INSTRUMENTS FOR GENERATION AND ANALYSIS OF WAVEFORM 683 inductor Zs, and two variable capacitors Cy and C2 in series, © This circuit differs from the Hartely’s circuit only in the form of tapping. In the Hartely’s circuit, the inductor is tapped while in the Colpitts cirouit, the tapping is from the capacitors. The capacitors Cy and Cz are ganged. The amount of feedback depends upon the relative values of Ci and C2 The smaller the Cy the greater the feedback. As the tuning is varied, the values of both capacitors increase or decrease simultaneously, but the ratio of the two capacitances remains the same. 5 27°13. Crystal Oscillators. In crystal oscillators, the usual electrical resonant circuit is replaced by a mechanically vibrating erystal, These crystals exhibit Piezo-clectric propertics, 4, when mechanical stresses are applied on the opposite faces of the crystal, elecirical charges appear at some other faces and vice-versa, ‘Thus when an alternating voltage is applied to appropriate faces, mecha- nical vibrations are produced at some other faces, Therefore if the frequency of alternating voltage is equal to the frequency of mechanical vibrations, the vibrations will be intense. Piezo-electric properties are exhibited by a number of natural crystal substances like quartz, Rochelle salt, ete, Quartz is the normally used material for crystal oscillators because of its frequency control in oscillators which comes from its permanence, low temperatare co-efll id high mechanical Q. Quartz is preferred fo Rochelle salt on account of the above-mentioned qualities even though Quariz has a lesser Piezo-clectric effect, The electrical equivalent of a crystal ig stown in Fig, frequencies (® Series resonant frequency fa = 1/230 Le (b). The circuit has two resonant FCC ic It is apparent that fg is greater than fy. But the value of ratio C/C’ is very small and hence the two frequencies fi and fa ate close to each other. 1 (ii) Parallel resonant frequency fe=: 3a Because of the close analogy between a crystal and an LC nciwork, the crystal oscillator designs are similar to those of LC oscillators. Fig. 22°9 shows the circuit of a Pierce oscillator. This circuit is similar to that of the Colpitts oscillator. vec eee oF electro B—cvstal = : ; " a t Transistor Bcrystos paubacnel 1 @ ) \__.. Fig, 22°8. Crystal and: its equivalent electric circuit. Fig, 22.9. Crystal oscillator cite ‘Advantages and Disadvantages. (1) The frequency stability of the oscillations obtained from a crystal vary and that too over a long period of time. (2) The frequency of oscillations generated by other RF oscillators using electrical resonating (tank) circuits is effected considerably by changes in supply voltage, load and temperature. Crystal oscillators do not face these problems and thus their frequency stability is high, Hence these oscillators are the standard means of maintaining frequency. (3) The vibrating crystal structure has a high value of Q. Values in excess of 20,000 are always to be expected and values over 1,000,000 have been obtained under special circumstances.684 PLEOTRICAT, MBASUREMBNTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (4) Since the ratio of capacitance CIC’ is very small, the coupling between crystal resonator and exteraai circuit is inherently small. (5) The crystal oscillators have a very limited tuning range (or not at all), ‘The crystal oscil ators are used for frequencies greater than 100 kHz, ‘Theie use is mainly at radio frequencies (RF). 214, Beat Frequency Oscillator (3.8.0.). Before the advent of the Wien bridge oscillator, the beat frequency ‘oscillator was the most commonly oscillator to obtain variable frequency output in the audio frequency (AF) range, Now the use of BO. has decreased. it is mostly used when it is desited to cover a very large frequency range with a single dial rotation (without ‘the need for switching bands) A beat frequency oscillator circuit is shown in Fig. 22°10 in block diagram form. One of, the oscillators generates a fixed fre- quency and the other a variable fre: "FRET ] cree [ip as. |_outeut quency. The outputs of these ‘ ~ weeny ate Sia miner, The | frauen | a frequency of output of the mixer Let — is the difference of the two Srequen- i cies, Thus if the fixed freauency |___ oscillator generates a frequency of 7 [TVaRase | 100 kHz and the variable frequency poe | FREQUENCY oscillator has 2. frequency rarge of ¥ OSCILLATOR 00 kHa to 120 ki¥z, the output fre» FREGKIENCY quency varies betwen 0 to 20 KHz, oA ‘Therefore, frequency dial is. marked Pig, 2210, eat Feequeney esilat 010 2D kHz (ie, the difference of a Bee eer thotwo feequoncies). This then is aa aio frequency (AP) output, This outpst is amplified by an AL amplifier. itis obvious tbat ciresit of @ BLF.O. is uch mote complicated than that of a Wien bridge oscillator and hence B.E.O. is becoming ehsdtet>. its are available. uoijuaee 4235. Negative Resistaaes ‘Oscillators. Many oegative resistance ele sop use ia negoriveresistance oscillators. These are tetrodiet, tunnel diades, neon (pes transistors. ‘Thore are tv types of negative resistance oscillators used 18 (i) Dynatron. Its aciicn is J upon the nogtive resistance region of the characteristics of a tetrode coupled with aa LC tank ciceuit (ii) Tunne} Diode Oscillator. This is solid state equivalent of the dynatron with additional advantages of very high specd operation Therefore this oscillator is very useful in the very high frequency (VHF) and alrta high frequency (VBE) sanges, Fig. 22°11 (a) shows the characteristics of a tannel diode, The characteristics are stable if driven by 2 voltage source. ‘The voltage nent response can be used to cause or sustain oscillations, The load lines as shown are unstabie : that is there are two stable intersections and one unstable intersetion. Jf the tuanel diode is connected to an impedance which may be represented by L=R+jX, we find that the criteria for instability is: R--Ro=0. Thus the device resistance, Ro, must cancel out the resistanc: of the romainder circuit, and the reactance at the frequency of osci Tations must be zero. In order to obtain sis | oscillations, the above conditions must be satisfied. Jf the resistance ofthe device (tunnel sde) were linear, there would be no limit to the amplitude of the oscillations. The amplitude of the oxcillations can be controlled, if the positive resistance Tine is almost tangent to the negative resistance linc, The negative résistence will then have an average vyalue over one complete eyce which ig equal to positive resistance.” ‘The unnel diode, which has’ a negative resistance, is very useful as it may operate at very, high feequencies. Jt has ‘been difficult fo obtain high frequencyar peration of transistors because ofINSTRUMENTS FOR GENERATION AND ANALYSIS OF WAVEFORM 665 . Tank Tunnel Load tine Circuit lode a Current, —o @ ® Fig, 2211, Characteristics and circuit of a tunnel diode oscillator. the difficulty of making thin base regions and because of the relatively slow motion of minority carriers in semi-conductors, Frequencies of the order of 100 to 500 MHz are the upper limit. The tunnel diode operates because of majority carriers and is thus very fast. It is possible to make tunnel diode oscillators which operate in the microwave frequency region. A very simple circuit as shown jn Fig. 22°11 (8) can be made to oscillate if the correct bias current is applied to the tunnel diode, The tunnel diode circuits may use negative feedback for bias stability, just as feedback oseillators do, SIGNAL GENERATORS 2716, Standard Sigual Generator, [tis a source of sine wave voltage with an appreciable range of frequency and. amplitude both’ of which are known to a high degree of accuarey. The jastrument is provided with means of modulating the carrier frequency which is indicated by the dial setting, "The modulation is indicated by a meter. Modulation may be done by sine wave, square waver triangular wave or a pulse. The output signal may be amplitude modulated (AM) or fre- quency modulated (FM). Usually amplitude modulation is employed, A basic block diagram of a standard signal generator is showin in Fig, 22°12, The carrier frequency (sinusoidal) is produced by a vory stablo RF oscilator using LC tank cironit, The frequency of oscillations is indicated by frequency range control Senge r mens Output mt of ee iret] | etl stor anrures [-ofrenten 20 ot Gutoet and the vernier dial setting. Amplitude ewe fl ae modulation is provided by either an internal or an external fixed frequency Ropu] oscillator. Modulation is done in the osccaten output amplifier circuit, This amplifier Le delivers its output (i... the modulated Saeed carrier) to an attenuator, ‘The output Frequency Modulalon voltage is read by an output meter and the attenuator output setting. Fig, 22:12, Basie block diagem of a standard signal generator. ‘Modern laboratory type signal generators incorporate certain features. ‘The frequency stability of the oscillator must be high at all frequency ranges. rrequency stability depends upon the constancy of the supply voltages, and therefore regulated power supplies are used, In order to maintaia stability, temperature compensation devices must be used. In high frequency oscillators it is essential to isolate the oscillator circuit from the output circuit, This isolation is necessary in order that the changes which ocvur in the output circuit do not affect the oscillator frequency, amplitude and distortion characteristics, . Buffer amplifiers may be employed for this purpose. Fig, 2:13 shows the baste diagram of a laboratory type signal generator. A master oscillator js used which is optimally designed for highest frequency range, ‘The RF oscillator output afterELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS AND MEASURING INSTRUMETS 686 ssovesous8 yeas prepang “CL.zz “83 MAW3SSY YOLYTII9SO_O1GNV js Suny aay sauanbas} 25009 \ rpuoie ony 2 So fouonuairy BEM seieo = 2H IE 1950 "3a | { a eas Menassv Ualanany BSMOd jes1u03 IOWOHAYINSTRUMENTS FOR GENERATION AND ANALYSIS OF WAVEFORM oo 687 passing through an untuned buffer amplifier, By, enters the power amplifier circuit, On the highest frequency range, which may be 34 MHz—80 MHz, the RF output passes through an additional bufier amplifier Bs. In order to obtain lower frequencies, the RF signal is applied to series of fre- quency dividers. Fig. 22°13 shows 9 frequency dividers of 2; 1 ratio. Thus.a frequency ratio of 2:1 he, 512: 1 is obtained, Thus on the lowest frequency range we get an output of 67 KHz to 156 KHz, The frequency stability of highest frequency range is imparted to the lower frequency ranges. The master oscillators have both automatic and manual controllers. With controls driven by motor, remote automatic tuning. can be done, Also it becomes a programmable automatic frequency zontrol device. ‘The modulation is done at the power amplifier stage. For modulation, two internally genera- ted signals are used. They have frequencies of 400 Hz and 1 kHz. Modulation level may be adjusted upto 95 per cent by a control device, ‘The signal generator is also provided with a 1 MHz crystal oscillator for calibration purposes, SQUARE WAVE GENERATORS 2217. Types of Circuits, There are two types of circuits which are used for square wave shapes : (i) Passive, These circuits incorporate wave shaping devices. (W) Active. These circuits actually generate the square wave shape. 2218. Passive Square Wave Generators, The production of square waves can be con- veniently obtained from the output of a sine-wave generator. Therefore, both sine as well square wave outputs are made available in many commercial instruments. The oscillator generator generates a sine wave output, The sine wave may be shaped into square wave by many methods, The three important methods aro : (@ Diode clipping circuit, (i#) Overdriven amplifier, and (ii!) Schmitt trigger. 22°19, Diode Clipping Circuit. A simple diode clipping circuit is used for low level outputs. A diode clipping circuit produces an approximate square wave by shaping an input sine wave. In order to produce a single peak amplitude of say 6 V, with an ordinary diode Das shown in Fig, 2214 (a) a biasing battery is used so that the input sine wave rises sinusoidally wa 6 V value fore the diodes conduct to prevent any further rise in the wave in the forward direction during positive half of the evcle. input Output 18V) o 000 He 2 voltage sine wave 1000 Hz, 18V) (36 V peak to Sw eT “ 1 vo ooops] ot (a) Circuit (8) Toput voltage (© Output voltage Fig. 2214, Simple diode clipping cltcuit for square wave generation, A similar diode Dy and a 6 V biasing battery is used for performing the same function during