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Contents
Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Power Semi-Conductor Devices .............................................................. 3
Phase Controlled converter .................................................................. 10
ww
Chopper ................................................................................................ 15
w.E
Inverters................................................................................................ 21
asy
AC - AC Converters ................................................................................ 26
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Manual for K-Notes
Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters
from his / her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is
specifically intended for Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive
ww study material.
w.E What are K-Notes?
asy
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It
En
is highly useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing
for GATE as it comes handy while traveling long distances.
ginWhen do I start using K-Notes?
ee rin
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
How do I use K-Notes?

g.n
et
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the
respective Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters
to make best use of it.
© 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

Power Semi-Conductor Devices
Properties of ideal switch
1. Conduction state , VON  0,    ION  

2. Blocking state , VOFF  0,    VOFF  
3. Ideal switch can change its state instantaneously TON  0 , TOFF  0
4. No power loss while switching.
5.
ww
Stable under all operating conditions.
1.
w.E
Classification of switches
Uncontrolled switch (Passive switch)
asy
Switching state cannot be controlled by any control signal E.g. Diode
2. Semi-controlled switch
En
gin
Only one switching state can be controlled by an external control signal. E.g. SCR
3. Fully controlled switch

ee rin
If both switching states can be controlled by switchable control signal. E.g. BJT, MOSFET.
Other Classification
g.n
1. Unipolar switch
The switch can block only one polarity of voltage when it is in OFF state.
et
2. Bipolar switch
This switch can block both polarity of voltage when it is in blocking state.
3. Unidirectional switch
This switch can carry current in only one direction when it is in conduction state.
4. Bidirectional switch
This switch can carry current in both the directions when it is in conduction state.

Ideal characteristics of power semiconductor switches
Device Characteristic
Diode
BJT
ww
w.E
MOSFET
asy
En
IGBT
gin
SCR
ee rin
g.n
GTO
et
TRIAC

Power loss in a switch
1) The average power has in a switch is given by

1 T
P   vidt
T o
Where v = instantaneous voltage
i = instantaneous current
ww
2) If the device is modeled as a resistance, as in case of a MOSFET
P  Irms
2
R ON  Vrms
2
R ON
w.E
3) If the device is modeled as a voltage source.
P  V Iavg
Silicon Controlled Rectifier asy

En
gin
ee rin
g.n

 In forward conduction mode, J2 breakdown, J1 , J3 are forward biased.
et
In forward blocking mode, J1 , J3 are forward biased and J2 is reverse biased.
 In reverse blocking mode, J1 , J3 are reverse biased & J2 is forward biased.
Latching Current
This is the minimum value of anode current above which SCR turns ON. This is related to
minimum gate pulse width requirement for SCR.
Holding current
Minimum value of anode current below which SCR turns OFF.

 di 
Slope of characteristics =  
 dt 
If ta  trr
Area under the curve = QR
1
QR  IRM trr
2
 
IRM  di dt trr
ww   QR 
1 di 2
2 dt
trr

w.E
Device & Circuit Turn-off time
Device turn off time, tq  trr  tgr
asy
trr = reverse recovery time
t gr = gate recovery time

En
Circuit turn-off time  t c  is the time period for which communication circuit applies reverse
 For successful communication, tc  tq gin

voltage across SCR after anode current becomes zero.
Turn-ON methods of SCR
1) Forward voltage triggering

ee rin
If VAK  VBO , then J2 breakdown & SCR conducts. This can damage the SCR.
g.n
2)
dV
dt
Triggering
Ic  C j
dv
, if
dv
et
is high, charging current increase and SCR conducts when Ic  Ilatching .
dt dt
3) Light Triggering
If light is incident on J2 , charge carriers are generated and J2 starts conducting.
4) Thermal Triggering
When temperature is increased then charge carriers are generated & SCR conducts.
5) Gate Triggering
By applying gate pulse in SCR, VBO is lowered and SCR can easily conduct.

Static V-I characteristics of SCR
ww
w.E
Communication of thyristor
asy
Communication is defined as process of turning OFF the thyristor.
Types of Commutations:
En
1. Natural or line communication
gin
ee
In this case nature of supply supports the commutation.
E.g. Rectifier, AC voltage controllers, Step-down cyclo-converters.
rin
2. Forced Commutation
1) Class A commutation
g.n
 Circuit should be under-damped.
et
4L
 R2  for damped oscillations.
C
1 R2
 Ringing frequency, r   2
LC 4L

 Thyristor conducts for a period of =
r

2) Class-B commutation or current commutation
a)  ITM peak  Io
C
b)  ITA peak  Vs
L
 IP
c) Time required to turn OFF TM after TA ON

I 
  LC  LC sin1  o 
 Ip 
ww  
d) Conduction time of TA   LC
e) tCM 
w.E CVR
Io
= circuit turn off time


I
Where VR  VS cos sin1  o
 Ip
 asy
 
 
 
Other Implementation En
 I
tCM     2 sin1  o

  LC
gin
  Ip
  
Rest all parameters remains same.

ee rin
g.n
3) Class-C commutation or Impulse commutation
et
V 2V 
  I T1 peak  S  S 
 R1 R 2 
V 2V 
  I T2 peak  S  S 
 R 2 R1 
 tC1  R1 ln2 
 tC2  R 2 ln2 

Class-D commutation or voltage commutation
C
  ITM peak  Io  VS L
  ITA peak  Io
  TON min for TM   LC
CVs
 tCM 

ww Io
Conduction time of TA  2tCM 

2CVs

w.E
 VO avg 
VS
Io
 TON  2tCM  , T = Switching internal

T
Thermal Protection of SCR

asy
 jc = Thermal resistance b/w J & C En
CS = Thermal resistance b/w C & S gin
SA = Thermal resistance b/w S & A
Unit of   0 C / w
ee rin
In electrical circuit representation g.n
et
TjA = Temperature difference b/w J & A

Phase Controlled converter

Form factor
V
FF  or
Vo
Vor : rms value of output voltage.
Vo : Average value of output voltage.
RF =
ww
Ripple Factor
FF2  1
w.E
Distortion factor
V
DF  01
Vor
asy
V01 : rms value of fundamental components of Vo
Vor : rms value of output voltage.En
Total harmonic Distortion gin
THD 
1
DF2
1 ee rin
Single phase half wave uncontrolled rectifier
g.n
VO
R – load
Vm

RL – Load
Vm
2
1  cos  
L – Load
0 et
IO Vm Vm Vm
1  cos  
R 2R L
ϒ      2
IO max  
2   2 ,  
 = Extinction angle, Angle at which ω goes to zero.
 If a free-wheeling diode is connected across the load (RL) that behaves as R-load as output
voltage goes to zero after t   when FD conducts.
10

Single phase half wave controlled rectifier

i) R – load
Vm
 VO avg 
2
1  cos  
Vm
 IO avg 
2R
1  cos  
Vm2  sin2 
 Vor       
ww 4  2 
Vor
2
R Vor

w.E
Input power factor =
VS IS
Vm

VS
 α = firing angle
VS 
asy 2
ii) R – L load En
 Voavg 
Vm
2
 cos   cos   gin
 Io avg 
Vm
2R
 cos   cos   ee rin
 Vor 
2 
Vm
     12  sin2  sin2 
g.n
 Circuit turn off time, t c 
 2   

et
Single phase full – wave rectifier
11

1 1
full converter Semi converter
VO 2Vm Vm

cos 

1  cos  
IS1 2 2 2 2
Io I cos 
  O 2
IS Io 
IO

ww DF 2 2

2 2
   
cos 
2
w.E DPF
IPF
cos  cos 
2
asy 2 2

cos 
2
   
1  cos  
En
gin
DPF: Displacement power factor = cos  angle b w VS & IS1 
IS1 = fundamental components of IS

IPF: Input power factor
IPF = DPF x DF
ee rin
DF: Distortion factor
g.n
In case of continuous conductions, outgoing thyristors stop conduction before incoming
thyristor start
Load 1 1

et
Full converter Semi – converter
R – load V V
Vo  m 1  cos   Vo  m 1  cos  
 
R – L load V V
Vo  m  cos   cos   Vo  m 1  cos  
 
RLE – load V  1
Vo   m  cos   cos    E         Vo   Vm 1  cos    E       
   
12

Three phase half wave controlled rectifier
3Vml
Vo  cos 
2
Vml : Peak value of line voltage
1
1 3 3  2
Vor  Vmp   cos2 
ww  2 8 
w.E
Vmp : Peak value of phase voltage
Three phase full wave rectifier

asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
13

3 3
Full converter Semi converter
Vo 3Vml 3Vml

cos 
2
1  cos  
Vor 1 3 3 Expression varies for   600 &   600
Vml  cos 2
2 4 For   600 , it becomes 3-pulse converter.
IS1

6
IO
6
 O
I cos  
2
ww
IS 2
3
IO IO


DF
w.E 3

6
   
cos 
2
DPF
IPF
cosα
3
asy cos 
2

cos 
En 6
   x
cos2 
2
gin
IS1 : Fundamental rms value of source current
IS : rms value of source current

ee rin
Effect of source inductance
g.n
Assuming source inductance equal to L S .
Due to source inductance, there is an overlap b/w incoming and outgoing thyristor, given by
et
overlap angle    .
For 2-pulse converter
2Vm L
VO  cos   S IO
 
Vm
VO  cos   cos      
  
Displacement power factor = cos     

 2
14

For 6 – pulse converter
3Vm 3LS
VO  cos   I
  O
3Vm
VO  cos   cos      
2  
Displacement power factor = cos     

 2
ww
w.E
Chopper
asy
En
Buck Converter
gin
When CH is ON  o  t  DT 
Voltage across inductor VL   VS  VO 

ee rin
When CH is OFF (DT < t < T)
Voltage across inductor VL  VO g.n
Applying volt-sec balance across inductor
 VS  VO   DT   VO   T  DT  0
et
 VS  VO  D  VO 1  D   0
VO  DVS
TON
D = duty cycle =
T
Where T = switching period = 1
f
f = switching frequency
15

 Average output voltage = DVS

 rms output voltage = DVS
 Average source current = DIO
 Average current of FD = 1  D  IO
Ripple in output current
ww
When CH is ON  0  t  DT 
VL  VS  VO  1  D  VS
w.E
During this period, since voltage is positive current increase from minimum value to maximum
value.
i  Imax  Imin
t  DT  0  DT
asy
 i  
1  D  V En
L
DT
D 1  D  VS
S
gin

i 
fL ee rin
This formula gives approximate value of output ripple current for maximum ripple, D = 0.5
 imax 
VS
g.n
 Imax  IO 
IL
2
4fL
et
I
 Imin  IO  L
2
Critical Inductance (LC)
Value of inductance at which inductor voltage waveform is just discontinuous.
Lc 
1  D  R
2f
16

Critical Capacitance (CC)
Value of capacitance at which capacitor voltage waveform is just discontinuous.
1
CC 
8fR
Step-up chopper (Boost converter)
ww
when CH is ON  0  t  DT  ,
when CH is OFF DT  t  T  ,

VL  VS
VL   VS  VO 
w.E
asy
VS DT    VS  VO  1  D  T  0
VO 
VS
1  D  En
 Since D < 1, VO  VS gin
 when CH is ON  0  t  DT  ,
when CH is OFF DT  t  T  , IC  IL  IO
ee
IC  IO
rin
Applying Ampere  sec balance across capacitor
IO DT    IL  IO 1  D  T  0
g.n
IL 
IO
1  D 
et
Ripple in inductor current
When CH is ON  0  t  DT  , current increase from Imin to Imax
iL VS DT  DVS

L  VS  iL  
DT L fL
17

Ripple in output voltage
when CH is ON , IC  IO
VC
C.  I O
DT
IO DT 
VO  VC 
C
ww
-ve sign indicates voltage decrease
IO DT 
w.E
 VO 
C
Critical Inductance (Lc)

asy
I
IL  L
2 En
LC 
D 1  D  R
gin
2f
Critical Capacitance (Cc)

ee rin
VO 
VO
2
g.n
CC 
D
2fR
et
If inductor also has an internal resistance, then
 1  D  
VO  VS  
 r  1  D  
2
 R 
r = internal resistance of inductor
R = load resistance
18

Buck-Boost Converter
When CH is ON (O < t < DT)

VL  VS
I C  I O
When CH is OFF (DT < t < T)
VL  VO
ww IC    IL  IO 
w.E
VS DT   VO 1  D  T  0
VO 
DVS asy
1  D 
En
Applying Ampere-sec balance across inductor
gin
IO DT    IL  IO  1  D  T  0
I O
ee rin
IL 
1  D 
g.n
IL 
 VO
R 1  D 

DVS
R 1  D 
2 et
Ripple in inductor current
Inductor current increase from Imin to Imax
IL
L  VS
DT
DVS
IL 
fL
19

Ripple in output voltage

Capacitor discharge & voltage decrease from Vmax to Vmin
CVO
 I O
DT
DIO
VO 
ww fC
w.E
Critical inductance (Lc)
IL 
IL
2 asy
R 1  D 
2
En
LC 
2f
gin
Critical capacitance (Cc)
ee rin
VO 
VO
2 g.n
CC 
I O 1  D  T
2VS
et
If internal resistance (r) of inductor is also considered then
 D 1  D  
VO    VS
 r  1  D  
2
 R 
R = load resistance
20

Inverters
Inverters circuits will convert DC power to AC power at required voltage & required frequency.
Classification
1) Voltage source Inverter

 Input source is a voltage source.
 Switching device is bidirectional & unipolar.
 Load voltage depends on source voltage & load current depends on load parameters.
ww
2) Current source Inverters
w.E
 Input source is a current source.
 Switching device is bidirectional & bipolar

Single phase half bridge VSI asy

Load voltage depends on source current & load voltage on load parameters.
When S1 is ON, VO  0, IO  0 En
When S2 is ON, VO  0, IO  0
gin
When D1 is ON, VO  0, IO  0
When D 2 is ON, VO  0, IO  0
ee rin

V
The output voltage is a square wave of amplitude dc
2 g.n
 The fourier series of output voltage is given by
VO  

n1,3,5
2Vdc
n
sin nt 
et
 rms value of fundamental components is given by
 2V  1 2
Vor1   dc    V
   2  dc
Vdc
 rms value of output voltage Vor 
2
Vor1 2 2
 Distortion Factor(DF) = 
Vor 
1
 % Total Harmonic Distortion THD   1 = 48.43%
DF2
21

 If load power factor is lagging, then it requires forced commutation.

 If load power factor is leading, then natural commutation occurs.
Single phase Full Bridge VSI
When S1 , S2 conduct VO  0, IO  0
When D1 , D 2 conduct, VO  0, IO  0
ww
When S3 , S 4 conduct, VO  0, IO  0

w.E
When D3 ,D 4 conduct, VO  0, IO  0
The output voltage is a square wave of amplitude Vdc


asy
The fourier series of output voltage is given by
 4Vdc
VO  
En
n1,3,5 n
sin nt 
Vor1 
2 gin
rms value of fundamental components is given by
 rms value of output voltage

Vor1
 dc
2 2
ee
Vor  Vdc
rin
 Distortion Factor(DF) =
Vor


g.n
 % Total Harmonic Distortion THD 
1
DF2
 1 = 48.43%
et
Three phase full bridge VSI
22

1800conduction mode
In this mode, each switch will conduct for a period of 1800 and phase displacement between
any two poles is 1200
 Phase voltage
2
V 
ph rms  V
3 dc
ww
VRN  
 2Vdc
n
sin nt 
w.E n6k 1
 VR1  = rms value of fundamental component of V RN
VR1 
2Vdc
 asy
Distortion factor, DF 
VR1

Vph,rms 
3
En
1 gin
THD 
DF2
 1  100  31%
ee rin
 Line voltage
g.n
 VL L rms  2
V
3 dc
et
4Vdc
 3  sinn  t   6 

VRY   sin n
n6k 1 n
6
 VRY 1 = rms value of fundamental component of V RY =  VRY  
1 
Distortion factor = 3

In each phase, each switch conducts for 1800 out of 3600
Io, rms 2Vdc Vdc
 Ir.rms    , Where R = load resistance
2 3R  2 3R
23

Voltage Total RMS Fundamental RMS

Phase 2 2
Vdc Vdc
3 
Line 2 6 V
Vdc  dc
3
 This conversion from total rms to fundamental rms can be performed by multiplication of

ww
3  DF .

This conversion from phase to line voltage can be performed by multiplication of 3.
w.E
1200conduction mode
asy
For each thyristor, conduction angle is 1200 & last 60 0 for commutation.
 Phase Voltage
V 
Vdc En
ph rms



6
2Vdc

sin n    
g ine
sin nt  n 
VRN 
n6k 1
6
n 3
e 6
rin
VR1  V
 dc
Distortion factor, DF  3
g.n
THD = 31%

et
 Line Voltage
Vdc
 VL RMS 
2
3Vdc
 

 VRY    n
sin n t  
3
n6k 1
3
 VRY 1  Vdc
2
24

Distortion factor, = 3 ; THD  31%


In each, phase each switch conducts for 1200 out of 3600
Io, rms Vdc
I T , rms  
3 2R
R = load resistance
Voltage Total RMS Fundamental RMS
ww
Phase
Line
Vdc
6
Vdc

6
3
Vdc
w.E 2 2
Vdc

asy
The conversion factor remain same as in 1800 conduction mode.

harmonics. En
In both 1200 & 1800 conduction mode both phase & line voltages are free from even & triplen
gin
Voltage control using PWM techniques
1) Single PWM techniques

ee rin
In this case, width of positive & negative cycle is not  but rather equal to 2d. g.n
VO  

n1,3,5
4V
n
S
sin n   sin nd sin nt 
To eliminate nth harmonics

2 et
Sin (nd) = 0
d  n
Pulse width, 2d  2 n , 4 n , 6 n ,...................

but 2d  
To eliminate 3rd harmonics
3d   ; d   3 ; 2d  2 3
So pulse width of 1200 is required.
25

2) Multiple PWM techniques

2d
Here a single pulse of ‘2d’ width is divided into ‘n’ pulses each of width .
n
fc
n
2fr
fc = carrier signal frequency
fr = reference signal frequency
ww
AC - AC Converters
w.E
These circuits control AC power. They are of 2 types:
1) AC voltage regulator
2) Cyclo-converter
asy
AC voltage regulator En
gin
These transfer AC power from 1 circuit to another by controlling output voltage & fixed
frequency.
ee rin
Single phase half wave ACVR
g.n
 VO avg 
Vm
2
 cos   1 et
Vm
IO avg 
2R
 cos   1
1
V  1 2
 VOrms  m  2     sin2 
2  2 
1
Vor 1  1 2
 pf    2     sin2 
Vsr 2  2 
26

Single phase fully controlled ACVR
ww
w.E
asy
 Vo avg  0
 
En 1

 
V 
2 
1
Vo rms  m       sin2 
2
2
 gin

 wL 
  tan1  
ee
If R – L load is used, then in steady state I O lags VO by an angle 
rin
 R 
 g.n
If r   , then above formulas remain valid & output voltage is controllable by controlling α.
 If r   , output voltage is not controllable & Vor  Vsr
So, range of firing angle is     1800

et
Integral cycle control (ON/OFF) control
If in fully controlled ACVR, thyristors conduct for m cycle & are OFF for n cycle then
1
 m 2
 VO rms  Vsr  
mn
1
V  m 2
For R – load, pf  or   
Vsr  m  n 
27

Vm  m 
I T1 avg   
  R  m  n 
1
V  m 2
I T1 rms  m 
  2R  m  n 
R = load resistance ; Vm is maximum value of VS
ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
28

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
eer
ing
.ne
t

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Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

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Manual for K-Notes

w.E What are K-Notes?

ginWhen do I start using K-Notes?

How do I use K-Notes?

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Power Semi-Conductor Devices

Properties of ideal switch

1. Conduction state , VON  0,    ION  

Uncontrolled switch (Passive switch)

3. Fully controlled switch

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Ideal characteristics of power semiconductor switches

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Power loss in a switch

1) The average power has in a switch is given by

Silicon Controlled Rectifier asy

 In reverse blocking mode, J1 , J3 are reverse biased & J2 is forward biased.

Minimum value of anode current below which SCR turns OFF.

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 For successful communication, tc  tq gin

Turn-ON methods of SCR

1) Forward voltage triggering

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Static V-I characteristics of SCR

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2) Class-B commutation or current commutation

c) Time required to turn OFF TM after TA ON

Rest all parameters remains same.

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Class-D commutation or voltage commutation

Conduction time of TA  2tCM 

 TON  2tCM  , T = Switching internal

Thermal Protection of SCR

TjA = Temperature difference b/w J & A

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Phase Controlled converter

 = Extinction angle, Angle at which ω goes to zero.

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Single phase half wave controlled rectifier

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IS1 = fundamental components of IS

Load 1 1

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Three phase half wave controlled rectifier

Vml : Peak value of line voltage

Vor  Vmp   cos2 

Three phase full wave rectifier

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IS : rms value of source current

For 2-pulse converter

Displacement power factor = cos     

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For 6 – pulse converter

Displacement power factor = cos     

Voltage across inductor VL   VS  VO 