Post Laboratory Discussion

Experiment No. 1-6

Experiment # 1
Handling & Animal Restraint of
Laboratory Test Animals
Definition of Terms:
• Laboratory Animals – refers to any vertebrae animals
……………….....used for research. (i.e., mice, rat, dog,
…………………..rabbit, cat, pigeon, and chicken)
• Animal Use – refers go action or proper care or used
………………......of laboratory animals.
• Humane Care – action taken to ensure that lab. Animals are
…………..treated according to ethical and scientific standard.
For test animal approval;
• Physical Restraint –
Care & Use of Animals
The Three Rs (3Rs) are guiding principles for
more ethical use of animals in testing.

1.Replacement -

2.Reduction -

3.Refinement -
Common Laboratory Animals Used in
Experiments
• Mice -

• Rats -

• Rabbits -

• Cats -

• Dogs -
 Advantages of Mice:
• Striking similarity to humans in anatomy, physiology and genetics.

• East to care and handle

• Relatively inexpensive compared to other species

• They are small, have a short generation time and an accelerated

lifespan, keeping the costs, apace and other time required to perform
research.
Disadvantages of Mice:
• Small size, which limits the procedure that maybe
performed

• As well as the sample volume size that can be

obtained from an individual animal.
Hazards in Animal Handling:
• Physical Hazards -

• Chemical Hazards -

• Biological Hazards -
Zoonotic Diseases:
Zoonotic Disease Causative Agent Mode of Transmission Incubation Period

Cat Scratch Fever Bartonella henselae

Echinococcosis Echinoccus granulosus

Leptospirosis Leptospira interrogans

Zoonotic Diseases:
Zoonotic Disease Causative Agent Mode of Transmission Incubation Period

Lyme Disease Borrelia burgdorferi

Pasteurellosis Pasteurella multocida

Bubonic plaque Yersinia pestis

Zoonotic Diseases:
Zoonotic Disease Causative Agent Mode of Transmission Incubation Period

Q-fever Coxiella burnetii

Rabies Rabies virus

Rat Bite Fever Streptobacillus

moniliformis
Zoonotic Diseases:
Zoonotic Disease Causative Agent Mode of Transmission Incubation Period

Toxocariasis Toxocara canis

Toxoplasosis Toxoplasmosis gondii

Tularemia Francisella tularensis

Other Terms:
• Decontamination -

• Sterilization-

• Biohazardous waste -
Experiment # 2
Method of Drug Administration
 “5 Rights” of Medication
Administration:
• Right Drug

• Right Patient

• Right Dose

• Right Route

• Right Time
Route of Drug Administration:
1. Enteral

2. Parenteral

3. Inhalational

4. Topical
Enteral Route of Drug
Administration:
1. Oral Route
• It is the most common route of drug administration.

Advantages:
1. It is convenient
2. It is the cheapest available route
3. It is easy to use
4. It is safe and acceptable
Enteral Route of Drug
Administration:
2. Sublingual/Buccal Route

Advantages:
1. Rapid absorption takes place.
2. Drugs is dissolved easily
3. Drugs enters the blood directly
4. Less first pass effect
5. Spitting out of the drug removes its effect
Enteral Route of Drug
Administration:
3. Rectal Route

Advantages:
1. The route is preferred in unconscious or uncooperative patients.
2. This route avoids nausea or vomiting
3. Drug cannot be destroyed by enzymes.
4. This route is preferred if drug is irritant.
Parenteral Route of Drug
Administration:
Advantages:
1. Parenteral route is rapid
2. It is useful for uncooperative patients
3. It is useful for unconscious patients
4. Inactivation by GIT enzymes is avoided
5. First pass effect is avoided
6. Bioavailability is 100%
Parenteral Route of Drug
Administration:
1. Subcutaneous
• It might be used for the arm,
forearm, thigh and subscapular
space.

Advantages:
1. Absorption is slow and constant
2. It is hygienic
Parenteral Route of Drug
Administration:
2. Intramuscular
• It might be applied to the buttock, thigh and deltoid

Advantages:
1. Absorption is rapid than subcutaneous route.
2. Only preparations can be used.
3. Irritative substances might be given.
4. Slow releasing drugs can be given by this route
Parenteral Route of Drug
Administration:
3. Intravascular
a. Intravenous
• It might be applied to the cubital, basilica and cephalic veins.

Advantages:
1. Intermediate action takes place
2. This route is preferred in emergency situations.
3. This route is preferred for unconscious patients.
4. Titration of dose is possible2
Parenteral Route of Drug
Administration:
b. Intra-arterial
• This method is used for chemotherapy in cases of
malignant tumors and in angiography.
Parenteral Route of Drug
Administration:
4. Intradermal
• The drug is injected into the
upper layers of the skin,
rather than under the skin as
in a subcutaneous injection.
Parenteral Route of Drug
Administration:
5. Intra-peritoneal
• The drug is injected into the upper layers of the skin,
rather than under the skin as in a subcutaneous
injection.
Inhalational Route of Drug
Administration:
Advantages:
1. Rapid absorption takes place.
2. Rapid onset of action takes place.
3. This route has minimum side effects.
4. No first pass effect takes place
5. This method is easy
6. Fewer doses is required.
Topical Route of Drug
Administration:
Drugs may be applied to the external surfaces, the skin and
the mucous membranes.

1. Enepidermic Route
2. Epidermic Route
3. Insufflations
4. Instillation
5. Irrigation
Medication Error:
Any preventable event that may cause or lead to
inappropriate medication use or patient harm while the
medication is in the control of the health care
professionals, patient or consumer.
Causes Medication Administration
Error:
• Medications with similar names or similar packaging
• Medications that are not commonly used or
prescribed
• Commonly used medications to which many patients
are allergic
• Medications that require testing to ensure proper
(i.e., nontoxic) therapeutic levels are maintained
Causes Medication Administration
Error:
• Incomplete patient information
• Miscommunication of drug orders
• Lack of appropriate labelling as a drug is prepared and
repackaged into smaller units
• Wrong route of administration
• Lack of professional expertise
Advantages of Prefilled Syringes:
• Low overfill which helps to reduce costs, and
maximize yield.
• Enhanced differentiation
• Greater efficiency
• Increase patient compliance
• Ease of use and convenience for healthcare
professionals and patients
• Reduce risk of dosage error and contamination
Parts of Syringe:
Experiment # 3
Blood Collection
Method of Blood Collection in the
Mouse:
• Blood collection not requiring anesthesia:
- Saphenous vein
- Doral pedal vein

• Blood collection requiring anesthesia:

- Tail vein
- Orbital vein
- Jugular ein
Method of Blood Collection in the
Mouse:
• Terminal procedure:
- Cardiac puncture
- Posterior vena cava
- Axillary vessels
- Orbital sinus
Saphenous
Vein:
• This form of blood
collection involves using
a25-gauge needle to
puncture the saphenous
vein in order to obtain a
small volume of blood.
Dorsal Pedal Vein:
• This form of blood
collection involves using
a 23/27-gauge needle to
puncture the dorsal
pedal vein in order to
obtain a small volume of
blood.
Tail Vein Puncture:
• This form of blood collection
involves using a needle to
puncture the lateral tail vein
in order to obtain a small
volume of blood.
Tail Cut:
• This form of blood collection
involves using a scalpel blade
or sharp scissors to remove
1-2mm of tail distal to the
coccygeal vertebrae.
Orbital Sinus:
• The form of blood
collection involves using a
fine-walled Pasteur pipette
or microhematocrit tube to
collect blood from the
retro-orbital venous sinus
or plexus.
Jugular Vein:
• This form of blood
collection involves using a
22-gauge needle and a
1mL syringe to withdraw
blood from the jugular
vein from an anesthetized
animal.
Submandibular Vein:
• This form of blood
collection involves using a
lancet to puncture the
vascular bundle that drains
the face while the rodent is
gently restrained.
Cardiac Puncture:
• This form of blood collection
involves using a 22-gauge
needle and a 3mL syringe to
withdraw blood from the
heart from an anesthetized
animal.
Experiment # 4
Principles of Drug Administration
Brand Name: Ampicin®
Generic Name: Ampicillin Na
Dosage Form: Capsule, Vial
Dose: 250 mg, 500mg
Therapeutic Class: Beta Lactam Antibiotic
(Specifically: alpha-amino benzyl penicillin, amoxicillin and
bacampicillin)
Route of Admin.: Oral, Parenteral (IV)

- Tx for Respiratory tract infection, Urinary tract infection

and Gonococal infection and septicemia infection
Brand Name: Anatetall®
Generic Name: Tetanus Toxin
(Vaccine contains inactivated tetanus toxin and classified as Non-
pathogenic and referred to as Immunogenic – subs. like
epitope/antigen that can induced or provoke immunization)
Dosage Form: Ampule
Dose: 0.5 mL
Therapeutic Class: Vaccine for Immunization
Route of Admin.: IM
- Administered 2mos during infancy for preventing the
contraction of Tetanus.
 Tetanus aka: Lack jaw caused by Clostridium tetani
 Tetanospamin – Toxic subs. Of Tetanus or in the case of lack jaw and
Opistotomus – release in our body once the tetanus enters in the body.
Brand Name: Canestan®, Lotrimin®
Generic Name: Clotrimazole
Dosage Form: Cream
Dose: 3g, 5g and 10g
Therapeutic Class: Antifungal agent
Route of Admin.: Topical (Applied topically: caused I
……………………… itchiness and burning sensation)
- Tx and management of Oral thrush or mouth ulcer, ringworm
infestation, and vaginal yeast.
Brand Name: Clexane®, Lovenox®
Generic Name: Enoxaparin
Dosage Form: Prefilled Syringe
Dose: 200 IU/ 0.2 mL, 4000 IU/ 0.4 Ml, 6000 IU/ 0.6 mL, 8000 IU/ 0.8 mL
Therapeutic Class: Anti-coagualant – (LMWH) Low
Molecular Weight Heparin and classified as Indirect
thrombin inhibitor.
Route of Admin.: SC
- Manage deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary
embolism
Brand Name: Diamicron®
Generic Name: Gliclazide
Dosage Form: Tablet
Dose: 80mg
Therapeutic Class: 2nd generation of sulfonylureas oral
Hypoglycemia agent and classified as Insulin Secretagogue
Route of Admin.: PO
- Common S.E: Hypoglycemia & Weight Gain
- Ex of Ant diabetic drug that doesn’t cause hypoglycemic
And can loose weight - Metformin
Brand Name: Engerix B®
Generic Name: Recombinant DNA Hepatitis B Vaccine
Dosage Form: Vial
Dose: 10mcg/0.5mL, 20mcg/1mL
Therapeutic Class: Vaccine for Active Immunization
Route of Admin.: IM
- Used to manage and prevent Hepatitis B
- For children need to administered (Such as Polio
Vaccine, Hepa Vaccine etc.)
Brand Name: Feosol®
Generic Name: Ferrous Sulfate
Dosage Form: Capsule
Dose: 250 mg
Therapeutic Class: Hematinic or a Vit used to
Manage iron deficiency anemia
Route of Admin.: PO
- In every 300mg of FeSo4 it contains 100mg of
elemental iron
Brand Name: Fragmin®
Generic Name: Dalteparin Na
Dosage Form: Prefilled Syringe
Dose: 2000 IU/ 0.2 mL, 5000 IU/ 0.2 mL
Therapeutic Class: Anti-coagualant – (LMWH) Low
Molecular Weight Heparin
Route of Admin.: SC
- Manage deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary
embolism
Brand Name: Hirudoid®
Generic Name: Mucopolysaccharide Polysulfate
Dosage Form: Cream, Gel
Dose: 14g, 40g
Therapeutic Class: Anti-circacial
(Hemorrhoids – condition of painful, swollen veins in
the lower portion of anus/rectum)
Route of Admin.: Topical
Brand Name: Humulin 70/30® (70% Isophane – classified as
intermediate acting insulin and 30% Regular Insulin – Short acting)
Generic Name: Human Insulin
Dosage Form: Vial
Dose: 100 IU/mL
Therapeutic Class: Intermediate acting insulin
Route of Admin.: SC

- Onset of action: 10-20 mins

- Peak of action: 2hrs
- Duration of action: 24hrs
Brand Name: Lactacyd®
Generic Name: Lactoserum Lactid Acid
Dosage Form: Douche
Dose: 0.93g, 1g, 100mL
Therapeutic Class: Feminine wash
Route of Admin.: Topical
- Sol’n used to prevent the occurrence of unpleasant
smell from vaginal discharge after menstruation or
sexual intercourse.
- Mange candidiasis, vaginal yeast infection = It can be
mabaged the lactacyd or topical vaginal cream
trichomoniasis, bacterial vaginosis = can be prescribed
Metronidazole or Flagyl®
Brand Name: Loviscol®, Solmux®
Generic Name: Carbocisteine
Dosage Form: Capsule, Syrup
Dose: 250mg/mL
Therapeutic Class: Mucolytic – that can reduce
viscosity of phlegm viscous
Route of Admin.: P.O
*FYI: Antitussive is for dry cough
Brand Name: Luprolex®
Generic Name: Leuprorelin acetate
Dosage Form: Vial
Dose: 3.75mg/11.2
Therapeutic Class: Hormone
Route of Admin.: SC
- Used as Steroidal hormone known as an agonist of Pituitary
GNRH = Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone used to
For tx Prostate cancer, uterine myoma (Prone to
Irregular menstruation), pre-menopausal breast
cancer.
Brand Name: Maalox®
Generic Name: Magnesium Hydroxide + Aluminum Hydroxide
Dosage Form: Chewable, Suspension
Dose: 400mg, 180mL/355mL
Therapeutic Class: Antacid – reducing stomach antacid
Route of Admin.: P.O
*FYI: Maalox Plus® or Kremil-S = Magnesium
Hydroxide + Aluminum Hydroxide Simethicone
Brand Name: Nootropil®
Generic Name: Piracetam
Dosage Form: Tablet, Ampule
Dose: 800mg/1200mg, 1g/5mL
Therapeutic Class: CNS stimulant classified as
Nootropics – drugs known as smart drug, memory
booster, intelligence booster like Memory Plus
Route of Admin.: P.O
Brand Name: Okavax®
Generic Name: Live Attenuated Varicella Vaccine
Dosage Form: Vial
Dose: 1 mL
Therapeutic Class: Vaccine for Active Immunization
Route of Admin.: SC
- Vaccine used to protect the body from a disease
caused by Varicella zoster virus or commonly known as
chicken pox. *FYI: ᵪNSAID is ASA
- Used also to manages Shingles is life threatening (reactivated
chicken pox) caused by Herpes Zoster, Chicken pox and Post
herpetic neuralgia.
Brand Name: Orudis®
Generic Name: Ketoprofen
Dosage Form: Enteric coated tablet
Dose: 100mg
Therapeutic Class: Classified as Propionic acid
derivative NSAID (Analgesic w/ Antipyretic effect)
Route of Admin.: P.O
*FYI: NSAID used as alternative for Morphine
is Ketorolac.
*Ketone but classified as Indole acetic acid --
Brand Name: Prevenar®
Generic Name: Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine
Dosage Form: Prefilled Syringe
Dose: 0.5 mL
Therapeutic Class: Vaccine for Active Immunization
Route of Admin.: IM or SC
- Prevent or Protect the body from the disease
- caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae
Brand Name: Proluton®
Generic Name: Hydroxyprogesterone caproate
Dosage Form: Ampule
Dose: 250mg/mL
Therapeutic Class: Progestins
Route of Admin.: IM

- Synthetic steroid hormone derived from

medroxyprogesterone and megestrol acetate as an
the ester form of hydroxy progesterone from
caproic acid and hexanoic acid.
Brand Name: Unasyn®
Generic Name: Ampicillin + Sulbactam
Dosage Form: Vial, Tablet
Dose: 375mg, 750mg
Therapeutic Class: Combination Beta Lactam Antibiotic
and Beta-lactamase Inhibitor
Route of Admin.: P.O, Parenteral
- Sulbactam is the Beta-lactamase inhibitor
Brand Name: Ventolin®
Generic Name: Salbutamol
USAN (United States Adopted Name): Albuterol
Dosage Form:Tablet, Syrup, Nebulizer
Dose: 2mg, 2mg/5mL x 60mL
Therapeutic Class: Beta-2 Agonist
Route of Admin.: Oral, Inhalation
- Therefore it is a Bronchodilator (Beta-2) used to manage asthma and
COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) *Beta-1 for blood
vessels
- Salbutamol has greater affinity to beta2 receptor
- Racemic compound has S & R isomers
• R isomers have greater affinity to beta-2 receptor than S isomer
• Levalbuterol – Single R isomer of Salbutamol
Brand Name: Verorab®
Generic Name: Purified Rabies Vaccine
Dosage Form: Vial
Dose: 0.5 mL
Therapeutic Class: Vaccine for active Immunization
Route of Admin.: IM

- Used for management of Rabies = 1-3 months

- Causative agent = Rabies virus
- Early stage symptoms of rabies consists of: Headache, Fever,
malaise, muscle fatigue, depression, uncontrollable excitement,
violent movement and hydrophobia.
- End stage period of rabies: Lethargy, Mania, Coma, Death
(Primary caused of death: Respiratory insufficiency)
Brand Name: Xylocaine®
Generic Name: Lidocaine HCl
Dosage Form: Ointment, Gel, Vial
Dose: 1% x 5mL, 2% x 30mL, 10% x 50mL
Therapeutic Class: Local Anesthetic
Route of Admin.: Topical, Vial for Inj.

- Parenteral Route: Must be sterile in nature &

Non-pyrogenic sol’n
Brand Name: Zantac®
Generic Name: Ranitidine HCl
Dosage Form: Tablet, Ampule
Dose: 75mg, 150mg, 300mg, 50 inj/2mL
Therapeutic Class: Anti-ulcerant (Specifically H2-blockers
including Famotidine, Nizatidine and Cimetidine)
Route of Admin.: P.O, IV
- Used to manage Zollinger Ellison Syndrome caused
by stomach and intestinal ulcer due to hypersecretion
of acid/ Overproduction of acid.
- FOUR TYPES OF ANTI-ULCERANTS: Cytoprotective
(Sucaralfate), PPI’s – Proton Pump Inhibitor, Antacid
and H2 Blockers
Brand Name: Zinnat®
Generic Name: Cefuroxime
Dosage Form: Film coated capsule/Suspension
Dose: 25mg/5mL, 250mg/5mL
Therapeutic Class: Beta Lactam antibiotic (Specifically 2nd
generation Cephalosporin)
Route of Admin.: P.O
- Cefuroxime axetil: Ester form of Acetoxy-ethly cefuroxime
which is more effective orally.
PRECAUTIONS FOR DRUGS
APPLIED EXTERNALLY:

• Do not swallow
• Do not apply on open skin or wound
• Discontinue use if allergic reactions occur
SUSTAINED-RELEASE
PREPARATIONS:
• Designed to release a drug at a predetermined
rate in order to maintain a constant drug
concentration for a specific period of time with
minimum side effects.
- Drugs used as gradually release the active
ingredient from the body for predetermined
therapeutic effect.
Advantages of sustained release
dosage form:
1. Avoid patient compliance problems.
2. Minimize or eliminate local side effects.
3. Minimize or eliminate systemic side effects.
4. Obtain less potentiation or reduction in drug activity with
chronic use.
5. Minimize drug accumulation with chronic dosing. Cure or
control condition more promptly
6. Improve control of condition, i.e, reduce fluctuation in drug
level.
7. Improve bioavailabily of some drugs.
TIME-RELEASE PREPARATION:
• Specially designed versions of the drug that
delay the release of the active ingredient in the
drug, such that it is absorbed by the body over a
period of time.
- Such as; Extended release, Fast release, Intermediate
release and Rapid release
DRUGS THAT SHOULD NOT BE
TAKEN WITH MILK:
• Tetracyclines
• Fluoroquinolones
• Macrolides (CARE – Clarithromycin, Azithromycin,
Roxithromycin, Erythromycin)
*FYI: Clindamycin: Lincosamide
• Bisacodyl
• Thyroid Medications
Experiment # 5
Calculation of Doses
Positive Control
- Level of treatment that is expected to result in a change in
the value of depended variable.
- *Ex if your study is about ulcer: Positive agent it depends if
Cytoprotective, PPI’s, Antacid and H2 Blockers

Negative Control
- Level of treatment that does not response or do not
corresponds the significance control to the tx of dependent
variable.
Half Maximal Inhibitory Concentration (IC50)
- It is a measure of effectiveness of subs. in inhibiting
specific biological or biochemical function.

Median Lethal Dose (LD50)

- It is the dose required to kill half the members of a
tested population after a specified test duration.
% Inhibition – Ex. Kirby Bauer Test (Zone of
Inhalation)
………………………………………..and Analgesic Test
= (Normal Activity - Inhibited Activity) X 100
Normal Activity

% Reduction – Ex. Hypoglycemic Test and Anti-

inflam Test
= Initial Value – Final Value X 100
Final Value
Methods of Dosage Calculations:
1. Basic Formula – Dimensional analysis,
Calculation by cancelation and Unit conversion

2. Ratio & Proportion -

3. Fractional Equation –Useful when you have a

measurements of same or like units
Patient Parameters:
1. Pediatric Patients
 Neonate – Birth to 1 month
Infants – 1 month to 12 months or 1y/o
Early Childhood – 1y/o to 5y/o
Late Childhood 6y/o – 12y/o
Adolescence – 13y/o to 18y/o

2. Geriatric Patients
Dosage Calculations Based on
Age:
• Young’s Rule:
Age x Adult Dose
Age + 12

• Cowling’s Rule:
Age at next birthday (in years) x Adult Dose
24
• Fried’s Rule:
Age(months) X Adult Dose
150 (Average weight in Adult)

• Clark’s Rule:
Weight (Pounds) x Adult Dose
150 (Average weight in Adult)
Dosage Calculations Based on
Body Weight:

• Patient Dose (mg):

Drug Dose (mg) x Patient’s Weight (kg)
1kg
Dosage Calculations Based on
Body Surface Area:
• Patient Dose:
Patient’s BSA(m2) x Drug Dose (mg)
173m2

• BSA Equation:
√Height (cm) x Weight (kg)
3600

* 1meter = 39.37inches *1in = 2.57cm

Experiment # 6
Vasoconstrictors & Vasodilators
Vasoconstrictors: (Ca conc., IP3 – Inositol
Triphosphate)
• These are agents that can cause constriction of the
muscle fibers in the walls of the blood vessels either
by direct action on the vessels or by stimulation of the
vasomotor center in the medulla.
- Can be triggered by Direct and Indirect simulation of
adrenoceptors.
- E.q., of Direct: Phenylephrine, Epinephrine – commonly
administered with Lidocaine
- E.q., of Indirect: Ephedrine
- E.q., of Mixed Acting: Amphetamine – Used for narcolepsy
Mechanism of Action:
Increase peripheral vascular resistance and
vascular capacitance by stimulating
adrenoceptors in the sympathetic nervous
system.
Possible Effects of Administering a
Large Doses of Epinephrine:
• Cerebral Hemorrhage – when accidental or rapid IV
administering of Epinephrine
• Ventricular Arrhythmia - abnormal rapid heart rhythm or
arrhythmia of lower chamber of the heart to ventricles.
2 Classification of Arrhythmia:
Ventricular fibrillation
Ventricular Tachycardia
• Angina - Pt’s with CAV or Coronary Artery Vascular
Disease can proceed to angina means Chest Pain
• Pulmonary Edema
Therapeutic Uses of
Vasoconstrictors:
• Anaphylaxis
• Bronchospasm
• Prolong the duration of action of local anesthetics
• Hemostatic
• Glaucoma
• Advanced Cardiac Life Support
Vasodilators: (To relax muscle fiber of blood
vessels and adjunct to beta-blockers & diuretics)
E.q., If your pt’has a congestive heart failure –
Diuretics as Furosemide bec. congestive

• Relax the smooth muscles and lower total peripheral

resistance
• Do not cause orthostatic hypotension or sexual
dysfunction
• Produce reflex stimulation of the heart
• Can increase plasma renin
Vasodilators:
•ORAL
 Hydralazine ( )
- Long term outpatient hypertension
- Used for chronic hypertion
- Hypertensive crisis with pt having an acute
glomerular nephritis
- Pt’has eclampsia – increase HTN during pregnancy.
 Minoxidil (Regrow)
- Used in the management of baldness
- S.E: Hypertrichosis
Vasodilators:
• PARENTERAL
 Nitroprusside: DOC of Hypertensive crisis/emergency and severe
Heart Failure

 Diazoxide: Chemically related to Thiazide diuretics but with no

diuretic effects. Also used for Hypertensive emergency

Fenoldopam: Stimulates Dopamine 1 receptor and also used for

Hypertensive emergency.

- Hypertensive emergency/crisis: equal or greater 180-110mmHg

 Vasodilators:
TABLE 11-3 Mechanisms of action of vasodilators.
Mechanism Examples
Release of nitric oxide from drug or Nitroprusside, hydralazine, nitrates,
endothelium histamine, acetylcholine, NTG, CCB’s
Reduction of Calcium influx Verapamil, diltiazem, nifedipine

Hyperpolarization of smooth muscle Minoxidil, diazoxide

membrane through opening of
potassium channels
Activation of dopamine receptors Fenoldopam
Nitroglycerin:
Mechanism of Action:
Nitroglycerin is denitrated by gluthathione S-
transaminase, Free Nitrite ion is released, which is
converted to nitric oxide. Nitric Oxide (an S-nitrosothiol
derivative) causes activation of guanylyl cyclase and
increase in cGMP, which are the first steps towards
smooth muscle relaxation.

- Clinical classification: Nitrates and Nitrites

- S.E: Monday Sickness
Route of Administration of
Nitroglycerin:
• Sublingual
• Oral (Nitrong®)
• Buccal (Nitrogard®)
• Parenteral (Nitro-Bid® IV, Tridil®)
• Transdermal (Minitran®, Nitro-Dur®, Transderm-Nitro®)
• Topical (Nitrol®)