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For insomnia in general, drugs acting on the effects”, citing a review in the Drugs and
benzodiazepine receptor (encompassing benzodi- Therapeu-tics Bulletin.
[11]
azepines and nonbenzodiazepine benzodiazepine [12]
re-ceptor agonists [‘z drugs’]) are commonly According to Walsh, the popularity of antide-
consid-ered the treatment of choice because their pressants in insomnia cannot be based on existing
effective-ness in clinical practice is supported by a scientific evidence but is due to perceptions and
[1] beliefs of the prescribing physicians, who are con-
lot of substantial data (see clinical review and
[2-5] vinced of some general advantages of antidepres-sants
meta-analyses ). Especially in acute, short-term,
as a group in this indication compared with drugs
non-complicated insomnia (e.g. insomnia due to an
acting on the benzodiazepine receptor. Anti-
acute, transient, external stress), drugs acting on the
benzodiazepine receptor clearly have the best bene- depressants are perceived as safer and as having a
fit-risk profile. lower tolerance risk, so that even patients with a
specific medical history (e.g. alcohol or benzodiaze-
With respect to long-term insomnia treatment, the
pine abuse, or dependency in the past) can be treat-ed.
use of at least some of these agents is limited by the
When regarding data from long-term studies in
risk of tolerance and dependency. However, recent
data demonstrate that 6 months’ treatment with patients with depression, it can be concluded that
eszopiclone is efficient over the whole treat-ment tolerance development is not to be expected, so the
[6,7] treatment can extend over a far longer period of time.
period and there is no evidence of toler-ance.
When there is a pronounced depressive symp-
Similar results were obtained in a 6-month study of
tomatology, as well as insomnia, these agents may
zolpidem extended release, which partly implied
[8] offer an additional antidepressant action besides sleep
intermittent (non daily) treatment. In the US, both promotion. Some physicians may (erroneous-ly) even
agents are approved for long-term use. In contrast, the believe that all or most insomnia is a symptom of
European Medicines Agency has ap-proved all depression, so that antidepressant ther-apy appears to
benzodiazepines and z drugs for short-term use only. be the treatment of choice.
Correspondingly, treatment guide-lines restrict the
duration of treatment. However, in practice, off-label This article does not aim to discuss the issue of
long-term use is widespread. In this unsatisfactory pharmacological versus nonpharmacological treat-
situation, clinicians have several options and the use ment of chronic insomnia; however, it must be kept
of antidepressants appears to be rather popular. In the in mind that according to the majority of experts,
US, the antidepressants trazo-done, amitriptyline and nonpharmacological treatment should be prioritized
mirtazapine are among the most commonly used over drug treatment in chronic insomnia (see Reite
[9] [13]
drugs for chronic insomnia; elsewhere, other et al. ). A comparative meta-analysis of pharma-
sedating antidepressants are used (e.g. in Germany, cotherapy and behaviour therapy for persistent in-
[4]
doxepin, opipramol and trimipra-mine). Walsh and somnia found no differences in several
[10] parameters relevant to sleep quality, apart from
Schweitzer point out that a great number of
antidepressant prescriptions in in-somnia are for slightly greater reductions on sleep onset latency
insomnia that is not related to depres-sion (e.g. with nonpharma-cological therapy.
primary insomnia or co-morbid insomnia related to Most antidepressant drugs affect sleep but, as can
conditions other than depression). be expected from the heterogeneous nature of the
This clinical practice contrasts with the paucity drugs summarized under this label, these effects can
of substantial data on the effects of antidepressants be extremely different. Recently, Wilson and
in insomnia. This is highlighted in several critical [14] [15]
Argyropoulos, and Mayers and Baldwin re-
articles and guidelines on the topic. The British viewed the data on the effects of antidepressants on
National Health Service’s Clinical Knowledge sleep, both in healthy participants and patients with
Sum-maries on insomnia clearly state “There is no depression. In the latter group, most antidepressants
evi-dence that antidepressants with sedative proper- improve subjectively-rated sleep, irrespective of ob-
ties…help to relieve insomnia in people who do not jective (polysomnographic) sleep measurements,
have depression, and their use risks potential side which, in some cases, mirror a worsening of sleep.
2008 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. 008; 68
Drugs 2
(17)
Antidepressants for Insomnia 2413
1. Clinical Studies of Antidepressants compared with placebo during week 1, but not
in Insomnia during treatment week 2. Twelve randomized pa-
tients (two placebo, five zolpidem and five trazo-
A more specific overview on studies with chronic done) withdrew from the study because of adverse
[1]
insomnia is given by Buscemi et al. There are only events (excessive sleepiness, dizziness, drowsiness,
three published randomized controlled trials
[16-18]
on
headache, vomiting, elevated blood pressure).
antidepressants in primary insomnia (table I). Treat-ment-emergent adverse events were reported
[16] by 65.4% of placebo patients, 76.5% of zolpidem
In a placebo-controlled study in 47 patients pa-tients and 75% of trazodone patients, mainly
(with Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental head-ache and somnolence.
Disorders [DSM] 4th Edition [DSM-IV] primary
insomnia), doxepin was given over 4 weeks in a dose Trimipramine, given as a mean dose of 100 mg
(range from 25 to 200 mg), was tested against
between 25 and 50 mg. In the doxepin-treated patients
lormetazepam and placebo in 55 patients with in-
who completed the study (n = 20), med-ication
somnia (DSM-III-R primary insomnia or dyssomnia
significantly increased polysomnographical-ly- [18]
measured sleep efficiency after acute and sub-chronic not otherwise classified) over 4 weeks. Trimipra-
(4 weeks) intake, compared with the pa-tients mine (n = 18) increased polysomnographically-mea-
completing the study who received placebo (n = 20) sured sleep efficiency significantly when compared
without affecting sleep onset latency, which was with placebo, in contrast with lormetazepam. Trimi-
normal at baseline. Subjectively rated sleep quality pamine did not change any of the other polysomno-
and working ability were rated significantly improved graphic sleep variables when compared with place-bo,
by the patients receiving doxepin. No significant whereas lormetazepam reduced the percentage of
group differences in adverse effects were found, but wake after sleep onset and the percentage of stage 3
two doxepin-treated patients withdrew from the study sleep, but increased the percentage of rapid eye
because of increased liver enzymes, leukopenia and movement sleep. Comparing trimipramine and
thrombopenia. lormetazepam, no difference with respect to any of the
polysomnographic sleep variables emerged. Several
In a large-scale multicentre study (n = 589 pa-
subjective sleep parameters were improved by both of
tients with DSM [3rd Edition, Revised]{DSM-III-R}
the drugs compared with placebo (Pitts-burgh Sleep
primary insomnia), trazodone 50 mg was tested [19]
[17] Quality Index [PSQI ] sum score, sleep quality and
against zolpidem 10 mg and placebo over 2 weeks.
evening well-being subscales of the SF-A
Effects were measured by subjective estimations of [20]
self-reported sleep onset latency and self-reported [Schlaffragebogen by Gortelmeyer¨ ]). In addition,
sleep duration, based on morning ques-tionnaires trimipramine improved the ‘feeling rested in the
(polysomnographic recordings were not performed). morning’ subscale of the SF-A compared with
After 1 week, both active treatments significantly placebo. In direct comparison, trimipramine was
reduced sleep latency (this was more pronounced with superior to lormetazepam in the ‘evening well-be-ing’
zolpidem than trazodone). After 2 weeks, only the and the ‘feeling rested in the morning’ sub-scales of
zolpidem group had a significantly shorter sleep onset the SF-A, whereas the other subjective variables
latency than the placebo group, whereas the trazodone (including the PSQI total score) showed no
group did not differ from placebo. Both drugs were differences between drugs.
also rated efficacious in significantly prolonging Table II summarizes the four existing open-label
subjective sleep duration studies on antidepressants in primary insomnia.
2008 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Drugs 2008;
68 (17)
2414 Wiegand
diazepine receptor. In addition, it must be empha- sleep. Quetiapine and agomelatine also have a 5-
sized that tricyclic antidepressants are potentially HT2C inhibiting action.
lethal in overdose. SRIs and antidepressants combining serotonergic
Sedating antipsychotics have been used for the and noradrenergic modes of action, as well as bupro-
treatment of insomnia, especially in the elderly. The pion, are not first-choice drugs for insomnia; how-
rationale for their use in this setting is their clinically ever, an indirect positive action on subjective sleep is
proven efficacy in complex, acute, often dementia- possible when inactivity due to some depressive
related states including insomnia, agitation and diso- symptomatology during daytime is part of the prob-
rientation (not related to parasomnias). There is a lem (this may be the mechanism underlying the
growing tendency to study these drugs with respect to [23]
paroxetine data ). Among the antidepressants that
their effect in the treatment of insomnia. In an open- will appear on the market in the future, agomelatine
[28]
label pilot study, Wiegand et al. found an appears promising for insomnia because its mecha-
impressive sleep-promoting property of quetiapine in nism of action does not encompass the antihistamin-ic
very low doses (25–75 mg). pathway (it combines melatonin MT1 and MT2
receptor agonism with 5-HT2C receptor ant-agonism).
3. Choice of Antidepressant Thus far, data on agomelatine indicate a favourable
Within the group of antidepressants, the sedating effect on sleep and very good tolerabili-
tricyclics trimipramine and doxepin have the advan- ty.[30,31]
tage of a positive effect in insomnia, proven by In the discussion on antidepressants in insomnia,
controlled clinical trials.
[16,18]
With respect to dox- the question of pharmacokinetics, which is so im-
epin, it could be demonstrated that it preserves noc- portant in benzodiazepines and benzodiazepine re-
[21] ceptor agonists, has been neglected. Theoretically,
turnal melatonin secretion patterns, in contrast with
[29]
compounds with a shorter half-life should be pre-
flunitrazepam; however, it is not clear in how far ferred. The three compounds for which placebo-
these results are generalizable to both sedat-ing controlled studies have been performed have rather
tricyclics and benzodiazepinones. However, the strong long half-lives (trimipramine 24 hours; doxepin
anticholinergic properties of the tricyclics reduce 15–20 hours [active metabolite 80 hours];
tolerability, and result in several contraindi-cations trazodone 9 hours). Mirtazapine and amitriptyline
and potential interactions, especially in eld-erly also have long half-lives (20–40 hours and 10–28
people. The sleep promoting action of tricyclics is
hours, re-spectively). Opipramol and trazodone
mainly based on histamine antagonism, which,
regarding the half-lives of the drugs, can lead to
have shorter half-lives (<9 hours). Agomelatine has
hangover effects in the morning, even long-lasting an ultra-short half-life of 1–2 hours. The clinical
excessive daytime sleepines. consequences of the large differences have still to
[32]
The efficacy of trazodone is based on a controlled be investigated and discussed.
study.
[17]
Trazodone lacks anticholinergic effects, When an antidepressant for chronic insomnia
appears indicated but is not sufficient for treating
which is an advantage; however, there is a higher risk
severe insomnia symptoms, there is the option of
of orthostatic hypotony and ventricular arrhyth-mias. adjunctive eszopiclone and zolpidem, which has
Evidence-based data on mirtazapine in prima-ry proven safe and effective in the treatment of depres-
insomnia have not yet been published. Like trazo- [33] [34]
sion (e.g. see Asnis et al. and Becker ) as well as
done, mirtazapine lacks anticholinergic activity; [35]
however, there is a spectrum of adverse effects, which in other psychiatric conditions.
include paradoxical agitation and the induc-tion of
restless legs symptomatology. It is remark-able that 4. Conclusion
mirtazapine, in addition to its antihis-taminergic
action, influences sleep positively by inhibiting For short-term medication in insomnia, there is
serotonin 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors; this is a no evidence at all of superiority or a better benefit-
novel sleep-promoting mechanism, which does not risk ratio of antidepressants over benzodiazepines
cause drowsiness or enhance slow-wave and z drugs; thus, the latter should be the treatment
2008 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Drugs 2008; 68 (17)
2416 Wiegand
of choice, especially the z drugs, as these can be ing for adverse events is necessary when
maintained in patients in whom short-term administer-ing antidepressants; with tricyclic
treatment turns into longer term treatment. At antidepressants, the dangers of (potentially lethal)
present, pre-scribing antidepressants (in particular overdose should be taken into account.
doxepin, mirtazapine, trazodone and trimipramine) Regarding the lack of substantial data allowing
for short-term treatment of insomnia appears useful for evidence-based recommendations, we are
if there is some amount of concomitant depressive facing a clear need for well designed, long-term
symptoma-tology or a history of depression, raising compara-tive studies to further define the role of
the impres-sion that the present insomnia may be a antidepres-sants versus other agents in the
prodromal sign for a new depressive episode; in management of insomnia.
these cases, a z drug can be added to improve the
sleep-promoting effect. Acknowledgements
For long-term treatment of insomnia, antidepres- No sources of funding were used to assist in the prepara-
sants are among the pharmacological options, in tion of this article. The author has received speaker
addition to several other groups of psychotropic honoraria from AstraZeneca, Cephalon and Servier.
drugs, including the z drugs eszopiclone and zolpi-
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Drugs 2008; 6