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DESIGNING LARGE-SCALE
LAN/WANS, PART I
John R. Vacca
INSIDE
Large-Scale Internetwork Protocol (IP) LAN/WANs; IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA); ATM;
Packet Service; Dial-on-Demand Routing (DDR); ISDN; LAN/WAN System Design Solutions: Design Basics
INTRODUCTION
Every aspect of connecting computers together is encompassed by the
communication between two or more networks. Vastly disparate end-
system communication requirements are now being supported by
LAN/WANs. A LAN/WAN system requires many protocols and features to
permit scalability and manageability without constant manual interven-
tion. Large-scale LAN/WAN systems can consist of the following three
distinct components:
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ing information between routers belonging to a single autonomous sys-
tem (AS). An AS is a group of routers exchanging routing information via
a common routing protocol. The OSPF protocol is based on shortest-
path-first, or link-state, technology.
The OSPF Working Group of the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) developed the OSPF protocol. It was designed expressly for the
IP environment. This includes explicit support for IP subnetting and the
tagging of externally derived routing information. OSPF Version 2 is doc-
umented in Request for Comments (RFC) 1247.
Discussions that follow are divided into the following general topics:
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tecture (SNA) environments. A LAN/WAN system within an SNA environ-
ment often involves making special accommodations for devices that
were not originally designed for connection to meshed systems. Upcom-
ing in this article are three techniques designed to enable LAN/WAN sys-
tems capabilities for SNA-based LAN/WAN architectures; these are
described as follows:
ATM
Designed for the high-speed transfer of voice, video, and data through
public and private networks in a cost-effective manner, ATM is an evolv-
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ing technology. ATM is based on the efforts to apply very large-scale in-
tegration (VLSI) technology to the transfer of data within public networks
by Study Group XVIII of the International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T, formerly the Consul-
tative Committee for International Telegraph and Telephone [CCITT])
and the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Officially, the ATM
layer of the Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network (BISDN)
model is defined by CCITT I.361. Current efforts to bring ATM technolo-
gy to private networks and to guarantee interoperability between private
and public networks is being done by the ATM Forum, which was jointly
founded in 1991 by Cisco Systems, NET/ADAPTIVE, Northern Telecom,
and Sprint.
PACKET SERVICE
The area between cost and performance is the chief trade-off in linking
local area networks (LANs) and private wide area networks (WANs) into
packet-switching data network (PSDN) services. Packet-services is opti-
mized by an ideal design. Service optimization does not necessarily
translate into picking the service mix that represents the lowest possible
tariffs. Successful packet-service implementations result from adhering to
two basic rules: (1) when implementing a packet-switching solution, be
sure to balance cost savings derived by instituting PSDN interconnections
with the computing community’s performance requirements; and (2)
build an environment that is manageable and that can scale up as more
WAN links are required.
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DDR can be used over asynchronous serial interfaces, synchronous
serial interfaces, or Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces.
V.25bis and DTR dialing are used for synchronous modems, switched 56
channel service unit6/data service units7 (CSU/DSUs), or ISDN terminal
adapters (TAs). Asynchronous serial lines are available on the auxiliary
port on Cisco routers and on Cisco communication servers for connec-
tions to asynchronous modems. DDR is supported over ISDN using Basic
Rate Interface (BRI)8 and Primary Rate Interface (PRI)9 interfaces.
ISDN
The public switched telephone network (PSTN) has been transformed
into an Integrated Systems Digital Network (ISDN). Such widespread ser-
vices as caller-ID and dialed-number delivery, 800 directory number
lookup, calling card services, and digital data services have been made
possible by the implementation of Signaling System 7 (SS7) in the PSTN
backbone. Using BRI and PRI services, ISDN call switching can be ex-
tended to customer premises equipment (CPE) and provide end-to-end
digital paths.
Before ISDN was available, data connectivity over the PSTN was via
plain old telephone service (POTS) using analog modems. Connectivity
over ISDN offers the LAN/WAN internetworking designer lower sig-
nal/noise ratios, increased bandwidth, reduced call setup time, and re-
duced latency.
Device Description
Switching. All switching and routing equipment perform two basic op-
erations in today’s data communications. First of all, one has switching
data frames. This is generally a store-and-forward operation in which a
frame arrives an input media and is transmitted to output media. Second,
one has maintenance of switching operations. In this operation, switches
build and maintain switching tables and search for loops. Routers build
and maintain both routing tables and service tables. There are two meth-
ods of switching data frames: Layer 2 and Layer 3 switching.
The process of taking an incoming frame from one interface and de-
livering it out through another interface is called Layer 2 and Layer 3
switching. Switches (Layer 2 switches) use Layer 2 switching to forward
frames, and routers use Layer 3 switching to route a packet.
The type of information inside the frame that is used to determine the
correct output interface is the difference between Layer 2 and Layer 3
switching. Based on MAC address information, frames are switched with
Layer 2 switching. With Layer 3 switching, frames are switched based on
LAN/WAN layer information.
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Like Layer 3 switching, Layer 2 switching does not look inside a pack-
et for LAN/WAN layer information. By looking at a destination MAC ad-
dress within a frame, Layer 2 switching is performed. It looks at the
frame’s destination address and sends it to the appropriate interface if it
knows the destination address location. Layer 2 switching builds and
maintains a switching table that keeps track of which MAC addresses be-
long to each port or interface.
To learn the correct destination, if the Layer 2 switch does not know
where to send the frame, it broadcasts the frame out all its ports to the
LAN/WAN. The switch learns the location of the new address and adds
the information to the switching table when the frame’s reply is returned.
The manufacturer of the data communications equipment used deter-
mines the Layer 2 addresses. They are unique addresses that are derived
in two parts: the unique identifier and the manufacturing (MFG) code.
The MFG code is assigned to each vendor by the IEEE. The vendor as-
signs a unique identifier to each board it produces. Except for Systems
Network Architecture (SNA) networks, users have little or no control
over Layer 2 addressing because Layer 2 addresses are fixed with a de-
vice, whereas Layer 3 addresses can be changed. In addition, Layer 2 ad-
dresses assume a flat address space with universally unique addresses.
The LAN/WAN layer is where Layer 3 switching operates. The Layer 3
switching examines packet information and forwards packets based on
their LAN/WAN-layer destination addresses. Layer 3 switching also sup-
ports router functionality.
Layer 3 addresses are determined by the LAN/WAN administrator who
installs a hierarchy on the network for the most part. Layer 3 addressing
is used by protocols such as IP, Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX),10
and AppleTalk.11 By creating Layer 3 addresses, a LAN/WAN administra-
tor creates local areas that act as single addressing units (similar to
streets, cities, states, and countries), and assigns a number to each local
entity. If users move to another building, their end stations will obtain
new Layer 3 addresses, but their Layer 2 addresses remain the same.
Routers can adhere to and formulate a hierarchical addressing struc-
ture as they operate at Layer 3 of the OSI model. A logical addressing
structure can be tied to a physical infrastructure by a routed LAN/WAN.
For example, this can be done through TCP/IP subnets or IPX
LAN/WANs for each segment. Traffic flow in a switched (flat) LAN/WAN
is therefore inherently different from traffic flow in a routed (hierarchical)
LAN/WAN. Hierarchical LAN/WANs offer more flexible traffic flow than
flat networks because they can use the LAN/WAN hierarchy to determine
optimal paths and contain broadcast domains.
So, what are the implications of Layer 2 and Layer 3 switching? The
need for greater bandwidth in traditional shared-media environments has
been driven by the increasing power of desktop processors and the re-
quirements of client/server and multimedia applications. These require-
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ments are prompting LAN/WAN designers to replace hubs in wiring
closets with switches.
LAN/WAN designers are now faced with increasing demands for inter-
subnet communication, although Layer 2 switches use microsegment-
ation 12 to satisfy the demands for more bandwidth and increased
performance. Cisco recommends that the traffic must go through a Layer
3 device every time a user accesses servers and other resources that are
located on different subnets.13
Cisco recommends that LAN/WAN designers can add Layer 3 capabil-
ities throughout the network to relieve this bottleneck. They are imple-
menting Layer 3 switching on edge devices to alleviate the burden on
centralized routers.
John Vacca is an information technology consultant and internationally known author based in Pomeroy, Ohio.
Since 1982, John has authored 29 books and more than 350 articles in the areas of Internet and intranet security,
programming, systems development, rapid application development, multimedia, and the Internet. John was also
a configuration management specialist, computer specialist, and the computer security official for the NASA
space station program (Freedom) and the International Space Station Program, from 1988 until his early retire-
ment from NASA in 1995. John can be reached at jvacca@hti.net.
Some of the material in this article has been reproduced by Auerbach Publications with the
permission of Cisco Systems, Inc. Copyright©2000 Cisco Systems, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Notes
1. Collection of networks interconnected by routers and other devices that functions (generally) as a single
network.
2. SRB is evaluated within two contexts: IBM’s Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and NetBIOS.
3. API used by applications on an IBM LAN to request services from lower-level network processes. These
services might include session establishment and termination, and information transfer.
4. Message sent by one network device to inform another network device that the virtual circuit between
the two is still active.
5. High-speed, packet-switched, datagram-based WAN networking technology offered by the telephone
companies.
6. Digital interface device that connects end-user equipment to the local digital telephone loop.
7. Device used in digital transmission that adapts the physical interface on a DTE device to a transmission
facility such as T1 or E1.
8. ISDN interface composed of two B channels and one D channel for circuit-switched communication of
voice, video, and data.
9. ISDN interface to primary rate access.
10. NetWare network layer (Layer 3) protocol used for transferring data from servers to workstations.
11. Series of communications protocols designed by Apple Computer consisting of two phases. Phase 1,
the earlier version, supports a single physical network that can have only one network number and be
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in one zone. Phase 2 supports multiple logical networks on a single physical network and allows net-
works to be in more than one zone.
12. Division of a network into smaller segments, usually with the intention of increasing aggregate band-
width to network devices.
13. In IP networks, a network sharing a particular subnet address. Subnetworks are networks arbitrarily
segmented by a network administrator in order to provide a multilevel, hierarchical routing structure
while shielding the subnetwork from the addressing complexity of attached networks. Sometimes
called a subnet. In OSI networks, a collection of ESs and ISs under the control of a single administrative
domain and using a single network access protocol.
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© 2000 CRC Press LLC