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AKARSANA KUMAR S11132245

BI309: COMPARATIVE ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN CARDIVASCULAR PHYSIOLOGY


ECG, Blood Pressure, Heart Rate, Cardiac Output

Aim/ Objectives

-understand the workings of the heart and blood vessels.

-learn the three lead arrangements for recording ECG (Einthoven’s triangle)

- measure the ECG and blood

-be able to observe and record the blood pressure by both of the Auscultatory and Palpatory
method

- observing the effects of exercise on blood pressure, heart rate, and electrocardiogram (ECG)
Introduction

The heart serves as a pump to drive the flow of blood through the body. An ECG, or
Electrocardiograph, is a device used to analyze the electrical activity of one’s heart (WebMD,
2014). It can determine the cause of chest pain and the cause of symptoms of heart disease. It
can also be used to see if a pacemaker is working properly and to see how well the heart of a
patient who has conditions such as heart defects, high blood pressure, or diabetes is. The Three
Lead Arrangement (Einthoven’s Triangle) uses 3 electrodes that are placed on the skin in order
to conduct ECG. These electrodes pick up the electrical activity of the heart.

The contraction of the ventricles of the heart produce a ‘force’; this force is the impact of the
flowing blood on the inside surfaces of the blood vessels. In all major systemic arteries, the
pressure that propels the blood along is pulsatile. This means that it fluctuates repeatedly from
a high pressure to a low pressure, reflecting the events of the cardiac cycle. The highest
pressure in a major artery is the systolic pressure. It is caused by the force of the flowing blood
during systole of the left ventricle. In between the contractions the pressure does not drop to
zero, but falls to a low value called the diastolic pressure. The systolic pressure is the highest
pressure read; the diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure read.

The purpose of this experiment was to use an ECG to determine the heart and pulse rate before
and after exercise. The hypothesis for this experiment was that the heart rate and he pulse
would eventually increase and produce a higher reading after exercise.

Material & Method

-as per lab manual


Results

Part A: Recording of Electrocardiogram

ECG Normal/ at Rest

2 3/13/2018 11:51:37.909 AM

akarsana ecg normal


Channel 4

0
(mV)

-1

21
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Time (secs)

Heart beat rate (BPM) at rest

13 beats : 10 secs

X : 60 secs

X = 78 BPM

Cardiac Cycle

2 3/13/2018 11:51:42.549 AM

1
Channel 4

(mV)

-1

19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 20 20.1 20.2 20.3

Time (secs)
Cardiac cycle duration at rest

78 beat in one minute gives cardiac cycle duration of:

78 beats : 60 secs

x beats : 1 sec

CCD = 1.3 beats/sec

Intervals Start of polarization End of polarization Polarization Duration


(secs) (secs) (secs)

P-P’ 0 0.075 0.075

QRS-QRS’ 0.123 0.197 0.074

T-T’ 0.42 0.593 0.173

Table 1.0 cardiac cycle of the intervals.

Wave Polarization

P atria depolarization (upward deflection, beginning


of atria contraction)

QRS Complex Ventricular depolarization (ventricular contraction)

T Ventricular repolarization (upward deflection,


beginning of ventricular relaxation)

Table 2.0 summary of wave depolarization and repolarization.

P-Q = 0.132 – 0 = 0.123secs

S-T = 0.42 – 0.197 = 0.223

Q-T = 0.593 – 0.123 = 0.4


After Exercise ECG

2 3/13/2018 11:56:43.137 AM
Channel 4 (mV)

after exercise
-1

23
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Time (secs)

Heart beat rate (BPM) after exercise

16 beats : 10 secs

X : 60 secs

X = 96 BPM

Cardiac cycle duration after exercise

96 beat in one minute gives cardiac cycle duration of:

96 beats : 60 secs

x beats : 1 sec

CCD = 1.6 beats/sec


Heart Rate Before Exercise Vs. After Exercise

Figure 1.0 : This graph represents the differences in the heartbeat rate before and after exercise.

Part B : Recording of the Heart Rate

ACTIVITY At Rest (Sitting Supine Standing During After exercise


position) position position exercise

Heart rate 74 60 65 87 73
after 1 min

After 2 min 72 56 60 100 81

After 3 mins 73 55 62 105 85

After 4 mins 50 65 109 80

After 5 mins 46 63 112 89

Average 73 53 63 102.6 81
Table 2.0 changes in the heart beat rate due to different body positions and during and after exercise.

Part C : Recording of the Blood Pressure

Table 2.1 i) Normal BP reading

Observation 1 Observation 2 Observation


3

Systolic pressure 100 110 110

Diastolic pressure 60 65 60

Arterial pressure (mm 73.33 80 76.67


Hg)

Arterial Pressure = diastolic pressure + 1/3 (systolic – diastolic pressure)

= 60 + 1/3 (100-60)

=73.33 mm Hg

Mean arterial pressure = 73.33 + 80 + 76.67 mmHg / 3

=76.67 mmHg

Standard deviation =

= 1.11

Standard Error =

= 0.64
Table 2.2 ii) Effect of Arm Position on Blood Pressure

Systolic pressure Diastolic pressure Arterial pressure


(mm Hg) (mm Hg) (mm Hg)

Normal 106.67 61.67 76.67

Sitting position with 78 55 57.50


raised arms

Supine position with 132 78 95.82


lowered arms

Table 2.3 iii) Effect of exercise of the cardiovascular system

Systolic pressure Diastolic pressure Heart Rate (beats/min)


(mm Hg) (mm Hg)

Normal 121 74 73

Stepping for 1 min 107 62 81

Stepping for 2 mins 101 67 91

Stepping for 3 mins 96 68 97

Data Analysis & Discussion

As heart undergoes depolarization and repolarization, the electrical currents that are generated
spread not only within the heart, but also throughout the body. This electrical activity
generated by the heart can be measured by an array of lead electrodes placed on the body
surface. The recorded tracing is called an electrocardiogram (ECG). The wave compromising the
ECG represents the sequence of depolarization and repolarization of the atria and ventricles.
Since the recoding speeds are standardized, the heart rate can be calculated from the intervals
between different waves. Electrocardiography was invented at the beginning of the 20th
century by the Dutch physician/physiologist Willem Einthoven. Einthoven used a three-lead
system to measure the rate and regularity of heartbeats. Lead I measure the potential
difference between the left arm (positive electrode) and the right arm (negative electrode).
Lead II measures the potential difference between the left leg (positive electrode) and the right
arm (negative electrode). The potential difference between the left leg (positive electrode) and
the left arm (negative electrode) is measured by Lead III. The ECG pattern is a result of different
impulses produced at each phase of the Cardiac cycle-refers to the sequence of events of a
heartbeat.

Each ECG cycles consists of 5 waves: P, Q, R, S, and T corresponding to different phases of the
heart activities. The P wave represents the normal atrium (upper heart chambers)
depolarization; the QRS complex (one single heart beat) corresponds to the depolarization of
the right and left ventricles (lower heart chambers); the T wave represents the re-polarization
(or recovery) of the ventricles. The first wave , p wave indicates the atria depolarization in which
the atria contacts. The P wave occurs when both left and right atria are full of blood and the SA
node fires. The signal causes both atria to contract and pump blood to the ventricles (lower
chambers). After exercise the P wave increases. When the signal from the SA node reaches the
AV node, the signal is slowed and paused for a short period to allow blood from the atria to fill
the ventricles- this takes place from the beginning of the P wave to the beginning of the QRS
complex wave. This complex is the second wave that includes three deflections reflecting the
current associated with right and left ventricular depolarization. Atria repolarization is not
included separately because it’s a short deflection that is included in the QRS complex. The first
negative deflection in the complex is called the Q wave and the first positive deflection is R
wave. A second positive deflection after R wave is called the S wave. The Q wave is generated
when the AV nodes releases the signal that travels through the inter-ventricular septum. As the
signal continues from the AV node and spreads to the ventricles, the signal triggers a
contraction on the left ventricle that pumps blood out of the ventricle producing R wave. S wave
is generated when the basal parts of the ventricles are depolarized resulting in the contraction
of the right ventricle. QRS complex is the electrical forces generated by ventricular
depolarization and represents the pumping action of the ventricles. After the contraction
empties the blood in the ventricles, they begin to relax, which is marked by the T wave (Simons,
2012).

After exercise the ECG heart rate increases from 79 bpm to 102 bpm as shown in the Figure 1.0.
The magnitude of the P wave increases, the interval between the QRS onset and the maximum
spatial magnitude of the T wave shortened. At first of the recovery period the P and T
magnitudes increased markedly, that then returned to the resting level. The increase or
decrease in the parameters are attributed mainly to an increase in the sympathetic tome
connected to the increase in heart rate required to satisfy the increase in cardiac output
resulting from the physical effort.

The rate at which heart pumps blood is directly correlate with the intensity at which our body is
working. Therefore, different activities carried out during the experiment made varying impacts
on our heart rate. During rest, when we are seated or lying down, our heart rate is near its
lowest point because tissues aren’t currently working and don’t need as much oxygen or as
many nutrients. When resting, the heart rate beats at 73 bpm. At supine position the HR tend
to decrease to 53 bpm, because when lying down the effect of gravity on body is reduced
allowing more blood to flow back to heart through veins. Since more blood returns to the heart,
the body as able to pump more blood per beat, which means that less beats per minute is
required to satisfy body’s demand for blood, oxygen and nutrients. Changing the body position
to sitting eventually increased the HR to 63 bpm because less blood returns to the heart and
hence more bpm is required to meet the body demand. Exercise causes the heart to increase
above the resting heart rate. This is evident from the data in Table 2.0 where the heart rate
increases from 78 bpm to 102.6bpm supporting the hypothesis. This is because as the physical
activity becomes vigorous. The heart rate continues to increase in order to increase the amount
of blood ejected. Also more oxygen is required by the muscles for cellular respiration to produce
more energy, hence beats faster to supply oxygen to the muscles. The heart rate after exercise
of 102.6 tend to slowly return to the resting rate as it decreased to 81 bpm.

Heart rate is a useful indicator of the intensity of the effort and body’s physiological adaptation.
Heart rate monitoring is an important component especially in cardiovascular fitness
assessment and training programs. Therefore recoding the heart rate helps to maintain or
improve health/fitness. Monitoring the heart rate enables you to know the condition of your
cardiovascular system during the physical activity. Heart rate monitor also indicates the hearts
ability to recover from a given exercise and or interval within a workout.

Negative feedback mechanism is where an increase or decrease in the variable being regulated
brings about a response that moves the variable in the direction opposite to that of the original
change. Heart rate regulation is an example of negative feedback mechanism. A basic loop
consists of a receptor, a control center and an effector. During exercise the heart rate increases,
this is detected by receptor muscles cells that converts nutrients such as glucose into chemical
energy due to increased carbondioxide and decreased oxygen levels. High carbondioxide in
blood decreases the blood ph which is detected by chemoreceptors. Signal is transmitted to the
brain, medulla stimulated more oxygen into the lungs and binds to hemoglobin in blood, which
transports it to muscle tissue, heart rate decreases (Viik.J, 1999).

When the diaphragm of the stethoscope was placed over the artery, no sound was heard. This is
because the laminar flow that normally occurs in arteries produced very little vibration of the
arterial wall, therefore no sounds. However, when an artery is partially constricted, blood flow
becomes turbulent causing the artery to vibrate and produce sounds.

The blood pressure tended to drop in the standing position compared with sitting and supine
position. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure was the highest in supine position when
compared to other positions. While lying down heart requires less work to pump for supplying
food to the brain. Arm position was an important factor in this experiment affecting the blood
pressure. When the arm was raised above the head, above heart level, blood pressure readings
run lower than actual. When the arm was placed below heart level, the blood pressure was
high. The force of the heart’s contractions increases while exercising, more blood is pumped
with each beat,. This effect increases the BP. However, the blood vessels that supply muscles
dilate, during exercise. This enables increased blood flow to muscles putting extra pressure on
blood vessel walls (R. Macloed, 2012)
The autonomic nervous system regulates the degree of constriction or dilation of the blood
vessels in the body. Constriction of the blood vessels results in an increase in the blood pressure
and dilation of the blood vessels causes a decrease in BP. It alters the cardiac output, which
influences the BP. For example, an increase in HR and strength of heart contraction leads to a
greater stroke volume. This increased cardiac output results in an elevation in the blood
pressure.

Errors were evident in heart rate readings mostly. I tend to lose reading in between since the
vibrations on the skin were very less at times and hence lost counting. Blood pressure readings
also came with errors since the cuff size was not of the proper size. The cuff was too big hence
the readings were artefactually high. The cuff was also not re-inflated after an initial reading; a
rapid inflation causes venous distension. The initial Korotkoff was missed hence the systolic
reading was falsely low (B.Karnath, 2012).

At the end of this lab, the working of the heart and the blood vessels was well understood. The
potential difference in the contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole) was observed through
the ECG readings. Body activity affects the heart ECG readings, as seen in this experiment due
to exercising the ECG differed from the normal ECG. The changes in the body position and the
arm position and exercise either increases or decreases the heart rate, so the heart can meet up the
cardiac output demands. Methods to measure blood pressure through indirect method were
properly learnt. A sphygmomanometer was sued for both auscultatory and palpatory methods of
BP measuring. The effect of the body position and body effect on the blood pressure was
observed.
Abstract

- Simons, Maarten & G.Huhenholtz, P. (2012). Gradual changes in ECG waveform during
and after exercise in normal subjects. Circulation. 52.570-7.

During exercise the, the interval between the spatial maximum of the P wave and the
onset of QRS complex decreased while the magnitude of the p wave increased, t wave
magnitude increased. Mechanisms such as blood conductivity and blood stroke volume
explain the changes observed in ECG after and before exercise.

- P. Palatin (2014). Blood Pressure behavior during Physical Activity, Clinica Medical,
University of Padova, Jun; (5): 353-74. Viewed at :
http://homepage.smc.edu/wissmann_paul/physiology/BloodPressureLab.pdf

The contraction of the ventricles of the heart produce a ‘force’; this force is the impact of
the flowing blood on the inside surfaces of the blood vessels. In all major systemic
arteries, the pressure that propels the blood along is pulsatile. This means that it fluctuates
repeatedly from a high pressure to a low pressure, reflecting the events of the cardiac
cycle. The systolic pressure is the highest pressure read; the diastolic pressure is the
lowest pressure read. During exercise, your heart rate increases due to a decrease in
activity from the parasympathetic neurons. Less parasympathetic nervous innervations to
slow down heart rate will result in an increase in heart rate if the heart intrinsically trying
to beat at 100 bpm.

References

- WebMD Medical Reference reviewed by J. Beckeman, MD, FACC, January 14,


2017. Viewed at http://www,webmd.com/hert-disease/guide/electrocradiogram/-
specialized-ekgs
- R. Macleod, B. Rirchler, and B. Burton, Blood pressure and Exercise Lab, march 26,
2012. Viewed at http://sci.utah.edu/~macleod/bioen/be6000/labnotes/bp/bp-
descrip.pdf
- Bernard Karnath, MD, Review of Clinical Signs, Sources of Error in Blood Pressure
Measurements, March, 2002. http://www.turner-white.com/pdf/hp_mar02_error.pdf
- [JOURNAL OF ELECTROCARDIOLOGY; Viik, J; 32(Suppl):70-75 (1999)].
- M.L.Simoons, P.G.Hugenholtz, Gradual changes of ECG waveform during and after
exercise in normal subjects.Circilation. 2012;52:570-577,
http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/circulationaha/52/4/570.full.pdf viewed at 1/4/2018

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