TD Lab Manuals

GEETA ENGINEERING, NAULTHA, PANIPAT LABORATORY MANUAL
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT INSTRUCTION SHEET

EXPERIMENT TITLE : TO
STUDY OF TWO STROKE PETROL & DIESEL ENGINE
MODELS. 1. Two stroke diesel engine. 2. Two stroke petrol engine.
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM :- TO STUDY OF TWO STROKE PETROL & DIESEL ENGINE MODELS.

1. Two stroke diesel engine .
2. Two stroke petrol engine.
Apparatus :- following engine models
1. Two stroke diesel engine .
2. Two stroke petrol engine.
Introduction to reciprocating engines:- internal combustion reciprocating engines are divided into two
basic types, namely spark ignition and compression ignition 1-2 Basic engine nomenclature: the names
of the various parts of a reciprocating engine necessary for an understanding of the subject matter are
discussed in this article and are shown in fig 1.1. Most of these basic parts apply equally well to both S-I
and C-1 engines, although fig 1.1 represents a 4-stroke cycle S.I engine.
The cylinder, as the name implies, is the cylindrically shaped container within which piston travels in
reciprocating linear motion. The cylinder is supported position in the cylinder back, attached, or an
integral part, of the crankcase. The volume enclosed by upper part of the cylinder and the top of the
piston during the combustion process is called the combustion chamber.
In the S-I engine, a mixture of fuel and air from the carburetor enters cylinder through the intake
manifold and intake port. A throttle in a carburetor controls the mass of mixture entering the combustion
chamber. An intake valve is located at the junction of the intake port and the cylinder.
A spark plug, located near the top of the cylinder, initiates combustion – the piston and piston rings
prevent the escape of the expanding gases from the combustion chamber. Energy is transmitted by the
piston, through the piston pin, to the connecting rod-the connecting rod and crank arm of crank shaft
translate the linear motion of the piston into the rotational motion of the crank shaft. The crankshaft
rides in bearings attached to the crankcase, and that end of the crankshaft at which the power is ‘taken
off is usually termed as the drive shaft. The passage through which the products of combustion leave the
combustion chamber consists of the exhaust port and the exhaust manifold. An exhaust valve is located
at the junction of the exhaust port and the cylinder. Both intake and exhaust valves are operated by the
valve mechanisms. A camshaft is operated through timing gears driven by the rotation of the crankshaft
lobed cams, integrally connected to the camshaft, actuate the push rods and rocker arms against the force
of the valve springs. The valve spring holds the valve closed except when the timed rotation of the cam
mechanism forces the valve open.
In a C-I engine, the fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber through a fuel injection nozzle.
A fuel control lever controls the qty. of fuel entering. The air supply enters the cylinder from a manifold
through an intake port located in the side of the cylinder. No carburetor or throttle is therefore necessary.
Also, since combustion is initiated by the high temp. of the compressed air trapped in the cylinder, no
spark plug is needed.
PREPARED BY : APPROVED BY :
All reciprocating engines do not have an arrangement identical to that described above. The major parts
are similar, however, and the operating principles of the various assemblies are comparable.
In addition to the above nomenclature certain std. Terminology concerning the volumes and
measurement in the cylinder region are presented here with and shown in fig.1-2.
Bore (b):-The inside diameter of the cylinder is called the bore, and is measured in inches/ cm.
Stroke(1):-during the travel of the piston in reciprocating linear motion, there is both an upper and lower
limiting position at which the direction of the motion of the piston is reversed. The liner distance,
measured parallel to the axis of cylinder, between the extreme upper and lower position of the piston is
termed the stroke, and is measured in inches.
Top dead centre (T.D.C.):-the position of the piston when, during it’s liner travel. It is clost to the top of
the cylinder, is called the top dead centre.
Bottom dead centre (B.D.C):-the position of the piston when during its liner travel, it is farthest from the
top of the cylinder, is called bottom dead centre.
Clearance volume (V2) The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston when the
piston is at T.D.C is call clearance volume, and is measured in cubic inches.
Piston displacement(V1-V2):-The volume swept through the piston in moving between T.D.C and
B.D.C, or the difference between the volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston when
the piston is at the B.D.C(V1)and the clearance vol. V2 is called the piston displacement. It is measured
in cubic inches. Compression ratio®:-The ratio of the volume when the piston is at the B.D.C(V1)to the
volume when the piston is at T.D.C (V2) is called the compression ratio.
Compression ratio®=V1/V2
Two-stroke cycle engine:- In 1878, Dugald-clark, a British engineer introduced a
cycle which could be completed in two strokes of piston rather than four stroke. As in the case with the
four stroke cycle engine, the engine using this cycle was called the two stroke cycle engine. In this
engine suction and exhaust strokes are eliminated. Here instead of valve, ports are used the exhaust
gases are driven out from engine cylinder by fuel entering the cylinder nearly at the end of the working
strokes.
Fig. 23.40 shows two stroke petrol engine (used in scooter, motor cycle etc.). The cylinder is connected
to closed crank chamber C.C. during the upward stroke of the piston M. the gases in L are compressed
and at the same time fresh air and fuel(petrol) mixture enters the crank chamber through the valve V.
When the piston moves downwards, V closes and the mixture in the crank chamber is compressed. The
piston is moving upwards and is compressing on explosive charges that has previously been supplied to
L. ignition takes place at the end of the stroke. The piston then travels downwards due to expansion of
gases and near the end of this stroke The piston uncovers the exhaust port. The transfer port then is
uncovered immediately and the compressed charge from the crank chamber flows into the cylinder and
is deflected upwards by the pump provided on the head of the piston. It may be noted that the incoming
air petrol mixture helps the removal of gases from the engine cylinder, if in case these exhaust gases do
not leave the cylinder, the fresh charge gets diluted and the efficiency of the engine will decrease. The
piston then again starts moving from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the charge gets compressed, when exhaust
port and transfer port are covered by piston, thus the cycle is repeated.
In a two stroke cycle engine, all the operation are same as in spark ignition (Otto cycle) engine with
the difference first: in the case only air is admitted into the cylinder instead of the air fuel mixture and
secondly fuel injection is fitted to supply the fuel instead of spark plug.
STUDY OF FOUR STROKE PETROL / DIESEL ENGINE
MODELS: 1. Four Stroke Diesel Engine, 2. Four Stroke Petrol Engine
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM:- TO STUDY OF FOUR STROKE PETROL / DIESEL ENGINE MODELS

1. Four Stroke Diesel Engine
2. Four Stroke Petrol Engine
Apparatus:- Following Engine Models
1. Four Stroke Diesel Engine
2. Four Stroke Petrol Engine
Theory:-
Four stroke cycle engines:-Here follows the description of the four stroke Otto and diesel cycle engine.
Otto engines:-The Otto engine four stroke cycle refers to it’s use in petrol engine, gas engine, light oil
engines and heavy oil engine, in which the mixture of air and fuel are drawn in the engine cylinder.
Since ignition in these engines is due to a spark, therefore they are also called spark ignition engines.
The various strokes of the four stroke Otto cycle engines are:
1.) Suction stroke: - During this stroke(also known as induction stroke ) the piston moves from T.D.C
to B.D.C, the inlet valve opens and proportionate fuel air mixture is sucked in the engine cylinder.
This operation is represented in the graph. The exhaust valve remains closed through out the stroke.
Compression stroke:- In this stroke, the piston move towards T.D.C and compresses the enclosed
fuel air mixture drawn in the engine cylinder during suction. The pressure of the mixture rises in the
cylinder to a value of about 8 bar. Just before the and of this stroke the operating plug initiates a
spark which ignites the mixture and combustion takes place at the constant volume. Both the inlet
and exhaust valve remain closed during the stroke.
2.) Expansion or working stroke:-Here the mixture is ignited by a spark plug. The hot gases are
produced which drive or throw the piston from T.D.C to B.D.C and thus the work is obtained in this
stroke. It is during this stroke when we get work from the engine. The other three stroke namely:
suction, compression and exhaust being idle the flywheel mounted on the engine shaft stores energy
during this stroke and supplies it during the idle strokes. 3-4 shows the expansion of the gases. Both
the valves remain closed during the starts of this stroke.
The piston moves from B.D.C to T.D.C and exhaust gases are driven out of the engine cylinder.
This is also called scavenging. The line 1-5 represents this operation.
It may be noted that line 5-1 is below the atm pressure line. This is due to the fact that owing to
restricted area of the inlet passages the entering fuel air mixture can not cope with the speed of the
piston. The exhaust line 4-5 is slightly above atm pressure line. This is due to restricted exhaust
passage which do not allow the exhaust gases, to leave the engine cylinder quickly.
The loop, which has area 4-5-1, is called negative loop. It gives the loss due to admission of
fuel air mixture and removal of exhaust gases. The area 1-2-3-4 is total or gross negative work from
the area 1-2-3-4 i.e. gross work.
Diesel engines (four-stroke cycle):-
(a) Suction stroke:- With the movement of the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.C. during the stroke the
inlet valve opens and the air at atm. pressure is drawn inside the engine cylinder. The exhaust
valve however remains closed. This operation is represented by the line 5-1.
(b) Compression stroke:- The air drawn at atm. pressure during the suction stroke is compressed to
high pressure and temperature (to the value of 35 bar and 600 C respectively) as the piston
moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. this operation is represented by 1-2. Both the inlet and exhaust
valve do not open during any part of this stroke.
(c) Expansion or working stroke:- As the piston start moving from T.D.C., a measured qty. of fuel
is injected into the hot compressed air in the fine sprays by the fuel injector and it starts burning
at contact pressure shown by line 2-3. At the point 3, fuel supply is cut off. The fuel is injected at
the end of compression stroke but in actual practice the ignition of fuel starts before the end of
compression stroke. The hot gases of the cylinder expand adiabatically to point 4, thus doing
work on the piston 3-4 shows the expansion.
(d) Exhaust stroke:- The piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and exhaust gases escape to the
atmosphere through the exhaust valve when the piston reaches the T.D.C. the exhaust valve
closes and the cycle is completed.
The line 1-5 represents this stroke. It may be noted that the line 5-1 is below the atm. pressure
line. This is due to the fact that owing to restricted areaof the inlet passages the entering air can
not cope with the speed of the piston.
The exhaust line 4-5 is slightly above the atm. line. This is because of the restricted exhaust
passages, which do not allow the exhaust gases to leave the cylinder quickly.
The loop, which has area 4-5-1, is called negative loop. It gives the pumping loss due to
admission of fuel air mixture and removal of exhaust gases the area 1-2-3-4 is total or gross work
obtained from the piston and the network can be obtained by subtracting area 451 from the area
1-2-3-4.
EXPERIMENT TITLE : STUDY OF BOILERS.
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM: STUDY OF BOILERS.

Apparatus: Boiler
Theory:
A steam generator properly known as boiler is closed vessel made of high quality steel in which steam is
generated from water by application for heat. The water receives heat from hot gases through the heating
surface of boiler. The hot gases are formed by heating fuel may be coal, oil or gas. Heating surface of
boiler is that part of boiler which is exposed to hot gases on one side and water or steam on the other
side. The steam, which is collected over the water surface, is taken from the boiler through the super
heater and then suitable for driving engines or turbines or for some industrial heating purposes. A boiler
consist of not only the steam generator but also a number of parts to help for safe and efficient operation
of system as a whole. These parts are called mounting and accessories.
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS:-
According to relative position of water and hot gases, boilers are classified as fire positions(tube) or
smoke tube boiler and water tube boilers. In fire tube boilers, hot gases pass through tubes, which are
surrounded with water. There may be single or double tubes as in case of Lancashire boiler or there may
be a bank of tubes as in Locomotives boilers. The Cochran, Lancashire and Locomotive are examples of
this type of boiler. Due to simplicity and because of small capacity requirements of individual users,
these boilers are universally used in many industries like paper, sugar and chemical industries for
producing steam. In water tube boilers, water collects (circulates) through tubes and hot gases around
them. Steam is generated inside the tube and collect in a cylindrical vessel known as boiler drum. The
boiler drum may not be exposed to hot gases at all. This type of flexible and so is found suitable for that
capacity and pressure requirements, from process steam to power generation.
According to access of shell, the boilers are classified a vertical boilers and horizontal boilers. In vertical
steam boilers, the axis of the shell is vertical whereas it is horizontal in case of horizontal steam boiler.
According to the method of furnace, the boilers are classified as
internally fired and externally fired boilers.
In externally fired boilers, the furnace is placed outside the boiler shell . The advantage of this type is
that fireplace is simple and may be enlarged simply. Water tube boilers are always externally fired. In
internally fired boilers, the furnace is placed inside the boiler shell.
According to method of water circulation, boilers are classified as natural circulation and forced
circulation boilers. In natural circulation boilers the water is circulated by natural convection currents,
which are setup due to the temp. difference. In forced circulation boilers, water is circulated with the
help of a pump driven by motor. Forced circulation is used only in high-pressure high capacity boilers.
According to use of boilers, the boilers are classified as stationary and mobile boilers. Most of the
industrial boilers and boilers used for power generation are of stationary type. The boiler used to run the
locomotives and ships are mobile boilers as they continuously move from one place to another.
BOILER DETAILS:- The details of boilers are listed below:-
Shell:- The shell of boilers is main container usually of cylindrical shape, which contains water and
steam,
Furnace:- A furnace is another important part of the boiler. This may be grate to burn coal or a burner to
atomize and burn liquid fuel. Suitable area and volume should be provided for efficient combustion.
Water flow path:-This is the path followed by water in the boiler during the process of absorption of
heat from hot gases and conversion into steam. The water should be free from dissolved material in
order to reduce the scaling of heating surface.
Gas flow path:- The hot gas flow path either in fire tube or water tube should be arranged in such a
way that maximum heat of hot gases should be transferred to the water for steam generation. The boiler
efficiency mainly depends on gas flow path.
Steam path:-In most of the boilers, the steam is taken out preferably at the top of the shell to avoid
water particles being carried out with the steam.
Fittings:- The valves and gauges which are necessary for the safety of the boilers are known as
mountings. Water level indicator, safety valve, blow off cock and fusible plugs are some of the
mountings.
Accessories:- Some equipment like economizer, air pre heater and super heater are attached to the
boilers to improve its overall efficiency. The economizer and air pre heater are used to extract max. heat
from the fuel gases and super heater is used to increase temperature of steam above saturation
temperature.
EXPERIMENT TITLE : TO STUDY BABCOCK WILCOX BOILER.
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM: TO STUDY BABCOCK WILCOX BOILER.

Apparatus: Babcock Wilcox boiler.
Theory: As classified earlier in a water tube boiler, the water is inside the tubes and hot gases flow over
the tubes. Babcock and Wilcox original model is straight water tube boiler. A simple Stationery boiler of
this type is described here. The boiler shell known as water and steam drum is made of high quality
steel. It is connected by short tubes with the uptake header or riser and by the large tubes to the header.
The water level in the drum is slightly above the center. The water tubes are connected to the top and
bottom header and are kept in client in an angel of 15 degree to the horizontal. The headers are provided
with hand holes in the front of tubes and are covered with caps. This arrangement helps in cleaning of
tubes and flow of water.
The furnace is arranged below the uptake header. Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door. Two
firebrick baffles are arranged in such a manner that hot gases from grate are compiled to move in
upward and downward directions. First the hot gases rise upward and then go down and then rise up
again and finally escape to chimney through the smoke chamber.
The outer surface of the water tubes and half of the bottoms of the cylindrical surface of the drum from
the heating surface through which heat is transferred from hot gases to water. The front position of the
water tube comes in contact with the hot gases at higher temperature. So the water from this position
rises in the upper direction due to decrease density and passed into the drum through the uptake header
their the steam and water are separated and the steam being lighter is collected in the upper part of the
drum. From the back position of the drum, the water enters into the water tubes through the down take
headers. At the bottom of the rear header is mud box. The foreign matter held in suspension in water gets
collected in it and can be blown off from time to time. The doors provide the access to the interior of the
boiler. This is necessary to clean the tubes and removes the root. The draught is regulated by a damper,
which is provided in the back chamber. Vents are also provided for other mountings and accessories.
Evaporating capacity of such boiler ranges from 20,000 to 40,000 kg/hr and operating pressure of 11.5
to 17.5 kg/cm2 are quite common. The inspection of the boiler can be carried even when the boiler is in
operation, draught loss is minimum and replacement of the defective tubes can be made easily. Further
since the boiler undergoing any expansion or contraction of the boiler has no harmful effect on the
masonry work, enclosing the furnace and the boiler.
EXPERIMENT TITLE : TO STUDY OF LOCOMOTIVES BOILER.
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM: TO STUDY OF LOCOMOTIVES BOILER.

Apparatus: Locomotives Boiler
Theory:-
The locomotive boiler is horizontal mutli tubes, natural circulation artificial draft. The unit is so
designed that it is capable of meeting the sudden and fluctuation demands of steam, which may be
imposed because of variation of power and speed. In addition to railways road rollers and haulage
engines, the locomotive boilers have been used in agricultural fields, saw mills plants and stationary
power services when semi-portability is desired. The principle part of the unit shown in figure:
1. Fiber bar which has more or less flat sides. This forms a combined grate and combustion
chamber. The given bar is water cooled on all the three sides except the bottom.
2. Multiple tubes containing an envelope of water in which five tubes are immersed.
3. Smoke box equipped with a very short chimney.
The coal introduced into the firebox through the fire hole is brunt on the grate which slopes downward
towards the front. A firebrick arch deflects the hot flue gases using from the grate. This is to ensure more
uniform and proper heating of gases by burning them into contact thoroughly with the entire heating
surface of the firebox. The dampers control the flow of air into the firebox. The heat flue gases which
passing through the fire tubes impact their heat energy to surroundings water and the ultimately led to
smoke box and then discharged to atmosphere through a short chimney. The height of the chimney has
to be less so that when the locomotive is passing through a tunnel or under a bridge the chimney does
not strike against them. More over a high chimney is likely to create unbalancing. Because of low
chimney artificial draught has to be created to drive out the brunt gases. The draught is accomplished by
the following methods:
1. Motion of locomotive on soils.
2. Periodic rush is spent up stream from the engine cylinder into the fire box. The vacuum thus
created sucks the hot gases and helps their discharge to atmosphere.
3. A blower which is run by steam supplied directly by the boiler. The blower is operated only
when supply of steam to the engine is cut off. High draught thus produced increases the coal
consumption and the steam evaporation rate. The ash of coal burnt on the grate falls into the ash
pit from where it can be remove at regular intervals.
EXPERIMENT TITLE : TO STUDY OF LANCASHIRE BOILER.
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
AIM: TO STUDY OF LANCASHIRE BOILER.

Apparatus: Lancashire Boiler
Theory:-
LANCASHIRE BOILER: It is a stationary fire tube internally fired, horizontal, natural circulation
boiler, this is a widely used boiler because of its good steaming quality and its ability to turn coal of
inferior quality. These boilers have a cylindrical shell 2m in diameter and its length varies from 8m to
10m. it has two large internal flue tubes having diameter between 80cm to 100 cm in which the grate is
situated. This boiler is set in a brick work forming external flue so that the external part of the shell
forms part of heating surface.
The main features of locomotive boiler with its brickwork work shelling are shown in fig. The boiler
consist of cylindrical shell and too big furnace tubes which pass write through this. The brick setting
forms one bottom flue and two side flues. Both the flue tubes, which carry hot gases, lay down the water
level as shown in fig.
The grates are provided at the front end of the main flue tubes of the boiler and coal is fed to the grates
through the fire through fire doors. A low firebrick bridge is provided at the end of the great as shown in
fig. To prevent the flow coal and ash particles into the interior of the furnace tubes otherwise at the ash
and coal particles carried with gases from deposits on the interior of the tubes and prevent the heat
transfer to the water. The fire bridge also helps in deflecting the hot gases upward to provide better haet
transfer. The hot gases leaving the great pass up to the back end of the tubes and then in the downward
direction. They move through the bottom flue to the front of the boiler where they are divided into two
and parts to the side flues as shown in fig. Then thay move along the two side flues and come to the
chimney as shown. With the help of the arrangement of the flow of the flow passages of the gases the
bottom of the shell in first heated and then its sites the heat is transferred to the water through surfaces of
the thin fire tubes (which contain water) and bottom part and sides of the main shell. This arrangement
keeps the heating surface to dampers in the form of sliding doors are placed at the end of side flues to
control the flow of gases. This regulates the combustion rate as well as steam generation rate. These
dampers are operated by chain passing over a pulley at the front of the boilers. This boiler is fitted with
usual mountings.
The pressure gauge and water level indicator are provided at the front, where as steam stop valve, safety
valve, low water and high steam safety valve and man hole are provided on the top of the shell.
The outstanding features of this boiler are listed as below:
1. The heating surface are/unit volume of the boiler is considerably large.
2. The maintenance is easy.
3. It is suitable where a large reserve of hot water is need. This boiler due to large reserve capacity
can easily meet load fluctuations.
4. Superheater and economizer can be easily incorporated into the system, therefore overall
efficiency of the boiler can be considerably increased (80-85%).
The super heater is placed at the end of the main flue tubes. The hot gases before entering the bottom of
the flue gases are passed over the super heater tubes as known in the figure. The stream drawn through
the steam step valve is passed the super heater the steam passed through the super heater, absorbs heat
from hot gases and becomes super heated. The economizer placed at the end of the sides flues before
exhausting the hot gases to the chimney. The water before being fed into the boiler, through the feed
check valve, is passing through the economizer. The absorbed heat from the excused gases heats the feed
water, thus leading to better boiler efficiency.

STUDY THE REDWOOD VISCOMETER AND MEASURE
THE VISCOSITY OF FLUID.
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
Aim: TO STUDY THE REDWOOD VISCOMETER AND MEASURE THE VISCOSITY OF

FLUID.
Apparatus: Redwood viscometer no.1, Redwood viscometer no.2
Theory: Measurement of viscosity of lubricating oil is made with the help of apparatus called the
‘viscometer’. In a viscometer a fixed volume of the liquid is allowed to flow a given height, through a
standard capillary tube under its own weight and the time of flow in seconds is noted. The time in
seconds is proportional to true viscosity
The results are expressed in terms of time taken by oil to flow through the particular instrument
Redwood viscometer is of two types.,
1. Redwood viscometer no.1,
2. Redwood viscometer no.2
Redwood viscometer no.1 is commonly used for determining viscosity of thin lubricating Oils. It has a jet
of bore diameter 1.62 mm and length10mm. On the other hand Redwood viscometer no.2 is used for
measuring viscosity of highly viscous oils like fuel oil. It has a jet dia. 3.8 mm and length 15 mm
Redwood Viscometer No.1 :
Description:
1. Oil Cup: Oil cup is a silver plated brass cylinder (90 mm in length and 48.5 mm in dia. ). The
upper end of the cup is open. The bottom of the cylinder is fitted with an agate jet. The jet is
opened or closed by a “valve rod” which is a small silver-plated brass ball fixed to a stout wire.
The level to which the cylinder is to be fitted with oil is indicated by a pointer, which is a stout,
tapered upwards pointing wire fixed on the inner side of the cylinder. The lid of the cup is fitted
with a thermometer, which indicates the oil temperature.
2. Heating Bath: Oil cup is surrounded by a cylindrical copper bath containing water. It is provided
with a tap (for emptying water from it) and a long side tube projecting outwards (for heating the
bath water by means of a gas burner or a spirit lamp). A thermometer indicates the temperature of
the water.
3. Stirrer: outside the oil cylinder is stirrer, carrying for blades, for stirring the water in the bath for
maintaining uniform fesired temperature. The stirrer is provided with a circular shield at the top,
to prevent any water slashing in to the oil cylinder.
4. Spirit Level: The lid of the cup is provided with a spirit level for vertical leveling of the jet.
5. Leveling screws: The entire apparatus rests on three legs, provided at their bottom with leveling
screws.
6. Kohlrausch Flask: It is a specially shaped flask for receiving the oil form the jet outlet. Its
capacity is 50ml upto the mark in the neck.
Procedure: The leveled oil cup is cleaned and ball of valve rod is placed on the agate jet to close it. Oil
under test, free from any suspension etc. is filled in the cup up to the pointer level. An empty flask is
kept just below the jet. Water is filled in the bath and side tube is heated slowly, with constant stirring of
the bath. When the oil is at desired temperature, the bail valve is lifted and suspended from the
thermometer bracket. The time taken for 50ml of the oil to collect in the flask is noted and then the valve
is immediately closed to prevent any overflow of the oil. The result is expressed is Redwood no. 1
seconds at the particular temperature. Higher the time of flow, lesser will be viscosity of the oil.
Result:
The viscosity of given mustered oil as calculated is =
Precautions:
1. Before operating, the oil should be filtered through muscling cloth.
2. The receiving flask should be placed in such a way that the oil stream from the jet strikes the
neck of the flask.
3. To prevent the overflowing, the jet valve should be closed immediately after stopping the timer.
After each reading , oil should be completely drained out of receiving flask. The flask should be
washed with xy lol and dried before repeating the task
EXPERIMENT TITLE : TO MEASURE THE FLASH POINT OF GIVEN FUEL.
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM:- TO MEASURE THE FLASH POINT OF GIVEN FUEL.

Apparatus:- Penskey-Marten’s flash point apparatus.
Theory:- Flash point is lowest temp. at which the oil gives off enough vapors that ignite for a moment,
when a tiny flame is brought near it while, fire point is the lowest temp. at which vapors of the oil burn’s
continuously for at least 5 sec., when a tiny flame is brought near it. In most cases, the fire points are 5-
40degree higher than the flash point. The flash and fire points don’t have ant bearing with the lubricating
property of the oil. But these are important when oil is exposed to high temp. service. The flash and fire
points are determined by using Penskey-Marten’s flash point apparatus which contains the following
parts:-
1. Oil Cup:- It consist up of an oil cup which is about 5cm in diameter and 5.5 cm deep. The
level to which the oil is to be filled is marked inside the cup. The cup lid is provided with
four opening of standard sizes. Through one of these passes a thermometer, while the second
is for introducing test flame. Through third opening passes stirrer carrying two brass blades
while the fourth is meant for the admission of air.
2. Shutter:- It is a level mechanism, provided at top of the cup. By moving the shutter, opening
in the lid opens and flame is dipped into this opening, there by bringing the flame over the oil
surface.
3. Flame exposure device:- It is a tiny flame connected to shutter by a lever mechanism
4. Air bath:- Oil cup is supported by its flange over an air bath, which is heated by a gas
burner.
5. Pilot burner:- As the test flame is introduced in the opening, it gets extinguished, but when
the test flame is returned to its original position it is automatically lighted by a pilot burner.
Working:-
Oil under examination is filled up to the mark in the oil cup and heated by heating the air bath by a
burner. Stirrer is worked between tests at a rate of about 1-2 revolutions/sec. Heat is applied so as to
raise the oil temperature by about five degree C/min. At every 1-degree C rise of temp., test flame is
introduced for a moment, by working the shutter. The temperature, at which a distinct flash is
applied as before. When the oil ignites and continues to burn for at least 5 sec. Then the temp
reading is recorded as the fire point of the oil.
EXPERIMENT TITLE : STUDY OF NESTLER BOILER.
EXPERIMENT NO. 9
AIM :-STUDY OF NESTLER BOILER.

THEORY:-
This is package type fire tube boiler having working pressure of 150ibs/in (10.2 bar). In this boiler
we use furnace oil which is a thick dark colored Fluid having very high viscosity. The oil is heated to
about 170 degree F By a high wattage electric heater before it is supplied to the burner. The Burner
injects the oil into the furnace tube with the help of a high Pressure blast of air supplied by a
blower. like other boilers this boiler is provided with the following mountings.
(a) spring loaded safety valve
(b) pressure gauge
(c) fusible plug
(d) water level indicator
(e) feed check valve
(f) stop valve
(g) blow off cock
Construction and working
The boiler shell which consist of 7/16 thick mild steel plate is Welded with two plates one on each
end.A large no. of fire tubes each 2’’ diameter are fitted between the two end plates in addition to a 19.5’’
diameter furnace tube which from extends from the front end Place to the rear end plate. The burner is
provided in the centre of the Furnace tube. At each end of the boiler shell there is a smoke box. In the
rear end smoke box a deflection arch is provided to divert the flow of flue gases. The hot products of
combustion or flue gases first traverse through the entire length of the furnace tube up to the rear end
where they enter the smoke box, there after they enter lower set of smallest of small diameter fire tubes
and travel along through these tubes up to the front end smoke box from where they rise up and gets into
the upper set of fire tubes, the gases are finally discharged into the atmosphere trough chimney. The flue
gases thus traverse the entire length of the boiler three times so as to give there heat to water to the
maximum extent . the steam is collected in the steam space and may be taken out through the stop valve.
The front end fire box is provided with two explosion doors.
Before starting the boiler the following points may be taken care of:
1. TO check for sufficient water level in the boiler.

2. TO check that blow off cock is fully closed.
3. TO check the feed water pump.
4. TO check that chimney damper is fully open.
5. TO check preheat oil and open air supply valve.
6. TO check fuel oil valve.
7. TO adjust air and fuel oil supply to ensure smoke less combustion.
Precaution to be observed while stopping the boiler

1. First Off all stop fuel oil supply
2. Stop air supply
3. Maintain water level
4. shut off fire hole doors
Technical data pertaining to nestler boiler
Type:- Multitubular, oil fired, Fire tube boiler 45 H.P.
Working Pressure 150ibs/in2 10.2bar

Overall Shell length 9ft
Diameter of Shell 4’-61/2”
Shell Plate Thickness 7/16”
Tube plate thickness 11/16”
Fire tubes dia 2”
Furnance tube dia 191/2”

No. of fire tubes 60
Heating surface 283ft2
Evaporative capacity 1.290ib/hours.
0
From feed water temperature 80 F
Fuel consumption 10gallon/hours
Recommended Height of Chimney 40ft
Dia of chimney 151/2”
Steam Space volume 14ft3
Water space volume 59ft3
Weight of water upto half gauge Glass 3700 LBS
EXPERIMENT TITLE : TO STUDY A CARBURETTOR
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
AIM: TO STUDY A CARBURETTOR.

Theory:
Carburation :-
The process of breaking up the fuel into minute particles and mixing it with air. is called Carburation.
The carburation process is employed in the internal combustion engines which have low compression
ratio and which use highly volatile liquid fuels such as petrol, alcohol, paraffin etc. The fuel is
completely broken into minute particles ( known as atomization), vaporized and mixed with air in proper
ratio in a device known as carburettor. The homogeneous mixture of fuel and air thus obtained is fed to
the engine cylinder during the suction stroke of piston.
Carburettor :-
A carburettor is a device used in the petrol, or similar liquid fuel engines by means of which the fuel
mixed with air is supplied into the induction manifold of the engine. The carburettor metres the required
quantity of fuel and automizes or breaks it up into minute globules for being mixed with the correct
quantity of air. The process of breaking up and mixing the gasoline with air is called carburation. The
main object of the carburettor is to supply the required quantity of petrol and air mixture of the correct
strength as dictated by the load conditions of the engine. In a petrol engine it has been found that though
the correct air fuel ratio by weight is 15 : 1 the mixture will not burn properly if the air fuel ratio is
below 8 : I or more than 20: 1, as discussed above. The air fuel ratio to be supplied by the carburettor
must therefore be kept witbin this range. .
Simple carburetor :-
In its simplest form a carburettor consists of a narrowed down passage of venturi and a fuel jet located
there in Fig. A float chamber is usually required for maintaining the level of fuel in the jet and a throttle
valve provided for controlling the flow of mixture into tbe induction manifold. The throttle valve is
usually in the form of a flat circular metal disc mounted on a spindle. Another form of the valve is the
rotary type shown in Fig. which also turns about an axis. The level of fuel is kept slightly below the top
of the jet to prevent the leakage when not operating. The difference of level between the top of the jet
and surface of fuel in the float chamber is usually kept is 1.5 mm. The needle valve shown opens or
closes the passage of fuel from the fuel pump when the air begins to flow past the jet, a zone of low
pressure is created in the venturi because of the increased velocity of air. The fuel begins to rise because
of the difference in the air pressure on the fuel in the float chamber which is equal to the pressure of the
atmosphere and on the fuel in the jet at the venturi and issue out from the jet in the form of a fine spray.
The tiny g!abules of petrol present a large surface area being exposed to the air stream. Some of these
vaporize while the size of others reduce cosiderably. It should be noted that, in general, the whole of the
fuel is not vaporized in the carburettor. Some globules of fuel still enter the induction manifold and are
vaporized during the compression stroke in cylinder. A gas tight connection is provided between the
carburettor. and the induction manifold. A choke valve controls the flow of air into the carburettor. A
carburettor may be of updraft, downdraft or side draft type.
The carburettor shown in Fig. is of the updraft type I.e. the air enters the carburettor at the bottom and
leaves at the top. In the downdraft type carburettor the air enters the carburettor at the top and leaves at
the bottom. Presently it is being used in most of the modern passenger cars because it can be installed at
a higher level in the engine which makes it more accessible for the purpose of repair and inspection. The
side draft carburettors has more width and mounting of oil batb air filter is clumsy.
In some carburettors two concentric venturies are provided instead of one. The discharge end of the
inner venturi called the boost or primary venturi, lies just at the throat of the outer or main venturi.
Hence the pressure at the throat of the primary venturi is much less than that of the main venturi giving
higher velocity of air which aids in the atomization of the fuel. Some carburettors have even three
concentric venturies. Another advantage of the multiple venturies is that these keep tbe fuel away from
the carburettor walIs and there is considerable reduction in fuel condinsation.
Limitations of a Simple Carburettor:-
1. A simple carburettor gives the proper mixture at only one engine speed and load, therefore, it is
suitable only for engines running at constant speeds and at condition of constant load.
As the engine speed increases, due to decrease in the load or opening the throttle more, the velocity and
hence quantity of fuel issuing out from the jet increases much more rapidly than the velocity of air
flowing through the venturi with the result that the mixture strength increases.
Again as the speed reduces the mixture supplied becomes leaner containing insufficient quantity of fuel.
In order to combat such tendencies various modification have been made in simple carburetor
2. At a vary low speed, the mixture supplied by a simple carburettor is so weak that it will not ignite
properly and for its enrichment, at such a condition, some arrangement in the carburettor is to be made.
3. In a simple carburettor the mixture is weakened when the throttle is suddenly opened because of
inertia effect of the fuel which prevents the proper quantity of fuel from flowing immediately.
4. The working of a simple carburettor is effected by changes of atmospheric temperature. Setting of a
simple carburettor in one season for proper mixture does not work in the other season. If the setting is
done in winter season; "it will be found to give too rich mixture in the summer because tbe density of
the air decreases with the rise of temperature to a greater extent the density of fuel, thereby, causing less
air to mix with more fuel giving mixture tban required.
5. The working of a simple carburett0r is effected by changes of atmospheric pressure. At high altitudes,
due to less density of air, rich mixture is unnecessarily available So carburettors used in aircraft are to be
provided with altitude controls.
Compensation in Carburettors :-
A simple carburettor cannot supply the correct air-fuel mixture to engines at all conditions of speeds and
loads at which they are required to run specially for the automotive purposes. To correct the mixture
strength to meet the varying nature of speeds and load on the engines the process of providing
additional fuel or reducing tbe fuel by certain means is used which is known as the compensation in a
carburettor. The various methods of compensation being adopted in carburettors are as follows:
(I) Auxiliary or extra air valve compensation:-
An extra air valve fitted to the carburettor fig. opens against the force of a spring when low pressure is
generated as the throttle is opened more supplies more and extra air, diluting the air fuel ratio to the
proper value. Thus through out the economy range the strengh of the mixture is kept reasonably
constant. One of' the undesirable features of this method of compansation is the possible effect of
friction which varies the opening of the extra air valve from the desired value.
(ii) Restricted air bleed Compensation:-
In this method of compensation the carburettor is provided with a jet tube which has openings at its
periphery Fig. A rsetricted air bleed opening connects main air passage to the outer enclosure of the jet
tube. At starting time and at low speeds there is small pressure drop due to effects of viscosity and
surface tension of the air, the more quantity of fuel flows into the venturi giving a rich mixture. At high
speeds when the throttle open more, the effects of viscosity considerably diminishes and there is a higher
pressure drop in the venturi due to which more fuel is to be drawn and sprayed bv the nozzle but at this
stage the air bubbles start bleeding through the jet tube openings making a lean mixture.
(iii) Compensating Jet Compensation:-
This method is also caIled the 'unrestricted air ,bleed compensation,. It consists of two jets A and B
called the main jet and the compensating jet respectively Fig. The main jet is directly connected to the
float chamber while the compensating jet is connected to the float chamber through a tube C whose top
end is open to atmosphere.For small throttle openings both the jets supply fuel into the venturi, As the
throttle is gradually opened. the fuel supply from the main jet increases but that from the compensating
jet decreases due to falling level of fuel in tube C because of atmospheric pressure acting in this tube.
Some air is drawn in through this tube, thus the richness of the mixture decreases.
(iv) Economiser needle in metering jet:-

The flow of fuel is restricted by changing the area of the metering nozzle supplying fuel from the float
chamber to the main jet. The area is changed bv means of needle operated with linkage from accelerator
pedal i.e throttle.
STUDY THE WORKING AND FUNCTION OF MOUNTINGS
AND ACCESSORIES IN BOILERS.
EXPERIMENT NO. 11
AIM: TO STUDY THE WORKING AND FUNCTION OF MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES

IN BOILERS.
THEORY:
MOUNTINGS:
PRESSURE GAUGE: This indicates the pressure of the steam in the boiler.
WATER LEVEL INDICATOR: These indicate the water level in the boiler. The water level in boiler
should not fall below a particular level otherwise the boiler will be overheated and the tubes may burn
out.
SAFETY VALVE: The function of safety valve is to prevent the increase of steam pressure in the boiler
above its design pressure. When the pressure increases above desired pressure the valves opens and
discharge the steam to the atmosphere. When this pressure falls just below design pressure the valve
closes automatically. Usually the valve is spring controlled.
FUSIBLE PLUG: If the water level in boiler falls below a predetermined level the boiler shell and
tubes will be overheated and if it is continued the tubes may burn as the water cover will be removed.
Stopping the burning of fuel on grate can prevent it. When the temp. of the shell increases a particular
level the fusible plug which is mounted over grate melts and forms an opening. The high-pressure steam
pushes the remaining water through this hole in grate and the fire is extinguished.
BLOW OF COCK: The water supplied to boiler always contains impurities like mud, sand. Due to
heating this are deposited at the bottom of the boilers and reduces its capacity and heat transfer rates.
Also the salt content will go on increasing due to evaporation of water. These deposited salts are
removed with the help of blow off cock. It is located at the bottom of the boiler and operated when
boiler is running. When the blow off cock is opened during the running of boiler, the pressure steam
pushes water and the collected material at the bottom is blown out. Blowing some water out, blows out
the concentration of salt. It is operated after every 5 to 6 hours for working for few minutes.
STEAM STOP VALVE: It regulates the flow of steam supply outside. The steam from boiler first
enters into an anti-priming pipe where most of the water particles associated with steam are removed.
FEED CHECK VALVE: The high pressure feed water is supplied to the boiler through the valve. This
valve opens towards the boiler only and feeds the water to boiler, if feed water pressure is less than
boiler steam pressure.
ACCESSORIES:
FEED PUMP: The feed pump is a pump which is used to deliver feed water to the boiler and it is
desirable that the quantity of water supplied should be at least equal to that evaporated and supplied to
the engine. There are basically two types of feed pumps.
(i) Reciprocating Pump –Single acting and Double acting
(ii) Rotary Pumps – Centrifugal Type
ECONOMISER: An Economiser is a device in which the wast heat of flue gases is utilized for heating
the feed water. Economiser are of basically two types.
(i) Independent Type
(ii) Integrated Type
Former is installed in chamber apart from boiler setting. The chamber is situated at the passages of the
flow of the gases from the boiler to chimney. The later is apart of boiler heating surface and is installed
with in boiler setting.
Advantages:
(i) The temperature range between various parts of boiler is reduced which results in
reduction of stresses due to unequal expansion.
(ii) Evaporative capacity of the boiler is increases.
(iii) If the boiler is feed with cold water it may result in chilling the boiler metal. Hot feed
water checks it.
(iv) Overall efficiency of plant is increased.
AIR-PRE HEATER:
The function of air pre heater is to increases the temperature of air before it enters the furnace. It is
generally placed after the Economiser, so the flue gases pass through the Economiser and then to the air
pre heater.
Air pre heater consists of plate or tubes with the hot gases on one side and air on other. It pre heats the
air to be supplied to the furnace. Pre heated air accelerate the combustion and facilitate the burning of
coal. The types of air pre heater are.
(i) Tubular Type.
(ii) Plate Type.
(iii) Storage Type.
Finally the gases escape to the atmosphere to chimney. The temperature of gases leaving the stack
should be kept as low as possible so that there is minimum loss of heat to the chimney.
SUPER HEATER :
The function of super heater is to increases the temperature of steam above its saturation point. The
super heater is very important accessories of a boiler and can be used on Fire tube or Water Tube
Boilers. The small boilers are not commonly provided with a super heater.
Advantages: (i) The steam consumption in the engine / turbine is reduced.
(ii)Lost due to condensation in the cylinders steam pipe are reduced.
(iii) Erosion of turbine Blades is reduced.
(iv) Efficiency of thermal power plant is increases.
Super heater are located in the path of furnace gases so that heat is recovered by the super heater from
hot gases. There are two types of super heaters.
(i) Convective Super heater.
(ii) Radiant Super heater
STEAM SEPARATOR:
The steam available from a boiler may be either wet or dry or super heated but in many cases there will
be loss of heat from it during its passage through the steam pipe line from boiler to the engine tending to
produced wetness. The use of wet steam in an engine or turbine is un-economical besides involving
some risk, hence it is usual to endeavourer to separate any water that may be present from the steam
before the later enters the engine. This is accomplished by steam separator. The function of steam
separator is to remove the entrained water particles from the steam conveyed to the steam engine or
turbine. There are three types of steam separators.
(i) Impact Type.
(ii) Reverse Current type.
(iii) Centrifugal Type.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AS PER CURRICULUM
S.No EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT NO. PAGE NO.

STUDY OF 2 STROKE PETROL AND DIESEL
1 ME-TD-EX-01 01-04
ENGINE MODELS.
STUDY OF 4-STROKE PETROL/DIESEL ENGINE
2 ME-TD-EX-02 05-08
MODEL.
3 STUDY OF BOILERS. ME-TD-EX-03 09-12
4 STUDY OF BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER. ME-TD-EX-04 13-14
5 STUDY OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. ME-TD-EX-05 15-16
6 STUDY OF LANCASHIRE BOILER. ME-TD-EX-06 17-19
TO STUDY THE RED WOOD VISCOMETER AND
7 ME-TD-EX-07 20-22
MEASURE THE VISCOSITY OF FLUID.
TO MEASURE THE FLASH POINT OF THE
8 ME-TD-EX-08 23-24
GIVEN FUEL.
9 TO STUDY THE NESTLER BOILER ME-TD-EX-09 25-28
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS BEYOND CURRICULUM
S.No EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT NO. PAGE NO.

10 TO STUDY A CARBURETTOR. ME-TD-EX-10 29-34
TO STUDY THE WORKING & FUNCTION OF
11 ME-TD-EX-11 35-42
MOUNTINGS &ACCESSORIES IN BOILERS.

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GEETA ENGINEERING, NAULTHA, PANIPAT LABORATORY MANUAL

PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT INSTRUCTION SHEET

AIM :- TO STUDY OF TWO STROKE PETROL & DIESEL ENGINE MODELS.

AIM:- TO STUDY OF FOUR STROKE PETROL / DIESEL ENGINE MODELS

AIM: STUDY OF BOILERS.

AIM: TO STUDY BABCOCK WILCOX BOILER.

AIM: TO STUDY OF LOCOMOTIVES BOILER.

AIM: TO STUDY OF LANCASHIRE BOILER.

GEETA ENGINEERING, NAULTHA, PANIPAT LABORATORY MANUAL

Aim: TO STUDY THE REDWOOD VISCOMETER AND MEASURE THE VISCOSITY OF

AIM:- TO MEASURE THE FLASH POINT OF GIVEN FUEL.

AIM :-STUDY OF NESTLER BOILER.

1. TO check for sufficient water level in the boiler.

Precaution to be observed while stopping the boiler

Working Pressure 150ibs/in2 10.2bar

Furnance tube dia 191/2”

AIM: TO STUDY A CARBURETTOR.

Limitations of a Simple Carburettor:-

(iv) Economiser needle in metering jet:-

AIM: TO STUDY THE WORKING AND FUNCTION OF MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES

S.No EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT NO. PAGE NO.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS BEYOND CURRICULUM

S.No EXPERIMENT EXPERIMENT NO. PAGE NO.

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