SOIL

Chapter 3

Soil and its Origin

From the earliest civilization up to the present time, soil is the most important material that
influenced mankind in his struggle for survival. The material where man grows his food, build his
homes, roads, and ultimately his final destination

Scientifically, most of the non-organic materials identified as soil has originated from rocks as the
parent material. Rock types are classified into three major classes in accordance with their own
origin and method of formations:

-Igneous rocks
-Sedimentary rock
-Metamorphic rock

Igneous Rocks is the result from the cooling and hardening of molten rock called magma that has
originated from deep within the earth.

Sedimentary Rocks are formed from the accumulated deposits of soil particles or remains of
certain organisms that have harden by pressure or cemented by materials.
Metamorphic Rocks are rocks resulted from metamorphism due to changes in temperature,
pressure and plastic flow, changing the original rock structure and mineral composition of the rock.

Categories of Soil

-Residual Soil
-Transported Soil

Residual Soil or Sedimentary Soil is formed form the weathering of rocks or accumulation of
organic materials remained at the location of their origin.

Mechanical Weathering refers to physical disintegration due to efforts of wind, rain, running
water or tectonic forces (earthquakes)

Chemical and Solution Weathering is decomposition of rock due to chemical reactions that occur
as a result of exposure to atmosphere, temperature changes, reaction with water or other materials.

Transported Soils are those materials transported from their place of origin.

Types of Soil
The major categories of soils are gravel, sand, silt and clay. Gravel and sand are universally known
as coarse grain soil because of their individual particles that are large enough to distinguish without
magnification. On the other hand, silt and clay are considered as fine grain soil because of their tiny
particles.
Particles larger that gravel are commonly referred to as cobbles or boulders. The plasticity or non-
plasticity of the materials.

Characteristics of Soil
The general characteristic and classification of soil particles are enumerated as follows:

-Gravel
-Coarse sand
-Find Sand
-Silt Grain
-Clay
-Colloidal Clay
-Gravel

Consist of rock fragments more or less rounded by water action or abrasion classified according to
the following types:

-Quartz is the hardest of common rock forming mineral.

-Well Rounded Pebbles and Boulders those that undergone long period of wear that become
almost quartz.
-Slightly Worn Gravel is rough and angular including other materials or rocks like granite, schist,
basalt or limestone.

Quartz Slightly Worn

Well Rounded

Fine Sand
Has particles that are more angular than the coarse and fine sand particles.
Coarse Sand
Is usually rounded like gravel with which it os found and generally contains the same materials.

Silt Sand
Is similar to fine sand with the same mineral composition. They are found as rock flour in glacial
moraines.

Clay
Is plate like, scale like, or rod like in shape as a result of chemical weathering. Because of their
smaller sizes, its performance is influenced by moisture and surface chemistry.

Colloidal Clay
Is a finer clay particle that remains suspended in water and does not settle under the force gravity.

Elements of Roads and Materials

Coarse Grain Materials for most purposes, coarse grain materials are considered satisfactory
construction material. On the other hand, silty soil will create problems in areas where the ground
has moisture movement due to capillary action.

Important Grain Shape Characteristics

-Rounded particles extracted from the stream that has undergone wear, are considered strong
materials.

-Flat and flaky particles that were not subjected to wear, are weak and variable that is not suitable
for various used.

-Angular or roughly cubical shape particles produced from crushing strong and tough rocks,
increases the resistance of soil mass to deformation when subjected to load, due to individually
interlocking grains.
-Generally, the rounded particle has the tendency to roll over each other when subjected to load.

Classification for Soils

Pedology is the science of soils. It is the basis for pedological classification under the principle that:
“like soil are developed on like slope when like materials are weathered in like fashion.” The
texture classification of soil depending on the grain size distribution is classified into three groups,
namely: Sand, Gravel and Clay.

The United Soil

Classification System, was introduced by the U.S Army Corps and the Bureau of Reclamations.
Letter were used instead of numbers to designate the different groups, The mechanical analysis and
the liquid and plastic limit tests are the primary classification tools. The principal symbols and soil
designations are:

1. For coarse grain soil – more than 50% retained on No. 200 sieves

Symbols Identification

G For gravel or gravely soil

S For sand and sandy soil

2. Subdivision of Sand and Gravel

Symbol Identification

W For well graded, fairly clean materials

GW For well graded gravel
SW For well graded sand
C Coarse materials with clay binder in
P combination GC and SC.
M Poorly graded fairly clean material in
combination GP and SP
Coarse materials containing silts or rock flour
in combination GM and SM

3. Fine grain soil more than 50% passing No. 200 sieve

Symbols Identification

Mo Organic silts and very fine soils

C Inorganic clays

O Organic silt and clay

4. Fine grain soil grouped according to its liquid limit

Symbols Identification
 L For fine grain soil with liquid limit less than 50,
low to medium compressibility in combination
ML, CL and OL
H For fine grain soil with liquid limit greater than
50, high compressibility in combination MH and
OH
P Highly organic soil-peat and swamp soil

The Unified Soil Classification System recommended several ways for quick identification of fine
grain portions of the soil, namely:

1. The sample is mixed with water to have a putty-like consistency, then formed into pat and dried
completely.
2. If the pat is broken by the fingers and the dry strength is high, plasticity of the sample is
considered high.
3. If the dry strength of the sample is high, then, it exhibits clay and colloid characteristics.
4. If the sample is a pat of fine silty sand, it will easily break in the finger.
5. Find sand will cause the pat to feel gritty on the fingers and silts is smooth.
6. Dilatancy or reaction to shaking is another way of classifying the soil mortar, About one cubic
inch of soil is mixed with water formed into a pat of soft but not sticky consistency.

Composition of the Soil

Engineers are interested to know the properties of soil deposit, specially, the strength and
compressibility because they are necessary in determining the bearing capacity and stability of the
foundation. Strength and compressibility of the soil is directly related to:

-Soil density weight per unit volume

-Water content of the soil
-Void ratio
-Degree of saturation
The weight of the solid (Ws) + weight of the water is equal to the total weight (Wt) or Ws+Ww =
Wt
Similarly, for measurement of the mass;
Ms+Mw = Total mass
Ms+Mw = Mt

The volume of water and air is called volume of voids

Vt = Vs+(Vw+Va)
= Volume of solid + Volume of voids
Vt = Vs + Vv

The relationship between the weight and volume of any materials will be:
W = VgDw
While mass and volume M= VgDw
where:
W = Weight of material ( solid, liquid or gas )
V = Volume occupied by the material
G = Specific gravity of the material
Uw = Unit weight of water at temperature stated
M = Mass of the materials
Dw = Density of water

Unit Weight of Soil U could be expressed as:

Wet unit weight Uwet = (p/ft³, kNm³)

Dry Unit weight Udry = (p/ft³, kNm³)

For Soil Density

Wet density Dwet = (Kg/m³,gm/cm³)

Dry density Ddry = (Kg/m³,gm/cm³)

 Submerged of Soil
For under water condition, the soil is buoyed up by pressure of the surrounding body of water.

In terms of Dry unit weight, the relative density is:

Dr % = x 100%

Where:
Dul = Dry unit weight in its loosest condition
Dud = Dry unit weight in its densest condition
Do = Dry unit weight in its natural condition or condition in question

SOIL TEST AND SURVEY

Chapter 4

Test of Particle Size

Different soil has different characteristics affecting the performance of each individual soil by
moisture content and density. There are several kinds of physical tests that have been developed to
measure soil performance issued and recommended by AASHTO and ASTM.

Sieve No. 2 1 1/2 1 3/4 3/8 4 10 40 200

In Inches
By number 50 37.5 25.0 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.0 .425 .075
opening in
millimeter

The Sieve Analysis is the process being used to determine the particle sizes of gravel and fine
aggregates. A sample of the material is thoroughly dried and shaken through series of sieves
ranging from coarse to fine. The amount on each sieve is weighed and recorded. The AASHTO
standard sieve sizes for soil aggregates are presented as follows:

Under the Stroke’s Law, “The rate of settlement of solid through a given liquid or gas is
proportional top the square of the diameters of the solid.” The AASHTO method as specified is
called Hydrometer Test.
Hydrometer Test

-Sample of the material passing No. 10 sieve is mixed thoroughly with water and dispersing agent
that dissipate any electrolytic bonds in the sample that might cause flocculation and accelerate
settlement.
-After 12 hours, the mixture is agitated making all particles suspended in water.
-The mixture is then placed in a graduated flask, allowing the solid to settle under the pull gravity.
-The bigger particles settle first, followed by the smaller then the smallest one. The specific gravity
of the liquid decreases. The changes are recorded by special hydrometer and read at prescribed
intervals.
-Change in specific gravity is related to the grain size of the material by Stoke’s Law
-Careful control of temperature and other possible variable is strictly observed to obtain satisfactory
test results.

Test to Evaluate the Effect of Moisture

Consistency of the soil varies from semi sloid to plastic then, to liquid if water content is increased.

1. The Liquid Limit Test

It signifies the percentage of moisture at which the sample changes by decreasing the water from
liquid to plastic state. When the sample is wet than the liquid limit, a grooved sample of the soil in a
cup will flow when lightly jarred 25 times.

2. The Plastic Limit Test

It signifies the percentage of moisture where in the sample changes with lowering wetness from
plastic to semi-sloid condition. At this stage, the soil mortar starts to crumble when solid into
threads 1/8” diameter.

3. The Plastic Index Test

Is defined as the numerical difference between its liquid limit and its plastic limit. It is also referred
to as the percentage of dry unit weight. In some combination, it measures:
-The fineness and shapes of the soil particles
-The interplay of the attractive forces tending to hold the clay mineral flakes together.
-The thickness and velocity of the water film and,
-The quantity and electrical charges of the cations.
4. The Shrinkage Test
Shrinkage test measures the changes in volume and weight that occur as partly mixture of soil and
water ( except sieve No. 40 ) Sample is dried from the near liquid limit to constant weight of 110°C.
The results are stated in terms of shrinkage limit, volumetric change, and lineal shrinkage.

5. Hand feel Test

Experienced soil Engineer employ the “hand feel test” to approximately predict the plasticity
index of the soil. The test may include:
-The thread toughness at moisture content approximating the plastic limit
-The air-dried strength
-Dilatancy
Soil mortar possessing high plastic index will produce tough threads and high strength without
dilatancy.

6. Sand Equivalent Test

For field determination of the presence of undesirable quantities of clay-like materials in soil.
Aggregate mixture is based on the volume, rather than on weight. The sand equivalent is the ratio
between the height if the sand column ( laboratory experiment test) and the combined height of
sand and expanded saturated clay expressed in percentage.

Density Test of Soil

The Density of soil or weight per cubic foot varies with the peculiarities of the soil itself, the
moisture content, and the compacted device plus the method of their use. The standard weight of
the soil per cubic foot cannot be fixed, but should determined in particular instance.

The Main Variables in the Soil Proper

Specific Gravity of the soil particles that may vary from 2.0 to 3.3 that is normally between 2.5 and
2.8
Particle Size distribution of the soil. A mass composed of entirely spheres of one size in the densest
possible condition will contain 75% solid and 25% voids.
Grain Shape of Soil Particles. Sharp angular particles will resist shifting from loose to a
compacted state. Flaky particles in soil will decrease its density because they are difficult to
compact.
Laboratory Test for Soil Density

Static Test is determining the maximum density of soil sample in the laboratory. A sample of about
5000 grams of soil containing a specified percentage of water is placed in a cylinder mold 6 inches
diameter and 8 inches high.
Dynamic or Impact Test samples of soils each containing a designated percentage of water are
compacted in layers into molds of specified size. The sample is compacted by applying a number of
blows from a free falling hammer of prescribed dimension and weight with flat circular face.
Tamping Foot or Kneading Compact Test the material is fed into a rotating mold and compacted
by several repetitive loads through tamping shoe shaped like a sector of the circle.

Field Density Test of Soil in Place

Field Density test in the means of comparing the density with the laboratory results. The
comparison is performed on the basis of relative compaction defined as follows:

Relative Compaction =

There are four factors that affect the accuracy of measuring relative density, they are:
-Change in the soil itself
-The sampling methods
-The accuracy of laboratory testing for standard density
-The accuracy of testing field density

The Strength Test

Soil tests to determine the strength of soil is classified into:
-Test for load carrying capacity, rate, and amount of consolidation in soils that support the
foundation.
-Test to measure supporting power of disturbed soils as compacted under standard procedures

1. California Bearing Ratio Test

The California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR) combines a load deformation test performed in the
laboratory with an empirical design chart to determine the thickness of pavement base and other
layers.
 The disturbed soil samples at different moisture content are compacted in 3 layers by static
loading or impact hammer into a cylinder mold 6 inches diameter by 8 inches high. The
specimen depth is about 5 inches. The 5.5 pounds hammer AASHTO standard density test is
used in the impact method.
 The moisture density curve is plotted. The sample with greatest dry density is chosen.
 The specimen in the mold is immersed in water for four days to allow saturation. Expansion of
the specimen is recorded.
 A small piston of inches diameter is forced into the confined specimen. Load deformation
data is recorded.

2. The HVEEM Stabilometer Method

This method measures the horizontal pressure developed on a short cylinder sample loaded
vertically on its end

Stabilometer Operating Procedures:

 Four different samples are prepared on a short cylinder about 4 inches diameter by 2 ½ inches
high of different known moisture contents.
 Compaction is done using tamping foot or kneading compactor.
 Each compacted specimen inside the mold is compressed until water exudes from it and pass
several electric circuits wired in parallel the base of the exudation measuring devices

3. Test for Expansion Pressure

After exudation test while sample is still in the mold, it is tested for expansion pressure. A
perforated brass plate is placed on the sample and covered with water for 16-20 hours. Expansion
during this period is prevented, and the pressure that prevents it is measured.

4. Stabilometer Test
After the expansion test, the specimen is enclosed in a flexible sleeve and placed inside the
stabilometer. Vertical pressure is applied slowly at speed of 0.05 inch per minute until it reaches
160 psi. The developed horizontal pressure is reduced to 5 psi using the displacement pump.

5. Tri-Axial Design Method

This method is used by some agencies for compression tests. In open system tri-axial test, lateral
pressure is held constant releasing from the container as increased load causes the sample to expand
laterally.

6. Dynamic Modulus
Re-compacted or undisturbed samples are tested to determine the influence of temperature, degree
of saturation, density, and age on the dynamic response of pavement materials

Nuclear Device Test

The transmission type measures density and moisture content for any depth up to 25 cm. The back
scatter device is placed directly on top of the soil layer or slightly above it to provide an air gap
between the instrument and soil surface.
Soil Survey
The preliminary soil investigation is an integral part of highway reconnaissance and preliminary
location survey. In fixing the position of the roadway, the following should be take accounts:
-Soil conditions
-Directness of the route
-Topography
-Right a way
-Neighborhood disruption
-Environmental consideration

Soil Test and Survey

-Identification of soil types from; geological and agricultural soil maps., aerial photographs, and
other sources
-Investigation of ground water conditions, examining existing roadway cuts and other excavations.
-Review of the design and construction procedures, and present condition of roads that traverse the
area
-Soil exploration along the right way using auger boring and test pile.
-Test holes should extend to significant depth below the sub-grade elevation with recommended
minimum depth.
-The location, nature of the ground, origin of parent materials, landform and agricultural soil name,
should be recorded.
-Each soil layer is described according to thickness, fixture, structure, organic content, relation
contents and cementation.
-The soil profile along the roadway centerline showing location or rest hole range