What is a MAC Address?

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Whether you work in a wired network office or a wireless one, one thing is common for both
environments: It takes both network software and hardware (cables, routers, etc.) to transfer
data from your computer to another—or from a computer thousands of miles away to yours.

And in the end, to get the data you want right to YOU, it comes down to addresses.

So not surprisingly, along with an IP address (which is networks software), there's also a
hardware address. Typically it is tied to a key connection device in your computer called the
network interface card, or NIC. The NIC is essentially a computer circuit card that makes it
possible for your computer to connect to a network.

An NIC turns data into an electrical signal that can be transmitted over the network.

Every NIC has a hardware address that's known as a MAC, for Media Access Control.
Where IP addresses are associated with TCP/IP (networking software), MAC addresses are
linked to the hardware of network adapters.

A MAC address is given to a network adapter when it is manufactured. It is hardwired or

hard-coded onto your computer's network interface card (NIC) and is unique to it.
Something called the ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) translates an IP address into a
MAC address. The ARP is like a passport that takes data from an IP address through an
actual piece of computer hardware.

Once again, that's hardware and software working together, IP addresses and MAC
addresses working together.

For this reason, the MAC address is sometimes referred to as a networking hardware
address, the burned-in address (BIA), or the physical address. Here's an example of a MAC
address for an Ethernet NIC: 00:0a:95:9d:68:16.

As you've probably noticed, the MAC address itself doesn't look anything like an IP address
(see yours here). The MAC address is a string of usually six sets of two-digits or characters,
separated by colons.

Some well-known manufacturers of network adapters or NICs are Dell, Belkin, Nortel and
Cisco. These manufacturers all place a special number sequence (called
the Organizationally Unique Identifier or OUI) in the MAC address that identifies them as
the manufacturer. The OUI is typically right at the front of the address.
For example, consider a network adapter with the MAC address "00-14-22-01-23-45." The
OUI for the manufacture of this router is the first three octets—"00-14-22." Here are the OUI
for other some well-known manufacturers.
Dell: 00-14-22
Nortel: 00-04-DC
Cisco: 00-40-96
Belkin: 00-30-BD
It's common for the larger manufacturers of networking equipment to have more than one
set of OUIs.

Networks and MAC addresses.

All devices on the same network subnet have different MAC addresses. MAC addresses
are very useful in diagnosing network issues, such as problems with IP addresses.

MAC addresses are useful for network diagnosis because they never change, as opposed
to a dynamic IP address, which can change from time to time. For a network administrator,
that makes a MAC address a more reliable way to identify senders and receivers of data on
the network.

Wireless Routers and MAC Filtering

On wireless networks, a process called MAC filtering is a security measure to prevent
unwanted network access by hackers and intruders. In MAC address filtering, the router is
configured to accept traffic only from specific MAC addresses. This way, computers whose
MAC addresses are approved will be able to communicate through the network—even if
they were given a new IP address by DHCP.
Meanwhile, a hacker who's hijacked a network IP address will be blocked because
their MAC address will not be on the approved list and will be filtered out.

Subnetwork
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Subnet" redirects here. For subnets in the mathematics of topology, see subnet (mathematics).

Creating a subnet by dividing the host identifier

A subnetwork or subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network.[1] The practice of dividing a

network into two or more networks is called subnetting.
Computers that belong to a subnet are addressed with a common, identical, most-significant bit-
group in their IP address. This results in the logical division of an IP address into two fields, a
network or routing prefix and the "rest" field or host identifier. The rest field is an identifier for a
specific host or network interface.
The routing prefix may be expressed in CIDR notation written as the first address of a network,
followed by a slash character (/), and ending with the bit-length of the prefix. For example,
192.168.1.0/24 is the prefix of the Internet Protocol Version 4 network starting at the given address,
having 24 bits allocated for the network prefix, and the remaining 8 bits reserved for host addressing.
The IPv6 address specification 2001:db8::/32 is a large address block with 296 addresses, having a
32-bit routing prefix.
For IPv4, a network may also be characterized by its subnet mask, which is the bitmask that when
applied by a bitwise AND operation to any IP address in the network, yields the routing prefix.
Subnet masks are also expressed in dot-decimal notation like an address. For example,
255.255.255.0 is the network mask for the 192.168.1.0/24 prefix.
Traffic is exchanged (routed) between subnetworks with special gateways (routers) when the routing
prefixes of the source address and the destination address differ. A router constitutes the logical or
physical boundary between the subnets.
The benefits of subnetting an existing network vary with each deployment scenario. In the address
allocation architecture of the Internet using Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and in large
organizations, it is necessary to allocate address space efficiently. It may also enhance routing
efficiency, or have advantages in network management when subnetworks are administratively
controlled by different entities in a larger organization. Subnets may be arranged logically in a
hierarchical architecture, partitioning an organization's network address space into a tree-like routing
structure.

Network addressing and routing

Computers participating in a network such as the Internet each have at least one logical address.
Usually this address is unique to each device and can either be configured automatically with
the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) by a network server, manually by an administrator,
or automatically by stateless address autoconfiguration.
An address fulfills the functions of identifying the host and locating it on the network. The most
common network addressing architecture is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4), but its
successor, IPv6, has been increasingly deployed since approximately 2006. An IPv4 address
consists of 32 bits, for readability written in a form consisting of four decimal octetsseparated by
dots, called dot-decimal notation. An IPv6 address consists of 128 bits written in a hexadecimal
notation and grouping 16 bits separated by colons.
For the purpose of network management, an IP address is divided into two logical parts, the network
prefix and the host identifier or rest field. All hosts on a subnetwork have the same network prefix.
This routing prefix occupies the most-significant bits of the address. The number of bits allocated
within a network to the internal routing prefix may vary between subnets, depending on the network
architecture. While in IPv6 the prefix must consist of a set of contiguous 1-bits, in IPv4 this is not
enforced, though there is no advantage to using non-contiguous 1-bits. The host part is a unique
local identification and is either a host number on the local network or an interface identifier.
This logical addressing structure permits the selective routing of IP packets across multiple networks
via special gateway computers, called routers, to a destination host if the network prefixes of
origination and destination hosts differ, or sent directly to a target host on the local network if they
are the same. Routers constitute logical or physical borders between the subnets, and manage
traffic between them. Each subnet is served by a designated default router, but may consist
internally of multiple physical Ethernet segments interconnected by network switches or network
bridges.
The routing prefix of an address is identified by using another address, called the network mask
or subnet mask, written in a form identical to that of the address itself. For example, the subnet mask
for a routing prefix that is composed of the most-significant 18 bits of an IPv4 address is written as
11111111.11111111.11000000.00000000 in binary, or as 255.255.192.0 in decimal notation. This
form of denoting the network mask, however, is only used for IPv4 networks.
The modern standard form of specification of the network prefix is CIDR notation, used for both IPv4
and IPv6. It counts the number of bits in the prefix and appends that number to the address after
a slash (/) character separator:

 192.168.0.0, netmask 255.255.255.0 is written as 192.168.0.0/24

 In IPv6, 2001:db8::/32 designates the address 2001:db8:: and its network prefix consisting of the
most significant 32 bits.
This notation was introduced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in RFC 4632. In IPv6 this
is the only acceptable form to denote network or routing prefixes.
In classful networking in IPv4, prior to the introduction of CIDR, the network prefix could be directly
obtained from the IP address, based on its highest order bit sequence. This determined the class (A,
B, C) of the address and therefore the network mask. Since the introduction of CIDR, however,
assignment of an IP address to a network interface requires two parameters, the address and its
network mask.
In IPv4, on-link determination for an IP address is given simply by the address and netmask
configuration, as the address cannot be disassociated from the on-link prefix.[2] For IPv6, however,
on-link determination is different in detail and requires the Neighbor Discovery
Protocol (NDP).[3][4] IPv6 address assignment to an interface carries no requirement of a matching
on-link prefix and vice versa, with the exception of link-local addresses.
While subnetting may improve network performance in an organizational network, it increases
routing complexity, since each locally connected subnet must be represented by a separate entry in
the routing tables of each connected router. However, by careful design of the network, routes to
collections of more distant subnets within the branches of a tree-hierarchy can be aggregated by
single routes. Variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) functionality in commercial routers made the
introduction of CIDR seamless across the Internet and in enterprise networks.

Internet Protocol Version 4

Determining the network prefix
An IPv4 network mask consists of 32 bits, a sequence of ones (1) followed by a block of zeros (0).
The trailing block of zeros designates that part as being the host identifier.
The following example shows the separation of the network prefix and the host identifier from an
address (192.168.5.130) and its associated /24 network mask (255.255.255.0). The operation is
visualized in a table using binary address formats.

Binary form Dot-decimal notation

IP address 11000000.10101000.00000101.10000010 192.168.5.130

Subnet mask 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 255.255.255.0

Network prefix 11000000.10101000.00000101.00000000 192.168.5.0

 Host part 00000000.00000000.00000000.10000010 0.0.0.130

The result of the bitwise AND operation of IP address and the subnet mask is the network prefix
192.168.5.0. The host part, which is 130, is derived by the bitwise AND operation of the address and
the one's complement of the subnet mask.

Subnetting
Subnetting is the process of designating some high-order bits from the host part and grouping them
with the network mask to form the subnet mask. This divides a network into smaller subnets. The
following diagram modifies the example by moving 2 bits from the host part to the subnet mask to
form four smaller subnets one quarter the previous size:

Binary form Dot-decimal notation

IP address 11000000.10101000.00000101.10000010 192.168.5.130

Subnet mask 11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 255.255.255.192

Network prefix 11000000.10101000.00000101.10000000 192.168.5.128

Host part 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000010 0.0.0.2

Special addresses and subnets

Internet Protocol version 4 uses specially designated address formats to facilitate recognition of
special address functionality. The first and the last subnets obtained by subnetting have traditionally
had a special designation and, early on, special usage implications.[5] In addition, IPv4 uses the all
ones host address, i.e. the last address within a network, for broadcast transmission to all hosts on
the link.
Subnet zero and the all-ones subnet
The first subnet obtained from subnetting has all bits in the subnet bit group set to zero (0). It is
therefore called subnet zero.[6] The last subnet obtained from subnetting has all bits in the subnet bit
group set to one (1). It is therefore called the all-ones subnet.[7]
The IETF originally discouraged the production use of these two subnets due to possible confusion
of having a network and subnet with the same address.[8] The practice of avoiding subnet zero and
the all-ones subnet was declared obsolete in 1995 by RFC 1878, an informational, but now historical
document.[9]
Subnet and host counts
The number of subnetworks available, and the number of possible hosts in a network may be readily
calculated. In the example (above) two bits were borrowed to create subnetworks, thus creating 4
(22) possible subnets.

Network Network (binary) Broadcast address

192.168.5.0/26 11000000.10101000.00000101.00000000 192.168.5.63

192.168.5.64/26 11000000.10101000.00000101.01000000 192.168.5.127

192.168.5.128/26 11000000.10101000.00000101.10000000 192.168.5.191

192.168.5.192/26 11000000.10101000.00000101.11000000 192.168.5.255

The RFC 950 specification recommended reserving the subnet values consisting of all zeros (see
above) and all ones (broadcast), reducing the number of available subnets by two. However, due to
the inefficiencies introduced by this convention it was abandoned for use on the public Internet, and
is only relevant when dealing with legacy equipment that does not implement CIDR. The only reason
not to use the all-zeroes subnet is that it is ambiguous when the prefix length is not available. RFC
950 itself did not make the use of the zero subnet illegal; it was however considered best practice by
engineers.
CIDR-compliant routing protocols transmit both length and suffix. RFC 1878 provides a subnetting
table with examples.
The remaining bits after the subnet bits are used for addressing hosts within the subnet. In the
above example the subnet mask consists of 26 bits, leaving 6 bits for the host identifier. This allows
for 62 host combinations (26−2).
The all-zeros value and all-ones values are reserved for the network address and broadcast
address respectively. In systems that can handle CIDR a count of two is therefore subtracted from
the host availability, rather than the subnet availability, making all 2n subnets available and removing
a need to subtract two subnets.
For example, under CIDR /28 all 16 subnets are usable. Each broadcast, i.e. .15, .31, …, .255
comes off the client count, not the network, thus making the last subnet also usable.
In general the number of available hosts on a subnet is 2h−2, where h is the number of bits used for
the host portion of the address. The number of available subnets is 2n, where n is the number of bits
used for the network portion of the address. This is the RFC 1878 standard used by the IETF, the
IEEE and COMPTIA.
RFC 3021 specifies an exception to this rule for 31-bit subnet masks, which means the host identifier
is only one bit long for two permissible addresses. In such networks, usually point-to-point links, only
two hosts (the end points) may be connected and a specification of network and broadcast
addresses is not necessary.
A /24 network may be divided into the following subnets by increasing the subnet mask successively
by one bit. This affects the total number of hosts that can be addressed in the /24 network (last
column).

Available Usable hosts Total

Prefix size Subnet mask
subnets per subnet usable hosts

/24 255.255.255.0 1 254 254

/25 255.255.255.128 2 126 252

/26 255.255.255.192 4 62 248

/27 255.255.255.224 8 30 240

/28 255.255.255.240 16 14 224

/29 255.255.255.248 32 6 192

/30 255.255.255.252 64 2 128

/31 255.255.255.254 128 2* 256

Internet Protocol Version 6

The design of the IPv6 address space differs significantly from IPv4. The primary reason for
subnetting in IPv4 is to improve efficiency in the utilization of the relatively small address space
available, particularly to enterprises. No such limitations exist in IPv6, as the large address space
available, even to end-users, is not a limiting factor.
An RFC 4291 compliant subnet always uses IPv6 addresses with 64 bits for the host portion.[10] It
therefore has a /64 routing prefix (128−64 = the 64 most significant bits). Although it is technically
possible to use smaller subnets,[11] they are impractical for local area networks based on Ethernet
technology, because 64 bits are required for stateless address auto configuration.[12] The Internet
Engineering Task Force recommends the use of /127 subnets for point-to-point links, which consist
of only two hosts.[13][14]
IPv6 does not implement special address formats for broadcast traffic or network numbers,[15] and
thus all addresses in a subnet are valid host addresses. The all-zeroes address is reserved as the
Subnet-Router anycast address.[16]
The recommended allocation for an IPv6 customer site was an address space with a 48-bit (/48)
prefix.[17] However, this recommendation was revised to encourage smaller blocks, for example using
56-bit prefixes.[18] Another common allocation is a /64 prefix for a residential customer network.
Subnetting in IPv6 is based on the concepts of variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) and
the Classless Inter-Domain Routing methodology. It is used to route traffic between the global
allocation spaces and within customer networks between subnets and the Internet at large.

Network Switch
A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC bridge[1]) is a computer
networking device that connects devices together on a computer network by using packet
switching to receive, process, and forward data to the destination device. Unlike less
advanced network hubs, a network switch forwards data only to the devices that need to receive it,
rather than broadcasting the same data out of each of its ports.[2]
A network switch is a multiport network bridge that uses hardware addresses to process and forward
data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Some switches can also process data at
the network layer (layer 3) by additionally incorporating routing functionality that most commonly
uses IP addresses to perform packet forwarding; such switches are commonly known as layer-3
switches or multilayer switches.[3]
Switches for Ethernet are the most common form and the first Ethernet switch was introduced
by Kalpana in 1990.[4] Switches also exist for other types of networks including Fibre
Channel, Asynchronous Transfer Mode, and InfiniBand.

Overview
Cisco small business SG300-28 28-port Gigabit Ethernet rackmount switch and its internals

A switch is a device in a computer network that electrically and logically connects together other
devices. Multiple data cables are plugged into a switch to enable communication between different
networked devices. Switches manage the flow of data across a network by transmitting a
received network packet only to the one or more devices for which the packet is intended. Each
networked device connected to a switch can be identified by its network address, allowing the switch
to regulate the flow of traffic. This maximizes the security and efficiency of the network.
When a repeater hub is replaced with an Ethernet switch, the single large collision domain used by
the hub is split up into smaller ones, reducing or eliminating the possibility and scope
of collisions and, as a result, increasing the potential throughput. Because broadcasts are still being
forwarded to all connected devices, the newly formed network segment continues to be a broadcast
domain.
A switch is more intelligent than a repeater hub, which simply retransmits packets out of every port
of the hub except the port on which the packet was received, unable to distinguish different
recipients, and achieving an overall lower network efficiency.

Network design
An Ethernet switch operates at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model to create a
separate collision domain for each switch port. Each device connected to a switch port can transfer
data to any of the other ones at a time, and the transmissions will not interfere – with the limitation
that, in half duplex mode, each switch port can only either receive from or transmit to its connected
device at a certain time. In full duplex mode, each switch port can simultaneously
transmit and receive, assuming the connected device also supports full duplex mode.[5]
In the case of using a repeater hub, only a single transmission could take place at a time for all ports
combined, so they would all share the bandwidth and run in half duplex. Necessary arbitration would
also result in collisions, requiring retransmissions.

Applications
The network switch plays an integral role in most modern Ethernet local area networks (LANs). Mid-
to-large sized LANs contain a number of linked managed switches. Small office/home office (SOHO)
applications typically use a single switch, or an all-purpose converged device such as a residential
gateway to access small office/home broadbandservices such as DSL or cable Internet. In most of
these cases, the end-user device contains a router and components that interface to the particular
physical broadband technology. User devices may also include a telephone interface for Voice over
IP (VoIP) protocol.

Microsegmentation
Segmentation involves the use of a bridge or a switch (or a router) to split a larger collision domain
into smaller ones in order to reduce collision probability, and to improve overall network throughput.
In the extreme case (i.e. microsegmentation), each device is located on a dedicated switch port. In
contrast to an Ethernet hub, there is a separate collision domain on each of the switch ports. This
allows computers to have dedicated bandwidth on point-to-point connections to the network and also
to run in full-duplex without collisions. Full-duplex mode has only one transmitter and one receiver
per "collision domain", making collisions impossible.

Role of switches in a network

Switches may operate at one or more layers of the OSI model, including the data link and network
layers. A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as
a multilayer switch.
In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect
different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, RapidIO, ATM, ITU-
T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While the layer-2
functionality is adequate for bandwidth-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies
such as Ethernet and token ring is performed easier at layer 3 or via routing.[6] Devices that
interconnect at the layer 3 are traditionally called routers, so layer 3 switches can also be regarded
as relatively primitive and specialized routers.[7]
Where there is a need for a great deal of analysis of network performance and security, switches
may be connected between WAN routers as places for analytic modules. Some vendors
provide firewall,[8][9] network intrusion detection,[10] and performance analysis modules that can plug
into switch ports. Some of these functions may be on combined modules.[11]
In other cases, the switch is used to create a mirror image of data that can go to an external device.
Since most switch port mirroring provides only one mirrored stream, network hubs can be useful for
fanning out data to several read-only analyzers, such as intrusion detection systems and packet
sniffers.

VLAN
A virtual LAN (VLAN) is any broadcast domain that is partitioned and isolated in a computer
network at the data link layer (OSI layer 2).[1][2] LAN is the abbreviation for local area network and in
this context virtual refers to a physical object recreated and altered by additional logic. VLANs work
through tags within network packets and tag handling in networking systems - recreating the
appearance and functionality of network traffic that is physically on a single network but acts as if it is
split between separate networks. In this way, VLANs can keep networks separate despite being
connected to the same network, and without requiring multiple sets of cabling and networking
devices to be deployed.
VLANs allow network administrators to group hosts together even if the hosts are not on the same
network switch. This can greatly simplify network design and deployment, because VLAN
membership can be configured through software. Without VLANs, grouping hosts according to their
resource needs necessitates the labor of relocating nodes or rewiring data links. It also has benefits
in allowing networks and devices that must be kept separate to share the same physical cabling
without interacting, for reasons of simplicity, security, traffic management, or economy. For example,
a VLAN could be used to separate traffic within a business due to users, and due to network
administrators, or between types of traffic, so that users or low priority traffic cannot directly affect
the rest of the network's functioning. Many Internet hosting services use VLANs to separate their
customers' private zones from each other, allowing each customer's servers to be grouped together
in a single network segment while being located anywhere in their datacenter. Some precautions are
needed to prevent traffic "escaping" from a given VLAN, an exploit known as VLAN hopping.
To subdivide a network into virtual LANs, one configures network equipment. Simpler equipment can
partition only per physical port (if at all), in which case each VLAN is connected with a
dedicated network cable. More sophisticated devices can mark frames through VLAN tagging, so
that a single interconnect (trunk) may be used to transport data for multiple VLANs. Since VLANs
share bandwidth, a VLAN trunk can use link aggregation, quality-of-service prioritization, or both to
route data efficiently.
VLANs can be used to partition a local network into several distinctive segments,[3] for example:

 Production
 Voice over IP
 Network management
 Storage area network (SAN)
 Guest Internet access network
 Demilitarized zone (DMZ)
 Client separation (ISP, in a large facility, or in a datacenter)

File Transfer Protocol

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) (shqip: Protokolli i Transferimit të Skedave) është një protokoll rrjeti që
përdoret për transferimin e të dhënave nga një kompjuter në një tjetër përmes një rrjeti siç
është Interneti.
FTP është një protokoll për shkëmbim dhe manipulim të fajllave përmes një rrjeti kompjuterik TCP.
Një FTP klient mund të lidhet me një FTP server për të manipuluar fajllat në atë server.
Përparësi e tij ndaj shërbimeve tjera është që me futjen (Loging) e kompjuterit personal në atë
llogaritësin shërbyes (Server) prezantohet e gjithë amëza e llogaritësit nga aty shpejtë mund të
barten ose të shkarkohen regjistra të tëra. Përpos kësaj ky shërbim ofron edhe protokollin FTP i cili e
bene të mundshëm prezantimin e amëzës dhe përdorimin e saj nga një kompjuter i largët, sikur të
ishte ajo amzë në vetë kompjuterin e perdoruesit.

Post Office Protocol[redakto | redakto tekstin burimor]

Në kompjuterikë post office protocol është një aplikacion shtesë në protokolin standart të interrnetit
që perdoret nga shfrytzuesit apo klientet e email adresave për të dërguar apo ridërguar email-a nga
serveret e largët, me te cilët janë te lidhur me lidhjen tcp/ip. Pop dhe Imap (Internet Message access
protocol) janë dy protokolet standarde që gjejnë me së shumti perdorim për dergimin e emailave,
gjithashtu vlen të theksohet se te gjithë klientet e emailave dhe serveret modern mbështesin të dy
modelet.
POP eshte zhvilluar ne disa versione, aktualisht versioni pop3 është version standard. Shumica e
ofruesve të sherbimeve te webemail-ave si përshebull hotmail, gmail, yahoo! mail, sigurojnë
shërbimet POP3 dhe IMAP.
Post Office Protocol mbështet thjesht shkarkimin dhe fshirjen e kërkesave për qasje në mailboksat e
largët ("maildrop"ne POP RFC's). Klientet e POP-it kanë mundesinë që ta ruajnë e-mail-in në server
pas shkarkimi, përgjithesisht klientet e POP deri sa janë të konektuar, (kanë qasje në internet) i
rifitojnë të gjitha mesazhet, i ruajnë ato si mesazhe të reja ne kompjuteret personal, i fshijne ato nga
serveri dhe më pas shkyqen.
Protokolet tjera, veçanerisht IMAP, siguron çasje me komplete dhe me komplekse ne operacionet
"mailbox". Shume klientë mbeshtesin POP-in, por edhe IMAP-in, per rifitimin e mesazheve, por
operatoret e internetit e favorizojne me shume IMAP-in.
POP3
POP3 dëgjon në portin e njohur për ne 110. Komunikimi i enkriptuar është nje kërkes tjetër pas
fillimit të protokolit, përdor STLS komand, dhe mbështetet ose nga POP3S, i cili lidhet me serverin
duket përdorur shtesen siguruse të transportit (TSL) ose të(SSL), në TCp portin 995 (Google Gmail).
Meseazhi në despozicion të klientit është i fiksuar atë herë kur sesioni i POP-it hap "maildrops", dhe
është identifikuar se nga numri i mesazheve lokale të ati sesioni, ose në mënyrë opcionale nga
identifikuesit e caktuar në mesazhet nga serveri POP. Ky indentifikues është i veqant dhe i
përhershëm në "maildrop" po ashtu lejon klientet të kenë qasje në disa mesazhe ne sesione tjera te
POP-it. Mail-i është rifituar dhe shenuar per fshirje nga numri i mesazhit. Kur klienti mbyll këtë
sesion mail-i i shënuar për fshirje është larguar nga "maildropi".

Telnet
Shërbimi i internetit Telenet është paramenduar për përdorimin e një llogaritësi nga largësia me
ndihmën e komandave të gjuhëve ose sistemeve operuese. Teleneti është si paraardhës i
shërbimit Teleworking. Me këtë shërbim përdoruesit e kompjuterit personal mund të futen (Login)
në llogaritësin e lidhur në internet (llogaritësin Host). Hyrja është e lejuar vetëm për emrat e
regjistruar të përdoruesve që posedojnë fjalët kalimtare të regjistruar. Pas futjes në llogaritësin ata
me anë të komandave Shell mund të japin komanda për sistemet operative, të startojnë programe e
gjera të tilla.
Përdoruesit e kompjuterëve personal nuk kanë të bëjnë direkt me qendrën e llogaritësve shërbyes
(Server) në internet, nuk bien në kontakt me Telenet. Mirëpo ka edhe sisteme operuese për
kompjuterët personal si MS Windows ose Macintosh që kanë të integruar programet Telenet-
Clients. Këto programe bëjnë të mundshme punën nga kompjuteri personal në llogaritësin Host. Për
të punuar me llogaritësit Host duhet pasur njohuri mbi urdhëresat e sistemit operues të llogaritësit
përkatës.
SSH (Secure Shell) është një variant i Telenet-it, dallimi qëndron në faktin se me SSH të gjitha
regjistrat e të dhënave kodohen. Kjo është me rëndësi sepse që nga momenti i futjes ne llogaritës,
kodohen emri i përdoruesit si dhe fjala kalimtare e tij. Sidomos kur kemi të bëjmë me ndryshimin e
fjalës kalimtare ose të emrit të përdoruesit, gjë që në praktik ndodhë shpesh. Edhe këto të dhëna
qarkullojnë në tërë rrjetin dhe me pak njohuri mund të kapen në ndonjë stacion dhe të shikohen, po
kur ato janë të koduara humbin interesin për spiunët. Disa klient të Telenet-it modern, në ndërkohë
ofrojnë edhe protokollin SSH.
elnet për ndryshe nga programuesit shihet si një protokoll rrjeti qe perdoret ne Internet. Dokumentat
pershkrues IETF STD 8 (RFC 854 dhe RFC 855) thone:
Objektivi i protokollit TELNET eshte te ofroje nje mbeshtetje pergjithesisht te mjaftuesme per
komunikim, dydrejtimesh dhe te orientuar ne byte ( tetë Bit).
Zakonishtë përdoret per ti ofruar perdoruesit nje sesion login nga distanza te tipit komande
rrjeshti midis host ne internet.
Gjithashtu, telnet është edhe emri i nje programmi qe nje perdorues mund te perdori per te
nisur nje sesion telnet me nje host ne largësi; programi telnet implementon pjesën klient te
protokollit. Klientët telnet janë te diponueshëm ne shumicën e sisteme Unix prej shumë vitesh
dhe për cdo llojë kompjuteri.
Domain Name System
Domain Name System - DNS/ sqt. Servisi i Emrave Domene (SED)" është sistemi i kodimit të
emrave të faqeve të internetit.
Lloj sistemi në teknologjinë e kompjuterëve. Me ndihmën e tij lexuesi informohet për zanafillën e
shtetit ose organizatës në të cilin është publikuar ajo fletë.
Pasi për kompjuterët më mirë janë të dhënat të shkruara në numra dhe për njerëzit më mirë në
shkronja, është futur edhe ky sistem.
Sistemi në fjalë është i ngjashëm me sistemin e Adresave IP. Ky sistem ka emrat e adresave që në
këtë teknologji thirret Emri i domenit (Domain Name). Këta emra i takojnë një niveli më të lartë të
quajtur Niveli i sipërm i domeneve (Top-Level-Dmain). Pjesët e emrave janë të ndara sikurse tek
adresat IP, me një pikë si p.sh yahoo.com, sq.wikipedia.org
Top-Level-Domain janë disa shkurtesa dhe zakonisht shkruhen në fund të emrit të domenit.
shkurtesat janë tipike për shtetet përkatëse ose për organizatat.