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Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan

Corrales Avenue, Cagayan de Oro City

Food and Food By-Product Processing Industry

Submitted to:
Engr. Edwin Richard R. Ortiz
ChE 511 Instructor

Submitted by:
Ilea A. Verano
BS ChE 5

July 15, 2010


INTRODUCTION

Definition
Food processing is a procedure in which raw ingredients are transformed into food for
human or animal consumption by employing special methods and techniques. Basically,
anything done to make a raw material into food is a form of food processing – even the
simple process of grilling vegetables in the backyard.

Goals of Food Processing


It cannot be emphasized further that the basic goal of food processing is to prepare
palatable food for consumption of humans and animals. In addition, food processing has
been extended to include the following goals:

1. extend the edible time frame or the preservation of food,


2. make better tasting food,
3. make more varieties of food,
4. maintain and/or improve nutritional properties of food,
5. prevent, reduce, eliminate infestation of food with microbes, insects or other
vermin,
6. prevent microbial growth or toxin production by microbes, or reduce these risks
to acceptable levels,
7. stop or slow deteriorative chemical or biochemical reactions,
8. make foods for special groups of people (allergic, diabetic, and other people who
cannot consume some common food elements),
9. increase seasonal availability of many foods,
10. develop ready-to-consume products, hence saves time for cooking,
11. generate employment,
12. help marketing and distribution tasks; and
13. enable transportation of delicate perishable food across long distances.
The History of Food Processing

Food processing in not a new technology since its origin traces back to prehistoric ages.
Bread-making started in Egypt and the origins of beer also go back to Babylon and
Egypt in the period of 3,000 to 5,000 BC. During the beginnings of food processing, salt-
preservation, sun-drying and fermentation were very popular choices of method
especially among warriors and sailors who needed to process their food to prolong its
shelf life during long travels. The crude methods of food processing remained
unchanged until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 18 th century when the
method of canning was introduced in the food processing industry with credits to
Nicolas Appert who developed the vacuum bottling process and Peter Durand, who
eventually developed canning using tin cans.

In the 20th century, the methods of food processing eventually grew to accommodate a
vast number of advances including spray drying, freeze drying, artificial sweeteners,
colouring agents, juice concentrates and preservatives such as the sodium benzoate.
Several advances have also emerged in the late 20 th century such as dried instant
soups and reconstituted fruit juices.

“Nowadays, the processed foods that are thriving in grocery shops are modern
processed foods and traditional foods, but their manufacturing technology,
process control and manufacturing and packaging environmental facilities have
been advanced and rationalized to an incomparable extent in the last 30 years.
As a result, products with high quality and uniformity are now being
manufactured.” (United Nations Conference on Food Processing Energy Use,
1995)

The production and small-scale processing were formerly done on farms and in homes,
but with the increasing specialization and reduction in the number of people, centralized
processing became essential. With central processing, the establishment of grade and
quality standards has become necessary. Early development grew from cottage and
community programs into larger-scale units. Milling of grain, fluid milk processing and
distribution, baking and processing of sugar and candy products developed early. More
recently, freezing has been applied to meat, fruits, vegetables and manufactured food
products ready to cook or serve.

TYPES OF FOOD PROCESSING

Refining and Milling


Milling is the process of converting grain into flour by mechanical means. The grain is
cleaned and a small amount of water is added to prevent the outer part of the kernel fro
pulverizing. The moistened grain is crushed slightly between two steel corrugated rolls
rotating at high speed and with one roll rotating faster than the other. This exerts a
shearing action into chunks. The product is sifted to remove the germ and bran, and the
chunks are size separated with the larger ones being re-crushed and the intermediate-
sized ones ground between smooth rolls. The resulting flour is sieved to remove large
particles.

The modern milling industry uses many innovations in measuring, metering, weighing,
conveying, blending, applying power, sanitation, etc. A new development is the
production of free-flowing flour made by agglomerating the flour particles into clusters
by the addition of moisture and spray-drying. The use of air classification has made
possible the separation of high-protein and high-starch fraction and thus permits a wide
range of custom blending.

Canning
Canning is the method of preserving fresh food such as fruit, vegetables, meats, fish,
and etc. by heat treating the food and sealing it in an airtight container. Usually, these
containers are metallic in material – tinned or untinned steel – often plastic-lined,
aluminium or special-strength glass.

The raw food is packed into the container, the container sealed and the whole package
is then heated to cook the food and sterilize both the container and the contents. The
usual method of heat treating is to place the containers in a steam pressure vessel and
process them at 121oC for a time dependent upon the size of the container and the
nature of the contents. Acid foods require less time to process than non-acid food. To
prevent the food from being spoiled before and during containment, several methods
can also be employed including freezing, drying, pasteurization, refrigeration, vacuum
treatment, addition of antimicrobial agents, dosing of ionizing radiation, and submersion
to a strong saline, acid, base, osmotically extreme (for example very sugary) or other
microbe-challenging environments. Whatever the method, it cannot be perfectly
dependable at all times as a preservative. For example, spore-forming, thermal-
resistant microorganisms, such as Clostridium botulinum (which causes botulism), can
still survive.

Although heating may degrade the odor and taste of food, a method of solution can be
employed to minimize its effects. Short time-high temperature treatment may be used
so that there is less deterioration in the product compared to long time-low temperature
treatment. To ensure sufficient penetration of heat in the cans, an agitated cooker is
often used. This agitated cooker is composed of a preheater, cooker, and a cooler. The
cans are placed in individual compartments and are rotated by a revolving reel on a
spiral track.

Concentration
A concentrate is a form of substance which has had the majority of its base component
(in the case of a liquid: the solvent) removed. Typically this will be the removal
of water from a solution or suspension such as the removal of water from fruit juice. In
the case of milks, it is often evaporated from a solids content of 8.6% to a much more
concentrated 45% solids of evaporated milk. Concentrating products is an
advantageous method of food processing since it reduces the weight and volume of a
product, therefore aiding its transportation. One-third of the original volume of usually
reduced in concentration.

Three processes are available for food concentration: evaporation with evaporators,
reverse osmosis, and freeze concentration. Depending on the nature of the food, the
three processes should be evaluated first before actually using it. The cost of the
equipments must also be looked at. Using an evaporator is the most economical among
the three while the freeze concentration is the most costly since it is a fairly new
technology for concentrating natural products at freezing points by means of crystal
formation and following separation of the ice crystals in a washing tube. Among the
products that are concentrated using this method are wine, beer, coffee, apple and
orange juices, skim milk and vinegar.

Freezing
Among the methods of food processing, freezing is one of the most commonly used
processes commercially and domestically for preserving a very wide range of food and
food ingredients. The preservation by freezing has been made possible by a realization
that if food can be frozen quickly and maintained at a low enough temperature, the
quality will not be greatly deteriorated and microorganisms will not increase. Food
preservation by freezing has to be done quickly because ordinary slow freezing can
rupture the cells of the food and may cause a breakdown in the structure of the food.
Slow freezing also allows undesirable enzymes to react even at low temperature,
although this can be prevented by blanching the food prior to freezing. In general, actual
freezing may be accomplished by either still or forced air, by direct contact with a metal
surface cooled by a refrigerant or by immersion in a liquid refrigerant such as nitrogen.

If the amount of water in a food can be reduced before freezing, the quality of the final
product will generally be improved since the increase in volume in liquid during freezing
can be reduced. Freezing does not kill the microorganisms present in the food that
cause spoilage, but it does inactivate them. However, on thawing, the microorganisms
are reactivated and the food tends to spoil faster than fresh, unfrozen food. Nutrients
are not destroyed by freezing.

Drying

Drying, as a method of food preservation, works by the removal of water from food


thereby inhibiting the growth of microorganisms and hinder quality decay. Drying is an
effective method of food preservation since bacteria, yeasts and moulds would not grow
in dry environments. Moulds will grow if the water content is 12% or higher, although a
few moulds will grow at 5%, while most bacteria require at least 30% moisture. Since
grains are usually dried to about 12% moisture, fruits to 16 to 25% and non-fat dry milk
to less than 5% moisture, only few microorganisms can survive in the food. As a food
preservation method, drying, however, reduces the vitamin content of the food although
its nutritive content remains unchanged.

Sun drying is the cheapest drying method available and it has been used for
generations to dry fruits, grains, meat and fish. However, sun drying is limited only to
certain areas where the sun always shows up. As economical as it is, sun drying can
open the risk for contamination of the product by dust, insects, birds and rodents. The
colours of fruits also change in drying. When fruits are dried, their bright colour turns
dark brown unless the fruit is treated with SO 2 prior to drying. Because consumers
prefer “moist” dried fruits, glycols are used to “rehydrate” and thus soften the harder sun
(or mechanically) dried product without adding moisture, which would allow the growth
of microorganisms.

A table of mechanical driers and the food for which they are used is shown below. In the
table, meat is usually dried using freeze drying, that is, water is removed by  sublimation
from a frozen food.

Types of Driers and Food Products


Drier Product
Drum Milk, vegetable juices, cranberries, bananas,
Vacuum shelf Limited products of certain foods
Continuous vacuum Fruits and vegetables
Atmospheric continuous
Vegetables
belt
Fluidized bed Vegetables
Foam mat Juices
Spray Eggs, milk, coffee
Rotary Some meat products, usually not used as food
Cabinet Fruits and vegetables
Kiln Apples, some vegetables
Tunnel Fruits and vegetables
Freeze Meat, coffee
SOURCE: Shreve’s Chemical Process Industries, 1984

Pasteurization and Sterilization


Pasteurization is a process of heating a food, usually liquid, to a specific temperature for
a definite length of time, and then cooling it immediately. The basis of this process is the
principle that most harmful bacteria can be killed by heat. Although the most effective
way to kill bacteria is through boiling, it could compromise the flavour of the liquid. Most
especially in milks, most people object to the taste of boiled or cooked milk. To strike a
balance between the need for a safe food and the desire for flavour, processors only
partially sterilize or the right term, pasteurize, milk for human consumption.

Two primary methods exist for the pasteurization of milk: HTST and the LTH. The
HTST or the high-temperature short-time method is the most common method for the
pasteurization of milk. In this method, milk is exposed to a temperature of 73 oC for not
less than 16 seconds and is then followed by rapid cooling. This method is also known
as flash pasteurization. The next method, the LTH or the Low Temperature Holding
method pasteurizes milk by heating it to 63oC for at least 30 minutes.

The purpose of pasteurization is to kill pathogenic microorganisms, thus eliminating


food-borne disease and to inactivate enzymes to improve storage and keeping quality.
But because this method does not kill all the bacteria present, the product must be kept
under refrigeration until used.

In comparison to pasteurization, milk sterilization is the process where the milk is


exposed to more intense treatment to kill or completely inactivate all microorganisms
whether pathogenic or non-pathogenic. The sterilized product must be placed in a
sterile container under aseptic conditions and sealed. Milk treated in this way can be
stored for a very long time, maybe months at room temperature.

Fermentation
Fermentation may be defined as the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and
carbon dioxide or organic acids with the aid of yeasts, bacteria, or a combination
thereof, under anaerobic conditions. In contrast to pasteurization and sterilization where
microorganisms are killed and destroyed, the fermentation process harnesses the ability
of certain microorganisms to digest food and give off the desired product we need.
Fermentation is based on the idea that not all microorganisms are detrimental and some
of these microorganisms can be used to our advantage. Most people confuse
fermentation with putrefaction or the other way around, thus it is important to
differentiate the two from one another. In fermentation, the microorganisms decompose
carbohydrates; while in putrefaction, the action of microorganisms involves protein.
Aside from that, fermentation releases no putrid odour; while in putrefaction, a
combination of sulphur-containing protein products and hydrogen sulphide is released.

Irradiation
Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to ionizing radiation to destroy
microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, or insects that might be present in the food. The
main target of food irradiation is the organism’s DNA. What the radiation does to the
microorganism’s DNA is that it destroys it beyond its ability to repair. Microorganisms
can no longer proliferate and continue their pathogenic activities.

Doses of several joules per kilogram (equivalent to several hundred rads) are lethal to
human beings and it requires up to a hundred joules per kilogram (10 4 rads) to kill most
insects. Microorganisms, on the other hand, require 10 4 joules per kilogram (106 rads).
In general, the more complex the organism is, the more sensitive it becomes to
radiation.

In food processing, it has been proven that radiation can be used to preserve food,
especially protein food such as meat, without causing undesirable protein denaturation
or appreciably altering the taste, and without leaving any residual radioactivity in the
food. With low doses of radiation, there is less loss of vitamins in all food than that seen
with canning, freezing or drying.

Packaging
The purpose of packaging food is to make it possible to ship and store and to prevent
deterioration during storage by insects, moulds, yeasts, microorganisms and enzymes.
For much food, the container is filled before the food is processed. Examples of this are
rigid metal cans, glass containers, and plastic pouches. These containers are sealed so
that no outside contaminant can enter and cause food spoilage.
Dry foods such as cereal, flours, dried fruits and various convenience mixtures like cake
and biscuits are usually packed in cardboard boxes lined with wax paper or plastic-
coated paper. For larger quantities, sack made of finely woven cloth or coated paper
may be used.

FOOD BY-PRODUCTS
Leather
History of Leather
Leather is one of the oldest commodities known. It has played an important role in the
development of civilization for its function as clothing, shelter, carpets and decorative
attire. The first leather was made when hides were treated with vegetable extracts to
make them weather-resistant. These early leather were made by first immersing the
raw hides and skins in a fermenting solution of organic matter in which bacteria grew
and attacked the hides or skins, resulting in a loosening of the hair or wool and some
dissolving out of skin protein. The hair or wool was then scraped off with primitive blunt
stone or wooden scrapers and fat or meat still adhering to the flesh side was removed in
a similar manner.

During the Middle Ages leather was used for all kinds of purposes such as: footwear,
clothes, leather bags, cases and trunks, leather bottles, saddles and harness, for the
upholstery of chairs, and couches, book binding and military uses. It was also used to
decorate coaches, sedan chairs and walls. The majority of the leather was tanned with
oak bark but soft clothing, gloving and footwear leathers were tanned with alum, oil, and
combinations of these two materials. With the discovery and introduction of basic
chemicals like lime and sulphuric acid, tanners gradually abandoned their traditional
methods and leather production slowly became a chemically based series of processes.

The growth of industrialization in the 18th and 19th centuries created a demand for
many new kinds of leathers, e.g., belting leathers to drive the machines being
introduced into industry, special leathers for use in looms in the textile industry, leathers
for use as diaphragms and washers, leathers for use in transport and for furniture
upholstery.
Manufacture
The manufacture of leather through vegetable tanning and chrome tanning is shown
below.

In chrome tanning process, the pickling bath consists of a mixture of salt and sulphuric
acid. After picking, the hides are soaked in a solution of sodium dichromate and then
treated with sodium thiosulfate in the reduction drum. From the reduction drum, the hide
is treated in settling drums with borax to set the chrome salt on the fibres. Washing
completes the tanning process.

In vegetable tanning, tannins from bark extracts of quebracho, eucalyptus, chestnuts


and other trees are used in the treatment of hides. These tannins react with the collagen
fibres of the skin. The pH is regulated by the use of sulphuric acid. The protein in the
skin absorbs large quantities of tannin, and the absorbed material fills up the holes and
stiffens the leather.

The time is takes to create leather differs for every tanning method. In the vegetable
tanning method, it will take 2 to 4 months to create leather; while in chrome tanning, it
will only take 1 to 3 weeks.

Gelatin
Gelatin, often spelled as gelatine, is a translucent, colourless, brittle, nearly
tasteless solid substance, derived from the collagen inside animals' skin and bones. It is
described as an organic nitrogenous, colloidal protein substance whose principal value
depends on its coagulative, protective and adhesive powers. Gelatin obtained from
animals is created through hydrolysis of collagen, the white fibres of the connective
tissues of animal body, particularly the skin, bones and tendons.

Manufacture
Type A gelatin is made from skins which are first washed and then swollen fro 10 to 30
hours in HCl, H3PO4 or H2SO4 at very low pH of 1.0 to 3.0. After swelling, the skins are
washed, the pH adjusted to 3.5 to 4.0, and then extracted with hot water. Four o five
extraction tanks are used, and the extractive water becomes progressively hotter in
each succeeding tank. The first extraction is at 55 to 65 oC and the last at 95 to 100 oC.
Each extraction requires 4 to 5 hours. After the last extraction is completed the liquid is
degreased, filtered, deionized, and then concentrated in two stages to 30 to 40% solids
by continuous vacuum concentration. The high-solids solution is chilled, cut into noodles
and dried below 60oC on a continous wire-mesh belt. The dried material is ground and
blended with other gelatins to produce the desired specifications.

Type B is made from bones and sometimes skin and hides as shown in the figure. The
degreased bones are demineralized with 4 to 7% HCl over a 1- to 2-week period. After
washing, the bones are agitated daily for 3 to 16 weeks in a lime slurry in lime pits or
tanks. When the lime treatment is complete, the mix is washed for 15 to 30 hours,
acidified to pH 5 to 7 with HCl, H 3PO4, H2SO4, or HC2H3O2 and extracted and
concentrated as for Type A.

Both processes require the use of stainless steel for most equipment although the
liming tank may be concrete or wood.
Adhesives
An adhesive, or glue, is a mixture in a liquid or semi-liquid state that adheres or bonds
items together. Adhesives may come from either natural or synthetic sources. The types
of materials that can be bonded are vast but they are especially useful for bonding thin
materials. Adhesives cure (harden) by evaporating a solvent (these are most adhesives
that cure at room temperature) or by exposing them to an elevated temperature.

History
The earliest date for a simple glue is 200,000 BC and for a compound glue 70,000 BC.
Glues have been discovered from stone spear flakes glued to wood with birch-bark-tar.
They have also been found in ceramics and statues from the ancient times.
The Egyptians made much use of animal glues to adhere furniture,ivory, and papyrus.
In medieval Europe, egg whites were used as glue to decorate parchments with gold
leaf. The first actual glue factory was founded in Holland in the early 1700s, and the
English introduced fish glue in the 1750s.

Animal Glue
The manufacture of animal glue is almost the same with the manufacture of gelatine.
The procedure include grinding bones, cutting hides and scraps into small pieces,
degreasing the material by percolating a grease solvent through it, liming and plumping,
washing, making several extractions by hot water, filtering liquors, evaporating, chilling,
and drying the jelly slabs in a tunnel. When dry, the slabs of glue are flakes or ground,
blended, graded and barrelled or bagged for shipment.

Other Protein Adhesives


Fish glues are liquid glues processed from the skin and waste material of certain fishes,
principally cod. Practically, fish glue has the same application as other animal glues with
application in gummed tape, letterpress printing plates and blueprint plates. Casein, a
milk-derivative protein, is the basis of another large class of adhesives and can made
both water and non-water-resistant. Casein adhesives are widely employed in
woodworking industry and in the manufacture of drinking cups, straws, and ice cream
containers. Other proteins used as an adhesive include soybean protein, albumin, zein
from corn, and peanut protein hydrate.

Starch Adhesives
Starch adhesives are liquid adhesives made from any of the following: cornstarch,
tapioca flour, wheat flour, or potato starch. Starch adhesives are principally used for
bonding paper with the production of corrugated boxboard as an example of its
application. Starch adhesives are readily available in the market, are low in cost and are
easy to apply from water dispersion. Starch adhesives are considered to be the least
expensive class of paper packaging adhesive with an advantage over animal glues as
having no strange characteristic odour. However cheap, starch adhesives are low in
strength and are not resistant to water.
Native starches are prepared from grains or roots. Dextrins, the polysaccharide
obtained from starch, are made by heating a dry starch with dilute acid, causing partial
hydration. White and yellow dextrins, called British gums, are a result of heating native
starch with small amount of catalyst; they are gummier and more adhesive than the
normal dextrins.

Synthetic Resin Adhesives


Synthetic resin is a thermosetting resin principally used as a strong adhesive and
coating. Comparing to starch adhesives, the synthetic resin adhesives are used where
water resistance is required. Synthetic resin adhesives may be classified as solvent-
borne systems, water-borne systems, non-volatile solids and liquids, hot melts,
powders, radiation curable systems, two-part systems, and reactive systems. Water-
borne systems, both naturally derived and synthetic-rein based, represent more than
two-thirds of the adhesive demand. Another classification of synthetic-resin adhesives
are solvent releasing, hot melt and pressure sensitive, depending on its method of
setting.

Chemically, there are two types of synthetic adhesives: those used merely as an
adhesive and those which form primary bond linkages with the materials being bonded.
One classification includes rigid thermosets, rubbery thermosets, thermoplastics,
copolymers, polymer mixtures and inorganic adhesives.

Rigid thermosets include epoxies, silicones, polyesters, cyanoacrylates, and phenolic,


urea-formaldehyde and resorcinol-formaldehyde resins. Rigid thermosets are heat and
chemical resistant.

Rubbery thermosets include silicones, urethane, and polysulfide rubbers. Many of these
are used as sealants.
Thermoplastics include vinyls, polystyrenes, acrylates, polyamides, rubber-based
adhesives, rosin, animal glues and starch and dextrin glues. Most hot-melt, nonsolvent
glues belong to this group.

Copolymers and mixtures are formed to obtain better properties than those with single
components.

Miscellaneous Adhesives
Inorganic adhesives are included under miscellaneous adhesives. They include glasses
and ceramics used for very high temperature service and sodium silicate used for
manufacturing corrugated boxes.

Other adhesives include asphalt, sulphur, shellac, miscellaneous natural gums and
mucilage and a variety of cellulose esters dissolved in volatile solvents.

FOOD PROCESSING EQUIPMENTS


Processing equipment for food is similar to that for other processing. Liquids, solids and
other materials must be handles without adding to the deterioration of the product or
damage to the equipment. Sanitary conditions are also an important consideration since
the food being processed is basically intended for human consumption. Extra care must
be taken that the design of every equipment and the materials used for its construction
does not create a problem or harm in the maintenance of sanitation inside the plant.

Three organizations the International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental


Sanitarians, the Dairy Industry and the Food and Industry Supply Association listed a
set of standards for the design of equipment to ensure sanitary conditions. Included in
their list is the provision for the use of stainless steel, the regulation on square corners,
slope of the drainage and the interchangeability of parts for every design.
Cleaning
Manual cleaning involves cleaning in place with guidelines as follows:
1. Using alkali or acid solution appropriate for the product and equipment surface
2. Providing a time exposure of 10 to 60 min to remove substance without damage
to the metal
3. Utilizing a velocity flow of 1.5 m/s
4. Maintaining a slope of surface and tubing to provide for drainage
5. Avoiding dead end flows
6. Using connections and joints that are cleanable

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