Mitosis and meiosis are two ways that cells reproduce.

By mitosis a cell splits to create two identical copies of the original cell.
In meiosis cells split to form new cells with half the usual number of chromosomes, to
produce gametes for sexual reproduction.

DNA
DNA is a very large molecule shaped like a twisted ladder. The shape is a double helix.
Long strands of DNA make up chromosomes. These are found in the nucleus of a cell.

Nucleus, chromosome and gene

Mitosis
Mitosis is a type of cell division. Mitosis occurs wherever more cells are needed. It produces two new cells
that are identical to each other, and to the parent cell. The process of growth and division is called the cell
cycle.
The cycle starts as the number of organelles - the different parts of the cell - increases. This is to ensure
that each of the two new cells receives copies of all the organelles.

Diagram of the stages of mitosi

Before a cell divides, its chromosomes are copied exactly. The DNA
molecule is made of two strands. As each of the two strands
separate, new strands are made alongside each of them, thereby
making two new copies.
 Meiosis
Meiosis is a different kind of cell division. It is used to produce male and
female gametes. A human body cell contains 46
chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. The gametes are sperm or
eggs, and only contain half as many chromosomes (23). This is why
meiosis is sometimes called reduction division.

Stages of meiosis

At fertilisation, the nuclei of the sperm and an egg join to form

the zygote. The zygote contains 23 pairs of chromosomes - 23 single
chromosomes from the sperm, and 23 single chromosomes from
the egg, thereby creating the correct number of 46 chromosomes for all
body cells. It also means the zygote contains a complete set of
chromosomes from each parent.

WHAT IS A CHROMATID?

Definition: A chromatid is one-half of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.

During cell division, the identical copies are joined together at the region of the
chromosome called the centromere. Joined chromatids are known as sister chromatids.
Once the joined sister chromatids separate from one another in anaphase of mitosis, each is
known as a daughter chromosome.

Chromatids are formed from chromatin fibers.

Chromatin is DNA that is wrapped around proteins and further coiled to form chromatin
fibers. Chromatin allows DNA to be compacted in order to fit within the cell nucleus.
Chromatin fibers condense to form chromosomes.

Prior to replication, a chromosome appears as a single-stranded chromatid. After

replication, the chromosome has the familiar X-shape. Chromosomes must be replicated
and sister chromatids separated during cell division to ensure that each daughter
cell receives the appropriate number of chromosomes. Every human cell contains 23
chromosome pairs for a total of 46 chromosomes. The chromosome pairs are
called homologous chromosomes. One chromosome in each pair is inherited from the
mother and the from the father. Of the 23 homologous chromosome pairs, 22 are autosomes
(non-sex chromosomes) and one pair consists of sex chromosomes (XX-female or XY-
male).

CHROMATIDS IN MITOSIS

When cell replication is necessary, a cell enters the cell cycle.

Prior to the mitosis phase of the cycle, the cell undergoes a period of growth where
it replicates its DNA and organelles.

Prophase

In the first stage of mitosis called prophase, the replicated chromatin fibers form
chromosomes. Each replicated chromosome consists of two chromatids (sister chromatids)
connected at the centromere region.

Chromosome centromeres serve as a place of attachment for spindle fibers during cell
division.

Metaphase

In metaphase, the chromatin becomes even more condensed and sister chromatidsline up
along the mid region of the cell or metaphase plate.

Anaphase

In anaphase, sister chromatids are separated and pulled toward opposite ends of the cell by
spindle fibers.

Telophase

In telophase, each separated chromatid is known as a daughter chromosome. Each daughter

chromosome is enveloped in its own nucleus. Following the division of the cytoplasm known
as cytokinesis, two distinct daughter cells are produced. Both cells are identical and contain
the same number of chromosomes.

CHROMATIDS IN MEIOSIS

Meiosis is a two-part cell division process undergone by sex cells. This process is similar to
mitosis consisting of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase stages. In meiosis
however, cells go through these stages twice. In meiosis, sister chromatids do not separate
until anaphase II. After cytokinesis, four daughter cells are produced with half the number
of chromosomes as the original cell.

CHROMATIDS AND NONDISJUNCTION

It is vital that chromosomes be separated correctly during cell division. Any failure
of homologous chromosomes or chromatids to separate correctly results in what is known
as nondisjunction.

Nondisjunction during mitosis or meiosis II happens when sister chromatids fail to separate
properly during anaphase or anaphase II, respectively. Half of the resulting daughter
cells will have too many chromosomes, while the other half will have no chromosomes.
Nondisjunction can also occur in meiosis I when homologous chromosomes fail to separate.
The consequences of having either too many or not enough chromosomes are often serious
or even fatal.

WHAT ARE GAMETES?

Definition: Gametes are reproductive cells (sex cells) that unite during sexual
reproduction to form a new cell called a zygote. Male gametes are sperm and female
gametes are ova (eggs). In seed bearing plants, pollen is the male sperm producing
gametophyte. Female gametes (ovules) are contained within the plant ovary. In animals,
gametes are produced in male and female gonads. Sperm are motile and have a long, tail-
like projection called a flagellum.

However, ova are non-motile and relatively large in comparison to the male gamete.

Crossover[edit]
Crossover is the process by which two chromosomes paired up during prophase I of meiosis exchange a distal
portion of their DNA. Crossover occurs when two chromosomes, normally two homologous instances of the
same chromosome, break and connect to each other's ends. If they break at the same locus, this merely
results in an exchange of genes. This is the normal way in which crossover occurs. If they break at different
loci, the result is a duplication of genes on one chromosome and a deletion on the other. If they break on
opposite sides of the centromere, this results in one chromosome being lost during cell division.
Any pair of homologous chromosomes may be expected to cross over three or four times during meiosis. This
aids evolution by increasing independent assortment, and reducing the genetic linkage between genes on the
same chromosome.

recombination

Recombination in meiosis
Recombination is a process by which pieces of DNA are broken and recombined to produce new
combinations of alleles. This recombination process creates genetic diversity at the level of genes
that reflects differences in the DNA sequences of different organisms.

In eukaryotic cells, which are cells with a nucleus and organelles, recombination typically occurs
during meiosis. Meiosis is a form of cell division that produces gametes, or egg and sperm cells.
During the first phase of meiosis, the homologous pairs of maternal and paternal chromosomes
align. During the alignment, the arms of the chromosomes can overlap and temporarily fuse, causing
a crossover. Crossovers result in recombination and the exchange of genetic material between the
maternal and paternal chromosomes. As a result, offspring can have different combinations of genes
than their parents. Genes that are located farther apart on the same chromosome have a greater
likelihood of undergoing recombination, which means they have a greater recombination frequency.