Professional Documents
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Gene
Alleles are alternative
forms of the same gene
This combination of
alleles gives a
BLACK mouse
B b b
B meiosis
fertilisation
sperm mother cell
B B
b zygote
meiosis
b
b
If two of the offspring (Bb)
thus produced are mated,
what type of offspring would
result?
x
Bb Bb
?
Fertilisation Possible combinations
sperms
B
B
B B
BB
b b B
B B
Bb
b
b
b
b
ova bb
zygotes
Parents: x
phenotypically normal:
Nn.
Persons look normal but
carry the defective allele.
Homozygous & Heterozygous
HOMOZYGOUS – alleles on corresponding
positions of homologous chromosomes are
identical e.g. BB or bb
Fertilisation
among F1 plants
(F1 F1)
F2 generation
What is the:
a) phenotype of a homozygous dominant plant?
Round
b) genotype of a homozygous dominant plant?
RR
c) genotype of a heterozygous plant?
Rr
B represent yellow seed
b represent green seed
What is the:
a) dominant allele for seed colour? B
b) genotype of a homozygous recessive plant?
bb
c) genotype of a true breeding plant that produces
green seeds?
bb
GENETIC CROSSES
Let A represent the allele for purple flower colour
and a for white colour. A pure breeding purple and
a pure breeding white flower are crossed.
What will the phenotype and genotype ratios be in
the F1 generation?
purple - A – AA, Aa
Parents: Purple x White white – a – aa
AA x aa
Gametes: A A x a a
F1 generation: Aa Aa Aa Aa
F1 generation: Aa
F1 Phenotype: 100% purple
F1 Genotype: 100% heterozygous
Self-pollination occurs in one of the F1 plants.
What will the phenotype and genotype ratios
be in the F2 generation? purple – A – AA, Aa
white – a – aa
F1 generation: Purple x Purple
Aa x Aa
Gametes: A a x A a
F2 generation: AA Aa Aa aa
Phenotype- 3 purple : 1 white OR 75% purple: 25% white
Genotype- 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
Remember: when both parents are
heterozygous, they produce offspring in such a
ratio
Offspring
x
Pp Pp
Parents
THE PUNNETT SQUARE
METHOD
Reginald Punnett (1875-1967)
In 1902, created the Punnett Square - a
chart which helped to determine the
probable results of a genetic cross
Male
gametes
Tt T t
Tt
T TT Tt
Female
t Tt tt
gametes
Sex Determination
XX = female
XY = male
X Y
X XX XY
X XX XY
phenotype of the
offspring.
Black
b) Two of the offspring were mated.
(i) Complete the Punnett square to show this cross.
Parents: Bb × Bb
B b
BB Bb
Bb bb
ii) Draw a circle round the homozygous recessive
offspring.
Use A for the dominant allele and a for the recessive allele, write
the genotypes and phenotypes of the stages in the two crosses
shown below.
Normal – A – AA, Aa
Waltzing – a – aa
Cross1
Parental phenotypes Waltzing x Normal
Parental genotypes aa
_______ AA
_______
Gametes a a
_______ A A
_______
Offspring genotypes Aa
_______ Aa
_______
Offspring phenotype All normal
Cross2
Parental phenotypes Waltzing x Normal
Parental genotypes aa
_______ Aa
_______
Gametes a a
_______ A a
_______
Offspring genotypes aa
_______ Aa
_______
Offspring phenotypes Waltzing Normal
50% 50%
5a) In cattle, the presence of horns is controlled by a single
pair of alleles. Animals with horns have a homozygous
recessive genotype. The diagrams below show two
cows, C1 and C2.
A bull is crossed with the two cows, C1 and C2.
C1 was without horns and produced a calf which
grew horns.
C2 had horns and produced a calf which did not
grow horns.
WORKING
1. First write the crossings given in the following
format to help you find genotype of each animal:
Bull X C1 Bull X C2
(no horns) (horns)
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Bull X C1 Bull X C2
(horns)
(no horns)
Hh
_ _ Hh
_ _ Hh
_ _ _hh
_
(no horns)
(horns)
_hh
_
Hh
_ _
i) Using the symbol H to represent the dominant allele
and h the recessive allele, write down the
following.
1. The genotype of cow C1. Hh
a) How can you tell that brown eyes are dominant? (1)
Brown eyes – B – BB, Bb
Blue eyes – b – bb
a) How can you tell that brown eyes are dominant? (1)
bb
bb bb
ii) Which people in the diagram above are
definitely heterozygous for eye colour? (3)
Persons: 8, 9, 10, 11, 6 and 7.
Brown eyes – B – BB, Bb
Blue eyes – b – bb
Bb/BB
bb Bb Bb
Bb Bb Bb Bb bb bb
d) i) If person 14 is homozygous for eye colour, what
would be the chance of a child born to 13 and 14
being brown eyed? (1)
100%
F2 generation: Person 14 X Person 13
BB X bb
Gametes: B B X b b
F3 generation: Bb Bb Bb Bb
d) ii) If person 14 is heterozygous for eye colour, what
would be the chance of a child born to 13 and
14 being brown eyed? (1) 50%
bb
x x
bb
bb
Bb
Bb bb
100% black 50% black : 50% brown
Points to remember: Test Cross
Why is it done?
To find if an organism is
homozygous dominant
or heterozygous.
How is it done?
Organism of unknown
genotype is mated with a
homozygous recessive one.
dd
a) Write the genotypes of:
i) Paul:
ii) Sue:
b) Ian and Elaine are expecting their second child.
They would like to know whether their second
child will be affected or not. Draw a genetic
diagram to work out the percentage chance of
having an unaffected child. (4)
Dd dd
Percentage chance of
having an unaffected
child (dd) is 50%.
Question: MAY, 2012
Machado-Joseph Disease (MJD) is an autosomal
dominant disorder, represented by D, that is
characterised by slow progressive clumsiness in the
arms and legs. The following diagram shows the pattern
of inheritance of this disease in a particular family.
a) Write the genotypes of:
i) Peter: D – sick – DD, Dd
ii) Anton: d – normal – dd
iii) Mario:
Dd dd
dd dd dd
Dd
dd Dd dd dd
b) Christine, the only female in the diagram is
affected by MJD, and her husband Nicholas are
expecting their first child. Nicholas is also
affected by MJD. The genetic counsellor
informed the couple that there is only 25%
chance of having a child not affected with the
disorder. Work out a genetic diagram to confirm
the counsellor’s prediction. (4)
Parents: Christine Nicholas
Genotype of parents:
Gametes:
F1 generation:
Explanation:
Christine Nicholas
Parents:
Genotype of Dd x Dd
parents:
Gametes: D d x D d
F1 generation: DD Dd Dd dd
F1 generation: Dd Dd Dd Dd
Pink
Compare ‘complete’ with
‘incomplete’ dominance
Complete dominance Incomplete dominance
RR rr Rr
Rr
Alleles which show Incomplete
dominance are sometimes written
differently:
Red White
Pink
Suppose a pink flower is self pollinated, what
phenotypes and in what ratios would the
offspring be?
Rr Rr
RR Rr Rr rr
Phenotype 1 : 2 : 1
ratio red pink white
In the F2: phenotypic
and genotypic ratios
are the same
F2 Phenotypic ratio:
1 white : 2 pink :1 red
F2 Genotypic ratio:
1 rr : 2 Rr :1 RR
Pg. 82
4) A pure breeding strain of red flowered
snapdragon plants was cross-pollinated with a
pure breeding variety of ivory flowered plants.
When the seeds obtained from this cross were
sown and grown, all the first filial (F1)
generation plants had pink flowers.
red x ivory pink
Roan cow
What genotype and phenotype ratios
occur in the offspring from the cross:
CW CRCW CWCW
BLOOD GROUPS
BLOOD GROUPS
sometimes a characteristic is controlled by
more than two alleles
e.g. three alleles control human blood:
A, B and O
a person has two out of three alleles
BLOOD GROUP GENOTYPE
(phenotype)
A IA IA or IA IO
B IB IB or IB IO
AB IA IB
O Io Io
Genotype: IBIo
Phenotype: IAIo IBIo
Blood group B
IoIo IAIB
IAIO IAIB
IA Io Io IB
IoIo
b) What is the chance of these parents
producing a homozygous child? (1) 25%
X X
X Y
Sex-Linkage
is the appearance of a certain character in
ONE sex, namely the male
examples of sex linked traits:
red-green colour
blindness haemophilia
“3” or “8”??
Males are more likely to suffer from
sex-linked diseases
A A A a a
Normal: A
a
Sick: a
Females
A a carry two allele of a gene. If
one allele is defective, female
is still normal as effect is
masked by the normal allele.
Normal Sick
Question
Suggest explanations for the following
observation.
Genotype Phenotype
XHXH Normal female
XH Xh
XH XHXH XHXh
Y XHY XhY
f) Give the probability of the first child being male.
50%
1 haemophiliac : 3 normal
h) Describe what happens during fertilisation.
The nucleus of the sperm and ovum fuse.
i) Explain why human reproduction has both
fertilisation and cell division by meiosis in
each generation.
Meiosis is important to form gametes having
half the number of chromosomes so that after
fertilisation, the full set of chromosomes is
restored.
fertilisation
VARIATION
WITHIN A
POPULATION
Variation
describes the differences in characteristics
shown by organisms of the same species
two types of variation:
CONTINUOUS DISCONTINUOUS
Continuous Variation
characteristic varies amongst the members
of a species in a smooth continuous way from
one extreme to the other
Continuous Variation:
Examples:
Mass
Height
Intelligence
Colour of organs & organisms
Continuous variation is affected by:
1. many genes of small effect
2. AND the environment
The environment CAN change these variations
Either
OR
traits
The environment cannot change discontinuous
type of variations
No matter how much you stay in the sun or
what you eat – will not change your blood
group!!
Question: SEP, 2002
Using examples, distinguish
between:
i) inherited and
non-inherited variations; (2, 2)