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BIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO TECHNO MUSIC: NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN THE

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLEASURE AND DRUGS

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 From tribes to techno

BIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO TECHNO MUSIC: NEW DEVELOPMENTS

IN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLEASURE AND DRUGS

Gilberto Gerra, A. Zaimovic,G. Santoro & G. Moi

AUSL Parma – Centro Studi Farmatossicodipendenze – Italy

Rhythmic music has been hypothesized to be involved in the genesis of human

nature. On one side, rhythmic music seems to support the perception of time
through the subdivision of the time continuum by the musical beat or pulse
(Merker, 2000). On the other, this kind of music makes the next beat in a
sequence perfectly predictable and that allows two or more individuals to
synchronize their movements and their voices: in this way rhythmic music is
the basis for synchronous chorusing and dancing. The human behavior
characterized by chorusing and dancing with fast and rhythmic music was
always associated to tribal rituals in different periods of human history. A
mysterious linkage connects synchronized chorusing in lower animals (frogs,
cricket, cicada, birds) with synchronized chorusing in humans, the only species
among mammals that maintained this ancestral behavior.
The use of rhythmic and fast music before hunting, fighting and during religious
rituals could have represented the way to obtain changes in awareness and
mental status, emotional processing and pain threshold. The effects of
rhythmic music on behavior and sensorial perception may be attributable to
significant changes in brain biochemistry, including brain monoamines function
and peptides. Pleasurable music has been found to increase blood flow in
brain regions thought to be involved in reward motivation emotion and arousal,
the same brain regions active in response to other euphoria inducing stimuli
(Blood & Zatorre, 2001).
A specific relationship may be hypothesized between rhythmic music effects on
brain monoamines and the biological correlates of temperamental traits
characterizing subgroups of human subjects. The most successful traits of
tribal warriors were novelty seeking, risk taking, aggressiveness, boredom
susceptibility, social dominance and proneness to explorative behavior, all
psychological features that may be related to changes in dopamine, serotonin
and catecholamine function.
Similar personality traits can be evidenced as antecedents of adolescent
substance abuse in prospective studies (Poikolainen, 2002). Dopamine
receptors impaired sensitivity in relationship with genetic polymorphism and
reduced intra-synaptic dopamine, due to hyper-density of dopamine
transporter, have been reported as the main biological changes underlying
reward cascade derangement (Blum et al., 2000; Volkov et al., 2001).
Neuroendocrine correlates of novelty seeking temperaments have been
investigated in our previous studies, with the evidence of an inverse
relationship between intra-synaptic dopamine and sensation seeking behavior.
Children and adolescents affected by this biological dysfunction develop risk
behavior: usually interesting activities provide fewer rewards and their reward
circuitry seem to be underfed. Transgressive behavior such as dangerous

226
driving, shop lifting, gambling, horror movies viewing, gangs affiliation, sexual
violence, jumping, stadium violence could be addressed to obtain increased
monoamines responses and improved well-being perception. The same could
be true for impaired serotonin and peptides functions that were reported in
relationship with reduced behaviorally inhibition, impulsiveness and mood
disorders (Cloninger, 1987, Virkkunen & Linnoila, 1993; Coccaro, 1992).
For these reasons, we hypothesized that a cluster of adolescents and young
adults, with specific personality traits, may present proneness for rhythmic–fast
music preference, being attracted by disco-clubs synchronized dancing.
Techno (fast and rhythmic) music, as the music of choice for these subjects,
may be attractive for its original action on neuroendocrine system in individuals
with specific temperamental and psycho-biological features.
A large number of studies investigated many questions from the fields of
physiological, psychological and behavioral effects of music: heart rate,
respiratory amplitude and skin temperature (Hyde and Sealapino, 1918;
McFarland, 1985; Campbell, 1988; Zimmerman et al., 1988; Van der Ark & Ely,
1991; Spintge & Droh, 1992), pain threshold, and anxiety (Gardner and
Lickleder, 1960) have been demonstrated to be influenced by music. Many
evidences suggest that music may be considered as an affective agent with
many implications for medicine and physiology (Pratt & Jones 1987; Radocy &
Boyle, 1988; Terwogt & Van Grinsven, 1988): different types of music have
differential effects on arousal levels, influencing cognitive and emotional
components of anxiety (Smith & Morris, 1976; Koschak, 1977). The therapeutic
value of music to reduce anxiety has also been demonstrated and the
hormonal mechanisms underlying the psychoactive effects of music have been
investigated (White, 1992; Tanioka et al., 1987). Previous studies aimed at
better understanding of the responses of stress-released hormones (Rider et
al., 1985), such as cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and prolactin, to different types of music: meditative music has
been found to decrease plasma cortisol and noradrenaline; prolactin levels
decreased after modern music; classic music, on the contrary, did not affect
the catecholamine system and HPA axis function (Mockel et al., 1994). Also
during physical exercise, such as aerobic dance, music is able to positively
influence endurance, performance perception and ß-endorphin secretion
(Steptoe & Cox, 1988); fast music has been reported to increase cortisol
responses to high intensity exercise (Brownley et al, 1995). The
neuroendocrine effects of music are conditioned by professional and cultural
background, preferences and attitudes: cortisol plasma levels were differently
changed by classical music in college students of biology and music (Van der
Ark & Ely, 1993); on the other hand, the reactions and the preferences for a
specific kind of music may also be associated with behavioral patterns. The
preferences for heavy-metal and rap music seems to be in relationship with
adolescent psychosocial turmoil: adolescents who preferred heavy metal music
had a higher incidence of below average school grades, school behavior
problems, sexual activity, drug and alcohol use and arrests (Took & Weiss,
1994). Techno-music, obtained by electronic instruments and computers, has a
very fast rhythm and is listened at high volume for all the night in "after hours"
disco-clubs and "rave" parties, with unclear consequences on the
psychophysiological responses. Aim of the present study was to evaluate the
changes of neurotransmitters/hormonal levels induced by techno-music and

227
their correlates in emotional states as well as their dependence on personality
features in healthy volunteers. Differently from previous studies that evaluated
psychological and hormonal parameters in response to music rather separately
than in combination, our experiment investigates the covariation between
emotional and endocrine changes. The possible psycho-neuroendocrine
changes induced by techno-music exposure could also suggest the existence
of a biological co-factor linking this kind of music with the use of stimulants and
"after-hours" dancing. For this reason catecholamines, ACTH, ß-Endorphin,
Cortisol, PRL and GH plasma levels and psychometric changes have been
measured before and after listening to techno- music, compared with classic
music.
Sixteen psychosomatically healthy subjects (18 to 19 years –olds, eight males
and eight females) were exposed, in random order, to techno – music or to
classical music (30 min. each). Plasma norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine
(EPI), growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) cortisol (CORT), β-endorphin (b – EP) concentrations and changes of
emotional state were measured in basal conditions and after the experimental
trials with two different types of music. Techno – music was associated with a
significant increase in heart rate, systolic blood pressure and significant
changes in self-rated emotional states. A significant increase was observed in
b-EP, ACTH, NE, GH and CORT after listening to techno music. Classical
music induced an improvement in emotional state, but no significant changes
in hormonal concentrations. No differences between male and female subjects’
responses to music have been found. Plasma levels of PRL and EPI were
unaffected by techno- and classical music. Changes in emotional state and
NE, b-EP and GH responses to techno-music correlated negatively with harm
avoidance scores and positively with the novelty-seeking temperament score
on the Cloninger scale. Listening to techno music induces changes in
neurotransmitters, peptides and hormonal reactions, related to mental state
and emotional involvement: personality traits and temperament may influence
the wide inter-individual variability in response to music. Distress symptoms
were evidenced in harm avoidant individuals during techno music exposure, as
a response to disliking emotional status. In contrast, novelty seekers revealed
pleasant emotional reactions during fast music, evidently in relationship with
their neurobiological and psychological traits. The need of more intense
emotional involvement and the associated changes of monoamines function in
novelty seeking individuals may increase the risk of deviant behaviors such as
substance abuse, gambling, shop-lifting, impulsive driving, unprotected sex,
jumping, sects and cults attendance. Similarly, novelty seekers subjects could
develop a preference for techno-music that seems to activate the same
monoaminergic and peptides reactions involved in impulsive-addictive
behavior. In agreement with this hypothesis, hard-core and techno music are
the “sound of choice” for risk adolescents, deviant individuals, antisocial
personality disorders and young illegal drugs users. Music preference could be
included in a early screening to predict, together with other items, adult
deviance and availability to substance abuse: primary prevention with
adolescents may include also cognitive-behavioral interventions about the
choice of music and music education.

228
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