Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Quality and Preference

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodqual

Combining means-end chain analysis and the Portrait Value

Questionnaire to research the influence of personal values on food choice
Kamolnate Kitsawad, Jean-Xavier Guinard ⇑
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Personal values can be measured using quantitative or qualitative methods. This paper aims to investi-
Received 25 August 2012 gate the attribute-consequence-value patterns collected from means-end chain analysis and to examine
Received in revised form 27 September 2013 their relationship to personal value domains from Schwartz value theory measured through the use of the
Accepted 14 January 2014
Portrait Value Questionnaire. The study was performed on two product categories, potato chips and
Available online 28 January 2014
orange juice, in which two value segments of opposing value domains were found, Conservatism and
Openness to change clusters. There was consistency between means-end chain analysis results and the
Keywords:
expected traits of the value domains. The Conservatism cluster embracing security, tradition, and confor-
Personal values
Means-end chain
mity values sought financial security through saving money by paying more attention to price and
Laddering selected familiar brands in order to avoid risks of spending extra money. The Openness to change cluster,
Portrait Value Questionnaire which embraced hedonism and stimulation values, emphasized attaining pleasure and enjoyment in life
Food choice through various consequences that branched out from a number of sensory product attributes. This study
illustrates the compatibility between the two instruments. The use of means-end chain analysis con-
firmed Schwartz’s definition of values as guiding behavior, and that values are ordered by relative
importance.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Values are guiding principles of life, which are more stable over
time than attitudes (Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1992). Values are
connected to people’s cognitive structures and can influence one’s
perception, evaluation, and attitudes towards objects, persons, or
situations. It is assumed that values are universal and are recog-
nized by different cultures around the world (Schwartz, 1992).
Schwartz and Bilsky (1987) presented a conceptual definition of
values as concepts or beliefs, that pertain to desirable motivational
goals or behaviors that people strive to attain. Values transcend
specific situations, guide selection or evaluation of behavior and
events, and are ordered by relative importance. Personal values
have been used in consumer segmentation and food-related re-
search to study the influence of collective motivational goals on
consumer behavior, consumption, and purchase intentions (Boec-
ker, Hartl, & Nocella, 2008; Brunsø, Scholderer, & Grunert, 2004;
de Boer, Hoogland, & Boersema, 2007; Dreezens, Martijn, Tenbült,
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: 2034 Sensory Building, Robert Mondavi Insti-
tute for Wine and Food Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. Tel.:
+1 530 754 8659; fax: +1 530 752 4759.
E-mail address: jxguinard@ucdavis.edu (J.-X. Guinard).
Kok, & de Vries, 2005; Fotopoulos, Krystallis, & Ness, 2003), to
name a few.
The Schwartz Value Survey (SVS) is one of the most well-known
and intricate quantitative measures of human values. A list of 56
values representing ten value domains was developed and vali-
dated across different cultures. The characteristics of each value
domain are illustrated in Table 1. These ten value domains are
meant to encompass the core values recognized by all cultures.
The list of values in the Schwartz Value Survey represents items
that express an aspect of the motivational goal of the ten value do-
mains. For instance, the item ‘‘exciting life’’ represents a stimula-
tion value and the item ‘‘protecting the environment’’ represents
a universalism value. Despite its recognition as a measure of per-
sonal values, items in the Schwartz Value Survey may appear to
be more abstract. The Portrait Value Questionnaire was developed
as an alternative to measure value priorities (Schwartz et al., 2001).
The questionnaire is comprised of 40 verbal portraits or short ver-
bal descriptions of a person’s goals that relate to the values, which
are more concrete and easier to understand than the Schwartz
Value Survey. The verbal portraits describe each person in terms
of what is important to him or her (Schwartz et al., 2001). For
example, ‘‘She really wants to enjoy life. Having a good time is very
important to her.’’ represents the hedonism value and ‘‘She
strongly believes that people should care for nature. Looking after

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2014.01.003
0950-3293/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58 49

Table 1
Characteristics of ten Schwartz’s value domains.

Value domain Value characteristics

Universalism Understanding, appreciation, tolerance and protection for the welfare of all people and for nature
Benevolence Preservation and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one is in frequent contact
Tradition Respect, commitment and acceptance of the customs and ideas that traditional culture or religion provide the self
Conformity Restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others and violate social expectations or norms
Security Safety, harmony and stability of society, of relationships, and of self
Power Social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources
Achievement Personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards
Hedonism Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself
Stimulation Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life
Self-direction Independent thought and action-choosing, creating, exploring

the environment is important to her.’’ represents the universalism
value. These quantitative instruments could draw out people’s
knowledge about self and their food-related decisions when used
in the study of food choice.
The connections between food choice and personal values can
also be explored using qualitative techniques, such as means-end
chain analysis. Means-end chain is a theory proposed by Gutman
(1982) that seeks to understand the motives behind consumers’
selection of products. The ‘means’ are product attributes while
‘ends’ refer to desirable motivational goals or personal values such
as security, achievement, and pleasure. The theory postulates that
consumers choose a product with attributes that can provide par-
ticular beneficial consequences that will satisfy personal values
they associate with such benefits. Walker and Olson (1991) sug-
gested that the lower level of the means-end hierarchy contains
concrete and abstract product attributes and their functional con-
sequences, representing the product-knowledge, while the higher
levels are the psychological consequences and the values the con-
sequences reinforce, representing self-knowledge. Laddering is a
one-on-one interviewing technique that was developed to facili-
tate means-end chain analysis in order to understand how con-
sumers translate product attributes into meaningful associations
that are relevant to self (Reynolds & Guttman, 1988). With an
aim of determining the linkages among attributes, consequences,
and values, the interviewing process involves a series of ‘‘Why is
it important to you?’’ questions. There are two types of laddering
technique, soft and hard laddering. Soft laddering refers to a
semi-structured interviewing technique that allows the natural
flow of conversation without much restriction. In contrast, hard
laddering requires respondents to produce ladders by utilizing a
priori list of attributes-consequences-values in such a way that
the answers reveal an increasing level of abstraction (Grunert &
Grunert, 1995). Means-end chain has been used to understand
the consumption and purchase motives for functional foods (Kry-
stallis, Maglaras, & Mamalis, 2008); locally produced and imported
extra virgin olive oil (Santosa & Guinard, 2011); vegetable-based
food for children (Søndergaard & Edelenbos, 2007); French fair
trade coffer purchases (de Ferran & Grunert, 2007); the differences
between organic food buyers and non-buyers with respect to
wines produced from organically grown grapes in Greece (Fotopo-
ulos et al., 2003); cross-cultural preferences and purchase motives
for vegetable oils in Denmark, England and France (Nielsen, Bech-
Larsen, & Grunert, 1998); understanding beef consumers with re-
gards to frequency of consumption (Barrena & Sánchez, 2009);
meat choice (Le Page, Cox, Georgie Russell, & Leppard, 2005); con-
sumer perceptions of foods involving genetic modification (Grun-
ert et al., 2001); and consumer perception of technologies such
as high pressure processing on chilled ready meals (Sorenson &
Henchion, 2011), to name a few.
Value priority would influence the motivations behind food
choices and how people make connections between product attri-
butes (A), their consequences (C), and personal values (V). For in-
stance, consumers with hedonism values would tend to direct
their A–C–V linkages such that consequences that relate to plea-
sure and enjoyment of life would be more apparent than in con-
sumers with other value domains. The aim of this study was
two-fold. The first objective was to investigate the associations be-
tween product attributes, consequences, and personal values that
drive the consumption and purchase of potato chips and orange
juice. The second objective was to determine the consistency of
the results from means-end chain analysis and the proposed char-
acteristics of value priorities obtained from the Portrait Value
Questionnaire. This study also enabled the observation of similar-
ity and differences in the cognitive processes involved in food
choice decision-making of consumers embracing distinct value
priorities.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Participants
Participants were selected based on the recruitment criteria of
US citizenship and/or residency, product consumption, age 18–
65 years, and involvement in decision making for grocery
shopping. There were 40 participants in each study. Generally,
the minimum sample size for means-end chain analysis is sug-
gested to be 20 participants in order to obtain significant informa-
tion about consumer choice (Reynolds & Guttman, 1988). The
number of male and female participants was evenly distributed,
and so was age, which was divided into two main groups, 30 years
or younger and older than 30 years. Consumers were recruited
from the Davis and Sacramento areas in Northern California.
2.2. Procedure
Participants were invited to the RMI Sensory Building, Univer-
sity of California Davis, for an individual interview session. The soft
laddering technique was employed for the means-end chain meth-
od. The process began by informing the consumers about the
objective of the experiment, followed by a brief explanation of
the interview process. Subsequently, the interviewer proceeded
by asking the consumers (in the case of orange juice) ‘what kind
of orange juice do you buy and why do you buy that/those?’ or ‘what
are the factors that influence your choice of orange juice?’ For all the
reasons mentioned, consumers were asked to rank the factors in
order of importance and to answer the question ‘why is this flavor
important to you?’ (if flavor was the most important factor to
them). This led to a reason or consequence (e.g. enjoying the taste).
Then, consumers were asked why that particular consequence was
important to them: ‘why is enjoying the taste important to you?’ Fol-
lowing that, consumers were asked a series of ‘why’ questions from
50 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58
one abstraction level to the other until the connection between
consequences and values was elicited. When consumers were un-
able to provide more reasons, the process was stopped for that fac-
tor and repeated for a different factor that was the second most
important to them. At the end of the interview session, consumers
were asked to complete an exit survey on their consumption and
purchase behavior, demographics and personal values, by means
of the Portrait Value Questionnaire. Respondents rated the 40 ver-
bal portraits using a 6-point scale (1 = ‘not like me at all’ to
6 = ‘very much like me’).
2.3. Data analysis
To determine the relationship among Schwartz’s ten value do-
mains, principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the
covariance matrix with no rotation. Mean scores for each of the
personal values in the PVQ were subjected to cluster analysis,
using Pearson’s dissimilarity matrix and the Average linkage
agglomerative hierarchical clustering technique. Statistical analy-
ses were performed using XLSTAT version 2010 for Windows
(Addinsoft, Paris, France).
The analysis and interpretation of means-end chain followed
the guidelines of Reynolds and Guttman (1988). There are three
parts to the data analysis of a laddering interview. First, the ele-
ments of the interview are analyzed based on their context. Sec-
ond, the elements are coded; in other words, elements with
similar meaning are categorized under different groups of attri-
butes, consequences, and values. The third part involves construct-
ing a hierarchical map value to illustrate the associations or
linkages between one abstraction level and another. It can be done
by determining the number of times an element led to another ele-
ment. Reynolds and Guttman (1988) suggested a 3–5 cut-off level
to perform the linkages between elements. That is, a connection
between elements was recorded if mentioned by at least 3–5 par-
Fig. 1a. Principal component analysis of the relationship among Schwartz’s ten value domains, showing the value-based potato chip consumer segments.
ticipants. A cutoff point of 3 was chosen for this study to minimize
the loss of information.
3. Results
3.1. The relationship among Schwartz values
Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to examine the
structural relationships among the ten value domains (Figs. 1a
and 1b). The first two principal components explained 66.0% and
56.5% of the variation in potato chips and orange juice consumer
values, respectively. The structural components of the values were
similar in both studies and were in accordance to the theory that
compatible values lied adjacent to one another while incongruent
values were on opposite directions. The first dimension was asso-
ciated with self-transcendence and self-enhancement values
domains. Self-direction, benevolence, and universalism values
were negatively related to power and achievement values. The
second dimension generally expressed the congruency between
openness to change values, such as hedonism and stimulation.
The negative side of PC2 consisted of conservatism values, includ-
ing security, tradition, and conformity. The negative relationship
between conservatism and openness to change values domains
confirm the applicability of Schwartz’s value structure.
3.2. Value segmentation and demographics
Cluster analysis of personal values in both potato chips and or-
ange juice studies revealed similar value segmentation. Overall, the
two clusters obtained from each product category were signifi-
cantly different (p < 0.001) and specifically in openness to change
and conservatism values (Table 2). The potato chips Conservatism
cluster had significantly high ratings for those values (p < 0.05).
The other potato chips consumer cluster was an Openness to
 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58 51

Fig. 1b. Principal component analysis of the relationship among Schwartz’s ten value domains, showing the value-based orange juice consumer segments.

Table 2
Mean scores of value segments for potato chip and orange juice consumers.

Personal Values Potato chips Orange juice

F-values Conservatism Openness to change F-values Conservatism Openness to change
(n = 17) (n = 23) (n = 23) (n = 17)
Universalism 1.2 4.34 4.62 1.2 4.61 4.36
Benevolence 0.1 4.36 4.24 0.5 4.75 4.57
Tradition 8** 3.49a 2.56b 0.29 3.69 3.58
Conformity 77.1** 4.40a 2.47b 3.9 4.07 3.78
Security 14.2* 4.47a 4.08b 8.3** 4.68a 3.97b
Power 0.4 3.03 3.02 0.5 3.16 3.15
Achievement 0.2 3.62 3.78 0.2 3.98 3.82
Hedonism 24.6* 4.18b 4.79a 6.1* 4.01b 4.77a
Stimulation 19.4** 3.55b 5.15a 30.75** 3.22b 4.59a
Self-direction 0.6 4.89 4.91 1.1 4.66 4.91

Different letter superscripts denote a significant difference between the cluster means.
*
p < 0.05.
**
p < 0.01.

change cluster, which included values such as hedonism and stim-
ulation. The result of value segmentation was similar to that of the
orange juice study. Yet, in the orange juice study, the Conservatism
cluster was found to be significantly higher in the security value
only (p < 0.01). Despite the non-significance of the differences in
scores for the tradition and conformity values, the average score
for those two values were higher than that of the orange juice
Openness to change cluster.
Gender distribution in both the potato chips and orange juice
studies were approximately equal, indicating the lack of influence
of gender on personal values with regard to food choice (Tables 3
and 5). Age, on the other hand, showed a significant relationship
to personal values. The Conservatism clusters were, on average,
older than the Openness to change clusters. The findings were con-
sistent with the value segmentation we uncovered in other studies
of the influence of personal values on food choice and sensory pref-
erences (Kitsawad, 2012). The majority of consumers in both stud-
ies held high school diplomas or bachelor’s degrees. There was a
clear distinction between the occupations of the two value seg-
ments. A larger percentage of the Conservatism clusters was em-
ployed (47.1% for potato chips and 56.5% for orange juice),
whereas the Openness to change clusters consisted mostly of stu-
dents (43.5% for potato chips and 64.7% for orange juice). As far as
product choices were concerned, the majority of the Conservatism
potato chips cluster tended to choose fried-style and kettle-style
potato chips, although more than 50% of consumers also liked
baked-style potato chips. The Openness to change cluster had
roughly similar preferences for all three types of potato chips. More
than half of the orange juice consumers in each segment preferred
orange juice containing pulp and supplements regardless of
52 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58

Table 3
Potato chip consumers value segment profiles.

Variable Conservatism (%) Openness to change (%)

(n = 17) (n = 23)
Gender Male 47.1 43.5
Female 52.9 52.2
Age mean (SD) 42.6a (15.2) 31b (14.8)
Ethnicity African/African American 5.9 4.4
Asian/Asian American 17.7 34.8
Caucasian (non-Hispanic) 70.6 47.8
Hispanic/Latino 5.9 8.7
Middle Eastern 0 0
Pacific Islander 0 0
Mixed 0 0
Education High school 47.1 34.8
Bachelor’s 47.1 39.1
Master’s 5.9 13.0
Doctorate 0 0
Professional 0 8.7
Occupation Student 17.6 43.5
Employed 47.1 39.1
Retired 17.7 0
Unemployed 17.7 17.4
Marital status Single 52.9 60.9
Married 47.1 30.4
Widowed 0 0
Divorced 0 43.5
Separated 0 0
Number of children under 18 None 76.5 73.9
1 11.8 13.0
2 11.8 8.7
3 or more 0 4.4
Income Under $50,000 41.2 4.4
$50,000–$100,000 29.4 43.5
More than $100,000 5.9 4.4
Do not remember/prefer not to report 23.5 17.4
Product type Fried (original) 82.4 56.5
Kettle-cooked 88.2 69.6
Baked 52.9 60.9
Others 11.8 17.4
Size of package Small (1–2 oz) 41.2 60.9
Regular (8–11 oz) 88.2 60.9

Different letters denotes that ages are significantly different between clusters (p < 0.01).

personal value type. There was a difference in packaging size
purchased by the two different potato chips value segments. The
Conservatism cluster generally chose the regular packaging size
over smaller ones. In contrast, the Openness to change cluster pur-
chased both regular and small packaging sizes with equal fre-
quency. This may suggest differences in decision-making due to
distinct motivational goals.
3.3. Relationship between the Portrait Value Questionnaire and
means-end chain analysis
The differences between the Conservatism and the Openness
to change clusters could be discerned through the connections
among attributes, consequences, and values displayed on the
hierarchical value maps of the two potato chips clusters (Figs. 2
and 3). The frequency of attributes, consequences and values
mentioned by the consumers in each cluster are shown in Table 4.
Financial responsibility appeared to be one of the major values for
the Conservatism cluster. Sales or lower price were emphasized,
looking at the relations between price and the money-related
consequences such as saving money and limiting waste of money.
By contrast, the Openness to change cluster did not show a heavy
concern for price. Although the connection between price and
saving money was observed, it could relate to notions consumers
have about price in general. Financial security was considered to
be important to the Conservatism cluster. In addition, it could be
mediated through money-related consequences exerted by plain
flavored chips and brand attributes. Moreover, the thickness of
potato chips as a result of kettle-cooking was linked to crunchi-
ness, wholesomeness (substantial), and naturalness, thus quality.
This psychological consequence again displayed the connections
to the central theme of financial responsibility, in terms of
price-quality relations.
The Openness to change cluster prioritized pleasure as one of
the motivational goals. In addition, pleasure is the main character-
istic of the hedonism value. Pleasure is closely related to the con-
sequences of eating enjoyment. It is worth noting that attributes
like plain flavor and thickness and consequences like substantial
were considered, by the Openness to change cluster, to provide
enjoyment of eating rather than any connections to financial issues
like the Conservatism cluster. Yet, the two value segments also
shared similarities through the enjoyment of eating baked,
flavored, and crunchy attributes.
Another value in the Openness to change cluster – stimulation,
was observed through the exciting life motivational goal. Exciting
life could be satisfied through two routes, which were the conse-
quences of trying new things and being more active. Attractive
packaging and variety of flavoring in potato chips offered novelty
to consumers. For the Openness to change cluster, being more ac-
tive could be achieved by means of being healthy through the con-
sumption of baked, good quality, and natural products, and
through observing nutritional labels and controlling portion size.
Hence, some individuals may prefer smaller package size over reg-
ular ones due to portion size and calories. Valuation of exciting life
was not observed in the Conservatism cluster, which is not surpris-
ing given their distinct motivational goals.
 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58 53

Attributes Consequences Values

Financial Quality of Family life Pleasure

responsibility
life

35.3%
17.6%
52.3%

More energy Live longer 29.4%

41.2%

Limit waste 17.6%

of money Quality of
35.3% 29.4% Stay clean
product
Health
17.6%
concern
17.6%
41.2% Enjoy eating
23.5%

Natural

17.6%
Save 47%
money
Meet Substantial
29.4%
expectation
17.6%
35.3% 23.5%
41.2% Messy
29.4%

Crunchy
Thick 35.3%
17.6% 23.5% 23.5% 17.6%
17.6% 17.6%
23.5%
58.8%
Nutrition
Price Plain flavor Brand label Baked Greasiness Flavored
(n=15) (n=3) (n=10) Kettle-cooked (n=6) (n=7) (n=9)
(n=11) (n=6)

Fig. 2. Hierarchical value map for the potato chip Conservatism cluster.

Attributes Consequences Values

Responsible Care for Exciting life

for Nature others Feel good Quality of life Family life Self-esteem

13% 21.7% Pleasure 34.8%

21.7% 17.4%
17.4% 21.7%
13% Limit waste
of food 13% More active Live longer Good figure
43.5% 26.1% 17.4%
13% 30.4%
Environmental
concern Enjoy eating Health concern

13%
13% Quality of 17.4% 17.4% 17.4%
product 21.7%

56.5% 26.1% 17.4%

Save
money Substantial
13% Natural
Portion
control
21.7% Try new
things 30.4%
17.4% 30.4%
Potato 17.4%
13% flavor
21.7% Crunchy
17.4% Nutrition
13% 17.4% label
30.4% 13% (n=5)
Package
Price Brand Packaging Flavored Plain flavor Thick Baked size
(n=12) (n=6) (n=8) (n=18) (n=6) (n=13) (n=7) (n=5)

Fig. 3. Hierarchical value map for the potato chip Openness to change cluster.
54 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58

Table 4 Table 5
Frequency of attributes, consequences, and values mentioned in the potato chip Orange juice consumers value segment profiles.
interviews.
Variable Conservatism Openness to
Attributes Conservatism (%) Openness to change (%) (%) change (%)
(n = 23) (n = 17)
Price 15 (88.2) 12 (52.2)
Brand 10 (58.8) 6 (26.1) Gender Male 47.8 52.9
Packaging – – 8 (34.8) Female 56.5 47.1
Packaging size – – 5 (21.7) Age mean (SD) 36.8a (13.4) 29.4b (13.1)
Nutrition label 6 (35.3) 5 (21.7) Ethnicity African/African 4.4 5.8
Plain flavor 3 (17.6) 6 (26.1) American
Flavored 9 (52.9) 18 (78.3) Asian/Asian American 26.1 41.2
Potato flavor – – 3 (13.0) Caucasian (non- 56.5 35.3
Greasiness 7 (41.2) – – Hispanic)
Thick 10 (58.8) 13 (56.5) Hispanic/Latino 8.7 11.8
Crunchy 6 (35.3) 10 (43.5) Middle Eastern 0 0
Kettle-cooked 11 (64.7) – – Pacific Islander 0 0
Baked 6 (35.3) 7 (30.4) Mixed 4.4 5.9
Consequence Education High school 52.2 58.8
Save money 7 (41.2) 5 (21.7) Bachelor’s 26.1 35.3
Limit waste of money 9 (52.9) – – Master’s 21.7 0
Limit waste of food 3 (17.6) 3 (13.0) Doctorate 0 0
Environmental concern – – 3 (13.0) Professional 0 5.9
Meet expectation 7 (41.2) – – Occupation Student 39.1 64.7
Try new things – – 9 (39.1) Employed 56.5 29.4
Substantial 6 (35.3) 4 (17.4) Retired 4.3 5.9
Natural 3 (17.6) 7 (30.4) Unemployed 0 11.8
Quality of product 14 (82.4) 6 (26.1) Marital status Single 52.2 82.4
Health concern 14 (82.4) 20 (87.0) Married 34.8 0
Portion control – – 4 (17.4) Widowed 0 5.9
Good figure – – 4 (17.4) Divorced 8.7 11.8
Feel good – – 4 (17.4) Separated 4.4 0
More energy 3 (17.6) – – Number of None 56.5 100
More active – – 7 (30.4) children 1 30.4 0
Live longer 5 (29.4) 6 (26.1) under 18 2 13.0 0
Messy 3 (17.6) – – 3 or more 0 0
Stay clean 3 (17.6) – – Income Under $50,000 26.1 64.7
Enjoy eating 16 (94.1) 23 (100.0) $50,000–$100,000 34.8 11.8
Value More than $100,000 26.1 0
Financial responsibility 16 (94.1) – – Do not remember/ 13.0 23.5
Quality of life 3 (17.6) 8 (34.8) prefer not to report
Family life 6 (35.3) 5 (21.7) Product type With pulp 53.5 82.4
Responsible for nature – – 3 (13.0) With supplement 56.5 70.6
Care for others – – 3 (13.0) Size of package Small (13.5 fl. oz.) 17.7 43.5
Pleasure 5 (29.4) 13 (56.5) Regular (59 fl. oz.) 91.3 88.2
Exciting life – – 5 (21.7) Large (89 fl. oz.) 35.3 30.4
Self-esteem – – 4 (17.4)
Different letters denotes that ages are significantly different between clusters
(p < 0.05).

Both consumer groups valued elements that were related to

well-being, including quality of life and family life. These values
were either directly associated with live longer and health concern
consequences, which cut across several sensory and non-sensory
factors as discussed above. Greasiness was also linked to health
concerns by the Conservatism cluster. In addition, it is interesting
to note that greasiness was brought up more by the Conservatism
cluster since it could lead to being messy and the desirable conse-
quence to avoid greasy potato chips was to stay clean. Hence,
greasy potato chips could negatively influence their choice to some
degree. Messiness was referred to by some consumers as a conse-
quence of consuming potato chips that are easy to break and pro-
duce crumbs. Self-esteem was valued by the Openness to change
cluster. It could be fulfilled by having a good figure as a conse-
quence of being healthy. Having confidence in oneself is not neces-
sary a trait of the hedonism or stimulation values, but it is more
related to the self-enhancement value domain including the
achievement value. In spite of the non-significance of the differ-
ences between the mean scores of the two clusters, the Openness
to change cluster exhibited a higher mean score for the achieve-
ment value than did the Conservatism cluster.
It was found that responsibility for nature and caring for others
were valued by the Openness to change cluster. This finding was
not expected to be a typical characteristic of people who prioritize
hedonism and stimulation values. Nonetheless, a high mean score
for universalism suggested that valuation of preserving nature and
welfare of others could possibly be observed in this cluster.
Responsibility for nature is positively associated with the conse-
quence of environmental concerns, provoked from the use of
paper-like or matte-finished packaging materials. Such packaging
type could convey a more environment friendly message than
plastic or glossy packaging. The value of caring for others was ex-
pressed through limiting food waste, which could be accomplished
by eating good foods. The enjoyment of eating was related to var-
ious sensory properties of potato chips.
Orange juice value segmentation revealed two main clusters
with opposed motivational goals (Figs. 4 and 5). The frequency of
attributes, consequences and values mentioned by the consumers
in each cluster are shown in Table 6. The two clusters shared sim-
ilarities in certain end values, but to a different extent. The value
pleasure occurred in both clusters as a result of the consequence
of enjoying drinking derived from the consumption of refreshing,
smooth, and good tasting orange juices. Moreover, the product
attributes that delivered such consequences included taste/flavor,
no pulp content, and brand. Despite the similarities, connections
between each abstraction level illustrated the differences between
the two clusters due to different motivational goals. The Openness
to change cluster emphasized more intensely enjoying drinking,
which could be observed from the perception that not-from-con-
 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58 55

Attributes Consequences Values

Achievement Quality of life Self-esteem

Pleasure Function better
Happy Financial
17.6% responsibility
17.6% 17.6% 17.6%
Live longer 29.4%
52.9% Alert
23.5% Good figure
More energy
17.6% 23.5%
58.8% 17.6%
Enjoy drinking Health concern
58.8% 17.6%
76.5% Save
money
35.3%
94.1% 35.3%
Natural
Quality of
product
17.6%
52.9% Limited
58.8% budget
Refreshing 23.5%
17.6%
17.6% 29.4% 52.9%
17.6% 29.4%
Has
Good texture Good value
47.1% Smooth Clean taste
looks 29.4% 29.4%
17.6% 52.9% 29.4%
17.6% 23.5% 17.6%

Taste/flavor No pulp Packaging Brand NFC 100% juice Has pulp Supplement Price
(n=12) (n=4) (n=4) (n=10) (n=3) (n=9) (n=10) (n=6) (n=10)

Fig. 4. Hierarchical value map for the orange juice Openness to change cluster.

centrate (NFC) and 100% juice would deliver good tasting products.
The same psychological perception was also carried through drink-
ing natural products. Consumers often associate ‘natural’ with
‘tastes better.’ The natural concept was reinforced not only by
NFC and 100% juice, but also by the amount of pulp in the orange
juice that created texture that closely resembled fresh-squeezed
orange juice. For the Conservatism cluster, natural was more asso-
ciated with health-related benefits.
Another value that was shared between the Openness to change
and Conservatism clusters was financial responsibility, which was
achieved through saving money and limiting budget consequences
of purchasing on-sale or lower-priced products. Another interme-
diate to saving money was good value (for money). The Openness
to change cluster sought good value products through added ben-
efits such as supplements. In contrast, the Conservatism cluster ob-
tained good value from examining the price per ounce in different
container sizes, and the supplement attribute would lead to other
desirable consequences. One of the typical characteristics of con-
sumers who embraced the security value was to avoid taking risks,
and in the present study, such a trait was expressed through saving
money as a consequence of purchasing familiar brands that would
meet expectations.
Both consumer clusters valued quality of life, which could be
satisfied through health benefits attained from various conse-
quences and product attributes similar to what we encountered
with the potato chip consumers. Health concerns were also associ-
ated with other qualities related to self, such as longevity and
having more energy, and thus providing better physical and mental
function. Taking care of health was the prerequisite for good family
life for the Conservatism cluster. And for that cluster, consequences
and product attributes that were closely associated to health con-
cerns included natural, contains supplements, and has pulp and fi-
ber, and awareness of sugar content. The linkages between health
concern and the former three attributes were also established in
the HVM of the Openness to change cluster. Good quality of life
could also be achieved directly from purchasing and consuming
good quality products as suggested by the Conservatism cluster,
and indirectly by the Openness to change cluster. The source of
obtaining good quality products lied in packaging and brand for
both clusters, and in origin and 100% juice especially for the Con-
servatism cluster.
Some values appeared to be more important to the Openness to
change cluster than to the Conservatism cluster even though such
values did not show an obvious relation to either hedonism or
stimulation value domains. Instead, values including achievement
and self-esteem were more associated with self-fulfillment and
enhancement. It is noteworthy that both values could be attained
through the consequence of health concern, but with different
intermediates. Being healthy would help stay alert and focused.
Consumers built self-esteem through maintaining good figures
that resulted from being health conscious.
It was rather surprising to find responsible for nature and care for
others to be valued by the Conservatism cluster that prioritized the
security value. Instead, the two motivational goals would be
56 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58

Attributes Consequences Values

Family life Quality of life

Responsible Function
Financial Care for for nature better
responsibility others Pleasure 13% 56.5% 34.8%
Live
longer Feel
More better
13% energy
56.5% 17.4% 13% 34.8%
26.1% 21.7%
21.7% Health concern
Save money

60.9% Recyclable Good for

21.7% body
Limit 34.8%
Limited waste of Environmental
concern
budget food 26.1% 21.7%
13% 52.2%
Quality of
product Natural
Enjoy drinking Meet
26.1% expectation
21.7%
13% 13% 43.5%
39.1% 17.4% 17.4% 17.4% 13%
13% 56.5% 17.4% 52.2%

Good
13%
Good Refreshing taste
More
value
13% fiber
Fresh Smooth 17.4%

17.4% 56.5%
17.4% 17.4% 13% 13% 30.4%
17.4% Packaging
Price 17.4% (n=7)
(n=19) Size of Expiration
Taste/flavor No pulp Brand Origin 100% juice Has pulp Supplement
container date (n=6)
(n=5) (n=7) (n=9) (n=13) (n=3) (n=11) (n=12) (7)

Fig. 5. Hierarchical value map for the orange juice Conservatism cluster.

assumed to be expressed by consumers embracing the universal-
ism value. This could be due to the presence of universalism values
in the Conservatism cluster, as shown by the high mean score for
universalism of almost five on a six-point scale. Responsible for
nature was associated with recycling of bottles made from clear
plastic packaging. Environmental concern was placed across the
country of origin of orange used in orange juice production. Some
consumers in the Conservatism cluster tended to choose orange
juice from the US rather than other countries, such as those from
South America. The care for others value was associated with the
desire to limit the waste of food, similar to the findings in the po-
tato chips study. The consequence was directly linked to two attri-
butes, size of container and expiration date. Choosing brands that
would meet one’s expectation could possibly limit the waste of
food as well.
4. Discussion
The goals of this research were to examine the cognitive process
involved in the consumption and purchase of potato chips and
orange juice with the use of means-end chain analysis and to com-
pare value priorities obtained from the Portrait Value Question-
naire, following Schwartz’s value theory, to the motivational
goals collected from means-end chain analysis. Despite a rather
small sample size of 40 consumers in each study, PCA illustrated
the value structure to be consistent with the theory (Figs. 1a and
1b). In addition, cluster analysis revealed two value segments with
opposite value priorities, Conservatism and Openness to change.
Conservatism values included security, tradition, and conformity,
while Openness to change values included hedonism and stimula-
tion. The demographic information of the two value segments
showed rather distinct characteristics, especially in the average
age and occupation. The fact that the Conservatism cluster in both
the potato chips and orange juice studies were older and mostly
employed is consistent with other research in our laboratory – a
conjoint study of food choice and consumer tests measuring food
sensory preference (Kitsawad and Guinard, submitted). The Open-
ness to change cluster was younger on average and were mostly
students. The relationship between age and personal values has
been documented in the literature (Kihlberg & Risvik, 2007; Pohj-
anheimo, Paasovaara, Luomala, & Sandell, 2010; Schwartz et al.,
2001). With regards to consumption patterns, the products pre-
ferred by potato chip and orange juice consumers in this study
were also consistent with the other research in our laboratory
(Kitsawad and Guinard, Submitted).
The Portrait Value Questionnaire (PVQ) served as a tool for the
identification of the key value domains governing attitudes and
choice. As expected, means-end chain analysis revealed the dis-
crepancies in A–C–V linkages in the two opposing value segments
in both studies. Three motivational goals, including pleasure and
financial security were seen across value segments, but with differ-
ent strengths of relations that were due to different value priorities
in each segment. The Openness to change cluster, especially those
 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58 57

Table 6 The hierarchical value maps of the Conservatism cluster clearly

Frequency of attributes, consequences, and values mentioned in the orange juice displayed a strong linkage between non-sensory attributes such as
interviews.
price and brand to saving money, and thus financial security. Finan-
Attribute Conservatism (%) Openness to change (%) cial concerns exhibited through the consequences of saving money
Price 19 (82.6) 10 (58.8) and limiting the waste of money was a very typical characteristic
Brand 13 (56.5) 10 (58.8) expressed by consumers with security, conformity, and tradition
Packaging 7 (30.4) 4 (23.5) values. Utilization of means-end chain analysis showed the great
Size of container 5 (21.7) – –
Expiration date 6 (26.1) – –
involvement of price in the food decision-making process of the
Origin 3 (13.0) – – Conservatism cluster. The security value is related to several FRL
100% juice 11 (47.8) 9 (52.9) scales, such as price-quality relation and price criteria (Brunsø
Non-frozen concentrate – – 3 (17.6) et al., 2004). Consumers embracing the security value avoided tak-
Supplement 7 (30.4) 6 (35.3)
ing risks and as seen in their purchase of familiar brands. The price-
No pulp 9 (39.1) 4 (23.5)
Has pulp 12 (52.2) 10 (58.8) quality relation could be observed in the Conservatism orange juice
Taste/flavor 7 (30.4) 12 (70.6) cluster HVM. A supplement was perceived to provide good value
Smooth – – 3 (17.6) products; as a consequence, consumers would be able to save
Good taste – – 17 (100.0) money while getting more value from the product. The Conserva-
Has texture – – 5 (29.4)
tism cluster was more careful with their spending, while the Open-
Consequence
Refreshing 4 (17.4) 8 (47.1) ness to change cluster fulfilled the money value through the added
Fresh 4 (17.4) – – bonus in the products. Consumers oriented towards security, tradi-
Clean looks – – 3 (17.6) tion, and conformity values are more price sensitive and tend to
Good value 4 (17.4) 3 (17.6)
choose lower-priced products (Worsley, Wang, & Hunter, 2010).
Quality of product 14 (60.9) 14 (82.4)
Natural 19 (82.6) 17 (100.0) The result of means-end chain analysis was in line with our
Health concern 23 (100.0) 17 (100.0) research on the relationship between food choice and personal val-
More energy 10 (43.5) 10 (58.8) ues (Kitsawad and Guinard, submitted). Quantitative assessment of
Alert – – 4 (23.5) the relative importance of food choice factors illustrated that a
Live longer 8 (34.8) 3 (17.6)
Conservatism cluster had high consideration for price when com-
Feel better 5 (21.7) – –
Good figure – – 3 (17.6) pared to Universalism and Hedonism clusters. Financial security
Function better 6 (26.1) 3 (17.6) also appeared to be one of the motivational goals of the Openness
Enjoy drinking 14 (60.9) 17 (100.0) to change cluster, and financial security was connected to the price
Limit waste of food 9 (39.1) – –
attribute. Apparently, the connection was weaker than that
Limited budget 9 (39.1) 5 (29.4)
Save money 23 (100.0) 8 (47.1)
observed in the Conservatism cluster. Like sensory appeal, price
Meet expectation 13 (56.5) – – and money were a general consideration for consumers when
Environmental concern 3 (13.0) – – making food choices.
Recyclable 4 (17.4) – – Although a different emphasis was placed in the HVM on the
Good for body 5 (21.7) – –
motivational goals of pleasure and financial security by the two
More fiber 13 (56.5) – –
Value value segments, it was not the case for the goals related to good
Pleasure 6 (26.1) 9 (52.9) quality of life. All consumer groups agreed that good quality of life
Achievement – – 6 (35.3) and family life were a result of being healthy. Means-end chain
Quality of life 14 (60.9) 5 (29.4)
analysis retained information about the different sources of prod-
Family life 6 (26.1) – –
Self-esteem – – 3 (17.6)
uct attributes that would link to health concerns, but did not show
Happy – – 3 (17.6) evidence of a particular consumer cluster placing more importance
Financial responsibility 13 (56.5) 7 (41.2) on health concerns and quality of life. Empirical studies suggest
Care for others 4 (17.4) – – that traditional consumers, who are older, exhibit more concerns
Responsible for nature 3 (13.0) – –
about health than hedonistic consumers (Bower, Saadat, & Whit-
ten, 2003; Pohjanheimo et al., 2010).
Means-end chain analysis revealed the cognitive process that
with hedonism value characteristics produced a strong relation- separated consumers oriented to openness to change from those
ship between various sensory properties of potato chips and or- oriented to conservatism. Consumers who embraced the stimula-
ange juices to eating enjoyment. Hedonistic consumers often tion value, which is one of the values under the super-grouping of
strive for pleasure and enjoyment of life and under food circum- openness to change, strived for challenge, novelty and exciting life.
stances, sensory appeal would tend to play a major role in their Potato chip consumers expressed such a value through seeking new
decision-making process. Potato chip consumers who embraced attractive packaging and/or flavors. Also in both the potato chips
hedonism emphasized taste as a major factor affecting their pur- and the orange juice studies, the Openness to change cluster was
chase intent. When relating personal values to the food-related more inclined to express the motivational goals of self-enhance-
lifestyle instrument, it was found that hedonism was positively re- ment such as being alert in order to attain achievement and main-
lated to FRL scale taste (Brunsø et al., 2004). The Conservatism taining a good figure to enhance one’s self-esteem. These values
cluster also showed some connections among sensory attributes, were mediated by health concerns. Therefore, for the Openness to
enjoyment and pleasure, even though the linkages appeared to change cluster, health concerns were not only related to quality of
be weaker. It is usual for people to associate taste/flavor to enjoy- life but also to self-enhancement values. The tendency for the Open-
ment to a certain extent. Pohjanheimo et al. (2010) administered ness to change cluster to express this achievement value could be
the Food Choice Questionnaire to hedonistic and traditional sub- explained by examining the relationship between Schwartz per-
jects and found that sensory appeal was equally important for both sonal values. On the personal value space, hedonism and achieve-
groups. Another conservation value, security, was also found to be ment values were adjacent to one another, suggesting that the
related to sensory appeal and taste, but in the sense of maintaining two value domains possessed similar underlying motivational goals.
good family relationships and traditional ways of cooking (Boto- Although not the key value that differentiates the major
naki & Mattas, 2010; Brunsø et al., 2004). consumer segments in this study, motivational goals of the
58 K. Kitsawad, J.-X. Guinard / Food Quality and Preference 35 (2014) 48–58
universalism value appeared in both potato chip and orange juice
consumers. As defined by Schwartz (1992), universalistic consum-
ers sought understanding, appreciation and protection of the wel-
fare of all people and of nature. In both studies, consumers
embracing universalism expressed their concern for others and
nature by limiting the possibility of wasting foods once they pur-
chase products that met their expectations and which they would
enjoy, and by choosing packaging materials that were more envi-
ronment friendly and recyclable. In our conjoint study, we found
that a Universalism cluster paid more attention to the type of pack-
aging than consumers in two other clusters. This suggested consis-
tency in the results between the two approaches used to study the
relationship between personal values and food choice. It is impor-
tant to note that the expression of the universalism value in potato
chips and orange juice study did not occur in the same value seg-
ment. That is, the universalism value was seen with the Openness
to change cluster in the potato chip study, but with the Conserva-
tism cluster in the orange juice study. The expression of the univer-
salism value in the means-end chain study was not dramatic, but
its influence is plausible. Means-end chain allowed the natural
flow of communication between the respondent and the inter-
viewer such that if certain factors appeared to be important to
the respondents, there would be a high tendency for them to
mention them. Moreover, the A–C–V connections that led to the
universalism value type was not as strong as connections that
led to financial security (in the Conservatism cluster) or to pleasure
(in the Openness to change cluster). This occurrence could be
explained by the fact that values are ordered by importance. For
consumers who were oriented to either conservatism or openness
to change value domains, caring for others and responsibility for
nature were not their primary principles.
5. Conclusion
Means-end chain analysis of potato chips and orange juice
choice and consumption revealed similar differences between
two incongruent values, Conservatism and Openness to change.
Strong connections between certain non-sensory product attri-
butes, money-related consequences and financial security end
value were seen in the Conservatism cluster. By contrast, the Open-
ness to change cluster exhibited strong connections between vari-
ous sensory product attributes, their consequences and the
motivational goal of pleasure. Other A–C–V linkages were
observed, but were not as apparent and distinctive as the first
two mentioned. In addition, those linkages may suggest the char-
acteristics and the cognitive process of other compatible values
that co-exist with the primary value, but at a lower degree of
importance. This study suggests that results from the Portrait
Value Questionnaire and means-end chain analysis evoke similar
findings with regard to the relationship between personal values
and food choice. Nonetheless, means-end chain analysis can pro-
vide richer information by illuminating the pathway between
product attributes and values. But for all the insights in consumer
values and food choice it may provide, means-end chain is also
more time consuming and thus expensive.
Limitations to the study are acknowledged. The number of con-
sumers in some clusters was slightly lower than recommended and
results may be slightly altered if the number of consumers was in-
creased. Thus far, the characteristics and choice pattern of such
clusters were similar to those of the conjoint study we conducted
(Kitsawad and Guinard, submitted), which had a higher sample
size of 120. Another limitation of this study was that only two large
value domains were investigated. The comparability of the Portrait
Value Questionnaire and means-end chain analysis could be more
evident if the study were extended to other value domains.
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