Chemistry Project

On

POLYMERS
Jyotsna Kumar, XII-A
01-Feb-14
 INDEX

Sr.No Content Page Number

1 Certificate 3

2 Acknowledgement 4

3 Aim 5

4 Introduction 6

5 Types of Polymers 6

6 Additional Polymerization 10

7 Additional Polymers 11

8 Condensation Polymers 13

9 Rubber 17

10 Biodegradable Polymers 20

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Jyotsna Kumar of

class XII-A have completed the Chemistry Project
entitled 'POLYMERS' herself and under my guidance.
The progress of Project has been continously
reported and has been in my knowledge consistently.

Dr.V.B.T.Malik
K.B.DAV Sr. Secondary School,
Sector-7-B, Chandigarh.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me great pleasure to express my

gratitude towards our Chemistry Teacher
Dr.V.B.T.Malik, for his guidance, support and
encouragement throughout the duration of Project.
Without his motivation and help, the successful
completion of Project would not have been possible.
Thank you Sir for your coordination towards us by
helping us in our project.

Jyotsna Kumar
XII-A

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 AIM

Different types of Polymers

and
their usage in our daily life

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 INTRODUCTION
A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated
subunits, known as monomers. Because of their broad range of properties, both
synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life..
Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small molecule compounds
produces unique physical properties,.

The term "Polymer" derives from the ancient Greek word polus, meaning
"many, much" and meros, meaning "parts", and refers to a molecule whose structure
is composed of multiple repeating units, from which originates a characteristic of
high relative molecular mass and attendant properties.

TYPES OF POLYMERS :
1. On Source:
a. Natural Polymers : Polymers which are found in nature i.e
.in animal and plant are called natural polymers. Protein which make much of our
body ,acid which control hereditary at molecular level and rubber which are used
for making various article of daily use are all natural polymers

b. Semi-synthetic Polymers: These are mostly derived from

naturally occurring polymers by chemical modification. For example, cellulose on
acetylation with acetic anhydride in presence of sulphuric acid gives cellulose
diacetate which is used for making threads.

c. Synthetic Polymers: A large number of man -made polymers are

extensively used in daily life as well as in industry. These include fibers (nylon,
polyester) ,plastics(neoprene) etc.

2. On Structure :
a. Linear Polymers: In these polymers, the monomers are joined
to form long and straight chains. The examples of Polymers are high density
polythene, polyvinyl chloride, etc.

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b. Branched Chain Polymers : In these polymers the
monomers unit not only combine to produce linear chain but also branches of
different length along the main chain. e.g., low density polythene. These are depicted
as follows:

c. Cross-Linked Polymers: These are usually formed from bi-

functional and tri-functional monomers and contain strong covalent bonds between
various linear polymer chains. Because of presence of cross-link ,these polymers are
also called cross-linked polymers. e.g. Bakelite, Melamine, etc. These polymers are
depicted as follows:

3. On Molecular Forces :
a. Elastomers: They are rubber-like solids with elastic properties.
Polymer chains are held together by the weakest intermolecular forces and weak
binding forces permit the polymer to be stretched. Cross-links’ are also introduced in
between the chains, which help the polymer to retract to its original position after the
force is released, as in vulcanized rubber. Elastomers are amorphous polymers
existing above their glass transition temperature, so that considerable segmental
motion is possible. At ambient temperatures, rubbers are thus relatively soft
(E~3MPa) and deformable. Their primary uses are for seals, adhesives and molded
flexible parts. Application areas for different types of rubber are manifold . The
examples are buna-S, buna-N, neoprene, etc.

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b. Fibres: They are thread-forming solids which possess high tensile
strength and high modulus. Characteristics can be attributed to strong intermolecular
forces like hydrogen bonding .Strong forces lead to close packing of chains, and thus,
impart crystalline nature. Example: Polyamides (nylon 6, 6), polyesters (terylene),
etc.

c. Thermoplastic: A thermoplastic or thermosoftening plastic,

is a polymer that becomes pliable or mouldable above a specific temperature, and
returns to a solid state upon cooling. Most thermoplastics have a high molecular
weight. The polymer chains associate through intermolecular forces, which permits
thermoplastics to be remolded because the intermolecular interactions increase
upon cooling and restore the bulk properties. In this way, thermoplastics differ
from thermosetting polymers, which form irreversible chemical bonds during the
curing process. Thermosets often do not melt, but break down and do not reform
upon cooling. These polymers possess intermolecular forces of attraction
intermediate between Elastomers and Fibers. Some common thermoplastics are
polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyl etc.

d. Thermosetting Plastics: A thermosetting resin, also known as

a thermoset, is petrochemical material that irreversibly cures. The cure may be
induced by heat, generally above 200 °C (392 °F), through a chemical reaction, or
suitable irradiation.. Thermoset materials are usually liquid or malleable prior to
curing and designed to be molded into their final form, or used as adhesives. Others
are solids like that of the molding compound used in semiconductors and integrated
circuits (IC). Once hardened a thermoset resin cannot be reheated and melted
to be shaped differently. Thermosetting resin may be contrasted
with thermoplastic polymers which are commonly produced in pellets and shaped
into their final product form by melting and pressing or injection molding. Some
common examples are Bakelite, urea-formaldehyde resins, etc.

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4. ON MODE OF SYNTHESIS :

a. Additional Polymers : An addition polymer is formed by a

reaction known as polyaddition or addition polymerization. This can occur in a
variety of ways including free radical polymerization, cationic polymerization,
anionic polymerization and coordination polymerization.

Most of the common addition polymers are formed

from unsaturated monomers (usually having a double bond). This includes
polythenes, polypropylene, PVC, Teflon, Buna rubbers, polyacrylates, polystyrene,
and PCTFE. Addition polymers are also formed from monomers that have a closed
ring. Through coordination polymerization, even saturated monomers can form
addition polymers. In this ,polymers are formed by direct addition of repeated
monomer without elimination of byproduct

When two or more types of monomer undergo addition polymerization,

the polymer formed is known as an addition copolymer. Saran wrap, formed from
polymerization of vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride, is an addition copolymer.[2.
For example-Polythene, Teflon Pan(Polyacronitrile)].

b. Condensation Polymers : Condensation polymerization, a

form of step-growth polymerization, is a process by which two molecules join
together, resulting loss of small molecules which is often water. The type of end
product resulting from a condensation polymerization is dependent on the number
of functional end groups of the monomer which can react.

Monomers with only one reactive group terminate a growing chain, and
thus give end products with a lower molecular weight. Linear polymers are created
using monomers with two reactive end groups and monomers with more than two
end groups give three dimensional polymers which are cross linked. Polyester is
created through ester linkages between monomers, which involve the functional
groups carboxyl and hydroxyl (an organic acid and an alcohol monomer).

Nylon is another common condensation polymer. It can be

manufactured by reacting di-amines with carboxyl derivatives. In this example the
derivative is a dicarboxylic acid, but chlorides are also used.

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Additional Polymerisation or Chain Growth
Polymerisation:

In this type of polymerisation, the molecules of the same monomer or

different monomers add together on a large scale to form a polymer. The monomers
used are unsaturated compounds. This mode of polymerisation leading to an increase
in chain length or chain growth can take place through the formation of either free
radicals or ionic species.

FREE RADICAL METHOD :

Free radical polymerization is a method of polymerization by which
a polymer forms by the successive addition of free radical building blocks. Free
radicals can be formed via a number of different mechanisms usually involving
separate initiator molecules. Following its generation, the initiating free radical adds
(non-radical) monomer units, thereby growing the polymer chain.

Free radical polymerization is a key synthesis route for obtaining a wide

variety of different polymers and material composites. The relatively non-specific
nature of free radical chemical interactions makes this one of the most versatile forms
of polymerization available and allows facile reactions of polymeric free radical chain
ends and other chemicals or substrates. In 2001, 40 billion of the 110 billion pounds
of polymers produced in the United States were produced by free radical
polymerization.

MECHANISM :
A variety of alkenes or dynes and their derivatives are polymerized in
the presence of a free radical generating initiator (catalyst) like benzyl peroxide,
acetyl peroxide, tert-butyl peroxide. The process starts with the addition of phenyl
free radical formed by the peroxide to the ethene double bond thus generating a new
and larger free radical. This step is called chain initiating step

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 As this radical reacts with another molecule of ethene, another bigger sized radical
is formed. The repetition of this sequence with new and bigger radicals carries the
reaction forward and the step is termed as chain propagating step

Ultimately, at some stage the product radical thus formed reacts with another radical
to form the polymerized product. This step is called the chain terminating step. The
sequence of steps may be depicted as follows:

Chain initiation steps:

ADDITIONAL POLYMERS:
1. POLYTHENE:
Polyethylene (abbreviated PE)or polythene (IUPAC name polyethene or poly
(methylene)) is the most common plastic Its primary use is in packaging (plastic
bag, plastic films, geomembranes, containers including bottles, etc.

Polyethylene is a thermoplastic polymer consisting of long hydrocarbon

chains. Depending on the crystallinity and molecular weight, a melting point
and glass transition may or may not be observable. It is also resistant to gentle
oxidants and reducing agents. Polyethylene burns slowly with a blue flame having a
yellow tip and gives off an odour of paraffin. The material continues burning on
removal of the flame source and produces a drip.

The ingredient or monomer is ethylene (IUPAC name ethene),

a gaseous hydrocarbon with the formula C2H4. Ethylene is a rather stable molecule
that polymerizes only upon contact with catalysts. The conversion is highly
exothermic, that is the process releases a lot of heat.

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It is of two types:
a. LOW DENSITY POLYTHENE :

It is obtained by the polymerisation of ethene under high pressure of

1000 to 2000 atmospheres, and at a temperature of 350 K to 570 K, in the presence
of traces of dioxygen or a peroxide initiator (catalyst).It is chemically inert and tough
but flexible but flexible. It is poor conductor of electricity. It has density of 0.92 g/cm3.
It has low melting point of 384K.It is chemically inert.

POLYTHENE

It is used for insulation of electricity carrying wire and cables. It is used

in manufacture of flexible pipes, toys and thin bags.

b. HIGH DENSITY POLYTHENE :

It is formed when addition polymerisation of ethene takes place in a

hydrocarbon solvent in the presence of a catalyst such as triethyl aluminum and
titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler-Natta catalyst) at a temperature of 333 K to 343 K and
under a pressure of 6-7 atmospheres. High Density Polythene (HDP) thus produced,
consists of linear molecules and has a high density due to close packing. It is also
chemically inert and more tougher and harder .It is used in manufacture of container
like bucket ,dustbin .It is used in manufacture of pipes. It has density of 0.97g/cm3. It
has higher melting point of 403K.It has tensile strength.

2. TEFLON :
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE).is.a.synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylen
e that has numerous applications. PTFE is a fluorocarbon solid, as it is a high-
molecular-weight compound consisting wholly of carbon and fluorine. PTFE
is hydrophobic. PTFE is used as a non-stick coating for pans and other cookware. It is
very non-reactive, partly because of the strength of carbon–fluorine bonds and so it
is often used in containers and pipe work for reactive and corrosive chemicals. Where
used as a lubricant, PTFE reduces friction, wear and energy consumption of
machinery. It is also commonly used as a graft material in surgical interventions.
Teflon is manufactured by heating tetrafluoroethene with a free radical or
persulphate catalyst at high pressures. It is chemically inert and resistant to attack by
corrosive reagents.
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3. PAN(POLYACRONITRILE) :
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) is a synthetic, semi crystalline organic polymer resin, with
the linear formula (C3H3N)n. Though it is thermoplastic, it does not melt under normal
conditions. The addition polymerisation of acrylonitrile in presence of a peroxide
catalyst leads to the formation of polyacrylonitrile. Polyacrylonitrile is used as a
substitute for wool in making commercial fibers as orlon or acrilan.

CONDENSATION POLYMERS :
1. POLYESTER :
Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional
group in their main chain. They are polycondensation polymer of dicarboxylic acid
and diols forming ester linkage

a. TERYLENE :

It is a condensation polymer of terethalic acid and ethylene glycol by

heating at 420-460K in presence of zinc -acetate antimony trioxide catalyst.

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It is used in is an excellent water and moisture barrier material, plastic bottles. It is
used in textile industry and also blended with cotton or wool to make teriwool .it is
used in safety helmets.

b. GLYPTAL :

It is condensation polymer of thalic acid and ethylene glycol. .The

addition of a hydroxyl group allows for extensive branching during polymerization
.During polymerization reaction, the monomers are joined to form larger molecules
and due to increase in attractive force between molecules ,mixture become viscous.
It is used in manufacture of paint and building materials.

2. POLYAMIDE :

A polyamide is.a macromolecule with repeating.units linked.by amide bonds..

They can occur both naturally and artificially. Examples of naturally occurring
polyamides are proteins, such as wool and silk. Artificially made polyamides can be
made through step-growth polymerization or solid-phase synthesis, examples
being nylons, aramids, and sodium poly (aspartate). Synthetic polyamides are
commonly used in textiles, automotives, carpet and sportswear due to their extreme
durability and strength. Transportation is the major consumer, accounting for 35%
of polyamide (PA) consumption. The amide link is produced from the condensation
reaction of an amino group and a carboxylic acid or acid chloride group. A small
molecule, usually water, or hydrogen chloride, is eliminated.

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a. NYLON 6,6 :

It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation of

hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid under high pressure and at high
temperature.

It is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in textile industry.

Nylon 6-6 is frequently used when high mechanical strength, great rigidity, and good
stability under heat is required. It is used for ball bearing cages, electro-insulating
elements, pipes, profiles and various machine parts

b. NYLON 6 :

Nylon 6 is synthesized by ring opening polymerization of caprolactam.

Caprolactam has 6 carbons, hence 'Nylon 6'. When caprolactam is heated at about
533 K in an inert atmosphere of nitrogen for about 4-5 hours, the ring breaks and
undergoes polymerization.

During polymerization,.the peptide.bond within.each.caprolactam molecule is

broken, with the active groups on each side re-forming two new bonds as
the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone.

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 Nylon 6 fibers are tough, possessing high tensile strength, as well
as elasticity and lustre. They are wrinkle-proof and highly resistant to abrasion and
chemicals such as acids and alkalis. It is widely used for gears, fittings, and bearings,
in automotive industry for under-the-hood parts, and as a material for power tools
housings. Nylon 6 is used as thread in bristles for toothbrushes, surgical sutures, and
strings for acoustic and classical musical instruments, including guitars, sitars,
violins, violas and cellos.

3. FORMALDEHYDE RESIN :
Formaldehyde polymers are the oldest synthetic polymers. These are
obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde in the presence
of either an acid or a base catalyst.

a. BAKELITE :

The reaction starts with the initial formation of o-and/or p-

hydroxymethylphenol derivatives, which further react with phenol.to form
compounds having rings joined to each other through – CH2 groups. The initial
product could be a linear product – Novolac used in paints.

Novolac on heating with formaldehyde undergoes cross linking to form

an infusible solid mass called Bakelite. It is used for making combs, phonograph
records, electrical switches and handles of various utensils.

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b. MALAMMINE FORMALDEHDE RESIN :

Melamine formaldehyde polymer is formed by the condensation

polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde e.g. used in the manufacture of
unbreakable crockery.

RUBBER :
1. NATURAL RUBBER :
Natural rubber, also called India rubber or caoutchouc, as initially
produced, consists of suitable polymers of the organic compound isoprene, with
minor impurities of other organic compounds plus water. It is manufactured from
rubber latex which is a colloidal dispersion of rubber in water. This latex is obtained
from the bark of rubber tree and is found in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia and
South America

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 The cis-polyisoprene molecule consists of various chains held together
by weak Vander Waals interactions and has a coiled structure. Thus, it can be
stretched like a spring and exhibits elastic properties.

2. VULCANIZED RUBBER :
The process of heating of natural rubber with sulphur to improve its
property is called vulcanization and rubber is called vulcanized rubber. In this
process, raw rubber is heated with a mixture of sulphur and an appropriate additive,
at a temperature range of 373 K to 415 K. On vulcanisation, sulphur forms cross-links
at the reactive sites of the double bonds, and thus, rubber gets stiffened. For example,
in the manufacture of tyre rubber, 5% of sulphur is used as a cross-linking agent. It
is used for making tyres.

3. SYNETHIC RUBBER :

a. NEO-PRENE :

Neoprene or polychloroprene is formed by the free radical

polymerisation of chloroprene. It has superior resistance to vegetable and mineral
oils. It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and hoses.

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b. BUNA-S :

It is obtained by polymerisation of buta-1,3-diene and styrene in the

ratio of 3:1 in presence of sodium.

BUNA-S

It is also used in building applications, as a sealing and binding agent

behind renders as an alternative to PVA, but is more expensive. In the latter
application, it offers better durability, reduced shrinkage and increased flexibility

c. BUNA-N :

It is obtained by the co-polymerisation of 1, 3-butadiene and

acrylonitrile in the presence of peroxide catalyst. Resistant to the action of petrol,
lubricating oil and organic solvents. It is used for making oil seals, tank lining, etc.

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 BIODEGRADABLE POLYMER

Biodegradable polymers are polymers that break down and lose their
initial integrity. Biodegradable polymers are used in medical devices to avoid a
second operation to remove them, or to gradually release a drug.

a. PHBV :

It is obtained by the copolymerisation of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and

3 – hydroxypentanoic acid. PHBV is used in specialty packaging, orthopedic devices
and in controlled release of drugs. PHBV undergoes bacterial degradation in the
environment.

b. Nylon 2–nylon 6 :

It is An alternating polyamide co-polymer of Glycine (H2N−CH2−COOH)

and amino Caproic acid [H2N(CH2)5COOH]. It is used in packing of orthopedic devices.

* * * * *

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