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Introduction
The study of development has occupied a prominent place in psychological research.
Calfee (1992) contends for example that for educational psychologists, development and
learning is a domain that has been extensively researched and still allows for the emergence
of novel findings especially about concepts that revolve around it, such as the way we
perceive effective instruction. A number of influential theories have emerged from studying
these domains to attempt to understand, predict and provide answers to thorny questions such
as the way humans develop from their early age. Schunk (2009) argues that two reasons are
behind the emergence of this field in the United States. Historically, this can be traced back to
the nineteenth and early twentieth century when difficult economic conditions and a
considerable flux of immigrants resulted in an increase of schools and teachers who needed
proper preparation and training to satisfy the mounting demand. Philosophically, enlightened
thinkers started to ask fundamental questions about the nature of children, scope, purpose as
well as developmentally-suitable ways for learning. As part of emphasizing the development
of skills that can be transferred to real contexts, research has focused on developments in
literacy and numeracy, especially for planning appropriate policies intended to improve
classroom practices. Three major theories on cognitive development have been at the basis of
cognitive development: Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development, Vygotsky’s
sociocultural theory of cognitive development and Information-Processing theories.
Brief overview of the major theories of cognitive development
According to Sternberg and Williams (2010), three major approaches characterized
the field of cognitive development: Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development,
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development and Information-Processing
theories. As part of the reflection in the following section will be devoted to these theories, it
will be of some importance to overview them briefly highlighting the major assumptions that
underlie each of these them.
Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development seems to hold a prominent place in the
field. In fact, Sternberg and Williams (2010) contend that, despite the drawbacks and
criticism addressed to this theory, it remains the “most influential single theory of cognitive
development” (p. 41). The theory assumes that children grow in qualitatively different stages
delimited by sudden bursts in the development of their cognitive skills. This development is
almost similar across all domains and is marked by four different stages: (a) sensorimotor
stage characterized towards its end by object permanence and representational thought skills,
(b) preoperational stage marked with a progressive decrease of egocentricity, (c) concrete
operational stage characterized by the development of the concept of conservation and
reversible thinking, and (d) formal operational stage marked with abstract and systematic
thinking. Although recognizing environmental influences, Piaget assumes that the driving
force behind cognitive development is the maturation of abilities and that the process of
equilibration through assimilation and accommodation is what primarily causes development.
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development posits that development is
the result of interactions with the external environment. In fact, through a process of
internalization where children internalize skills and knowledge from their social environment,
cognitive development occurs. As will be discussed later, according to Vygotsky’s theory,
language plays an important role in the development of thought. When children reach their
zone of proximal development, scaffolding will help them develop their learning.
Finally, Information-Processing theories assume that development and learning takes
place according to the way people process information and build corresponding mental
representations. Schunk (2009) argues that it is the capacity and efficiency of the processing
that drives developmental change. This model examines cognitive development in domain-
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general and domain-specific tasks and emphasizes researching specific intellectual abilities
such as verbal, quantitative and memory skills.
Reflection on the theories
Sternberg and Williams (2010) list a set of critiques addressed by some researchers
regarding Piaget’s theory. However, additional standpoints could still be formulated.
Although Piaget considers that his theory depicts stages in the development of cognition, a
closer scrutiny reveals that a continuous thread in the developmental process underlies these
stages. In fact, representational thought, a skill acquired towards the end of the sensorimotor
stage continuously develop throughout the various stages of the theory. As for the argument
of the existence of sudden bursts that delimit the various stages, such bursts could probably
not have existed without a covert accumulation of skills that allowed for such a transition.
Furthermore, the level of detail that characterizes this theory in terms of setting stages, their
characteristics, and delimitations is undoubtedly a strength, but at the same time a weakness
allowing for easily recording variations on the various aspects of the theory. A last word
about the unidirectionality of the stages. Indeed, according to Sternberg and Williams (2010),
during the process of development, once children access a stage they do not return to the
preceding one. Personal experience may cast some doubt on this matter. In fact, despite the
fact that adults exhibit the possibility of using abstract thinking, they may recur to the
concrete thinking when dealing with a complex abstract situation, like writing down or
drawing on paper the elements of a complex mathematical problem. This suggests a back and
forth movement, at least between the last two stages in Piaget’s theory.
Sternberg and Williams (2010) provide general information about Vygotsky’s theory.
However, the importance of the environment on the developmental process through
internalization seems well founded and the lack of specifying breaking points or stages, gives
greater credence to his theory. Although commonly known to have underemphasized the
influence of maturation, a closer look at this theory proves otherwise. In fact, the zone of
proximal development is a key component to setting off development through scaffolding.
However, it would be unconceivable to engage in such a development when children are in
their zone of proximal development even with the most efficient scaffolding strategies if they
are not “mature” enough to engage in this development. Thus, in my opinion, maturation
equally plays an important role in this process.
Information-Processing theories compare human learning to the way computers
process information. Although Schunk (2009) considers that this might be a useful approach
to study development and learning it is known for a fact the way humans process information
is much more delicate and differs is several aspects from computers, especially the way
information is retrieved from the mind when needed.
Importance of each of the theories for Language development
Stenberg and Williams (2010) argue that language acquisition and development has
espoused two beliefs in the research field. On the one hand, some theorists have argued in
favor of an imitational approach to learning language claiming that children mainly reproduce
language they hear in their environment. On the other hand, researchers who adopt a nativist
approach contend that language abilities are innate and that environmental factors simply
come to catalyze the language acquisition process. In fact, all children seem to have a similar
language developmental patterns of cooing, babbling, telegraphic speech regardless of the
environment. Naturally, a balanced view cannot undermine neither factors on the acquisition
and development of language. In fact, although children seem to be culturally preadapted to a
certain language, environmental stimuli come to impact the extent to which they learn this
language. The following paragraphs will review the contribution of the three major cognitive
theories to children’s language and mathematical development.
Contribution of Piaget’s theory to language and reading development
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Piaget’s theory as depicted in Sternberg and Williams (2010) seems to moderate the
role of language in children’s cognitive development. In fact, according to them, the theory
posits that although children start to use words to symbolize concrete objects in the
preoperational stage, it is their cognitive ability to think about the objects themselves that
triggers the use of language. In other words, it’s the development of the thinking skills that
leads to language development and not the other way around. Furthermore, within the same
stage, the concept of egocentrism reinforces the assumption that children’s cognitive thinking
materializes in language use. Schunk (2009) suggests however that it is also the use of
language through communication with adults for example that triggers the equilibration
process of assimilation and accommodation which leads to cognitive development.
Reading development in relation to Piaget’s theory seems to echo language
development in the sense that cognitive development translates into increased reading skills.
A suitable approach to follow in this case would be to benchmark the five essentials reading
components promulgated by the National Reading Panel committee as quoted in Paris,
Morrison and Miller (2006) against the four stages of Piaget’s theory. These components are:
(a) Knowledge of letter names and sounds, (b) Phonemic awareness, (c) Oral reading
Fluency, (d) Vocabulary, and (e) Comprehension. Sternberg and Williams (2010) argue that
in the sensorimotor stage, Representational thought skills develop in reaction to external
stimuli, which suggests that children in this stage would probably react to pictures from
books. In the preoperational stage, children develop phonemic awareness and knowledge of
letter names and sounds and progressively associate words with pictures and images. In the
next concrete operational stage, Sternberg and Williams (2010) contend that, according to
Piaget’s theory, children’s logical thinking develops but remains related to concrete thinking.
This suggests that children this age develop oral reading fluency skills. Although Piaget’s
theory is briefly presented by the authors, logic dictates that children’s contact with books is
likely to trigger an equilibration process that will alter their schemata and result in cognitive
development. As to the last formal operational stage, vocabulary and comprehension skills
are likely to develop especially with the ability of people in this stage to engage in abstract
thinking which ultimately will result in further cognitive development as the information
acquired from readings will equally trigger a process of equilibration.
Contribution of Vygotsky’s theory to language and reading development
Contrary to Piaget’s theory, the impact of language development on cognitive
development seems to play a crucial role in Vygotsky’s theory. In fact, according to
Sternberg and Williams (2010), language development is indispensable to the internalization
of ideas. Children observe various interactions in their environment that are essentially verbal
in nature and extract information from them that eventually serve in their cognitive
development. Language in this case is the primary vehicle for such a development. Sternberg
and Williams (2010) equally emphasize the role of culture in children development. In this
context and in the process of their interaction with adults, children develop meanings
assigned by their culture to certain events and interpret their world in a culturally-driven
manner.
As for reading, interaction with more knowledgeable adults or peers when children
are in their zone of proximal development and through the process of scaffolding allows for
their cognitive development. In fact, teachers’ reading aloud and other reading-related
scaffolding strategies have a positive effect on cognitive development. The basic assumption
remains unchanged here: through interaction, environmental influences will trigger
development.
Contribution of Information-Processing theories to language and reading development
In this context, the research conducted in the domain of Verbal skills is revealing. In
fact, Sternberg and Williams (2010) argue that through encoding and combination, people
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develop their cognitive skills. This obviously underlines the influence of contextual and
environmental factors in the developmental process. Researchers found for example that
children develop a vocabulary base relying on contextual clues such as overall sentence
meaning and nearby words in the same sentence. The predisposition of children to develop
their language skills universally in the form of cooing and babbling suggest also biological
predispositions to speaking their native language. In all cases, in the information-processing
paradigm, language structures have a direct impact on our thought processes or at least
influence them in a way that enhances cognitive functions.
Importance of each of the theories for Mathematics development
Paris et al. (2006) assert that subject matter differences are echoed in the research on
literacy and numeracy in two important ways. Whereas research on literacy has included a
variety of influences that promote a successful learning and effective development, research
on numeracy, from an instructional perspective has focused on devising activities and
methods to stimulate successful learning and allowed for an international comparative
approach due to the universality of the symbols used in Mathematics. What follows will
examine the impact of each of the three major theories of cognitive development on
development in numeracy.
Contribution of Piaget’s theory to mathematical development
Paris et al. (2006) assert that the Mathematics Learning Study proposes five
components that interact in a holistic manner and are at the basis of Mathematical
Proficiency: (a) Conceptual understanding, (b) Procedural fluency, (c) Strategic competence,
(d) Adaptive reasoning, and (e) Productive disposition. The stage-driven nature of Piaget’s
theory allows to weigh the cognitive development realized by children in the various stages
on each of the proposed components. Sternberg and Williams (2010) argue that one of the
critiques that may be addressed to Piaget’s theory is that it favors scientific thinking at the
expense of expertise in other domains, thus claiming that it is best suited for mathematics
development. In the sensorimotor stage for example, enhancing representational thoughts
through pictures associated with numbers can provide a firm foundation to mathematics
development. In the preoperational stage, children’s mental representations have developed
considerably as well as communication modes. Children understand objects from their visible
characteristics and grouping different geometric shapes according to similar aspects helps
develop cognitive skills. In this case, skills in procedural fluency start to be enhanced. The
concrete operational stage is characterized mainly by an understanding of the concepts of
conservation and reversibility. These can be used in the development of mathematical
abilities such as reversing additions and multiplications and questions asked can revolve
around concrete objects to serve the development of logical thought. This suggests an
enhancement of procedural fluency and adaptive reasoning skills. In the last formal
operational stage, all five mathematical components are engaged and developed
simultaneously as children acquire the ability to think abstractly and make inferences and
understand second-order relations.
Contribution of Vygotsky’s theory to mathematical development
A useful path to explore here would be to examine how internalization, zone of
proximal development and scaffolding impact children’s cognitive development in
mathematics. In a problem-solving activity context for example, interaction with adults or
more knowledgeable peers allow for children to structure their own learning through the
internalization of the information that takes place. Naturally, for this development to occur,
children must be in their zone of proximal development. Efficient scaffolding strategies for
mathematical development in this case can include providing students with partial solutions,
hints or answers-modeling for example. As in the case of Language development, Vygotsky’s
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theory constantly assumes that children constantly construct actively their knowledge from
their environment.
Contribution of Information-Processing theories to mathematical development
A useful aspect of the impact of the information-processing theory on cognitive
development in mathematics is to examine Sternberg and Williams’ (2010) examination of
the theory’s impact on quantitative skills. They argue that development occurs when teachers
intervene to remedy procedural errors such as buggy algorithms for example. However, the
intervention itself is not and should not be at the essence of cognitive growth, rather
developing in the students the ability to self-monitor and assess their performance. This
equally underlines the duality of developmental influences that underlie these theories:
external environment and learning. The authors equally underline the importance of memory
as a central component of the information-processing theories, by contending that the origin
of mathematical and reading disabilities is closely attributed to memory deficiencies. In this
case, helping children to devise efficient strategies to understand and control their memory
seems to impact directly cognitive growth.
Final Reflection
The previous sections lead to one conclusion: all the factors overemphasized in each
theory as essential to cognitive development complement one another in advancing the
reasons behind this development. If we examine for example the assumptions about the role
of language in development as stipulated in Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories, we conclude that
children not only develop though internalizing exterior verbal cues but also that cognitive
concepts emerge in their minds long before they verbalize them. Additionally, the factor of
culture should not be underemphasized. In fact, when language serves as a means of
communication, certain rural communities may use gestural cues to indulge such a function.
After having reflected on the theories themselves earlier, an additional reflection on
some crucial concepts and the manner they can be benchmarked to personal experience is in
order in what follows.
The first concept that merits to stop at is equilibration as a trigger to development.
Piaget’s description of this process seems to have touched the essence of cognitive
development. In fact, the learning we undertake in various contexts does not advance our
development if it will not shake our thinking processes. In school or college classes, the
reason why information presented may be viewed as easily accessible by students is that it
was subject to the equilibration process previously. The sense of discomfort with new
explained material in class stems most probably with an equilibration process that has never
been undertaken previously. An interesting question to examine would be to assess the
relative degree of discomfort between the components of equilibration: assimilation and
accommodation. In other words, does assimilation or accommodation create the greatest
discomfort for development to occur. Based on personal experience, two kinds of
assimilations can be depicted in Piaget’s theory: assimilation of new stimuli or assimilation
based on an elaboration of previously presented stimuli. I find the former to present greater
discomfort and anxiety especially if the stimuli tackle information that the individual has no
previous knowledge of. As for accommodation, the degree of anxiety it sets off is
manageable in comparison to assimilation of new stimuli. This fact transforms the role of
teachers. In effect, instead of only adhering to the role of educators, they should equally
embrace the role of facilitators through making students’ learning experience proceed in a
smooth manner away from the shock that may be caused by an invasive equilibration process.
Another important concept to examine closely is Vygotsky’s concept of
internalization. Again, if we reflect on the way our cognitive processes develop in many
instances, it is indeed through the interaction with our environment. Parents, teachers,
superiors at work or other more knowledgeable persons always provide the foundation for
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development. However, the internalization that occurs with interaction does not simply
transmit outside learning inward, rather it transforms it according to the receiver’s
predisposition to learning especially cultural factors. In other words, the internalized learning
acquires an individualized added value through interpretation that provides novelty to it.
Teachers in classrooms have consequently to embrace the role of coaches and mentors for
effective development, paying attention to the way students will perceive information
especially from a cultural perspective.
Conclusion
In brief, the theories on cognitive development presented in this paper do not and
probably cannot embody all the intricacies that revolve around the concept of human
development and learning. However, they provide valuable guidelines that should be taken
into consideration by all individuals that are involved in transmitting knowledge to others,
and more specifically teachers. Our classrooms should foster an environment of positive and
effective learning through an understanding of how to influence children’s learning, which
justifies the necessity of using a multifaceted approach to learning, governed by context and
that draws from all these theories.
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References
Sternberg, R., & Williams, W. (2010). Educational Psychology (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Pearson Education.

Schunk, D.H. (2009). Learning theories: An educational perspective(5th ed.). NY: Merrill
Prentice

Paris, S. G., Morrison, F. J., & Miller, K. F. (2006). Academic Pathways from Preschool
through Elementary School. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of
educational psychology (pp. 61-85). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Calfee, R. (1992). Refining educational psychology: The case of the missing links.
Educational Psychologist, 27(2), 163-175. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2702_3