CIVL451 Lecture 2

Site Exploration and

Characterization

1
 Definition
The process of determining the layers of natural
soil deposits that will underlie a proposed
structure and their physical properties is generally
referred to as site investigation.

2
 EXPLORATION PROGRAM
• The purpose of the exploration program is to determine,
within practical limits,
– the stratification and
– engineering properties of the soils

• The principal properties of interest will be the

– strength,
– deformation, and
– hydraulic characteristics.

• The program should be planned so that the maximum amount

of information can be obtained at minimum cost.

3
The purpose of a soil investigation program
1. Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable for a
given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation problems (for example,
expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
5. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like retaining
walls, sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Establishment of construction methods for changing subsoil
conditions.

4
 Steps of subsurface exploration program
Preliminary site investigation

• In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is opened to

establish in a general manner
– the stratification,
– types of soil to be expected, and possibly
– the location of the groundwater table.

• One or more borings should be taken to rock, or competent

strata, if the initial borings indicate the upper soil is loose or
highly compressible.

• This amount of exploration is usually the extent of the site

investigation for small structures.

5
Assembly of all available information about the proposed
structure:

• dimensions,
• column spacing,
• type and use of the structure,
• basement requirements, and
• any special architectural considerations of the
proposed building.

6
 Preliminary Investigation Stage

• During the conceptual planning of a project, a

preliminary geotechnical investigation is to be
carried out.
• Attend periodic meetings with the Design
Manager and the Consultant team to obtain
the instructions regarding project
requirements.
• In the preliminary investigation stage, provide
the following:

7
 (1) Air Photo Interpretation

• Where air photographs are available, map the

site and surrounding area terrain to indicate
some or all of the following:
• general drainage patterns
• general slopes and ranges or gradient
• bedrock outcrops, where present
• general surficial soil types
• poorly drained or bog areas (peat or muskeg)
• erosion features
• old or potential slope failure areas.
8
 (2) Literature Search

• Review the geology of the area from known

data, either to supplement the
• air photo interpretation, or to replace it where
air photos are not available.
• Search all available physiographical data and
previous site investigation
• data, along with any available well water
records.

9
 (3) Site Reconnaissance
Following air photo interpretation and/or literature
search, carry out a preliminary site reconnaissance to
physically examine

• land forms,
• drainage,
• erosion features, etc.

In addition, hand auger holes or rod soundings may be

put down, or shallow test pits excavated to confirm the
general surficial soil, bedrock and groundwater conditions.

10
• This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which
can reveal information on the type and behavior of
adjacent structures such as

– cracks,
– noticeable sags, and possibly
– sticking doors and windows.

•The type of local existing structures may influence, to

a considerable extent, the

•exploration program and

•The best foundation type for the proposed adjacent
structure.

11
 (3) Preliminary Investigation Report

• Present the findings of the work in the

preliminary investigation report.
• Present the data in a form that enables the
client to assess the economic effect which the
soil, bedrock and groundwater may have on
the viability of the project.

12
 Detailed Geotechnical Investigation

Upon completion of the preliminary investigation, meet with

the Design Manager and the Consultant team to review other
relevant planning concept design information. The detailed
geotechnical investigation shall include:

1. Field Exploration
2. Field Sampling
3. Field Testing
4. Groundwater Records
5. Laboratory testing of samples
6. Classification tests
7. Strength tests

13
Where the preliminary site investigation has
established the feasibility of the project, a more
detailed exploration program is undertaken.

The preliminary borings and data are used as a

basis for locating additional borings, which
should be confirmatory in nature, and
determining the additional samples required.
14
 Field Exploration
• The pattern of borehole drilling and/or test pit excavation should be
agreed between the geotechnical consultant and the Consultant's
design engineer.

• The nature of the project to be designed and the known subsurface

conditions of the area usually dictate the
–location,
–spacing and
–depth of the test holes.

• Carry out the drilling of boreholes by an experienced drill crew

using the
type of equipment best suited for the terrain and anticipated soil
conditions.

15
 Field Sampling
• The frequency and type of sampling may be varied by the requirements of
the project, but should be under the control of the geotechnical consultant.

• Normally, standard sampling intervals below the 4.5 m or 6 m depth if

conditions warrant such increase.

• Types of samples normally used include

• soils carried out at 0.75 m intervals initially, with
a spacing often increased to 1.5 m spoons and
– thin wall Shelby tubes.
• Other types of samplers which may be required in certain types of soil are
piston and Oesterberg samplers and foil samplers.

• In test pit excavations, representative bulk samples may be recovered from

the different stratigraphy units as necessary.

16
 Field Testing

Types of tests normally done include

• insitu vane,
• standard penetration,
• dynamic cone penetration,
• pressure meter
• Other tests depending on soil conditions may
include
– static cone penetrometer,
– flat dilatometer,
– plate load tests, etc.

17
 Groundwater Records
• Fluctuations in the elevation of the groundwater occur over a period
of time.
• The existing groundwater level should be monitored by piezometers or
• other methods as a routine part of any investigation.
• The installation of such equipment should be in accordance with
recognized standards.
• Such installations usually require additional visits to the site to make
field
• observations until conditions have reached equilibrium.
• Record all observations of the encountering of seepage water or initial
water percolation into test pits.
• Record the rate of inflow and rise of water levels at the time of the
initial observations in order to assess correctly the apparent influence
which the water condition may have on the design project as well as
18
on construction procedures.
 Laboratory Testing of Samples

• Test representative samples from the detailed

site investigation in the laboratory for the
determination of soil properties essential to
the preparation of the geotechnical report.
• Determine natural moisture content of
samples at the time of the investigation.
• Base the report and recommendations on the
laboratory results obtained.

19
 Classification Tests

• Classification testing of samples is frequently

carried out to identify soil type.
• Such classification tests include
– grain size analysis,
– Atterberg limits,
– moisture content determinations
• and is to be carried out in accordance with
recognized practice such as recommended by
ASTM.

20
 (Strength Tests) Engineering
Behaviour
• Strength and consolidation tests should be
carried out on undisturbed samples if conditions
warrant such testing.

• Such tests may be carried out in a variety of ways,

depending upon the parameters required and the
soil type being examined, but all such tests are to
be carried out in accordance with recognized
practice, e. g. ASTM.
21
 Depth of Boring
• The approximate required minimum depth of
the borings should be predetermined.
• The estimated depths can be changed during
the drilling operation, depending on the
subsoil encountered.
• To determine the approximate minimum
depth of boring, engineers may use the
following rule:

22
 Depth of Boring
1. Determine the net increase of stress, under a foundation
with depth as shown in the Figure on the next slide.

2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, ', with

depth.

3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the stress increase  is

equal to (1/10) q (q = estimated net stress on the foundation).

4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which /' = 0.05.

5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of the two depths,

D1 and D2, just determined is the approximate minimum depth
of boring required.

Table shows the minimum depths of borings for buildings based on

the preceding rule.
23
 Depth of Boring

Determination of the minimum depth of boring

24
Depth of Boring

25
 Depth of Boring
For hospitals and office buildings, the following rule
could be use to determine boring depth

26
 Depth of Boring
• When deep excavations are anticipated, the depth
of boring should be at, least 1.5 times the depth of
excavation.

• Sometimes subsoil conditions are such that the

foundation load may have to be transmitted to the
bedrock. The minimum depth of core boring into
the bedrock is about 3m.

• If the bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core

borings may have to be extended to greater depths.

27
 Spacing of Boring
• There are no hard and fast rules for the spacing
of the boreholes.
• The following table gives some general
guidelines for borehole spacing.
• These spacing can be increased or decreased,
depending on the subsoil condition.
• If various soil strata are more or less uniform
and predictable, the number of boreholes can
be reduced.
28
 Spacing of Boring

Approximate Spacing of Boreholes

29
 SOIL BORING
• The earliest method of obtaining a test hole was to
excavate a test pit using a pick and shovel.

• Because of economics, the current procedure is to use

power-excavation equipment such as a backhoe to
excavate the pit and then to use hand tools to remove a
block sample or shape the site for in situ testing.

• This is the best method at present for obtaining quality

undisturbed samples or samples for testing at other
than vertical orientation.

30
SOIL BORING

31
Boring tools

Auger boring Power drills

32
Boring tools

33
Boring tools

34
Boring
tools

35
 Preparation of Boring Logs
1. Name and address of the drilling company
2. Driller’s name
3. Job description and number
4. Number, type, and location of boring
5. Date of boring
6. Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual
observation of the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon
sampler, and thin-walled Shelby tube sampler
7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing and
mud losses, and so on
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
10. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for each
run, the actual length of coring, length of core recovery, and
RQD 36
37
 SOIL SAMPLING
• Two types of soil samples can be obtained during sampling
disturbed and undisturbed.
• The most important engineering properties required for
foundation design are strength, compressibility, and
permeability.
• Reasonably good estimates of these properties for cohesive
soils can be made by laboratory tests on undisturbed samples
which can be obtained with moderate difficulty.
• It is nearly impossible to obtain a truly undisturbed sample of
soil; so in general usage the term "undisturbed" means a
sample where some precautions have been taken to minimize
disturbance or remolding effects.
• In this context, the quality of an "undisturbed" sample varies
widely between soil laboratories..

38
 Disturbed vs Undisturbed

Good quality samples necessary.

AR<10%
O.D.2  I .D.2
AR  2
 100 (%)
soil I .D.

area ratio

sampling tube

Thicker the wall, greater the disturbance.

39
Disturbed vs Undisturbed

40
Rock coring

41
 GROUND WATER TABLE LEVEL
Groundwater conditions and the potential for
groundwater seepage are fundamental factors in
virtually all geotechnical analyses and design studies.
Accordingly, the evaluation of groundwater
conditions is a basic element of almost all
geotechnical investigation programs. Groundwater
investigations are of two types as follows:
• Determination of groundwater levels and pressures.
• Measurement of the permeability of the subsurface
materials.

42
 FIELD STRENGTH TESTS
The following are the major field tests for
determining the soil strength:
1. Vane shear test (VST).
2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
3. Cone Penetration Test (CPT).
4. The Borehole Shear Test (BST).
5. The Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT).
6. The Pressure-meter Test (PMT).
7. The Plate Load Test (PLT).
43
FIELD STRENGTH TESTS

44
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

45
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

46
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Corrections are normally applied to the SPT blow

count to account for differences in:
• energy imparted during the test (60%
hammer efficiency)
• the stress level at the test depth
The following equation is used to compensate for
the testing factors (Skempton, 1986):

47
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

48
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

49
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

50
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

51
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

52
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

53
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

54
The Plate Load Test (PLT)

55
The Plate Load Test (PLT)

56
The Plate Load Test (PLT)

57
The Plate Load Test (PLT)
Scale Effect in Foundation Design

58
 Geotechnical Design Reports
• At the end of all subsoil exploration programs, the soil and/or
rock specimens collected from the field are subjected to visual
observation and appropriate laboratory testing. After the
compilation of all of the required information, a soil
exploration report is prepared for the use of the design office
and for reference during future construction work. Although
the details and sequence of information in the report may
vary to some degree is depending on the structure under
consideration and the person compiling the report.

59
 Subsoil Exploration Report
1. A description of the scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has been
conducted
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby, drainage
conditions, the nature of vegetation on the site and surrounding it, and any other
features unique to the site
4. A description of the geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field exploration—that is, number of borings, depths of borings, types
of borings involved, and so on
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil specimens
and from related laboratory tests, standard penetration resistance and cone
penetration resistance, and soon
7. A description of the water-table conditions
8. Re commendations regarding the foundation, including the type of foundation
recommended, the allowable hearing pressure, and any special construction
procedure that may he needed; alternative foundation design procedures should
also be discussed in this portion of the report
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
60
 Geotechnical Report

• The Geotechnical Report should outline the

terms of reference of the investigation, should
summarize the findings of the field
investigation and the supplementary
laboratory testing and should then present
the conclusions and recommendations based
on these findings.

61
 Factual Data

The factual data comprises

• the terms of reference,
• the details of the field investigation procedures,
• the results of the field investigation,
• the results of the field testing,
• records of groundwater observations,
• laboratory test results,
• site plan and inferred soil stratigraphy, etc.
62
 Report Recommendations

Recommendations may cover a variety of activities,

such as
• alternative founding depths with recommended
design bearing values,
• pile design considerations,
• estimates of potential settlements,
• recommended safe slopes of banks or excavation
walls,
• earth pressures for shoring design,
• dewatering requirements, soil stabilization, etc.
63
 Subsoil Exploration Report
The following graphical presentations should he
attached to the report:
1. A site location map
2. A plan view of the location of the borings with
respect to the proposed structures and those nearby
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations

64
Example Table
of Contents for
a Geotechnical
Investigation
(Data) Report

65