Concrete Hardeners – applied on concrete surface to increase
BUILDING MATERIALS hardiness and toughness.
CONCRETE & CONCRETE WOKS
Portland Cement – made from materials which must contain the
proper proportions of lime, silica, alumina and iron components.
Special Cements:
1. White Portland cement – same as Portland except in color
2. Masonry Cement – designed to produce better mortar than
normal Portland cement
3. Air-entraining Portland Cement – small amounts of this is
added to produce air-entraining cements,
4. Oil Well Cement – special Portland cement used for
sealing oil wells.
5. Waterproofed Portland Cement – normally produced by
adding a small amount of stearate, usually calcium or
aluminum to the cement clinker during the final grinding.
Types of Aggregates Used in Concrete:
Concrete – artificial stone made by binding together particles of
some inert material with a paste made of cement and
water. These inert materials are the aggregate.
Aggregate – sand, gravel crushed stone, cinder, crushed furnace
slag, burned clay, expanded vermaculite, and perlite.
Sand – found in riverbends, free of salt and must be
washed.
Fine aggregate – smaller than ¼” diameter stones.
Course aggregate – bigger than ¼” diameter stones.
Concrete Mixes:
Class “AA” - 1:1 ½ :3 - concrete under water, retaining walls
Class A - 1:2:4 - footings, columns, beams, RC slabs
Class B - 1:2 ½:5 - slab on fill, non-bearing walls
Class C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc.
Control of Concrete Mixes:
Slump Test – when freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure
that the specified slump is being attained consistently. A
standard slump cone is 12” high (0.30) and 8”
(0.20) in diameter at the bottom and 4” (0.10) on top
which is open on both ends.
Compressive Strength Test – common quality-control test of
concrete, based on 7 and 28 day curing periods.
Concrete Additives – materials often added to the concrete or
applied to the surface of freshly placed concrete to
produce some special result.
Accelerators – an admixture which is used to speed up the initial
set of concrete. Such a material may be added to the mix
to increase the rate of early-strength development for
several reasons.
Retarders – to delay or extend the setting time of the cement
paste in concrete.
Air-entraining agents – air-entrained concrete contains
microscopic bubbles of air formed with the aid of a group
of chemical called surface active agents, materials that
have the property of reducing the surface tension of
water intended for use when better resistance to frost
action is concerned.
Two Types of Concrete hardeners:
1. Chemical Hardeners – liquids containing silicofluorides or
fluosilicates and a wetting agent which reduces the surface tension
of the liquid and allows it to penetrate the pores of the concrete
more easily.
2. Fine Metallic Aggregate – are specially processed and graded
iron particles which are dry-mixed with Portland cement, spread
evenly over the surface of freshly floated concrete, and worked
into the surface by floating.
Water Reducing Admixtures – material used to reduce the amount
of water necessary to produce a concrete of given consistency or
to increase the slump for a given water content.
Damproofers – materials used to reduce or stop the penetration
of moisture through the concrete. Reduces permeability.
Bonding Agents:
Paste Slurry – often applied to such an old surface immediately
prior to pouring new concrete to increase the amount of
paste.
Two Types of Bonding Agents:
1. Metallic Aggregate – iron particle are larger, but with
same materials as the permeability reducer. Bonding
takes place through the oxidation and subsequent
expansion of the iron particles.
2. Synthetic Latex Emulsion – consists of highly
polymerized synthetic liquid resin dispersed in water.
Set-Inhibiting Agents – prevent the cement paste from bonding to
the surface aggregate but will not interfere with the set
throughout the remainder of the pour.
Pozzolanic Admixtures – materials sometimes used in structures
where it s desirable to avoid high temperature or in
structures exposed to seawater or water containing
sulfates. Pozzolans maybe added to concrete mixes-
rather than substituting for part of the cement to
improve workability, impermeability, and resistance to
chemical attack.
Concrete Products – made of lightweight and heavyweight
materials for use in exterior and interior load-bearing
walls, firewalls, curtain and panel walls, partitions etc.
Concrete Block:
1.Hollow load-bearing concrete block – an 8” x 8” x 16” will
approximately weigh 40 to 50 lb. Made with heavyweight
aggregate and 25 to 35 lb. when made with lightweight aggregate.
2.Solid load bearing block – defines as one having a core area of
not more than 25 percent of the gross cross-sectional area.
3. Hollow; non-load bearing concrete block – one in which the
core area exceeds 25 percent of the cross-sectional area.
4. Concrete building tile
5. Concrete brick
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Common Sizes:
1 .4” x 8” x 16” – for non-load bearing partitions
2. 6” x 8” x 16” – for load bearing walls
Quality:
1. Hand made – backyard industry
2. Machine made – commonly sold
3. Steam cured – manufactured by big and nationally known
factories for load bearing walls
Cellular Concrete Blocks – lightweight block which is outstanding
in thermal and sound insulation qualities. Basic
ingredients are cement-made from silica-rich sand and
lime-water, and aluminum powder.
CERAMICS AND CLAY PRODUCTS
Brick – basic ingredient in clay.
Three Principal Forms:
1. Surface Clay – found near the surface of the earth
2. Shales – clay which have been subjected to high pressure until
they have become relatively hard.
3. Fire Clay – found at deeper levels and usually have more
uniform physical and chemical qualities.
Two Classes of Clay:
1. Calcareous Clays – contains about 15 percent calcium carbonate
and burn to a yellowish color.
2. Non-calcareous Clays – made of silicate of alumina, with
feldspar and iron oxide.
Standard Brick Size is 2 ¼ x 3 ¾ x 8 inches
Structural Clay Tiles – are hollow units as opposed to brick which
is sold. Tiles are made from the same material as brick,
but all clay tiles are formed by extrusion in the stiff-mud
process.
Types of Tiles:
1. Load bearing wall tile – used for bearing walls of light buildings,
the height usually restricted to four stories.
2. Partition tile – non-load bearing
3. Back-up tile –for use in both bearing and non-bearing walls
which will be faced with brick or facing tile.
4. Furring tile – used on the inside of exterior walls to provide air
spaces for insulation to prevent the passage of moisture
and to provide a suitable plastering surface. Classified as
non-load bearing.
5. Fireproofing tile – a method of structural steel must be
insulated in fireproof construction.
6. Floor tile – manufactured in both load-bearing & non-load
bearing grades in thickness raging from 3 to 12” in length
and widths of 12“.
7. Structural Clay Facing tile – unglazed tile and may have either a
smooth or a rough textured finish.
8. Structural Glazed facing tile –from high-grade light burning clay
which is suitable for application of ceramic/salt glaze.
Terra Cotta – means “fired earth” is a clay product which has been
used for architectural decorative purposes,
- Modern terracotta is machine-extruded and molded or pressed.
- The machine-made product is usually referred to as ceramic
veneer, and is a unit with flat face and flat or ribbed back.
Two Types of Ceramic Veneer:
1. Adhesion Type – held to the wall by the bond of the mortar to
the ceramic veneer back and to the backing wall.
2. Anchor type – are held y mortar and by wire tiles between the
terracotta and the wall behind.
BUILDING STONES, GYPSUM AND LIME
Building Stones – stones usually blocks or pieces of the basic
material rock.
Classification:
1. Three general categories:
a. Igneous – formed as a result of the cooling of molten matter.
b. Sedimentary – formed by the action of water either by
depositing materials at the bottom of a water body or depositing
them on the earth’s surface.
c. Metamorphic – rocks changed from their original structure by
the action of extreme pressure, heat, or various combinations of
these factors.
2. Classified according to form:
a. Rubble – includes rough fieldstone which may merely have been
broken into suitable sizes/ irregular pieces of stone that have been
roughly cut to size & used for filling material. (escombro & lastillas)
b. Dimension (Cut stone) – consists of pieces that have been cut or
finished according to a set or drawing. (for facing walls)
c. Flagstone (Flat slabs) - consists of thin pieces (1/2 in. and up
which may or may not have had their face dimensions cut to some
particular size. (for walks and floors)
d. Crushed rock – consisting of pieces varying I size from 3/8 to 6
in. and is used to a large extent in concreting.
Building Stones:
1.Argilite – one formed from clay, commonly for floor tile, stair
treads, wall base & window stools of window sills.
2. Granite – igneous origin & composed of quartz, feldspar,
hornblende and mica generally very hard & strong
durable.
3. Limestone – a sedimentary rock which is either oolitic/calcite
cemented calcareous stone formed of shells fragments &
non-crystalline in nature.
4. Travertine – sedimentary rock, composed of calcium carbonate.
It has been formed at the earth’s surface through the
evaporation of water from hot springs.
5. Marble – metamorphic rock,where limestone and dolomite
have been recrystallized to form marble.
6. Serpentine – igneous rock with the mineral serpentine. The
mineral is olive green to greenish black, but impurities
may give the rock other colors.
7. Sandstone – a class of rock composed of cemented silica grains.
Colors include gray, buff, light brown and red.
8. Slate rock – formed by metamorphosis of clays and shales
deposited in layers.
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Stone Construction:
1. Paneling –maede of using slabs of stone cut to dimension &
thickness to cover backup walls &provide a finished exterior.
2. Ashlar – work requires the use of cut stone & includes broken
ashlar, irregular coursed ashlar, regular coursed ashlar.
3. Rubblework – used as random when no attempt is made to
produce either horizontal or vertical course lines. Small spaces
are filled with spalls, small stones and used as course rubble
work, horizontal course lines are maintained but no vertical
course lines used.
4. Trim – involves use of stones cut for a specific purpose and
include Quoin – stones laid at the intersection of two walls.
Use for :jambs ,sills, cornices, stone steps, arch stone flooring
Gypsum – a soft mineral consisting of a hydrated calcium sulfate
from which gypsum plaster is made (by heating); colorless when
pure used as a retarder in Portland cement.
WOOD AND WOOD PRODUCTS
Wood – a traditional building material, it is easily worked, has
durability and beauty.
- great ability to absorb shocks from sudden load.
- freedom from rust and corrosion, lightweight
Classification of Trees:
1. Hardwoods – ‘deciduous’ trees that have broad leaves which are
normally shed in the winter time.
2. Softwoods – ‘conifers’ trees that have needles rather than
leaves and that bear their seeds in cones.
Moisture Content of Wood – expressed as a percentage of the
oven-dry weight and can be determined by the oven-dry method
or by an electric-moisture meter method.
Three categories of Lumber:
1. Yard Lumber – used for ordinary light construction and finishing
work and consists of 1 and 2 inches material manufactured into
common boards, shiplap, shelving dimension lumber, center
match, flooring, roof plank, siding, v-joint, trim and molding of all
kinds. These are usually found in retail lumberyards.
2. Shop Lumber – usually left in 1 and 2 inches rough thickness
often containing knots or defects not ordinarily permissible in
other categories. It is intended for use in shops or mills making
sash, doors and cabinets where it will be cut into relatively short
pieces and the defective material discarded.
3. Structural Lumber – in intended for use in heavy construction
for load-bearing purposes and is cut into timbers of large size than
yard lumber, 3 inches or more thick and 4 inches or more wide. It is
made from the heartwood of the log.
Finishes of Wood:
S1S – surfacing or planning of one side
S2S – two sides planed
S4S – four sides planed
Rough – as sawn and not planed
Wood Grain:
1. Edge Grain – annual rings run about at right angle to the face.
2. Flat Grain –annual rings run more or less parallel to the surface.
3. Angle Grain –annual rings are at about 45 degrees to the face.
Seasoning of Lumber:
1. Air-Drying – lumber is strip-piled at a slope on a solid
foundation. This allows air to circulate around every piece
while the sloping allows water to run off quickly.
2. Kiln-Drying – more expensive lumber which is required for more
refined uses so as wood will not move, such as
furniture,Flooring and general interior use.
Pressure treated lumber – when lumber is subjected to pressure
and injected with chemicals or salts to insure it from rots.
Glue laminated timber – term used to describe a wooden member
built up of several layers of wood whose grain directions
are all substantially parallel, and held together with glue
as fastening commonly used for beams, girders, posts,
columns, arches, arches, bowstring truss chords, usually
softwoods are commonly used because of their low cost,
lightness and strength.
Glue use in laminating:
1. Casein glue – satisfactory for use in dry locations not exposed to
rain or water.
2. Urea-formaldehyde-resin – cheap & well cure at from 70
degrees Fahrenheit up. Will withstand soaking in cool
water.
3. Phenol-formaldehyde-resin glues – not usually recommended
because of the high temperature needed to cure them.
Useful for combining timber and plywood and are very
water-resistant.
4. Resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde – resin glues are expensive but
have excellent qualities of durability and water
resistance.
RECYCLED WASTE PRODUCTS, BUILDING BOARDS AND PAPERS
Building Boards – a group of sheets of building materials often
faced with paper or vinyl, suitable for use as a finished
surface on walls, ceiling, etc.
Kinds of Building Boards:
1. Plywood – made by bonding together thin layers of wood in a
way that the grain of each layer is at right angles to the grain of
each adjacent layer.
Veneer - each layer of plywood
Rotary Cutting – a method of cutting wood veneer in which a log is
fixed in a lathe and rotated against a knife so that the veneer is
peeled from the log in a continuous sheet.
2. Hardboard – made from processed wood chips.
Three grades of board:
a. Standard – flexible to be quite easily bent
b. Tempered hardboard – made by impregnated standard board
with a tempering compound of oils and resin and baking it to
polymerize the tempering material.
c. Low-density hardboard – not as strong and durable as standard
hardboard.
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3. Insulating Fiberboard – made from three types of fiber – wood,
sugar cane, and asbestos, and binder, formed into a board.
4. Chipboard – a large class of building board made from wood
and particles and a binder, often faced with veneer.
5. Particle Board – a hardboard made from relatively small
particles.
6. Gypsum Board – a wall board having a gypsum core.
7. Straw Board – a hardboard made of compressed wheat straw,
processed at 350 to 400 degree Fahrenheit and covered with a
tough kraft paper.
8. Asbestos-cement Board – dense, rigid board made of a high
proportion of asbestos fibers bonded with Portland cement,
resistant to fire, & weathering, has low resistance to heat flow.
9. Corkboard – from the outer bark of the cork oak tree, cork
granules is mixed with synthetic resin, compressed & formed into
sheet from 1 to 6” thick & baked under pressure into rigid boards.
10. Paperboard – made into two different types: a paper pulp
pressed into boards 3/16, or ¼ in. thick, 4 ft. wide, and 6, 7 or 8 ft.
long. Usually one surface is primed for easier finishing. The other is
a layer of stiff paper folded into corrugated from and faced on both
sides with a thick paper backing, cemented to the core.
11. Mineral Fiberground – thick mats of mineral fibers, usually
glass or rock wool are covered with a backing of stiff paper on one
or both sides to form rigid boards, ranging in thickness from ½ to 2
in. The usual board size is 24 x 48 inches.
12. Plastic Foamboards – polystrene and polyurethane plastics are
formed by a patented process to about 40 times their original
volume. Used for perimeter insulation for concrete floor slabs, for
wall and roof deck insulation, and for roof decks when properly
supported.
Building Papers – in building construction, paper is used for
sheathing, roofing and insulation, in making asphalt shingles,
laminated and corrugated building products, and concrete form
materials, as a moisture and vapor barrier; as cushioning material;
as wallpaper; as an envelope or sheath for other materials; and as
a fireproofing material
Type of Wood Pulp:
1. Mechanical Pulp – or groundwood, is produced by grinding
blocks of wood against a revolving abrasive stone or by grinding
steamed wood chips in a grinding mill.
2. Chemical Pulp – produced by digesting wood chips in various
chemicals to free the cellulose fibers from the liquid binding.
3. Semi-chemical Pulp – wood chips are first subjected to a mild
chemical treatment and then mechanically disintegrated in
rotating disk refiners.
Types of Paper:
1. Sheathing Paper –provide an airtight barrier over walls, floors,
2. Roofing Paper –
A. roofing felts - used in making a built-up roof and are usually
produced in 36 in. wide rolls, in various weights
from 3 to 20 lb/square.
B. Rolled roofing – a heavy, mineral surfaced paper used as a final
roof covering, made 18 and 36 in. wide, in
various weights from 45 to 120 lb/square.
3. Insulating Paper – used to secure bulk and entrapped air with as
much strength as possible. Insulating papers are made from both
wood-fiber insulating paper and asbestos fibers.
4. Cushioning Paper – similar to wood-fiber insulating paper, but
less attention is paid to strength. Its chief use is for cushioning
under linoleum, carpets, or slate roofing.
5. Vapor Barrier Paper- intended to prevent the passage of
moisture vapor through walls, ceilings and floors.
6. Laminating Paper – a special, high strength kraft paper made for
use in the production of plastic laminates. The thin, strong paper is
impregnated with liquid plastic resin and several sheet are
laminated together under heat and pressure to form the base for
the plastic sheet.
7. Concrete Form Paper – made from strong kraft paper in the
form of a spiral tube and boxlike from made from corrugated
container paper.
8. Wallpaper – paper from which decorative wallpaper is made.
9. Envelope Paper – used as an outer covering or envelope for a
number of building materials. One of these is gypsum board,
composed of a layer of calcined gypsum covered in both sides by a
sheet of kraft paper.
10. Fire Proofing Paper – made from asbestos fibers, since this is
an incombustible material. This material maybe in the form of
matted paper, similar to asbestos insulating or roofing paper, or it
may be in the form of a cloth woven from thread spun from
asbestos fibers.
BITUMINOUS MARTERIALS
Bitumen – a generic name applied to a semisolid mixture of
complex hydrocarbons, derived from coal or petroleum, as a coal-
tar pitch or asphalt.
Tar – the resulting condensate when destructive distillation is
carried out on such materials as wood coal, shale, peat or bone.
Pitch – a solid or semi-solid residue produced from partial
evaporation or fractional distillation of tar.
Coal-tar Pitch – most common material of this kind of pitch.
Asphalts - dark brown or black solids or semi-solids which are
found in the natural state and are also produced by the refining of
petroleum.
Liquid Paving Asphalts – liquid asphalts used for paving are
cutbacks.
Asphalt Paving Cements – used as binders for more expensive
asphalt pavements.
FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS MATERIALS
Ferrous – metal in which iron is the principal element
Nonferrous – containing no, or very little iron.
Ferrous Metal:
1. Steel – a malleable alloy of iron and carbon produced by melting
and refining pig iron and/or scrap steel, graded according to the
carbon content.
2. Pig Iron – used to make cast iron which is high in compressive
strength but low in tensile strength, and has little use for
construction.
3. Wrought Iron – produced when pig iron is melted in such a way
as to remove nearly all of the carbon and other impurities.
4. Alloy Steels – made by containing other elements with the
molten steel. Nickel, chromium copper and manganese are used.
4
5. Nickel Steel – stronger than carbon steel and is used to make
structural members for building chromium steel is very
hard and corrosion-resistant.
6. Stainless Steels – made with chromium or a combination of
nickel and chromium used in buildings for exterior wall
panels, frames for doors, expansion joints, flashings,
copings, fascia and gravel stops.
7. Copper – bearing steel has high resistance to corrosion and is
used for making sheet steel and metal lath.
8. Manganese Steel – offers great resistance to abrasion and finds
important use in the cutting edges of heavy digging tools.
9. Weathering Steel – recently developed grade of steel. It forms
its protection against atmospheric corrosion and thus
requires no painting.
Nonferrous Metal:
Aluminum – a lustrous, silver-white nonmagnetic, lightweight
metal which is very malleable; has good thermal and electrical
conductivity; a good reflector of both heat and light.
Aluminum Foil – used as a vapor barrier on walls and ceilings and
as reflective insulation.
Copper – a lustrous reddish metal, highly ductile and malleable;
has high tensile strength; is an excellent electrical and thermal
conductor; is available in a wide variety of shapes; widely used for
downspout, electrical conductors, flashings, gutter, roofing, etc.
Lead – a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has low melting point and a
high coefficient of thermal expansion. Very easy to cut and work,
enabling it to be fitted over uneven surfaces. Used for roofing,
flashing and spandrel wall panels.
Tin – a lustrous white, soft and malleable metal having a low
melting point; relatively unaffected by exposure to air; used for
making alloys and solder and in coating sheet metal.
GLASS AND GLAZING
Glass – a hard, brittle inorganic substance, ordinarily transparent
or translucent; produced by melting a mixture of silica, a flux and a
stabilizer.
Types of Glass:
1. Reflective Glass – used to control glare and reduce solar heat. It
the product of a glass-coating process which is carried out
in a large, rectangular vacuum chamber. Manufactured in
two types, silver and gold, the glass can be specified in
any one of three nominal light transmittance of 8, 14, or
20 percent.
2. Rolled and Rough Cast Glass – used where clear vision is not
required, such as by factory roofs and walls, windows for
halls and staircases, skylights, and partitions in offices.
Cast glass diffuses light, and because of its low reflecting
and absorption index, transmits 90 to 93 percent of light
rays striking it.
3. Cathedral and Figured Glass – manufacturing is similar to rolled
and rough-cast glasses. However, they contain a pattern
or texture impressed usually on one surface by a
patterned roller.
4. Wired Glass – simply a rolled glass into which wire mesh is
inserted during the process of manufacture.
5. Heat –Absorbing Plate Glass – made by adding ingredients to
the mix used in making regular slate glass so that the
finished product is pale bluish-green or gray.
6. Tempered Plate Glass – 3-5 times as strong as regular plate of
the same thickness –& area in resisting compressive
forces & fracture due to strain/ thermal shock.
7. Vitreous Colored Plate – polished plate glass can be heat-
strengthened and coated on one side with vitreous color
which is fire-fused to the surface.
8. Laminated Safety Glass (Bullet Proofing) – widely used in the
automotive industry and transportation, but now finding
some uses in the building industry, like glass that can
withstand firearm attack and explosions.
9. Insulating Glass – consists of two sheets of plate or sheet glass,
separated by an air space, and joined around the edges to
produce a hermitically sealed unit.
Classification of Sheet Glass:
1. Window Glass – used for glazing windows doors and storm
sash in residential buildings where good light and vision
are required at moderate cost.
2. Heavy Sheet Glass – used for glazing windows and doors
where greater strength is required but where slight
distortion is not objectionable.
3. Picture Glass – used for covering pictures, photographs,
maps, charts projector slides and instrument dials.
Glass products:
1. Glass Blocks – comparable in many ways to unit masonry
but have the added feature of transmitting light.
2.Solid Glass Brick – also made to admit light into a building,
because of its solid construction, it offers greater
protection against vandalism than conventional window
glass or glass blocks. The ability of the brick is to allow
undistorted passage of light.
PLASTICS AND RELATED PRODUCTS
Plastics – a large group of synthetic materials which are made
from a number of common substances suh as coal, salt,
oil. Natural gas, cotton, wood and water.
Two General Classification:
1. Thermoplastics – become soft when heated and hard when
cooled, regardless of the number of times the process is repeated.
Include in the thermoplastics are acrylic cellulosis, polyethylene,
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) polysterene, polyallomers polycarbonates,
polyimide, polypropylene, polysulfone, phenylene oxide, nylons,
methyl pertenes, ionomer, fluoroplastics, acetal and acryonitrile
butadieniene styrene (ABS).
2. Thermosetting Plastics – set into a permanent shape when heat
and pressure are applied to them during the forming stage.
Thermosetting group includes phenolics, aminos (urea and
melamine) epoxies, polyesters, polyurethane, alkyd silicones and
diallyl phthalate (DAP).
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Production: Plastics products are formed by a number of methods
which include:
1. Injection Molding Process – measured amount of powder or
granules is heated & when flowing forced through the
nozzle of the barrel into a shaped cavity, where it cools of
solidities.
2. Blow-Molding Process – an extruder extrudes a hollow tube
which is captured between the two halves of a hollow. As
the mold closes, air is blown into the tube and expand it
to fit inside surface of the mold.
3. Rotational Molding – used to form hollow units with complex
shapes and heavy walls, a premeasured amount of
powder or liquid resin is placed at the bottom half of a
cold mold which is then closed.
4. Expandable Bead Molding – a process used to produce light
weight products of polysterene foam, small granules of
polysterene with a small amount of an expanding agent
are placed in a rolling drum and steam heated.
5. Compression Molding – a measured quantity of powder in a
heated mold, which is then closed. Heat and pressure are
applied to the powder which melts and flows to all parts
of the mold.
6. Transfer Molding – similar to compression molding except that
the powder is heated and liquefied outside the mold and
injected into the mold under heat and pressure, where
the forming and setting takes place.
7. Foamed Plastics – are made by expanding agent with either
granules or powder and then heating. Heat melts the
plastic and causes the formation of a gas which expands
the molten material into foamed structure.
8. Thermoset Foam – made by mixing the appropriate resin with a
curing agent and an expanding agent and then heating
them in a mold.
9. Extrusion Forming – used for mass-produced materials which
have a constant cross section, and it is done in two ways
by forcing of semi-liquid plastic through a die of the
proper size and shape in a manner similar to that used for
forming brick by extrusion.
10. Thermoforming Process – sheet plastic is heated until soft &
forced by air pressure against a cold &hardens in shape.
11. Laminating Process – consists of impregnating sheets of paper,
glass fiber, or cloth with a thermosetting liquid resin and
then applying heat and pressure to a number of sheets to
form a laminated product.
12. Casting – a simple process in which liquid plastics, with their
appropriate curing agent, are poured into molds and set,
with or without heat.
13. Calendaring Process – plastic is fed to revolving rollers which
turn out a thin sheet or film the thickness of the product
is determined by the roller spacing, and the surface of the
sheet may be smooth or matted, depending on the roller
surface.
Plastic Laminates – consists of three or more layers of material
bonded or laminated together with plastic adhesive under high
pressure.
ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS
Cohesiveness – the ability of particles of a material to cling tightly
to one another.
Adhesiveness – the ability of a material to fix itself and cling to an
entirely different material.
Sealers – products which are used to seal the surface of various
materials against the penetration of water or other
liquids or in some cases to prevent the escape of water
through the surface.
INSULATING MATERIALS
Three ways of heat transfer:
1. Conduction – the inside of a concrete wall which has one side
exposed to outside winter temperatures feels cold to the touch.
Heat is being conducted from the side of higher temperature to
that lower temperature.
2. Radiation –is transferred to the outside air by radiation.
3. Convection – when air is heated, it expands and begins to
circulate, during the circulation it comes in contact with cooler
surface, some of its heat is given up to them.
Kinds of Thermal Insulation:
1. Loose Fill:
a. fibrous type – made from mineral woolrock wool, glass
wool, or slag wool-or vegetable fiber- usually wood fiber.
b. Granular insulation – made from expanded minerals such
as perlite and vermaculite or from ground vegetable
matter such as granulated coork.
c. Fibrous loose fill – used to insulate walls of buildings that
have been built without insulation.
d. Granules – are graded into four sizes,
1, (3/8 in. to no. 16 sieve) and sizes
2 (no. 4 to no. 30 sieve) used as loose-fill insulation for
sidewalls and ceilings over suspended ceilings,
3 (no. 8 to no. 100 sieve) size
4 (no. 16 to 100 sieve).
2. Blanket Insulation – made from some fibrous materials such as
mineral wool, wood fiber, cotton fiber, or animal hair,
manufactured in the form of a mat, 16, 20 or 24 in. width,
in 8 ft. lengths or put up in rolls of from 40 to 100 linear
feet, with controlled thickness of 1, ½, 2, 3 and 4 inches.
3. Batts – similar to blankets but they are restricted to 48 inches in
long or less they are always covered with paper, and
made especially for installation between stud spacings.
4. Structural Insulation Board – made from organic fiber-wood,
cane, straw or cork. The wood and cane raw material is
first pulped, after which it is treated with water proofing
chemicals.
a. Strawboard – made from carefully selected straw, fused
under heat & pressure into a panel 2 inches thick & 4 ft. wide.
b. Corkboard – made from granulated cork mixed with resin
& pressed into sheets of several thickness, depending on the use
to which they will be put.
5. Block or Rigid Slab Insulation – type of insulation is so called
because the units are relatively stiff and inelastic. In most
cases inorganic materials are used in their manufactures.
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6. Reflective Insulation – made from such materials as aluminum
or copper foil or sheet metal, with bright surfaces that
reflect heat rather than absorbing it.
7. Foamed-In-Place Insulation – this is polyurethane product
made by combining a polyisocyanate & a polyester resin.
8. Sprayed-on-Insulations – materials used are polyurethane foam
asbestos fiber mixed with inorganic binders, vermiculite
aggregate with a binder such as Portland cement or
gypsum and perlite aggregate using gypsum as binders.
9. Corrugated Insulation – usually made from paper foamed into
shapes that produce enclosed air pockets. One type is
produced by shaping heavy paper into a series of small
regular semicircular corrugations and covering a both
sides with a sheet of flat paper to give strength and
produce the air pockets.
BUILDING PROTECTION
Waterproofing – a method of protecting surfaces against water
Damp-Proofing – protection from the outside is provided by water
repellent materials which turn water aside and force it to
return to the earth.
Soil Poisoning – it is important to poison the soil against anay in
infesting the main posts, walls and flooring.
Wood Preservative – a chemical liquid painted & applied to
lumber to preserve it for years. It protects wood against
powder post beatles (buk-bok), powder post termite
(unos),
Fire- Proofing – a clear liquid applied easily on wood, plywood,
lumber and other board that retains the natural beauty,
gives added strength and protects materials against fire,
weather, decay, insects and warping.
Ratproofing – a method of protecting rooms against the intrusion
of rats and other small destructive animals from gnawing
the wooden parts of the house, habitating on ceilings and
floors of houses and buildings.
Rustproofing – protecting ferrous matals like steel in corrosion.
Thoroseal – a cement-based, heavy-duty, easy to apply, water
proof sealant & coating. Thoroseal is ideal for basement
walls.
Vapor barriers – are materials which effectively retard or stop the
flow of water vapor and normally are produced in sheets or thin
layers.
PAINTS AND PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Paint – a mixture consisting of vehicles or binders, with or without
coloring pigments, adjusted &diluted with correct
amounts &types of additives and thinners,
Components of an oil base paint are:
1. body – solid, finely ground material which gives a paint the
powder to hide, as well as color a surface.
2. vehicle – a nonvolatile fluid in which the solid body material is
suspended. The vehicle should consists of from 85 to 90 percent
drying oil and the remainder thinner and drier.
3. pigment – material which give the paint its color
4. thinners – are volatile solvents, materials which have a natural
affinity for vehicle in paint. Most common thinner is turpentine.
5. driers – organic salts of various metals such as iron, zinc, which
are added to paint to accelerate oxidation & hardening of vehicle.
Varnishes – a group pf more-or-less transparent liquids which are
used to provide a protective surface coating, at the same
time they allow the original surface to show but add a
lustrous and glossy finish to it.
Enamels –pigment is added to a varnish, the result is enamel.
Shellac – the only liquid protective coating containing a resin of
animal origin. The resin is an exudation of the lac insect of
India and Southeast Asia,
Lacquers – a new product made from synthetic materials to take
the place of varnish for clear finishes. The ingredients are
dissolved in a mixture of volatile solvents which
evaporate, leaving a film to form the protective coating.
Stains – materials used to apply color to wood surfaces. They are
intended to impart color without concealing or obscuring
the grain and not to provide a protective coating.
Fillers – are finishing materials which are used on wood surfaces,
particularly those with open grain, to fill the pores and
provide a perfect smooth, uniform surface for varnish or
lacquer. It is also used to impart color to the wood pores
and so emphasize the grain.
Sealers – to seal the surface of the wood and prevent the
absorption of succeeding finish coats. It may be applied to
bare wood in essentially the same way as paste filler but
has much less filling capacity.
Silicone Water Repellant – used on all non-painted concrete,
synthetic finishes, rubble, brick, and wash-out finishes as
a protection from absorption of water and prevent moss,
alkali, fungi to destroy the surface.
HARDWARES
Hardware – metal products used in construction, such as bolts,
hinges, locks, tools. Etc. they are classified as:
Finishing hardware – hardware such as hinges, catches, etc. that
has a finished appearance as well as function, especially
that used with doors, windows, and cabinets, maybe
considered part of the decorative treatment of a room or
building.
Rough hardware – in building construction, hardware meant to be
concealed, such as bolts, nails, screws, spikes, rods, and
other metal fittings.
Types of Doors:
Flush – a smooth surface door having faces which are plane
conceal its rails and stiles or other structure when used
inside, it is of hollow core when used for exterior, it is of
solid core.
Panel door – a door having stiles, rail and sometimes muntins,
which form one or more frames around recessed thinner
panels.
Overhead Swing-up door – a rigid overhead door which opens as
an entire unit.
Overhead Roll-up garage door - a door which, when open,
assumes a horizontal position above the door opening,
made of several leaves.
Roll-up door – a door made up of small horizontal interlocking
metal slats which are guided in a track; the configuration
coils about an overhead drum which is housed at the
head of the opening, either manual or motor-driven.
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Accordion door – a hinge door consisting of a system of panels
which are hung from an overhead track.
Bi-fold door – one of two or more doors which are hinged
together so that they can open and fold in a confined
space.
Revolving door – an exterior door consisting of four leaves which
pivot about a common vertical axis within a cylindrically
shape vestibule, prevents the direct passage of air
through the vestibule, thereby eliminating drafts from
outside.
Sliding door – a door mounted on track which slides I a horizontal
direction usually parallel to one wall.
By-passing sliding door – a sliding door which slides to cover a
fixed door of the same width or another sliding door.
Sliding pocket door – a door which slides inside a hollow of the
wall.
Dutch door – a hinge door which is divided into two. The upper
part can be opened while the lower portion is closed.
Example of Finishing Hardware:
Hinge - a movable joint used to attach support and turn a door
about a pivot, consists of two plates joined together by a pin which
the door and connect it to its frame, enabling it to swing open or
closed.
1. Butt hinge – consists of two rectangular metal plates which are
joined with a pin. In large hinge, the pin is removable, in
small hinges, it is fixed.
2. Fast pin hinge – a hinge I which the pin is fastened permanently
in place.
3. Full surface hinge – a hinge designed for attachment on the
surface of the door and jamb without mortising.
4. Loose joint hinge – a door hinge having two knuckles, one of
which has vertical pin that fits in a corresponding hole in
the other, by lifting the door up, off the vertical pin, the
door maybe removed with unscrewing the hinge.
5. Loose pin hinge – a hinge having a removable pin which permits
its two parts to be separated.
6. Paumelle hinge – a type of door hinge having a single joint of
the pivot type, usually of modern design.
7. Olive knuckle hinge –paumelle hinge with knuckles forming an
oval shape.
8. Spring hinge – a hinge containing one or more springs, when a
door is opened, the hinge returns it to the open position
automatically, may act in one direction only, or in both
directions.
9. Vertical spring pivot hinge – a spring hinge for a door which is
mortised into the heel of the door, the door is fastened to
the floor and door head with pivots.
Example of Rough Hardware:
CW- common wire nail with head and for strength; box nail also
used for strength.
FIN – finishing nail without head; casing nail also without head.
Screws – classified by gauge (diameter), length, head-type, and
metallic make-up.
Bolts – have threaded shafts that receive nuts. To use them, a hole
is drilled, pushing the bolt through and adding a nut.
Flush bolt – door bolt designed when applied it is flush with the
face or edge of the door.
Chain door fastener – a device attached to a door and its jamb
limits the door opening to the length of the chain.
Lockset – complete lock system including the basic locking
mechanism & all accessories, such as knobs, plates, etc.
Latch – a simple fastening device having a latch bolt, but not a
dead bolt containing no provisions for locking with a key,
usually can be open from both sides.
Lift latch – a type of door latch which fastens a door by means of a
pivoted bar that engages a hook on the door jamb, a lever
which lifts the pivoted bar used to unfasten the door.
Button - small rejecting member to fasten frame of door/window.
Knob – handle, more or less spherical usually for operating a lock.
Escutcheon – a protective plate surrounding the keyhole of a door
switch or a light switch.
Plates – a thin flat sheet of material
Strikes – metal plate/box which is set in a door jamb & is either
placed/recessed to receive the bolt/latch of a lock, fixed
on a door.
Lip strike – projection from the side of a strike plate which the
bolt of a lock strikes first, when a door is closed;
Hasp – a fastening device consisting of a loop or staple and a
slotted hinge plate normally secured with a padlock.
Key-padlock – a device which fastens in position maybe operated
by a key.
Hasplock – a kind of hasp that has a built-in locking device which
can be opened only with a key.
Friction catch – any catch which when it engages a strike, is held in
the engaged position by friction.
Magnetic catch – a door catch flat that uses a magnet to hold the
door in a closed position.
Bullet catch – a fastener which holds a door in place by means of a
projecting spring arctuated steel hall which is depressed
when the door is closed.
Hospital arm pull – a handle for opening a hospital door without
the use of hands, by hooking an arm over the handle.
Panic exit device – fire exit bolt a door locking device used on exit
doors; the door latch releases when a bar, across the
inside of the door is pushed.
Eye bolt – a bolt having its head in the form of a loop or eye.
Concrete insert – a plastic, wood fiber/metal usually leads plug
either built in a wall or ceiling/inserted by drilling, used
as an anchor or support to hold attached load.
Hook bolt – a bolt having one end in the form of a hook.
Door stopper – to prevent the door with its lockset from harming
the wall or tiles.