  require the higher-energy photons of ultraviolet.
Metal Work function,Φ(eV)
Gold 5.1
Silicon 4.8
Iron 4.5
Aluminium 4.3

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Silver 4.3

(c) If photons supplied, hf < , no electrons are emitted. Electrons can only
escape if the maximum kinetic energy is greater than zero.
1
me v max 2 = hf - hf0 = hf - 
2
The energy of a photon = hf0 =  . So, equation above can be rearranged and
rewritten:

f0 =
h
Where f0 is known as threshold frequency.

Threshold frequency is the sufficient frequency needed by the electron to

escape from the surface of the metal.

(d) The earthed and non-earthed metal have a different amount of energy
needed by the electron to escape. If the metal is earthed it is easily for the
electron to escape because they are repelled by the surface. Because it is in
the negative potential.
The metal that is not earthed have a positive potential so more work1 need
to escape. So the maximum kinetic energy is given by
1
mev max 2 = hf -  - eV
2
When the maximum energy is zero, mean that there is no electron escape.
hf -  = eVs
Now Vs is called a Stopping Potential.
Stopping potential is the potential that is needed to applied to the surface
to stop the photoelectric emission

(iii) Experiment to investigate the photoemission.

Experimental confirmation of Einstein’s theory was obtained in 1916 by
Robert Millikan.

1 W=qV=eV

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Figure 24- 8

Let us consider a glass tube (discharging tube) which consists of two

electrodes; anode(A) an cathode(c) . It is connected as shown in fig. The
experimental setup shows the Millikan’s experiment to verify the Einstein’s
photoelectric effect .
In figure above. µA (micro ammeter ) , V, Rh and Rc one micro ammeter,
voltmeter, rheostat (potential divider) and reverse switch respectively .
IF certain frequency of light (selected from light filter) is exposed to photo metal
at the cathode electrons are emitted from the metal surface which are directed
towards the anode as a result photo current can be measured by µA.

Measuring the Planck constant, h using a phototube.

Figure 24- 9
1. Figure shows a phototube circuit which can be used to study the
photoelectric (photoemissive) effect. A vacuum is needed to prevent the
collision of electrons with air molecules. Phototube 2 is a device with anode as

2 Some book used photocell

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a collector that will collect the photoelectron and cathode as an emitter and
surrounded with a vacuum inside the glass.
2. The cathode is coated with caesium. When monochromatic light of a certain
frequency falls on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted.
3. The electric field set up between the anode and cathode by the battery
causes the photoelectrons to be attracted towards the anode.
4. These photoelectrons are detected as current by the ammeter. The current is
called photoelectric current or photocurrent.
5. By fixing the distance of the monochromatic light source, its intensity can be
kept constant.
6. The voltage across the anode and cathode is varied slowly using the
potential divider. Figure 24-10 shows the graph of photoelectric current I against
the voltage V applied between the anode and cathode.

Figure 24- 10
7. As the voltage is increased, more photoelectrons are attracted to the anode.
If the voltage is made large enough, all photoelectrons emitted at the cathode
are collected at the anode.
8. The current has now reached its limiting value. This current is known as the
saturation current Is.
9. When V= 0, there is still current flowing in the circuit as there are still some
photoelectrons with sufficient energy arriving at the anode.
10. When the polarity of the voltage V is reversed(after the voltage is
decrease), some photoelectrons would still reach the anode.
11. The flow of photoelectrons is stopped completely only when the reverse
voltage V is large enough. This reverse voltage required to stop the flow of
photoelectrons is called the stopping potential ,Vs. In other words, electrons
with Kmax are completely stopped.

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12. Points 6 to 11 are repeated using electromagnetic radiation of different

frequencies. The frequencies and the Vs is tabulated then, A graph of Vs against
f is plotted for a particular type of metal as shown in figure below.

Figure 24- 11
13. When V = Vs the potential energy eVs equals the maximum kinetic energy
Kmax of the photoelectrons. The most energetic photoelectrons are stopped from
reaching the anode. This can be written as
1
eVs = mv 2max = K max
2
where
e = charge of electron,
m = mass of electron and
vmax = maximum velocity of electron.
Using Einstein's photoelectric equation,
hf = Kmax+  When the microammeter reading is zero, Kmax = eVs.
Equation then becomes
hf = eVs+ 
eVS= hf-
hf −Φ
V s=
e
h
V s = (f −f 0 )
e
h
Therefore, the gradient for any metal = e
The threshold frequency fo occurs when Kmax = 0, (that is VS = 0). Therefore, the
intercept on the f-axis gives the threshold frequency,f0. Using the value of f0, 
can be calculated by  = hf0.

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5. Photons solve all of the problems with which wave theory had difficulty.

Figure 24- 12

(i) Photons are indivisible, so each photon gives all its energy to one electron. If
there is a minimum or threshold energy required to eject electrons from a
particular metal surface, then there will be a minimum photon energy that can
do this. Photon energy is proportional to frequency, so electrons are only
ejected with light above a certain threshold frequency. Increasing the intensity
of light does not affect the energy of individual photons, only the number
arriving per second.
(ii) The minimum energy required to free an electron from the surface depends on
the metal, so the threshold frequency changes from one metal to another.
Reactive metals lose electrons easily, so less energy is required and their
threshold frequency is lower.
(iii) If the light frequency is only just above the threshold frequency, the photon
energy is only just sufficient to eject electrons, so there is little left over for
kinetic energy. The maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons can be no
greater than the difference between the photon energy and the threshold
energy. This is directly proportional to the difference between light frequency
and threshold frequency.
6. Photons unit : When dealing with "particles" such as photons or electrons, a commonly
used unit of energy is the electron-volt (eV) rather than the joule (J). An electron volt is the
energy required to raise an electron through 1 volt, thus a photon with an energy of 1 eV =
1.602 × 10-19 J.

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Example 24- 1

Explain the differences of thermionic emission and photoelectric emission.

Solution:
Thermionic -

Photoelectric -

Example 24- 2

Calculate the energy in (a) joules and (b) kiloelectron-volt (keV) of a 0.45 nm photon.
[Speed of light in vacuum, c = 3.0 x 108 m s-1]

Example 24- 3

An electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 300 nm is incident on a metal surface. The

emitted electrons have maximum kinetic energy of 1.10 x 10-19 J each. Calculate the lowest
frequency required to remove the electrons from the metal surface.

Example 24- 4

Figure 24- 13

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When radiation of wavelength 184 nm is incident on a metal surface as shown in the figure,
the milliammeter reading falls to zero at a reverse voltage of 1.32 V.
What is the work function of the metal in electron-volt (eV)?

24.2 Wave-particle duality

(g) state de Broglie's hypothesis;
h
λ=
(h) use the relation p to calculate de Broglie wavelength;
(i) interpret the electron diffraction pattern as an evidence of the wave nature of electrons;
(j) explain the advantages of an electron microscope as compared to an optical microscope;

1. Prince Louis Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie studied history at the Sorbonne in Paris,
but shifted his interest to physics when he was posted to a signals unit based at the Eiffel
Tower during the First World War. In 1924, as part of his doctoral thesis, de Broglie
proposed that electrons, previously thought of as particles, might also have a wave-like
character. This would make the physical description of matter more like that of light, which
also has wave and particle-like properties.
2. De Broglie's argument ran roughly as follows.
a) Wave-like properties of light are fixed by a wavelength,
λ .
b) Particle-like properties are fixed by a linear momentum,
P=mv
c) These can be linked for a photon by using Einstein's mass-
energy relation and his formula for photon energy: Figure 24- . De Broglie

Energy quantum;
c
E = hf = h
l
From the special theory of relativity,
E = mc 2
c
\ mc 2 = h
l
h
p = mc =
or momentum, l
h
l=
. De Broglie's equation p

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where
l = De Broglie's wavelength (characteristic of wave)
h = Planck's constant = 6.63 X 10-34 J s
p = momentum (characteristic of particle)

3. De Broglie proposed that the same relation would hold for an electron - its wavelength
would be inversely proportional to its linear momentum with a value fixed by the Planck
constant.
4. De Broglie's idea was radical, but the wave-like aspect of electrons was soon
demonstrated experimentally by Davisson and Germer, and independently by G. P
Thomson, the son of J. J. Thomson (discoverer of the electron). It is rather ironic that J. J.
Thomson got the Nobel Prize for showing that the electron 'is' a particle and G. P. Thomson
got one for showing it 'is' a wave. No wonder wave-particle duality, as it came to be called,
was so controversial!
5. At very high energies the Newtonian equations for kinetic energy and momentum are no
longer valid. In fact the relation between total energy and momentum for electrons (or any

E
p=
other matter particle) gets closer and closer to the relation for photons: c . This

h hc
λ= =
equation must therefore be used to calculate the de Broglie wavelength, p E .
This will be necessary whenever v is close to c or E >> Eo.

Example 24- 5

Calculate the wave length of

(a) a 0.15 kg ball travelling at 0.12 m s-1
(b) a neutron of mass 1.67  10-27 kg travelling at 6.2  104 m s-1.
Solution:
h h h
l= = = = 3.68 �10 -32 m
(a) p mv 0.15(0.12)
h
l= = 6.4 �10-12 m
(b) p

Electron diffraction

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1. In 1928, G. P Thomson directed electrons at a thin metal foil which contains many tiny
crystals called grains. He observed that the electrons were diffracted to form a pattern of
rings on a screen.

Figure 24- 15

2. The pattern is identical to the one obtained when X-rays are directed at the thin metal foil.
Therefore,de Broglie's theory is proven. Particles have a wave-like nature under the right
circumstances.
3. Figures below show the diffraction of electrons and the pattern of rings formed on the
screen.
4. In 1927, Clinton J. Davisson and Lester H. Germer conducted an experiment which
verified the wave nature of electrons. Figure above shows the set-up of the experiment.
5. Electrons from an electron gun are directed towards a graphite target in a vacuum. The
electrons are observed to scatter from the target.

Figure 24- 16. Graphite target arrangement

The atomic structure of a layer of graphite. Two prominent layers of atoms are
indicated. These act rather like the slits in an optical diffraction grating and diffract the
electron beams that strike the graphite target.

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6. A movable detector is used to measure the distribution of electrons as a function of its

scattering angle .
7. It is found that maximum and minimum intensities occur at specific angles. The diffraction
pattern is similar to that of Xray diffraction.

Figure 24- 17

8. Figure below shows the diffraction of electrons from the target. Path difference between
ABC and DEF = 2d sin .

Figure 24- 18

For constructive interference,

2d sin  = nl where n = 1, 2, 3, .... This equation is called Bragg's equation.

Example 24- 6

In the Davisson-Germer experiment, the electrons are accelerated from rest through a
potential difference of 2500 kV in a vacuum. Determine
(a) the kinetic energy of the electron.
(b) the de Broglie wavelength
(c) the momentum

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[Mass of electron = 9.11 x 10-34 kg, charge of electron = 1.60 x 10-19 C, h = 6.63x10-34Js]
Solution:
(a) The kinetic energy of electron
1 2
mv e = eV
2
v e = 29.63 �109 ms -1
h h
l= =
(b) p mv
(c)

Seeing with electrons

The ability of an optical instrument to resolve detail is limited by the wavelength of light and
the aperture diameter D of the instrument - the Rayleigh criterion gives a theoretical

λ
resolving power of about D . X-rays have a much shorter wavelength than visible light so
they can be used to study crystalline structures, but they are not much good for forming
images because they are very difficult to refract and focus. Electrons have two great
advantages over light and X-rays.
a) Their wavelength can be controlled by controlling their kinetic energy (i.e.
adjusting the accelerating voltage).
b) They can be focused electromagnetically, because they are charged.
For these reasons electron microscopes of various kinds have been used to create highly
detailed images of tiny objects right down to the atomic scale.

Electron microscope
1. There seems to be structure on every scale that can be observed, from the clusters of
galaxies that can be seen using the Hubble Space Telescope to the regular layers of
atoms in crystals, or the quarks in protons and neutrons. For a long time it was only
possible to look at structures using a very narrow range of frequencies in the
electromagnetic spectrum, and whilst the view was inspiring, it was limited.
2. In the last hundred years the limitations of the visible spectrum have gradually been
exceeded. Astronomers now have radio, infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma-ray
telescopes. The microscopes, too has moved beyond the visible, enhancing resolving
power by using shorter wavelength ultraviolet sources, and the X-ray crystallographer can
produce diffraction patterns from crystalline structures. But the most remarkable images of
all have come by using electron microscopes rather than electromagnetic waves.

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Figure 24- 19

Figure 24- 20

Electron Lens operating principle

1. Electrostatic focusing
Electron beams can be focused as they pass through a pair of cylindrical anodes held at
different potentials. The electron paths 'refract' towards the field lines (which are
perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces).
2. Magnetic focusing
The magnetic force on moving charges can also be used to focus the electron beam as it
passes through a suitably shaped region of magnetic field.

Types of electron microscope

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1. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) This is particularly useful for forming three-
dimensional images of the surface of a sample. A tightly focused electron beam is
scanned across the surface and scattered electrons, along with secondary electrons
ejected from the surface, are collected and counted. This enables an image to be built up
pixel by pixel rather like a TV Picture. SEMs can create images with a magnification
greater than 100000 times. An advantage of the SEM is that the sample does not need
elaborate preparation.
2. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) Unlike the SEM, this microscope does not
scan across the specimen. An electron beam is transmitted through the specimen and
electrons hit a screen on the far side. The pattern of electrons hitting the screen is
measured and used to create an image whose magnification can be in excess of I million
times. One of the main drawbacks of the TEM is the need for very thin samples to be used
- perhaps only a hundred atoms thick.
3. Scanning tunnelling electron microscope (STM) This microscope uses quantum
tunnelling and can be used to resolve individual atoms on the surface of a material. An
extremely fine needle, whose tip may be just one atom wide, is held a fraction of a
nanometre above the surface to be imaged and is scanned across it. A small voltage is
applied between the tip of the probe and the surface, and electrons are then able to tunnel
across the gap. The electron current gets larger if the tip comes closer, and smaller- if it is
moved away. By monitoring the changing electron current as the tip moves, a three-
dimensional image of the surface can be constructed.
4. Atomic force microscope (AFM) This works in a similar way to the STM, but now the
force of repulsion between the electrons in the surface and the probe tip is monitored as
the probe scans across the surface. Again, a three-dimensional image of the surface can
be built up, and the positions of individual atoms in the surface can be measured.

Electron Microscope info

1. The STM and AFM can even be used to pick up and move individual atoms. The first time
this was done was in April 1990 when Don Eigler used the tip of an STM to write IBM in
letters 5 nm high. Now there is a group of 'atomic artists' using these electron microscopes
to create a wide range of images made up of individually arranged atoms. The technology
that has been developed to allow this will be used in future to build tiny machines on a
molecular scale, and to improve data storage capacity by writing information ever more
densely.
2. Light, X-rays, and electrons The wavelength of visible light is about 0.5pm, more than a
thousand times greater than atomic dimensions, so light is useless for forming images of
atoms. X-rays have a short enough wavelength, but they cannot be focused well enough,

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so are used more indirectly to form diffraction patterns from crystalline structures. Electron
beams can be formed with any wavelength and can still be focused. They have been used
to investigate atoms and nuclei, and even to probe inside nucleons themselves.

24.3 Atomic structure

(k) state Bohr's postulates for a hydrogen atom;
(l) derive an expression for the radii of the orbits in Bohr's model;
Z 2 e4 m
En =−
(m) derive the formula 8 ε 20 h2 n2 for Bohr's model;

(n) explain the production of emission line spectra with reference to the transitions between
energy levels;
(o) explain the concepts of excitation energy and ionisation energy;

Introduction
1. Rutherford's model of the atom was useful, but had serious drawbacks(weakness). For
example, Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism predicts that all accelerating charges
should radiate. Electrons orbiting nuclei have a centripetal acceleration, so they should
radiate. Atoms ought to collapse in a fraction of a second as the orbiting electrons radiate
their energy and fall into the nucleus. On a larger scale this synchrotron radiation is a
major power loss from circular accelerators, so it should not be dismissed lightly. How then
can atoms exist?
2. Niels Bohr was aware of this problem. He was also aware that quantization of energy had
solved other problems in classical physics, so he quantized the atom. In Rutherford's
theory an electron can orbit with any energy and any radius, so that the atom has a
continuous range of allowed energies. Bohr added a quantum condition which meant the
electrons could only orbit at certain radii and have certain energies. Atomic collapse was
prevented because there were no allowed states between these energy levels and
because the lowest, or ground state, was not at zero energy. Bohr's original theory
involved circular orbits; Sommerfeld developed the theory to include the more general
elliptical orbits.

Bohr's Postulate of hydrogen atom

1. Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom was devised primarily to explain the spectral emission
from the hydrogen atom known as the Balmer series.
2. There are four postulates of Bohr's model.

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(i) An electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit about the nucleus under the
influence of the Coulomb attraction between the electron and the nucleus,
obeying the laws of classical mechanics.
Fc = FE
ee
me r w =
4pe 0 r 2
(ii) Electrons can only move around the nucleus in fixed orbits with the energy for
each orbit is a constant.
The electron's angular momentum, L in the (particular) orbit is quantised,
that is
nh
L = ( me v )r =
2p (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
where h = Planck's constant, m = mass of electron, v = velocity of electron
and r = radius of nth orbit.
- Each value of n corresponds to successive orbits beginning with the one
nearest to the nucleus.
- Usually, the electron is in the lowest energy state, called the ground state
at n = 1.
- By stimulating the atom through collisions thermally, electrically, or with
absorption of light, the electrons can be excited to higher levels
corresponding to n = 2, 3, and so on.

(iii) Despite the fact that it is constantly accelerating, an electron moving in such an
allowed orbit does not radiate electromagnetic energy. Thus, its total energy E
remains constant.

(iv) An electromagnetic radiation(photon) is given out when an electron makes a

transition from one state of higher energy level to another of lower energy
level.

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Figure 24- 21. Bohr’s Postulate : Bohr’s orbit

Combining Classical Electron Orbit with quantization of angular momentum

Figure 24- 22

1. In a hydrogen atom, an electron of charge -e orbits a nucleus of charge +e as shown in

Figure above. The electron is moving with speed v in an orbit of radius r.
2. In order for circular motion to occur, a centripetal force directed to the centre (nucleus) is
required. The centripetal force is given by

me v 2
F=
rn

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3. In this case, the centripetal force F is supplied by the electrostatic force between the
positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electron. The electrostatic force is
given by
Centripetal force = Coulomb's force

me v 2 e2
=
rn 4pe 0 rn2

e2
\v 2 =
4pe 0 me rn ……………(1)

From Bohr's postulate (quantized orbit),

nh
mevrn =
2p (n is number of radius)
nh 2
\ me2v 2 rn 2 = ( )
2p ……………..(2)
Substituting (1) into (2);

me e 2 rn nh
= ( )2
4pe 0 2p
So Bohr’s orbit is:

e 0h 2 2
\ rn = ( )n
mep e 2 …………………(3)
For the lowest obit it’s (when n = 1) given by:

e 0h 2
\ r1 = ( ) = 0.0529nm
m ep e 2
This is Bohr radius, symbolized a , it is mean radius of the orbit of an electron
around the nucleus of a hydrogen atom at its ground state (lowest-energy level).

10. Equation (3) shows that the electron is allowed to orbit the nucleus at only certain
distances. Figure below shows the possible orbit in the Bohr model.

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Figure 24- 23

Relation between Energy Levels and radius in Hydrogen Atoms

1. The energy of the electron in an orbit consists of kinetic energy and electric potential
energy due to the electrostatic force.
2 2
mv e
EK= =
Electron's kinetic energy 2 8 πε 0 r n
2
−e
E p=
Electric potential energy 4 πε 0 r n

e2 −e2
ET = +( )
Total energy, 8 πε 0 r n 4 πε 0 r n

−e 2
=
8πε 0 r n ……… (substituting r from equation 3,)

-e 2 p m e e 2 1
= ( )
8pe 0 e 0 h 2 n 2

-m e e 4
=
8e 02 h 2n 2 …….. (4)

Hence the energy of an electron in a fixed orbit is quantised. So the Bohr model
can be pictured as:

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Figure 24- 24

Figure 24- 25
6. Equation (4) shows that the electron has certain allowable energies, depending on which
orbit it is in. In other words, the energy of the electron is quantised.
Ground state: The electron has minimum energy and is at the most stable state.
Excited state: The electron has sufficient energy to change from a lower energy
level to a higher energy level. The required energy is the excitation energy.
Ionisation energy: The energy needed to separate an electron from its ground
state so that it is free from its nuclear bond.

-A photon of frequency f is emitted according to hf = Ei-Ef

where Ei = energy of the higher level and Ef= energy of the lower level.

- Quantum jumps : If an atom is in its ground state it cannot lose energy, because there
are no available states of lower energy. However, if something collides with the atom or if it
absorbs a photon of sufficient energy, an electron can make a quantum jump to a higher
allowed energy level. The atom is now in an excited state. Although it may remain in an

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excited state for some time (typically 10-8s), there are now lower allowed energy levels and
the electron will eventually make a quantum jump back down into one of these. As it does
so, it loses an amount of energy equal to the difference between the energies of the original
and final states, and radiates this as a photon. The photon frequency and wavelength are
therefore fixed by the size of the energy jump.

2. If the atom has a proton number Z, the energy level is

� -me 4 �
En = Z � 2 2 2 �
�8e 0 h n �

Absorption Line Spectra

1. The light emitted by an atom of a gas in a discharge tube can be analysed with a prism as
shown in Figure below

Figure 24- 26

2. The arrangement breaks the light up into its component colours, where each component
colour generates a bright line.
3. These lines constitute a line spectra. In this case, the line spectra is known as the
emission spectra. Each line is characteristic of a particular type of atom.
4. If white light passes through a gas, the wavelengths of light absorbed would appear as a
series of dark lines called the absorption spectrum.
5. Figure below shows an arrangement to study the absorption spectrum of a heated gas in
a discharge tube.

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Figure 24- 27

Explanation of Line Spectra for Hydrogen Atom

1. The electron in a hydrogen atom can be situated at any one of the levels postulated by
Bohr's model.
2. At room temperature, the hydrogen atom will usually be in the ground state, where n = 1.
3. During electric discharge or at high temperatures, the collision between free electrons and
the hydrogen atom will transfer energy to the electron in the ground state.
4. The electron is now in an excited state. When it makes a transition to a lower state, a
photon is given off. Figure below shows the excitation of a hydrogen atom followed by the
emission of a photon.

Figure 24- 28

(a) Hydrogen atom in the ground state

Figure 24- 29

(b) Hydrogen atom is in an excited state either by collision with other molecules,
thermal excitation or absorption of a photon

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Figure 24- 30

(c) When the atom returns to the ground state, the energy due to the transition of
the electron from a higher level to the ground state is emitted as a photon of a
certain energy and frequency

5. Figure below shows the transitions between energy levels that correspond to the various
observed spectral lines.

Figure 24- 31

6. The spectral lines for the transition of electrons from higher energy levels to a particular
energy level is called a series. Table below shows the different spectral series of the
hydrogen atom.

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Figure 24- 32

Transition Electromagnetic
Series Final level
Initial level spectrum
Lyman 2,3,4,... 1 Ultraviolet
Balmer 3,4,5,... 2 Visible ultraviolet
Paschen 4,5,6-.. 3 Infrared
Brackett 5,6,7,... 4 Infrared

Pfund 6,7,8,... 5 Infrared

Table 24- 1

7. Generally, when an electron makes a transition from energy level n to lower energy level,
n', a photon of wavelength l is emitted.
E = hf = E n - E n '
hc
= En - E n '
l
1 1
= (E n - E n ' )
l hc

8. In the case of a photon emitted from a hydrogen atom,

1 1 -13.6 -13.6
= ( - )
l hc n 2 (n ')2
1 13.6eV 1 1
= ( 2 - 2)
l hc (n ') n
1 1
= R�( 2 - 2 )
(n ') n

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where
R� is known as the Rydberg constant, with a value of 1.0974 x 107 m-1.

Example 24- 7

A hydrogen atom is in the ground state. Find the longest wavelength that it will absorb.

Excitation Energy and Ionisation Energy

1. The energy required by an electron to bring it from the ground state (n = 1) to any other
excited state (n > 1) is called the excitation energy.
2. The excitation potential is represented by V in the equation
excitation energy = (charge of electron, e) x (excitation potential, V)
3. Referring to Figure below, the excitation energy of an electron moving from the ground
state n = 1 to the excited state n = 2 is equal to the energy difference between these states.

Figure 24- 33

Excitation energy from n = 1 to n = 2

= E2 – E1
=-3.4 –(-13.6)
= 10.2 eV
Excitation energy = (charge of electron, e) x (excitation potential, V
= 10.2 eV
.'.Excitation potential, V= 10.2 V
4. The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of an atom is
called ionisation energy or binding energy.

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5. In order for an electron in the ground state (n = 1) to escape the attraction of the nucleus,
the electron has to reach the energy level corresponding to n = .
6. The ionisation potential is represented by V in the equation
ionisation energy = (charge of electron, e) x (ionisation potential, V)

7.The ionisation energy for a hydrogen atom

= E - E 1
= 0-(-13.6)
= 13.6 eV
Ionisation energy = (charge of electron, e) x (ionisation potential, V)
= 13.6 eV
1 eV = 1.602 × 10-19 J.

.'. Ionisation potential, V= 13.6 V

8. If an electron in the ground state is supplied with energy E which is greater than the
ionisation energy Eion, then the difference between E and Eion manifests in the form of the
kinetic energy of the electron.
Kinetic energy of the escaping electron = E- Eion

Example 24- 8

A hydrogen atom in the ground state is excited to the energy level corresponding to n = 3.
(a) Calculate the excitation energy.
(b) Find the speed of the electron which would cause the excitation of the above hydrogen
atom.
[Mass of electron = 9.11 x 10-31 kg]
Solution:
(a) 12.1eV
(b) 2.06x106 ms-1

24.4 X-ray
(p) interpret X-ray spectra obtained from X-ray tubes;

(q) explain the characteristic line spectrum and continuous spectrum including λ min X-
rays;
hc
λ min=
(r) derive and use the equation eV

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(s) describe X-ray diffraction by two parallel adjacent atomic planes;

(t) derive and use Bragg's law 2 d sin θ=mλ ;

1 The Production of X-rays

Figure 24- 34. EHT (electrical high tension)

When cathode rays bombard the target, a small fraction of the electrons' kinetic energy is
converted to X-rays while a large portion of the electron's kinetic energy is changed to heat
energy.
X-rays produced are divided into hard X-rays, which are of high penetration power, and soft
X-rays, which are of lower penetration power.
EPE = KE
1
eV = mev e 2
2
2 X-rays' Characteristics
i. X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation which propagates with the velocity of
light.
ii. They produce fluorescent light when they strike on substances such as glass or calcite
iii. They possess high penetration power
iv. They affect photographic plates
v. They ionise gas molecules
vi. They are not deflected by magnetic or electric fields
vii. They do not have any charge

3 Uses of X-rays
(1) Medicine
(a) Soft X-rays are used in radiographs or X-ray photographic pictures to detect
fractures on bones and defective organs in human bodies.

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(b) Hard X-rays are used to destroy cancer cells in radiotherapy.

(ii) Industry
(a) X-rays of high penetration power are used to investigate the internal structure of
metals.
(b) They are also used to detect cracks in machines and buildings.
(iii) Research
X-rays are used to determine the atomic separation distance In a crystal.
(iv) Security
X-rays are used to detect and prevent the smuggling of arms in passenger luggage
at airports.

4 X-rays Spectrum

Figure 24- 35. The working principal of plotting x-rays spectrum, intensity versus wavelength.

X-rays from x-ray tube are incident on a crystal. X-rays will diffracted by the crystal.
The angle of deviation of the x-ray depends on the x-ray wavelength.

Figure 24- 36

(i) Continuous Spectrum :

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When an electron bombards a target atom, it is decelerated and stopped. Total loss
of the electron's kinetic energy in an ideal collision causes the production of X-ray
with the lmin. When the electron collides several times with atoms before stopping,
different wavelengths of X-rays are produced and hence a continuous spectrum is
produced.

1 2
mv = eV
2
c
eV = hfmax = h
lmin
hc
\ lmin =
eV

(ii) Characteristic Line Spectrum

Figure 24- 37. (a) The atomic orbit theory called shells (b) the electron transitions and photon
emissions

Figure 24- 38

When the potential difference is sufficiently high, electrons which bombard the atom
possess enough energy to remove electrons from the inner orbitals. So when an

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electron from a higher orbital (at a higher energy level) falls into the empty position, a
characteristic X-ray line spectrum with a fixed energy that is determined by the type
of target atoms used is produced.

5 X-ray Diffraction

Figure 24- 39. X-ray diffraction experiment work up.

An ordinary diffraction grating is unable to diffract x-rays, because the wavelengths of

x-rays are too small. In order to produce a diffraction pattern, the spacing of the slits
on the grating must be of order of the wavelength of x-rays.

Relation between Bragg’s Angle (glancing angle),  and the experimentally

measured diffraction angle (2)

Figure 24- 40. The d refer to interplanar spacing (separation between atomic plane)

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Figure 24- 41. angle term in x-rays diffraction.

 = 2
Derivation of Bragg's Law

Figure 24- 42. Crystal consists of atoms arranged in regular atomic planes.

In physics, Bragg's law, is a special case of Laue diffraction, gives the angles for
coherent and incoherent scattering from a crystal lattice3.
For constructive interference the path difference = nl
That is AB + BC= nl
d sin + d sin = nl
Or 2d sin  = nl where the diffraction order n = 1,2,3....
 = Bragg’s angle or glancing angle that is refer to certain order.
d = interplanar spacing(Bragg’s plane), distance between two layer of atom in crystal.

Relation between Interplanar Spacing(Bragg’s plane), d and unit cell, a .

Regardless of the angle at which x-rays enter a crystal, there is always a family of
planes from which they can be said to reflect so that we can apply Bragg’s law.

3 Knowledge about crystal needed

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A section through a crystal of NaCl,

with unit cell a0

When x-ray beam enters a crystal, x-

rays are scattered in all direction.
Some resulting constructive
interference and some destructive
interference. This happen as if the x-
rays were reflected by a family of
parallel reflecting plane.
The interplanar plane (Bragg’s
plane), d, is the distance between
two imaginary parallel reflecting
plane.
d = a0

The crystal structure has the same

orientation, but now the x-ray beam
enters the structure with different
angle.
This new angle need a new family of
reflecting planes with a different
Bragg’s angle, , and a new
interplanar spacing, d.
5d = 5a0
a0
d=
5

24.5 Nanoscience
(u) explain the basic concept of nanoscience;
(v) state the applications of nanoscience in electronics devices.

Introduction to Nanoscience4
What is nanoscience?
The word itself is a combination of nano, from the Greek “nanos” (or Latin “nanus”), meaning
“Dwarf”, and the word "Science."
4 http://www.nanoscience.com/education/overview.html

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Nano refers to the 10-9 power, or one billionth. In these terms it refers to a meter, or a
nanometer, which is on the scale of atomic diameters. For comparison, a human hair is
about 100,000 nanometers thick!
Nanoscience is the study of atoms, molecules, and objects whose size is on the nanometer
scale ( 1 - 100 nanometers ).

Why is the study of nanoscience different than the same problems on a larger
scale?
Physics is different on the nanometer scale. Properties not seen on a macroscopic scale
now become important- such as quantum mechanical and thermodynamic properties.
Rather than working with bulk materials, one works with individual atoms and molecules. By
learning about an individual molecule’s properties, we can put them together in very well-
defined ways to produce new materials with new and amazing characteristics.

Why is nanoscience suddenly becoming such a big field?

There are multiple reasons for this. One is availability of new instruments able to “see” and
"touch" at this scale. In the early 1980’s the scanning tunneling microscope was invented at
IBM-Zurich in Switzerland. This was the first instrument that was able to “see” atoms. A few
years later, the Atomic Force Microscope was invented, expanding the capabilities and types
of materials that could be investigated. Hence, Scanning Probe Microscopy was born, and
since then multiple similar techniques have evolved from these instruments to “see” different
properties at the nanometer scale. In addition, “older” techniques such as electron
microscopy have continued to evolve as well, and now can image in the nanometer range.
Currently, there are a large number of complementary instruments that help scientists in the
nano realm.
In addition to the enabling technologies, scientists have realized the future potential of this
research. By convincing politicians and leaders around the world, countries have instituted
initiatives to promote nanoscience and nanotechnology in their universities and labs. With
the recent increase in funding, many scientists are pursuing this research and the rate of
discovery has increased dramatically.

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