Damping Factors and Fatigue Notch Factors of
Pseudoelastic NiTi-Shape Memory Alloys
Dämpfungs- und Kerbwirkungszahlen von Pseudoelastischen
NiTi-Formgedächtnislegierungen
Pseudoelastic NiTi- shape memory alloys (SMAs) provide a high
damping capacity and can be used in order to achieve a reduction of
peak loads being caused by unexpected shock loading. These
“pseudoelastic” properties are related to the formation of martensite
M from austenite A, which has been induced by stress; they allow to
refer to SMAs as functional materials. Furthermore, these func-
tional materials can operate at high stresses and thus, have to with-
stand severe mechanical loadings like classical structural materials.
In combination, these characteristics provide opportunities for tech-
nical applications, e.g., to reduce vibrations or to reduce peak loads
caused by shock loading. An extensive knowledge of the functional
and structural fatigue behaviour of the material is required to design
SMA components. NiTi hollow shaft samples and solid shaft sam-
ples have been tested under cyclic torsional loading conditions in a
load-controlled mode. By using these two geometries the influence
of the sample geometry on the fatigue behaviour can be investi-
gated. In addition, a test programme has been elaborated in order
to investigate the behaviour of the material when subjected to bend-
ing. The experimental data have been evaluated describing the
transformation behaviour induced by stress concerning transforma-
tion stress, apparent shear modulus of the austenite GA and apparent
stiffness sMs (describing the slope of the shear stress-strain-curve in
the transformation range GA-M). These parameters naturally depend
on the cycle number, the load amplitude as well as the temperature.
Engineering failures are often associated with the presence of
notches. In this context, torsion tests on notched samples are
planned to be carried out in order to assess the resulting data based
on the results obtained from the notch free samples. This will allow
to derive simple design rules based on fatigue notch factors, which
are needed for engineering design.
KEYWORDS: NiTi shape memory alloys, pseudoelasticity,
damping behaviour, torsional loading, technical applications
1 Introduction
It is well documented that pseudoelastic NiTi SMAs show a
wide stress (s) –strain (c) –hysteresis in connection with load-
ing-unloading tests. This represents a dissipation of energy
R find out whether pseudoelastic NiTi can be used in drive train
( sdy), which can be exploited for the definition of damping
factors. The s–c–hystresis is connected with relatively high
stress plateaus. Therefore, pseudoelastic NiTi SMAs have
to withstand stresses of the same magnitude as normal struc-
tural materials. NiTi SMAs have been used for damping ap-
* Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Lehrstuhl für Maschinenelemente,
Getriebe und Kraftfahrzeuge, Universitätsstraße 150, 44801 Bo-
chum, Germany
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2004, 35, No. 5
F 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
W. Predki, A. Knopik, M. Klönne*
Pseudoelastische NiTi-Formgedächtnislegierungen (FGL) verfü-
gen über ein hohes Dämpfungsvermögen. Es ist auch von einer ho-
hen Stoßdämpfung auszugehen. Diese beiden Eigenschaften dieser
Legierungen resultieren aus der spannungsinduzierten Martensit-
umwandlung. Die Erfüllung der beiden Funktionen Dämpfung
und Stoßminderung macht den Einsatz dieser Legierungen als
Funktionswerkstoff denkbar. Des Weiteren sind die zulässigen
Spannungen dieser Legierungen mit denen der klassischen Struk-
turwerkstoffe vergleichbar. Dies macht den Werkstoff als Struktur-
werkstoff attraktiv. Die technischen Anwendungen wären z. B. Re-
duzierung von Maschinenvibrationen oder Reduzierung von Last-
spitzen aufgrund von Defekten oder anderen unerwarteten Störgrö-
ßen. Zur Dimensionierung von FGL-Bauteilen ist jedoch das Wis-
sen über die strukturelle und funktionelle Ermüdung notwendig.
Hierzu dienen Voll- und Hohlwellen als Proben. Diese sind einer
wechselnden und momentengeregelten Torsionsbelastung ausge-
setzt. Die Verwendung von Hohl- und Vollwellen ermöglicht die
Untersuchung des Geometrieeinflusses auf das Ermüdungsverhal-
ten. Ein weiterer Prüfstand zur Untersuchung der Werkstoffeigen-
schaften unter einer reinen Biegebelastung ist in Planung. Die
Auswertung der Messungen liefert die Phasenumwandlungspara-
meter (die Umwandlungsspannung sMs, den Austenit-Schermodul
GA und die Steifigkeit während der Austenit-Martensit-Umwand-
lung GA-M) in Abhängigkeit von der Zyklenzahl, der Lastamplitude
und der Temperatur. Technische Ausfälle sind oft mit Kerben ver-
bunden. Aus diesem Grunde sind Torsionsversuche mit gekerbten
Proben geplant. Das funktionelle und strukturelle Ermüdungsver-
halten der gekerbten Proben ist dann mit dem Ermüdungsverhalten
der ungekerbten Proben zu vergleichen. Aus dem Vergleich sind
Kerbzahlen zu ermitteln. Schließlich sind Näherungsgleichen zur
Berechnung der funktionellen Ermüdung herzuleiten.
SCHLAGWORTE: NiTi-Formgedächtnislegierungen, Pseudo-
elastizität, Dämpfungsverhalten, Torsion, technische Anwendun-
gen
plications in seismic isolation of civil structures [1,2].
Although the behaviour of SMA wires has been extensively
examined under uniaxial cycling loading, there are only a
few publications to be found relating to non-uniform and mul-
tiaxial stress conditions [3]. The aim of the present work is to
components in view of the severe operating conditions like
vibrations and peak loads. For this purpose, we need informa-
tion concerning damping characteristics as well as fatigue be-
haviour from tests on notched and plain specimens.
Another important stress state is associated with bending.
Therefore, pure bending needs to be investigated. The present
paper provides a preliminary design for a suitable test rig for
pure bending.
The present work concentrates on cyclic loading with load-
ing conditions being relevant for drive train applications. Tor-
DOI: 10.1002/mawe.200400758 307
sion and bending of notched and plain specimens have to be
taken into consideration. We present results of torsion tests as
well as the design of a bending test rig, which is outlined in
detail.
2 Experimental
Hollow (H) shaft and solid (S) shaft samples are tested.
These are machined from a pseudoelastic NiTi-rod with
50.8 at-% Ni. The hollow shaft samples have an outer dia-
meter of 8.5 mm and an inner diameter of 7 mm. The solid
shaft samples have an outer diameter of 8 mm. Both sample
geometries have a gauge length of 70 mm. A defined initial
state of the samples is achieved by means of a heat treatment
at 850  C for a period of 15 minutes, followed by water
quenching. A subsequent precipitation annealing at 350  C
for a period of 60 minutes seems to be appropriate, because
the samples treated at 500  C for a period of 15 minutes are
showing a less favourable fatigue resistance [4]. Precipitation
annealing at 350  C for a period of 60 minutes implicates an
AF-temperature of 5.5  C [5].
Conclusions concerning the structural fatigue behaviour re-
quire tests, which are taken through to rupture.
2.1 Torsion
Hollow shaft and solid shaft samples are tested by means of
torsion tests. Tests on notched solid shafts are intended to be
carried out. The experimental focal point are the hollow
shafts. Quasi-homogeneous stress distribution across the
cross-sectional area is achieved by a high radius-to-wall-
thickness-ratio. Figure 1 shows the test rig. One end of sample
is fixed by non-rotational torque-transducers. The torque is
applied by a synchronous servo motor in the other end of
the sample. The ambient temperature is measured by a
NiCr/Ni thermocouple and the sample temperature is mea-
sured by an infrared sensor. Two rotary encoders are measur-
ing the rotary angle.
All tests are executed in load-control mode. The samples
are alternately loaded at a preset torque amplitude, a preset
rated torque and a preset load frequency. The load frequency
has to be changed from 0.1 Hz to 15 Hz. Thus, the frequency
sensitivity concerning the behaviour of the material can be
analysed. The temperature is the third parameter apart from
Fig. 1. Test rig for torsion tests
Abb. 1. Torsionsprüfstand
308 W. Predki, A. Knopik and M. Klönne
Fig. 2. Simplified stress-strain diagram of NiTi
Abb. 2. Vereinfachtes Spannungs-Dehnungs-Diagramm von NiTi
Fig. 3. Loading parameters
Abb. 3. Beanspruchungsparameter
the two parameters load and load frequency. The samples
are cycled until fracture in order to assess the long time fatigue
behaviour.
The load results from the sample geometry and the desired
stress in the outer fibre. The stress steps are geared to the mar-
tensite start stress sMS and the martensite finish stress sMF. Fig-
ure 2 shows the simplified stress-strain diagram.
The alternating transmission of the stress into the sample
can be divided into three parameters, which are stress ampli-
tude sa, maximum stress s0 and nominal stress sm (see figure
3). The nominal stress sm is varying, whereas the stress am-
plitude sa is resulting from the preset maximum stress s0.
If the selected stress step is lower than the martensite start
stress, there is no martensitic transformation occurring. Thus
it is possible to analyse the structural fatigue behaviour and
the functional fatigue behaviour depending on the degree
of transformation.
The mechanical behaviour to the experiments is shown in
the torque-torsion hysteresis curve. The measured torque and
the measured rotation angle are converted into shear stress s
and shear strain c assuming that the strain is proportional to
the radius of the shaft in the cross section. A model is imple-
mented, which allows to estimate the torque-twist curve of
cylindrical bodies from a given simplified stress-strain curve
(see figure 2) by integrating the stresses along the radius of the
cross section [5]. By means of our simple model, it is easy to
determine the transformation stresses and strains from a given
curve.
The damping is represented by the energy, which is dissi-
pated in the respective cycle. It is calculated by the specific
damping capacity W, which represents the ratio of the dissi-
pated energy to the elastic strain energy. The region of the hys-
teresis is representing the dissipated energy (see figure 4),
whereas the region between the stress-strain curve during
loading and the abscissa is representing the elastic strain en-
ergy (see figure 5).
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2004, 35, No. 5

Fig. 4. Definition of the dissipated energy within the stress-strain
diagram
Abb. 4. Definition der dissipierten Arbeit innerhalb des Span-
nungs-Dehnungs-Diagramms
Fig. 5. Definition of the elastic strain energy within the stress-
strain diagram
Abb. 5. Definition der elastischen Arbeit innerhalb des Span-
nungs-Dehnungs-Diagramms
2.2 Bending
The realisation of a pure bending condition along the sam-
ple axle is difficult. Problems are caused by the support of the
transmission moment, when the material is bent. The bending
moment should not be supported by a radial force but by a
supporting moment. Therefore, a suitable support had to be
constructed. Figure 6 shows the principle solution of the pro-
blem. The bending moment is equivalent to the torsional mo-
ment of the motor. Linear guides are supporting the bending
moment. The arrangement of the linear guides allows horizon-
tal rectilinear motion and vertical rectilinear motion of the jig,
but it does not allow a twist of the jig. The allowed rectilinear
motions prevent the occurrence of radial forces. Only the fric-
Fig. 6. Principle test plant for bending tests
Abb. 6. Prinzip des Biegeprüfstandes
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2004, 35, No. 5
tion in the linear guides is generating minimum radial forces,
which are negligible. As far as the high loading frequency is
concerned, the effects of the vis inertiae must be estimated.
The sample geometry for bending tests is equivalent to the
sample geometry for torsion tests and the varied parameters
are equivalent to the torsion parameters. For bending tests,
only the solid shaft specimens were used.
3 Results and Discussion
Under torsional loading, NiTi-SMAs show a brittle fracture
behaviour in spite of the high psseudoelaticity. Figure 7 shows
the fracture behaviour of the torsion samples. The angle be-
tween the fracture surface and the stress axis was 45 . The
helical incipient crack is followed by an axial fracture. As
far as solid shafts are concerned, visual inspection is sufficient
to detect cracks, figure 8.
The mechanical hysteresis curves of the solid shaft samples
and hollow shaft samples have been discussed in detail in [4,
5, 6]. By using these geometries it is possible to investigate the
influence of the sample geometry on the fatigue behaviour. In
the following, both geometries are compared at a frequency of
0.1 Hz. Investigations of solid shafts show the influence of the
inner sample material, which is less loaded, on the fatigue be-
Fig. 7. Fracture behaviour of solid shafts and hollow shafts (1)
Abb. 7. Bruchverhalten der Voll- und Hohlwellen (1)
Fig. 8. Fracture behaviour of solid shafts and hollow shafts (2)
Abb. 8. Bruchverhalten der Voll- und Hohlwellen (2)
Damping 309
Fig. 9. Stress-strain diagrams of the hollow shafts for cycles 1 and
2500
Abb. 9. Spannungs-Dehnungs-Diagramme der Holwellen für den
ersten und 2500. Lastwechsel
haviour as well as on the damping behaviour. In general, the
solid shaft can be divided into several hollow shafts. Assum-
ing that all hollow shafts have the same rotary angle, the strain
linearly depends on the radius of the solid shaft. The total load
of the solid shaft is resulting from all single loads of the hol-
low shafts.
The functional fatigue is characterised by three parameters
as a function of the cycle number [4, 5]. These parameters are
the transformation stress sMs, the apparent shear modulus of
the austenite GA and the apparent stiffness of the austenit-mar-
tensit transformation GA-M. The transformation stress sMs and
the apparent shear modulus of the austenite GA decrease with
increasing cycle number. The apparent stiffness of the auste-
nit-martensit transformation GA-M rises with the cycle num-
ber. The absolute values of these effects increase with applied
levels of load and strain. Thus, the outer material of the tor-
sional sample is more governed by these fatigue effects asso-
ciated with higher strain.
Figures 9 and 10 show s-c curves, which are calculated by
the measured torsion deflection curves. As far as hollow shafts
are concerned, it is assumed that a constant stress in the cross
section is resulting in the calculated stress being lower than
the real outer fibre stress. Stresses of the solid shaft samples
are deduced by linear-elastic calculation. Resulting from this,
the calculated stresses in the outer fibre seem to be higher than
the real stresses during martensitic transformation.
Figure 9 shows the stress-strain diagrams of the hollow
shafts for cycle one and for cycle 2500. Functional fatigue
effects can be clearly detected. The smaller hysteresis and
the higher residual strains result from these fatigue effects
after 2500 cycles. This is due to the increasing residual mar-
tensite and the dislocation density. If the dislocation density
exceeds a certain level, the samples can no longer be comple-
310 W. Predki, A. Knopik and M. Klönne
Fig. 10. Stress-strain diagrams of the solid shafts for cycles 1 and
5000
Abb. 10. Spannungs-Dehnungs-Diagramme der Vollwellen für
den ersten und 2500. Lastwechsel
tely transformed. Further loading results in an elastic defor-
mation of the transformed material. In that case, also plastic
deformations can occur. The upper area of the hysteresis
straightens out due to functional fatigue. The lower area of
the hysteresis gets wider due to the increasing residual strain.
An R-phase transformation already occurs at a stress of ap-
proximately 50 MPa, which is a general behaviour of aged
alloys with high dislocation density [7, 8, 9]. This is to be
seen by the irregularity of the stress-strain curve.
Figure 10 shows the stress-strain diagrams of the solid
shafts for cycles 1 and 5000. The solid shafts show a similar
behaviour as the hollow shafts. The hysteresis are smaller and
steeper after a period of 5000 cycles. The residual strains of
the solid shafts are smaller than the residual strains of the hol-
low shafts. The smaller residual strains result from the sup-
porting inner material, which is not transforming. The upper
area of the hysteresis flattens out in very much the same way
as the hysteresis of the hollow shafts due to functional fatigue.
The lower area of the hysteresis does not widen as much as the
hysteresis of the hollow shafts due to the increasing residual
strain. The supporting inner material inhibits this process.
Therefore, the hysteresis area of the solid shafts is smaller
than the hysteresis area of the hollow shafts due to functional
fatigue effects.
Figure 11 shows the transformation stress sMs depending on
the number of cycles and the load amplitude of the solid shafts
as well as of the hollow shafts. The transformation stress sMs
of both shafts decreases with increasing cycle number. The
solid shafts show a more stable behaviour.
Figure 12 shows the apparent shear modulus of the auste-
nite GA depending on the number of cycles and the load am-
plitude of the solid shafts as well as of the hollow shafts. The
apparent shear modulus of the austenite GA of both shafts de-
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2004, 35, No. 5
Fig. 11. Transformation stress sMs depending on the number of cy-
cles and the load amplitude
Abb. 11. Umwandlungsspannung sMs in Abhängigkeit von der Zy-
klenzahl und der Lastamplitude
Fig. 12. Apparent shear modulus of the austenite GA depending on
the number of cycles and the load amplitude
Abb. 12. Austenit-Schermodul GA in Abhängigkeit von der Zy-
klenzahl und der Lastamplitude
creases with increasing cycle number. The solid shafts show
also a more stable behaviour.
Figure 13 shows the apparent stiffness of the austenite-mar-
tensite transformation GA-M depending on the number of cy-
cles and the load amplitude of the solid shafts and of the hol-
low shafts. The apparent stiffness of the austenite-martensite
transformation GA-M of both shafts rises with increasing cycle
number. The stiffness GA-M shows a similar behaviour as the
parameters sMs and GA concerning fatigue. The solid shafts
show a more stable behaviour.
Figure 14 shows the specific damping capacity W and the
dissipated energy Wdiss depending on the number of cycles
and the load amplitude of the solid shafts and of the hollow
shafts. As far as the specific damping capacity W is con-
cerned, the hollow shafts show a more stable behaviour in
contrast to the three transformation parameters sMs, GA and
GA-M. This behaviour results from the inner supporting mate-
rial of the solid shafts, which is not transforming. The outer
material of the solid shafts undergoes transformation. For this
reason, the outer material experiences functional fatigue. Be-
sides, the residual strains in this range increase with cycle
number. The inner material does not undergo functional fati-
gue and the residual strains in this range are constant and do
not increase with cycle number. The total residual strain of the
solid shaft is smaller than the total residual strain of the hollow
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2004, 35, No. 5
Fig. 13. Apparent stiffness of the austenite-martensiet transforma-
tion GA-M depending on the number of cycles and the load ampli-
tude
Abb. 13. Steifigkeit während der Austenit-Martensit-Umwand-
lung GA-M in Abhängigkeit von der Zyklenzahl und der Lastampli-
tude
Fig. 14. Specific damping capacity W and dissipated energy Wdiss
as a function of the number of cycles and the load amplitude
Abb. 14. Verhältnismäßige Dämpfung W und dissipierte Energie
Wdiss in Abhängigkeit von der Zyklenzahl und der Lastamplitude
shaft, because hollow shafts fully transform (see figure 9 and
figure 10). Material regions in the hollow and the solid shaft,
which undergo the transformation simultaneously experience
functional fatigue in parallel. In this range of the material the
area of the hysteresis decreases with cycle number. The inner
material of the solid shafts does not undergo the transforma-
tion. For this reason, this range of material does not give rise to
an increased hysteresis and it does not affect the functional
fatigue of the outer material. The major difference between
the hysteresis of both geometries is related to residual strain.
Generally speaking, the hysteresis areas of the hollow shafts
are not decreasing in the same way as the hysteresis areas of
the solid shafts with the cycle number due to the smaller re-
sidual strain. The specific damping capacity W, directly de-
pends on the hysteresis areas (see figure 14).
4 Conclusions
The present paper presents experimental results of the me-
chanical behaviour of NiTi hollow and solid shaft samples,
subjected to cyclic torsional loading. The functional fatigue
Damping 311
is described by three parameters. These parameters are the
transformation stress sMs, the apparent shear modulus of
the austenite GA and the apparent stiffness of the austenite-
martensite transformation GA-M. These parameters of the hol-
low and the solid shaft samples show tendentially the same
progression due to functional fatigue. The transformation
stress sMs and the apparent shear modulus of the austenite
GA decrease with cycle number. The apparent stiffness of
the austenite-martensite transformation GA-M increases with
cycle number. This behaviour becomes more pronounced
with increasing load amplitude. The solid shaft samples
show a more stable functional fatigue behaviour. The more
stable functional fatigue behaviour of the solid shafts results
from the supporting inner material, which does not transform.
The material of the hollow shafts fully transforms and there-
fore suffers functional fatigue. The fatigue effects can be
clearly seen. The functional fatigue effects show smaller hys-
teresis loops in the stress-strain diagram and increasing resi-
dual strain. The residual strain of the solid shafts is less than
the residual strain of the hollow shafts which is also due to the
supporting inner material. For this reason, the hysteresis area
of solid shafts decreases more striking with cycle number than
the hysteresis area of the hollow shafts. As far as the specific
damping capacity W is concerned, a similar trend is found.
5 Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge funding by the DFG
through SFB 459 (Project B5) and support by MWF NRW.
312 W. Predki, A. Knopik and M. Klönne
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A. Knopik, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Lehrstuhl für Maschinene-
lemente, Getriebe und Kraftfahrzeuge, Universitätsstraße 150,
44801 Bochum, Germany, Tel. 02343226284, Fax 02343214160,
e-mail: Adam.M.Knopik@rub.de
Received in final form: 3/15/04 [T 758]
Mat.-wiss. u. Werkstofftech. 2004, 35, No. 5