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INVESTMENT
Risk
Risk is the potential of losing something of value, weighed against the potential
to gain something of value
Financial risk
The probability that an actual return on an investment will be lower than the expected return.
Risk analysis
Almost all sorts of large businesses require a minimum sort of risk analysis. For
example, commercial banks need to properly hedge foreign exchange exposure of
oversees loans while large department stores must factor in the possibility of
reduced revenues due to a global recession. Risk analysis allows professionals to
identify and mitigate risks, but not avoid them completely. Proper risk analysis
often includes mathematical and statistical software programs.
methods to perform a risk analysis in the computer field is called facilitated risk
analysis process (FRAP).
Nature of Risk
Risk exists because of the in ability of the decision maker to make perfect forecast.
Forecast cannot be made on perfection coz the future event they depend are
uncertain.
For example, a company wants to produce and market a new product to their
prospective customers. The demand is affected by the general economic
conditions. Demand may be very high if the country experiences higher economic
growth. On the other hand economic events like weakening of US dollar, sub prime
crises may trigger economic slow down. This may create a pessimistic
demand drastically y bringing down the estimate of cash flows.
Factors that affect forecasts of investment, cost and revenue.
1) The business is affected by changes in political situations, monetary policies, taxation, interest
rates, policies of the central bank of the country on leading by banks etc.
2) Industry specific factors influence the demand for the products of the industry to which the
firm belongs.
3) Company specific factors like change in management, wage negotiations with the workers, strikes or
lockouts affect company’s cost and revenue positions.
Therefore, risk analysis in capital budgeting is part and parcel of enterprise risk management.
TYPE
Risks in a project are many. It is possible to identify three separate and distinct type of risk in any project.
1. Stand – alone risk
2. Portfolio risk
3. Market or beta risk
SOURCES OF RISK
• Conventional techniques
1. Payback
2. Risk-adjusted discount rate
3. Certainty evaluation
• Sensitivity Analysis
• Statistical Techniques
1. Probability Distribution Approach
2. Variance
PAYBACK
• The oldest and commonly used method of recognizing risk associated with a capital budgeting proposal
is pay back period.
• Under this method, shorter pay back period is given preference to longer ones.
• Firms establish guidelines for acceptance or rejections of projects based on standards of pay back
periods.
• Payback period prefers projects of short – term pay backs to that of long – term pay backs.
• Traditionally Indian business community employs this technique in evaluating projects with very high
level of uncertainty.
• Pay back period ignores time value of many (cash flows).
EXAMPLE
Particulars Project A (Rs) Project B (Rs) • Both the projects have a pay back period of 4 years.
• The project B is riskier than the Project A because
Initial cash 10 lakhs 10 lakhs Project A recovers 80% of initial cash outlay in the
outlay first two years of its operation where as Project B
Cash flows generates higher Cash inflows only in the latter half
of the payback period.
• The basis of this approach is that there should be adequate reward in the form of return to firms which
decide to execute risky business projects.
• To motivate firms to take up risky projects returns expected from the project shall have to be adequate,
keeping in view the expectations of the investors.
• Therefore risk premium need to be incorporated in discount rate in the evaluation of risky project
proposals.
CONT…
• Therefore the discount rate for appraisal of projects has two components.
• Those components are
Risk – free rate and risk premium
Risk Adjusted Discount rate = Risk free rate + Risk premium
• The more uncertain the returns of the project the higher the risk.
• Higher the risk greater the premium.
• Therefore, risk adjusted Discount rate is a composite rate of risk free rate and risk premium of the
project.
EXAMPLE
An investment will have an initial outlay of Rs 100,000. It is expected to generate cash inflows as under:
Risk free rate of interest is 10%. Risk premium is 10% (the risk characterizing the project)
(a) compute the NPV using risk free rate
(b) Compute NPV using risk – adjusted discount rate
SOLUTION
• Advantages:
1. It is simple and easy to understand.
2. Risk premium takes care of the risk element in future cash flows.
3. It satisfies the businessmen who are risk – averse.
• Limitations:
1. There are no objective bases of arriving at the risk premium. In this process the premium rates computed
become arbitrary.
2. The assumption that investors are risk – averse may not be true in respect of certain investors who are willing to
take risks. To such investors, as the level of risk increases, the discount rate would be reduced.
3. Cash flows are not adapted to incorporate the risk adjustment for net cash in flows.
CERTAINTY EQUIVALENT
• Under this method the risking uncertain, expected future cash flows are converted into cash flows with certainty.
• Here we multiply uncertain future cash flows by the certainty – equivalent coefficient to convert uncertain cash flows into
certain cash flows. The certainty equivalent coefficient is also known as the risk – adjustment factor.
• Risk adjustment factor is normally denoted by αt (Alpha). It is the ratio of certain net cash flow to risky net cash flow
= Certainty Equivalent = Certain Cash flow
Risky Cash flow
• Certainty equivalent coefficient is between 0 and 1.
• This risk – adjustment factor varies inversely with risk.
If risk is high a lower value is used for risk adjustment.
If risk is low a higher coefficient of certainty equivalent is used
EXAMPLE
NPV of project B
Pessimistic 25,000 5.650 1,41,250 (1,58,750)
Expected 75,000 5.650 4,23,750 1,23,750
Optimistic 1,00,000 5.650 5,65,000 2,65,000
DECISION
1. Under pessimistic conditions project A gives a positive NPV of Rs 67,250 and Project B has a negative
NPV of Rs 1,58,750 Project A is accepted.
2. Under expected conditions, both gave some positive NPV of Rs 1,23,000. Any one of two may be
accepted.
3. Under optimistic conditions Project B has a higher NPV of Rs 2,65,000 compared to that of A’s NPV of
Rs 2,08,500.
4. Difference between optimistic and pessimistic NPV for Project A is Rs 1,41,250 and for Project B the
difference is Rs 4,23,750.
5. Project B is risky compared to Project A because the NPV range is of large differences.
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
• When we incorporate the chances of occurrences of various economic environments computed NPV
becomes more reliable.
• The chances of occurrences are expressed in the form of probability.
• Probability is the likelihood of occurrence of a particular economic environment.
• After assigning probabilities to future cash flows expected net present value is computed.
EXAMPLE
A company has identified a project with an initial cash outlay of Rs 50,000. The following distribution of
cash flow is given below for the life of the project of 3 years.
• Year 1 =
15,000 x 0.2 + 18,000 x 0.1 + 35,000 x 0.4 + 32,000 x 0.300 Year Expected cash inflows PV factor at PV of
10% expected
= 3,000 + 1,800 + 14,000 + 9,600 = 28,400 cash in flows
• Year 2 = 1 28,400 0.909 25,816
20,000 x 0.3 + 15,000 x 0.2 + 30,000 x 0.3 + 30,000 x 0.2 2 24,000 0.826 19,824
= 6,000 + 3,000 + 9,000 + 6,000 = 24,000 3 28,500 0.751 21,403
• Year 3 = PV of expected cash in 67,043
flows
25,000 x 0.4 + 20,000 x 0.3 + 40,000 x 0.2 + 5,000 x 0.1
PV of initial cash out lay 50,000
= 10,000 + 6,000 + 8,000 + 4,500 == 28,500
Expected NPV 17,043
VARIANCE
• A study of dispersion of cash flows of projects will help the management in assessing the risk associated
with the investment proposal.
• Dispersion is computed by variance or standard deviation.
• Variance measures the deviation of each possible cash flow from the expected.
• Square root of variance is standard deviation.
EXAMPLE
Following details are available in respect of a project which requires an initial cost of Rs 5,00,000.
Year Economic Condition Cash flows Probability
1 High growth 2,00,000 0.3
Average growth 1,50,000 0.6
No growth 40,000 0.1
2 High growth 3,00,000 0.3
Average growth 2,00,000 0.5
No growth 5,00,000 0.2
3 High growth 4,00,000 0.2
Average growth 2,50,000 0.6
No growth 30,000 0.2
SOLUTION
Year 1 Economic Condition Cash in Flow Probability Expected value of Cash in flow
1 2 3
High growth 2,00,000 0.3 60,000
Average growth 1,50,000 0.6 90,000
No growth 40,000 0.1 4,000
Expected Value 1,54,000
Year 2 Economic Condition Cash in Flow Probability Expected value of Cash in flow
High growth 3,00,000 0.3 90,000
Average growth 2,00,000 0.5 1,00,000
No growth 50,000 0.2 10,000
Expected Value 2,00,000
Year 3 Economic Condition Cash in Flow Probability Expected value of Cash in flow
High growth 4,00,000 0.2 80,000
Average growth 2,50,000 0.6 1,50,000
No growth 30,000 0.2 6,000
Expected Value 2,36,000
• Expected NPV =1,54,000 + 2,00,000 + 2,36,000 – 5,00,000
1.10 (1.10)^2 (1.10)^3
• the assumption is that there is no relationship between cash flows from one period to another.
• Under this assumption the standard deviation of NPV is Rs 96,314.
• On the other hand, if cash flows are perfectly correlated, cash flows of all years have linear
correlation to one another, then
The standard deviation of NPV when cash flows are perfectly correlated will be higher than that under
the situation of independent cash flows.