Energy Management For Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Based On Adaptive Simplified-ECMS

sustainability
Article
Energy Management for Plug-In Hybrid Electric
Vehicle Based on Adaptive Simplified-ECMS
Yuping Zeng 1,2 , Yang Cai 1, * ID
, Guiyue Kou 1 , Wei Gao 1 and Datong Qin 2
1 Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Precision Drive & Control, Nanchang Institute of Technology,
Nanchang 330099, China; zengyp198410@163.com (Y.Z.); kouguiyueng@sina.com (G.K.);
gaowei0761@126.com (W.G.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmissions, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China;
datongqin@163.com
* Correspondence: yangcai@nit.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-0791-8212616

Received: 21 May 2018; Accepted: 12 June 2018; Published: 17 June 2018
Abstract: When searching for the optimal solution, Equivalent Consumption Minimum Strategy
(ECMS) has to calculate and compare the total equivalent fuel rate of huge candidates covered all
over the control domain for each time instant. Therefore, this strategy still has a heavy computation
burden problem; it is a challenge for ECMS to be implemented online for real-time control. To reduce
ECMS’s calculation load, this paper proposes an adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy for a
parallel plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). A convex piecewise function is applied to fit the total
equivalent fuel rate with respect to the motor torque, which is the control variable. Then, the ECMS
problem is simplified to calculate and compare only five candidates’ total equivalent fuel rate to
determine the optimal torque distribution. Particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm is applied to
optimize the equivalent factor, and the MAPs of this factor under different driving cycles, driving
distances and initial SOC are obtained. Based on this, the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy
is proposed. Simulations were performed, and the results show that the Simplified-ECMS-based
strategy can obviously shorten the calculation time compared to ECMS-based strategy, and the
adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy can decrease fuel consumption of plug-in hybrid electric
vehicle by 16.43% under the testing driving cycle, compared to CD-CS-based strategy. A road test on
the prototype vehicle is conducted and the effectiveness of the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is
validated by the test data.
Keywords: plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV); energy management strategy (EMS); equivalent
consumption minimization strategy (ECMS); particle swarm optimization algorithm (PSO)
1. Introduction
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) assume an essential role in decreasing fuel consumption,
pollutant emissions, and carbon footprint [1]. Indeed, the application effect of PHEVs is strongly
influenced by many optimization tasks, i.e., charging station’s locating optimization [2–4], charging
time optimization [4], the PHEV taxi system’s optimization [5], battery size optimization [6], and power
optimization during driving. This power optimization is actually the major part of the blended energy
management strategy (blend- energy management strategy (EMS)), which is a crucial technology
for PHEVs [7]. The main blend-EMSs encompass dynamic programming (DP)-based-EMS [8–11],
derivative-free algorithms (DFA)-based-EMS [12–15], quadratic programming (QP)-based-EMS [16],
pontryagin’s minimum principle (PMP)-based-EMS [17,18], equivalent consumption minimization
(ECMS)-based-EMS [19–21].
Sustainability 2018, 10, 2060; doi:10.3390/su10062060 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2018, 10, 2060 2 of 24
DP-based-EMS is able to compute global optimal solutions for PHEVs. However, it is hard to apply
to real-time control for its high computational burden, As a result, DP-based-EMS is widely utilized in
offline analysis to benchmark alternative EMSs, inspire RB strategies design, and serve as training data
for machine learning algorithms, etc. [12,22]. DFA-based-EMS mainly concern metaheuristic algorithms
inspired in nature and DIRECT deterministic method [12], The main DFA-based-EMSs employed
by PHEVs are simulated annealing (SA)-based-EMS [13], genetic algorithm (GA)-based-EMS [16],
and particle swarm optimization (PSO)-based-EMS [14]. Above EMSs do not require derivative
calculations, but these EMSs solve optimization problems with large search space of likely solutions,
which causes a high computation load. The aforementioned EMSs have a heavy computation
burden problem, some studies explore simplifying technique, instantaneous optimization method
or local optimization method to improve computationally efficient, including QP-based-EMS [16],
PMP-based-EMS [18], and ECMS-based-EMS [21]. Hu et al. designed QP-based-EMS for a series
plug-in hybrid electric bus, and demonstrated its decreasing computational time and the feasibility of
real-time control [6]. Nevertheless, this EMS’s limitation lies in its strictly convex terms requirement,
which requires that both cost function and inequality constraints are expressed in convex form,
and equality constraints are affine [23]. So QP-based-EMS is not suit for PHEVs with complex
configuration. PMP-based-EMS has transformed the global optimization problem to an instantaneous
Hamiltonian optimization problem, which makes its real-time control possible. However, it is still a
challenge for optimizing the Hamiltonian real-time due to the massive computational load required [17].
ECMS-based-EMS was first introduced for a parallel single shaft hybrid powertrains with a constant
equivalent factor by Paganelli et al. [24]. ECMS is derived from the pontryagin’s minimum principle.
Making some assumptions, simplifications and equations derivation about PMP-based EMS, the local
optimization algorithm of ECMS is obtained. These simplifications really improve the algorithm of
ECMS’s computationally efficiency. However, ECMS online implementation requires further reduction
of the computational time, since candidates of the control variable cover all over the control domain,
calculating and comparing the total equivalent fuel of these huge candidates to determine the optimal
solution is still a challenge.
Through above analysis, we know that further simplification of optimization algorithm and further
reduction of the computational time are very necessary to apply blend-EMSs to PHEVs’ real-time control.
ECMS-based-EMS is more likely to be applied to PHEVs with complex configuration’s real-time control
than other blend-EMSs. Therefore, we select ECMS algorithm to further simplify it. Firstly, the models
of engine’s fuel rate and battery’s consumption rate are approximately fitted by the piecewise function.
Then, the total equivalent fuel rate can be expressed by a convex piecewise function. Finally, according
to the properties of convex functions, the ECMS problem is simplified to calculate and compare total
equivalent fuel rate of only five candidates to identify the optimal torque distribution, instead of calculating
and comparing the total equivalent fuel rate of huge candidates, who cover all over the control domain.
After gaining the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy, we introduce the particle swarm optimization (PSO)
genetic algorithm to optimize the Simplified-ECMS algorithm’s equivalent factor, instead of optimizing
this factor by trial and error method. The MAPs of this factor under different driving patterns, driving
distances and initial SOC are obtained through off-line optimization based on this genetic algorithm.
Finally, the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based EMS is implemented based on the equivalent factor MAPs.
The original contribution of this paper is related to the following aspects. First, a Simplified-ECMS-
based strategy is proposed to simplify ECMS problem and reduce calculation burden. Second,
the particle swarm optimization (PSO) genetic algorithm is introduced to optimize the equivalent
factor, rather than obtaining the factor by trial and error method. Finally, by integrating the two major
contributions mentioned above as well as other works, the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based EMS is
proposed for the EMS of the PHEV.
The outline of this paper is as follows. The structure and parameters of a parallel continuously
variable transmission (CVT)-based PHEV powertrain are described in Section 2. The model of the
powertrain system is provided in Section 3. Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is proposed in Section 4.
The adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is presented in Section 5. Road test is conducted in

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 24
Section 6 to validate the effectiveness of the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy. Finally, conclusions are
discussed
Sectionin6Section 7. the effectiveness of the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy. Finally, conclusions are
to validate
discussed in Section 7.
2. Structure and Parameters of the Powertrain System
2. Structure and Parameters of the Powertrain System
This study focused on a single-shaft parallel CVT-based PHEV. Figure 1 shows the powertrain
This study
of this vehicle focused on
that includes anainternal
single-shaft parallel CVT-based
combustion PHEV.
engine (ICE), anFigure 1 shows
integrated the powertrain
starter and generator
motorof(ISG
this vehicle
motor), that includes
battery, an internal
clutch, combustionvariable
a continuously engine (ICE), an integrated
transmission starter
(CVT) and and generator
final drive (FD).
motor (ISG motor), battery, clutch, a continuously variable transmission (CVT)
The vehicle runs in different operating modes by controlling the state of the engine and motorand final drive (FD). and
The vehicle runs in different operating modes by controlling the state of the engine and motor and
the separation and combination of the clutch. According to the state of engine, the working mode of
the separation and combination of the clutch. According to the state of engine, the working mode of
vehicle can be divided into two modes: engine on mode, and engine off mode. During the engine on
vehicle can be divided into two modes: engine on mode, and engine off mode. During the engine on
mode,mode,
the clutch is closed,
the clutch the the
is closed, engine provides
engine positive
provides positivepower,
power,andandthe
theoutput
output power
power of of the
themotor
motor can
be positive (driving), negative (generating) or zero (idle). During the engine off mode,
can be positive (driving), negative (generating) or zero (idle). During the engine off mode, the clutch the clutch is
open,isonly the motor runs, and this mode can be subdivided into motor driving mode
open, only the motor runs, and this mode can be subdivided into motor driving mode and braking and braking
mode. The The
mode. basicbasic
parameters
parameters of of
the PHEV
the PHEVareareshown
shown inin Table
Table1.1.
ENGINE CVT
ISG FINAL
CLUTCH MOTOR DRIVE
Figure 1. Parallel CVT-based PHEV powertrain system.

Figure 1. Parallel CVT-based PHEV powertrain system.
Table 1. Basic parameters of the PHEV.
Table 1. Basic parameters of the PHEV.
Components Parameters Value
Components Curb weight
Parameters (kg) Value1395
Frontal area
Curb weight (kg) (m 2)
1395 2.265
Basic parameters of the vehicle Air dragarea
Frontal (m2 )
coefficient 2.2650.301
Basic parameters of the vehicle Air drag coefficient
Wheel radius (m) 0.3010.307
Wheel radius (m) 0.307
Wheel rolling resistance coefficient
Wheel rolling resistance coefficient 0.0135
0.0135
Peak power (kW) 90
Engine Peak power (kW) 90
Engine Maximum torque (Nm)
Maximum torque (Nm) 155 155
Peakpower
Peak power (kW)
(kW) 30 30
ISG ISG
motor
motor
Maximum
Maximum torque torque (Nm)
(Nm) 113 113
Capacity
Capacity (Ah)
(Ah) 30 30
Rated
Rated voltage
voltage (V)(V) 316 316
Battery
Battery Initial SOC 0.95
Initial SOC 0.95
Minimum SOC 0.25
Minimum SOC 0.25
CVT The range of speed ratio 0.422–2.432
CVT The range of speed ratio 0.422–2.432
FD Speed ratio 5.24
FD Speed ratio 5.24
3. Powertrain System Modeling
3.1. Vehicle Dynamic Model

This study mainly focuses on the energy management strategy and the evaluation of the power,
3. Powertrain
economy, and emission System Modeling under energy management strategy, so the vehicle dynamics
performance
model only3.1.
relates to longitudinal dynamics of vehicle, without involving vehicle’s vertical dynamics
Vehicle Dynamic Model
and lateral dynamics. Assume that the vehicle speed is v and the road slope angle is α, then the
This study mainly focuses on the energy management strategy and the evaluation of the power,
power Pand
wheel-sideeconomy, r can be expressed
emission as:under energy management strategy, so the vehicle dynamics
performance
model only relates to longitudinal dynamics of vehicle, without involving vehicle’s vertical dynamics
and lateral dynamics. Assume that the vehicle speed is cv d A dv
Pr = (mg f r cos(α) + mg sin(α) + and 2the road
v + m slope · ωr is  , then the
) · r angle (1)
wheel-side power Pr can be expressed as: 21.15 dt
where m is the vehicle mass; cdPris (the mgf r coefficient
cos( )  mg sin(of
) aircd resistance;
A 2 dv
v  m )  r A
r is the windward area; (1) r is the
21.15 dt
radius of the tire; f r is the rolling resistance coefficient; g is the gravitational acceleration; ωr is wheel’s
where m is the vehicle mass; cd is the coefficient of air resistance; A is the windward area; r
angular velocity.
A simplified structure
is the radius of the tire; f r ispowertrain
of the the rolling resistance is shown ginisFigure
systemcoefficient; 2, poweracceleration;
the gravitational is provided by the
engine andthe motor separately or jointly, and it is transferred through the CVT and final drive to
r is wheel’s angular velocity.
the axle shaft of the wheels.
A simplified Assume
structure of the that Ir is the
powertrain joint
system inertiainof
is shown differential
Figure gears
2, power is andbywheels;
provided the Iout is
engine of
the joint inertia andfinal
the motor
driveseparately
and CVT’s or jointly,
driven andwheel;
it is transferred through
Iin is the joint the CVT and
inertia final drive
of CVT’s to
driving wheel,
the axle shaft of the wheels. Assume that I r is the joint inertia of differential gears and wheels; I out
engine and motor; ωr , ωout and ωin are the angular velocity of the drive shaft, output axle of CVT and
is the joint inertia of final drive and CVT’s driven wheel; I is the joint inertia of CVT’s driving
input axle of CVT; η0 is the efficiency of the final drive; ηcvt isin the efficiency of CVT, which is obtained
wheel, engine and motor; r , out and in are the angular velocity of the drive shaft, output axle
by looking up table by CVT’s output torque and gear ratio. The power transmitted by the drive shaft
of CVT and input axle of CVT;  0 is the efficiency of the final drive; cvt is the efficiency of CVT,
of the vehicle
whichis iswritten
obtainedas:
by looking up table by CVT’s output torque and gear ratio. The power transmitted
by the drive shaft of the vehicle is written as:
dωout dωr
( Pout − Iout ωout dout )η0 = Irdω rr dt + Pr (2)
( Pout  I out out dt )0 =I r r  Pr (2)
dt dt
Pin , Tin , , win Pout , Tout, , wout Pr , T r , , w r
Treq  Te  Tm
I in icvt I out i0 Ir
Engine
Final drive Vehicle wheels
Motor
Driven wheel of CVT Differential gears
Driving wheel of CVT
Figure 2. A simplified structure of the powertrain system.

Figure 2. A simplified structure of the powertrain system.
Then the CVT’s output power Pout can be written as:
Then the CVT’s output power Pout can dr

1 be written
P = （I   P）
as: dout
+I  (3)
0
out r r r out out
dt dt
1 dωr dωout
Pout =
The CVT’s input power Pin can ( Ibe
r ωwritten
r +
as: Pr ) + Iout ωout (3)
η0 dt dt
1 1 dr I out out dout
Pin = Pout = （I r r  Pr）
+ (4)
The CVT’s input power Pin canbe cvt written0cvt as: dt cvt dt
The require power need to be distributed between engine and motor can be expressed as:
1 1 dωr Iout ωout dωout
Pin = Pout = ( Ir ωr +dPrin) + (4)
ηcvt ηP0reqηcvt I inin
=Pe +Pm =Pin dt ηcvt dt (5)
dt
The require
where Ppower need to be distributed between engine and motor can be expressed as:
e is the output power of engine; Pm is the output power of motor.
dωin
Preq = Pe + Pm = Pin + Iin ωin (5)
dt
where Pe is the output power of engine; Pm is the output power of motor.
The require torque need to be distributed between engine and motor can be expressed as:
Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9550Preq 5 of 24

Treq = Te + Tm = (6)
Nm
The require torque need to be distributed between engine and motor can be expressed as:
where Treq is the require torque, which is distributed between9550 Preq engine and motor; Te is the output torque
Treq  Te  Tm  (6)
of the engine; Tm is the output torque of the motor; Nm is N mthe speed of the motor.
where T
req is the require torque, which is distributed between engine and motor; Te is the output
3.2. Engine’s Fuel Rate Model
torque of the engine; Tm is the output torque of the motor; N m is the speed of the motor.
The engine’s fuel consumption map is shown in Figure 3. It is a fuel consumption curve
3.2. Engine’s Fuel Rate Model
with the abscissa giving the engine speed and the ordinate giving the engine torque. The specific
fuel consumptionThe engine’s fuel consumption
in Figure map isin
3 is expressed shown in Figure
be with unit3. It
g/is(akW
fuel·consumption
h).Then thecurve with the
instantaneous fuel
abscissa giving the engine speed and the ordinate giving the engine torque. The specific fuel
consumption, which is also known as fuel rate with unit g/s, can be expressed as:
consumption in Figure 3 is expressed in be with unit g / (kW h) .Then the instantaneous fuel
consumption, which is also known as fuelPrate with unitTg/s, can be expressed as:
. e · be e · Ne · be
mice = = (7)
3.6 ×Pe10 be6 Te3.44
 Ne  b×e 10
10
mice = (7)
3.6 106 3.44 1010
where Ne is the speed of the engine.
where N e is the speed of the engine.
160
140
Engine toruqe（Nm）
120 240
100
254
80
260
60 270
280
300
40
330
360 Max torque curve
400
20 Specific fuel consumption [g/kwh]
500
Best efficiency by speed
700
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
Engine speed（rpm）
Figure 3. The engine’s fuel consumption map with respect to its torque and speed.
Figure 3. The engine’s fuel consumption map with respect to its torque and speed.
According to the engine’s fuel consumption map, the relationships between the fuel rate mice
and the engine torque Te at the given speed N were fitted by a piecewise function which is made .
According to the engine’s fuel consumption map, the relationships between the fuel rate mice and
up of two quadratic functions, and the dividing point of the piecewise function is the best efficiency
the engine point
torqueToptT at fitting
, ethe the given
result speed Ninwere
is shown fitted
Figure bycorresponding
4. The a piecewisefitting
function which
formula is made
is expressed as up of two
quadratic functions,
follows: and the dividing point of the piecewise function is the best efficiency point Topt ,
the fitting result is shown in Figure 4. The corresponding fitting formula is expressed as follows:
line e1:ce10  ce11Te  ce12Te
2
when Te min  Te  Topt


m = line e2:ce 20  ce 21Te  ce 22Te 2 2when Topt  Te  Te max

(8)
 line icee1 : ce10 + ce11 Te + ce12 Te when Temin ≤ Te ≤ Topt
. whenT  0

0,
mice = line e2 : ce20 + ce21eTe + ce22 Te 2 when Topt ≤ Te ≤ Temax (8)

where ce1i and ce 2i (0,
 when
i  0,1,2 Te = 0
) are constants.
Based on Equations (1–6), the Treq is a constant at a certain speed, the engine torque Te can be
where ce1i expressed as =
and ce2i (i 0,T 1,2)
Te = req Tm are
, thenconstants.
Equation (8) is expressed as follows:
Based on Equations (1–6), the Treq is a constant at a certain speed, the engine torque Te can be
expressed as Te = Treq − Tm , then Equation (8) is expressed as follows:

2

.
 line e1 : c10 + c11 Tm + c12 Tm when Treq − Topt ≤ Tm ≤ min( Treq − Temin , Tmax

mice = line e2 : c20 + c21 Tm + c22 Tm 2 when max Treq − Temax , Tmin ) ≤ Tm ≤ Treq − Topt (9)

 0, when T = T
m req
line e1:c10  c11Tm  c12Tm 2 when Treq  Topt  Tm  min(Treq  Te min ,Tmax )


mice = line e2:c20  c21Tm  c22Tm 2 when max(Treq  Te max , Tmin )  Tm  Treq  Topt (9)

 0, whenTm  Treq

where
where cc1i1i, ,cc2i2i (i  0,1,2
( i= 0, 1,)2)are
areconstants; is isthe
constants;TeTminemin theengine’s
engine’sminimum
minimumoutput
outputtorque; max is
torque; TTeemax is the
the
engine’s maximum output
engine’s maximum output torque; Tmin torque; T and
min and Tmax
T are
max are
the minimum and maximum output torque
minimum and maximum output torque of of
the motor,
the motor, respectively.
respectively.
7
Fitted fuel rate under 1000rpm
6 Fitted fuel rate under 3000rpm
5
The actual fuel rate tested
Fuel Rate (g/s)
The best efficiency point at the

current speed
4
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Engine Torque (Nm)
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Fuel
Fuel rate
rate of
of engine.
engine.
3.3. Battery’s Consumption Rate Model

3.3. Battery’s Consumption Rate Model
The consumption rate of the battery can be expressed as:
The consumption rate of the battery can be expressed as:
d Ib
L  d SOC   SOC .  I (10)
L = − SOC = −SOC = −0 b
dt Q (10)
dt Q0
where Q0 is the rated capacity of the battery, I b is the current of battery, which can be expressed
where Q0 is the rated capacity of the battery, Ib is the current of battery, which can be expressed as:
as:
p
Voc − V2 oc 2 − 4P R
Ib = oc V  Voc  4 Pb Rib i (11)
Ib = 2Ri (11)
2 Ri
where Voc is the open circuit voltage of the battery; Ri is the internal resistance of the battery; according
where Voc is the open circuit voltage of the battery; Ri is the internal resistance of the battery;
to reference [25], the open circuit voltage and the internal resistance can be considered as constants
according to reference
when the value of SOC[25],
is inthe
the open
rangecircuit
of [0.2,voltage
1], andand the internal resistance
the temperature can be in
(degree Celsius) considered
the rangeasof
constants when the value of SOC is in the range of [0.2, 1], and the temperature
25 and 45. In this paper, we assume that the battery’s SOC and the temperature meet above conditions,(degree Celsius) in
the
then,range of 25circuit
the open and 45. In this
voltage paper,
and we assume
the internal that the
resistance battery’s SOC
is considered to beand the temperature
constants. meet
Pb is the output
above
power conditions, then, can
of battery, which the be
open circuit by:
calculated voltage and the internal resistance is considered to be
constants. Pb is the output power of battery, which can be calculated by:
1 Tm · Nm
Pb = Ub Ib = Pm 1+ Paux =Tm  N m + Paux (12)
Pb  U b I b  Pmm  Paux = 9550η
η m Paux (12)
m 9550m
where Pm is the motor power; ηm is the motor efficiency, which is shown in Figure 5; Paux is the power
where Pm is theauxiliary
of the electrical motor power;  m is the motor efficiency, which is shown in Figure 5; Paux is the
equipment.
power of the electrical
Therefore, auxiliary equipment.
the consumption rate of the battery can be expressed as:
Therefore, the consumption rate of the battery q can be expressed as:
Voc − 2 − 4( Tm · Nm + P
d Voc 9550ηm aux ) Ri
L = − SOC = (13)
dt 2Ri Q0
Therefore, the consumption rate of the battery can be obtained by taking motor torque and motor
efficiency in every motor speed in to Equation (13). The result is shown in Figure 6.
T N
Voc  Voc2  4( Tm  Nm  Paux ) Ri
m m
L   d SOC  Voc  Voc  4( 9550m  Paux ) Ri
d 2 9550 (13)
(13)
L   dt SOC  2 Ri Q0 m
dt 2 Ri Q0
Therefore,
Sustainability the2060
2018, 10, consumption rate of the battery can be obtained by taking motor torque and motor7 of 24
Therefore, the consumption rate of the battery can be obtained by taking
efficiency in every motor speed in to Equation (13). The result is shown in Figure 6. motor torque and motor
efficiency in every motor speed in to Equation (13). The result is shown in Figure 6.
0.95
0.95
efficiency
0.9
efficiency 0.9
0.85
0.85
Motor
0.8
Motor
0.8
0.75
0.75
0.7
200
0.7
200 100 6000
100 0 4000 6000
–100
0 2000 4000
–100 –200 0 2000
Motor torque (Nm)
Motor torque (Nm) –200 0
Motor speed (rpm)
Motor speed (rpm)
Figure 5. Efficiency of the ISG motor.
-3
x 10
2 x 10 -3
2 Consumption rate at 1000rpm
Consumption rate
Consumption rate at
at 2000rpm
1000rpm
1.5 Consumption rate at 2000rpm
Consumption rate at 3000rpm
1.5 Consumption rate
Consumption rate at
at 4000rpm
3000rpm
Consumption rate
Consumption rate at
at 5000rpm
4000rpm
1 Consumption rate at 5000rpm
-d(soc)/dt
1
-d(soc)/dt
0.5
0.5
0
0
–0.5
–0.5
–1–150 –100 –50
–1–150 –100
0
–50 Motor torque
0
50
(Nm)
50
100
100
150
150
Motor torque (Nm)
Figure 6. The consumption rate of the battery.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. The
The consumption
consumption rate
rate of
of the
the battery.
battery.
As shown in Figure 6, the consumption rate of the battery can be fitted by a piecewise function
whichAs shown in of
Figure 6, the consumption rate of the battery can be fitted by a piecewise function
Asisshown
made up two quadratic
in Figure functions.rate
6, the consumption The of
dividing pointcan
the battery of the piecewise
be fitted by a function
piecewiseisfunction
the zero
which torque
motor is madepoint,
up ofand
twothe
quadratic functions.
fitted result Thein
is shown dividing point
Figure 7, of the piecewise
its corresponding function
analytic is the zero
function can
which is made up of two quadratic functions. The dividing point of the piecewise function is the zero
motor torque point,
be expressed as: and the fitted result is shown in Figure 7, its corresponding analytic function can
motor torque point, and the fitted result is shown in Figure 7, its corresponding analytic function can
be expressed as:
be expressed as: (
line m1 : Cb10 + Cb11 Tm + Cb12 Tm 2 when Tm ≤ 0
L= 2 (14)
line m2 : Cb20 + Cb21 Tm + Cb22 Tm when Tm ≥ 0
where Cb1i and Cb2i (i = 0, 1, 2) are constants.


line m1: Cb10  Cb11Tm +Cb12Tm
2
when Tm  0
L (14)
line m2: Cb 20  Cb 21Tm +Cb 22Tm
 when Tm  0
2

where Cb1i and Cb 2i ( i  0,1, 2 ) are constants.
-3
x 10
2
Fitted consumption rate at 1000rpm
1.5 Fitted consumption rate at 3000rpm
1 The actual consumption rate
-d(soc)/dt
0.5
–0.5
––1150 –100 –50 0 50 100 150

Motor torque/Nm
Figure 7. The fitted consumption rate of the battery.

Figure 7. The fitted consumption rate of the battery.
4. Simplified-ECMS-Based Strategy
4. Simplified-ECMS-Based Strategy
In the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, the fuel energy from the ICE and the electrical energy from
In the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, the fuel energy from the ICE and the electrical energy from
the battery are used. To make these two types of energy consumption comparable, the equivalent
the battery are used. To make these two types of energy consumption comparable, the equivalent fuel
fuel consumption is derived from the electrical energy consumption of the battery. Then, the concept
consumption is derived from the electrical energy consumption of the battery. Then, the concept of the
of the ECMS is achieving the goal of minimizing the total of engine fuel consumption and the
ECMS is achieving the goal of minimizing the total of engine fuel consumption and the equivalent fuel
equivalent fuel consumption for each time step.
consumption for each time step.
In the plug-in hybrid system, the control variable is the ISG motor’s torque Tm (t) . The state
In the plug-in hybrid system, the control variable is the ISG motor’s torque Tm (t). The state
variable is the battery’s SOC. Based on the principle of ECMS, the mathematical problem of
variable is the battery’s SOC. Based on the principle of ECMS, the mathematical problem of minimizing
minimizing the total equivalent fuel rate is formulated as follows:
the total equivalent fuel rate is formulated as follows:
 J  min( m )  min(mice  mbat )
. eq . .
 min(m

J =  ) = min(mice + mbat )
e (t)  Tm (t)
eq
 T (t) T

 req
Treq(t) = Te (t) + Tm (t)

SOCf  SOCobj



 f = SOCobj

 SOC (15)
Temin (t)  Te (t)  Temax (t) (15)
T (t)(t)
 Temin ≤ Te (t) ≤ Temax (t)
  T (t)  T (t)
 mmin


 T mmin ( t ) ≤ Tmm (t) ≤mmaxTmmax (t)
 SOCmin  SOC  SOCmax


SOC min ≤ SOC ≤ SOCmax

where .meq is the total equivalent fuel rate;. mice is the engine’s fuel rate;
. mbat is the equivalent fuel
where meq is the total equivalent fuel rate; mice is the engine’s fuel rate; mbat is the equivalent fuel rate
rate of battery; SOCf is the SOC value at the driving end; SOCobj is the target SOC value at the
of battery; SOCf is the SOC value at the driving end; SOCobj is the target SOC value at the driving end;
driving
SOCmax end; SOCmin
and SOC and
max is the SOC
upper is the
min and upper
lower and of
limits lower limitsrespectively.
the SOC, of the SOC, respectively.
Suppose that
thatthe
theequivalent
equivalent factor
factor  , then,
is λ,isthen, the consumption
the consumption ratebattery
rate of the of thecan
battery can be
be converted
converted to the equivalent
to the equivalent fuel rate offuel rate by
battery of battery by
( line m1: C  C T +C T 2 when T  0

mbat =  L= T 2 when Tm ≤ 0
b10 b11 m b12 m m
.
mbat = λ · L =  m1 : λCb10 + λCb11 Tm + λC
line 2 b12 m (16)
line m2: Cb 20  Cb 21Tm +Cb 22Tm when 2 Tm  0
line m2 : λCb20 + λCb21 Tm + λCb22 Tm when Tm ≥ 0
(16)
Based on Equations (9) and (16), the total equivalent fuel rate is formulated as follows:
Based Ton Equations
T <0
(9) and (16), the total equivalent fuel rate is formulated as follows:
(1) If req opt , then
(1) If Treq − Topt <, then
line e2 + line m1 : c20 + λCb10 + (c21 + λCb11 ) Tm + (c22 + +λCb12 ) Tm 2 when max Treq − Temax , Tmin ) ≤ Tm < Treq − Topt



2
 line e1 + line m1 : c10 + λCb10 + (c11 + λCb11 ) Tm + (c12 + λCb12 ) Tm when Treq − Topt ≤ Tm < 0



. 2 when 0 ≤ T ≤ min( T
(17)

meq = line e1 +
( line m2 : c10 + λCb20 + ( c 11 + λC )
b21 mT + ( c12 + λC )
b22 mT m req − Temin , Tmax


 2
line m1 : λCb10 + λCb11 Tm + λCb12 Tm when Tm = Treq < 0
 λ·L =


2 when T = T
line m2 : λCb20 + λCb21 Tm + λCb22 Tm m req ≥ 0
(2) If Treq − Topt ≥ 0, then
lin e2 + line m1 : c20 + λCb10 + (c21 + λCb11 ) Tm + (c22 + λCb12 ) Tm 2 when max Treq − Temax , Tmin ) ≤ Tm < 0



2
 lin e2 + line m2 : c20 + λCb20 + (c21 + λCb21 ) Tm + (c22 + λCb22 ) Tm when 0 ≤ Tm < Treq − Topt



. 2 when T
(18)

meq = lin e1 +(line m2 : c10 + λCb20 + ( c11 + λC )
b21 mT + ( c12 + λC )
b22 mT req − Topt ≤ Tm ≤ min( Treq − Temin , Tmax


 2
line m1 : λCb10 + λCb11 Tm + λCb12 Tm when Tm = Treq < 0
 λ·L =


2 when T = T
line m2 : λCb20 + λCb21 Tm + λCb22 Tm m req ≥ 0
According to Equations (17) and (18), the total equivalent fuel rate is a piecewise function,
which is composed of four continuous convex quadratic function. Based on the property of convex
function, the total equivalent fuel rate is also a convex function, therefore the minimum value of the
total equivalent fuel rate can only be obtained at points of the demarcation of the convex piecewise
function. As shown in Equations (17) and (18), the demarcation points of the piecewise function are

Tm = max Treq − Temax , Tmin ) ,Tm = Treq − Topt , Tm = 0, Tm = min( Treq − Temin , Tmax and Tm = Treq .
Thus, the optimal control variable can only be obtained from above five points. The optimal solution
can be determined by comparing the value of the total equivalent fuel rate of the five points. Based on
above conclusion, the simplified equivalent fuel consumption minimization strategy (Simplified-ECMS)
is proposed.
The concept of the Simplified-ECMS is achieving the optimal solution by comparing the total
equivalent fuel rate of above five points for each time instant, instead of comparing the values
of every step point in the control domain, which is the principle of normal ECMS. Therefore,
the Simplified-ECMS can greatly reduce the amount of calculation and shorten the time of calculation.
The procedure flow chart of the Simplified-ECMS is shown in Figure 8.
To validate the effect of the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy, three energy management strategies are
simulated under ten repeated NEDC driving cycles: CD-CS-based, ECMS-based and Simplified-ECMS-
based. The initial SOC is set 0.95, the final SOC is set 0.25. The simulation is operated on a desktop
computer with 4 gigabits of RAM and 2.3 GHz of core i3 processor. In this section, the equivalent factor is
determined by trial and error method.
The simulated SOC variation trajectories under three control strategies mentioned above are
shown in Figure 9, the figure shows that the SOC of Simplified-ECMS-based strategy and ECMS-based
strategy declines with the increasing of driving distance, and it reaches the target SOC value at
the driving end, these two SOC curves are close, which shows that the optimization effect of
Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is very close to the ECMS-based strategy.
Figure 10 is the engine working points under three control strategies. According to the figure,
most engine working points of Simplified-ECMS-based strategy coincide with the points of ECMS-based
strategy, and these two strategies’ engine working points are almost in engine’s economic zone, while
CD-CS-based strategy’s engine working points are only a few parts in the economic zone.

40
30
40
20
30
10
20
0
100 200 400 600
Driving cycle
0
0
200 400 600
Driving cycle
Demand torque calculation
Demand torque calculation Braking energy
No recovery control:
Treq  0
No Braking energy
u * = max(Tcontrol:
recovery req , Tm min )
0
Treq Yes
*
u = max(Treq , Tm min )
Yes
Calculate five demarcation points：
Tm1  max(
Calculate fiveTreq  Te max , Tm min )points：
demarcation
TTmm21  Tmax(
req TTeopt Te max , Tm min )
req
TTmm32 0Treq  Teopt
TTmm43  min(
0 Treq  Te min , Tm max )
TTmm54 Tmin(
req Treq  Te min , Tm max )
Tm5  Treq
Calculate the total equivalent fuel
rate of above
Calculate the five
total points：
equivalent fuel
rate
meq (Tof
m1 ),above
meq (Tm 2 ),five
meq (Tmpoints：
3 ), meq (Tm 4 ), meq (Tm 5 )
meq (Tm1 ), meq (Tm 2 ), meq (Tm3 ), meq (Tm 4 ), meq (Tm 5 )
Obtain the optimal control variable:

u Obtain
 arg min
the(meqoptimal
(Tm1 ), meq (control
Tm 2 ), meq (Tvariable:
m 3 ), meq (Tm 4 ), meq (Tm 5 ))
u   arg min (meq (Tm1 ), meq (Tm 2 ), meq (Tm3 ), meq (Tm 4 ), meq (Tm5 ))
Tm , N m 
 
TTem, ,NNe m
 
Te , N e 
Figure 8. The procedure flow chart of the Simplified-ECMS.
1
CD-CS-based
1
0.9 ECMS-based
CD-CS-based
0.9 Simplified-ECMS-based
ECMS-based
0.8
Simplified-ECMS-based
0.8
0.7
0.7
SOCSOC
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 12,000
0.2 Time (s)
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000 12,000
Time (s) trajectories.
Figure 9. SOC variation
Figure 9. SOC variation trajectories.
160
140
120 240
254
260
100 270
Torque (Nm)
280
80
300
60
40
CD-CS-based
20
ECMS-based
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
Speed (rpm)
Figure 10. Engine working points under three strategies.

Figure 10. Engine working points under three strategies.
Table 2 is the engine’s fuel consumption and calculation time of three control strategies under
Table 2 is theNEDC
ten repeated engine’s fuelcycles.
driving consumption and calculation
The fuel consumption fromtime of three control strategies
the Simplified-ECMS-based under
strategy
ten repeated
and theNEDC driving
ECMS-based cycles.are
strategy The fuelbut
close, consumption from the Simplified-ECMS-based
the fuel consumption of the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy
and thestrategy is obviously
ECMS-based less than
strategy aretheclose,
consumption
but the of the consumption
fuel CD-CS-based strategy; the calculation time of
of the Simplified-ECMS-based
theis
strategy Simplified-ECMS-based
obviously less than strategy is obviouslyofshorter
the consumption than the ECMS-based
the CD-CS-based strategy;strategy, it is close totime
the calculation
of the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is obviously shorter than the ECMS-based Simplified-
the time of the CD-CS-based strategy, which is a real-time control strategy. Therefore, the strategy, it is
ECMS-based strategy can obtain excellent fuel economy, and can obviously shorten the calculation
close to the time of the CD-CS-based strategy, which is a real-time control strategy. Therefore,
time. We can conclude that Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is more appropriate for real-time control
the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy can obtain excellent fuel economy, and can obviously shorten
than ECMS-based strategy.
the calculation time. We can conclude that Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is more appropriate for
real-time control than ECMS-based
Table strategy.
2. Fuel consumption and calculation time under three control strategies.
Result
Table 2. Fuel consumption CD-CS ECMS
and calculation Simplified-ECMS
time under three control strategies.
fuel consumption (L) 4.812 3.964 3.967
calculation
Result time * (s)CD-CS72.88 966.89
ECMS 146.44
Simplified-ECMS
Final SOC 0.2502 0.250 0.2501
fuel consumption (L) 4.812 3.964 3.967
Note: * The calculation was completed on a desktop computer with 4 gigabits of RAM and 2.3 GHz
calculation time * (s) 72.88 966.89 146.44
of core i3 processor.
Final SOC 0.2502 0.250 0.2501
Note: * The calculation
5. Adaptive was completed on Strategy
Simplified-ECMS-Based a desktop computer with 4 gigabits of RAM and 2.3 GHz of core
i3 processor.
The key for the implementation of the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is to find the right
equivalent
5. Adaptive factor, which is considered
Simplified-ECMS-Based to be a balancer balancing electrical energy consumption and
Strategy
fuel energy consumption. A large number of scholars have conducted discussions about equivalent
The keyThere
factor. for the implementation
are mainly two kinds of ofequivalent
the Simplified-ECMS-based
factor were proposed, strategy
the fixed is to find factor
equivalent the right
equivalent factor, which is considered to be a balancer balancing electrical energy consumption
[24,26] and the adaptive equivalent factor. The former relies on prior knowledge about the driving and fuel
energycycle,
consumption.
which deters A itlarge
fromnumber
real-timeofimplementation.
scholars have conducted
The adaptivediscussions abouthas
equivalent factor equivalent factor.
fairly ideal
There performance.
are mainly two kinds of equivalent
A commonly used approachfactorfor
were proposed,
obtaining the fixedequivalent
the adaptive equivalent factor
factor is [24,26]
using a and
feedbackequivalent
the adaptive controller, such as The
factor. a PI controller [21,27],
former relies onaprior
fuzzyknowledge
PI controller about
[28], a PID
the controller [29] and
driving cycle, which
a fuzzy logic controller [30], this method mainly based on the SOC reference, which
deters it from real-time implementation. The adaptive equivalent factor has fairly ideal performance.is calculated from
the predicted driving horizon [25,31]. The parameters of the PI/PID and the law of fuzzy controller
A commonly used approach for obtaining the adaptive equivalent factor is using a feedback controller,
are hard to be chosen, and the computation load of fuzzy logic controller is still heavy, therefore,
such as a PI controller [21,27], a fuzzy PI controller [28], a PID controller [29] and a fuzzy logic
above feedback controllers are still difficult to be applied in the real vehicle. In this section, the
controller [30], this method mainly based on the SOC reference, which is calculated from the predicted
equivalent factor optimization model is established, then, the equivalent factor is optimized off-line
driving
byhorizon [25,31].
the particle swarm The parameters
optimization of the
(PSO) PI/PID
genetic and the
algorithm lawdifferent
under of fuzzy controller
driving cycles,are hard to be
therefore,
chosen, and the computation load of fuzzy logic controller is still heavy, therefore, above feedback
controllers are still difficult to be applied in the real vehicle. In this section, the equivalent factor
optimization model is established, then, the equivalent factor is optimized off-line by the particle swarm
optimization (PSO) genetic algorithm under different driving cycles, therefore, the best equivalent
factor MAPs are obtained, finally, the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is implemented based
the bestequivalent
on the equivalentfactor
factorMAPs.
MAPs are obtained, finally, the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy
is implemented based on the equivalent factor MAPs.
5.1. Equivalent Factor
5.1. Equivalent Factor
As we known, the equivalent factor can be used to adjust the electrical energy consumption and
As we known,
fuel energy the equivalent
consumption. factor can
For example, be SOC
if the used isto high,
adjustmore
the electrical
electricalenergy
energyconsumption
is consumedand by
fuel energy consumption. For example, if the SOC is high, more electrical energy is
reducing the equivalent factor, otherwise, more fuel energy is consumed by increasing the equivalentconsumed by
reducing the equivalent
factor. Based on knowing factor, otherwise, more
the preliminary changefuel energythe
between is consumed
equivalentby increasing
factor and thethe equivalent
SOC, we can
factor.
establish an initial function, which preliminarily defines above changes, and modify it accordingcan
Based on knowing the preliminary change between the equivalent factor and the SOC, we to
establish an initial
different driving function,
cycles, which
driving preliminarily
distances defines
and initial SOC.above changes,
The initial and modify
function it according
is expressed as to
different driving cycles, driving distances and initial SOC. The initial function is expressed as
λ(t, SOC) = k · f (SOC ) (19)
 (t,SOC)=k  f (SOC) (19)
where f f((SOC
where SOC)) is
isthe
the initial function; kkis is
initial function; the
thecorrection
correctioncoefficient
coefficientofofthe
theinitial
initialfunction.
function. The initial
The initial
function is
function is shown
shownin inFigure
Figure11,
11,asasshown
shown inin the
the figure,
figure, thethe value
value of initial
of initial function
function increases
increases withwith
the
the decreasing of SOC, and the rate of increasing is different when the SOC
decreasing of SOC, and the rate of increasing is different when the SOC in different regions. For in different regions.
For example,
example, when when
SOCSOC is lower
is lower thanthan 0.25,
0.25, thethe value
value ofofthe
theinitial
initialfunction
functionincreases
increasesfastest
fastest with
with the
the
decreasing of
decreasing of SOC,
SOC, which
which can
can defer
defer SOC
SOC further
further declining.
declining.
1.8
1.6
1.4
f
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
SOC
Figure
Figure 11.
11. The
The initial
initial function’s
function’s value
value versus
versus the
the battery’s
battery’s SOC.
SOC.
5.2.
5.2. Off-Line
Off-Line Optimization
Optimization Based
Based onon PSO
PSO Algorithm
Algorithm
After
After determining
determining the the initial
initial function,
function, the
the equivalent
equivalent factor
factor entirely
entirely depends
depends on on the
the correction
correction
coefficient k , therefore, the energy distribution of the engine and the battery can be dynamically
coefficient k, therefore, the energy distribution of the engine and the battery can be dynamically
adjusted
adjusted byby only
only altering
altering the
the correction coefficient k.k Then,
correction coefficient . Then, thecorrection
the correction coefficient
coefficient
k becomes a
k becomes a key
key parameter of the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy, and the key
parameter of the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy, and the key parameter of this strategyparameter of this
strategy is optimized
is optimized by PSO algorithm
by PSO algorithm because
because its its optimization
optimization is a nonlinear
is a nonlinear global optimization
global optimization process,
process, thefunction
the fitness fitness function is expressed
is expressed as as
 F  minR t.m (t)dt
min ktm

F = 0 ice

0.25  {k} 0 ice (t)dt
SOC (t)  0.95

0.25≤ SOC (t) ≤ 0.95

(20)

T (t)  Te (t)  Temax (t) (20)
 (t) ≤ Te (t) ≤ Temax (t)
Temin
 emin
(t) ≤TTmm (t) (t)≤


 mmin
T (t) Tmmax (t)

Tmmin Tmmax (t)

The flow chart of k optimization is shown in Figure 12, the simulation is performed under ten
The flow chart of k optimization is shown in Figure 12, the simulation is performed under ten
repeated NEDC driving cycles, the initial SOC is 0.95, the parameters of PSO are set: the size of
repeated NEDC driving cycles, the initial SOC is 0.95, the parameters of PSO are set: the size of particle
particle swarm is 100, the maximum number of iterations is 100, the initial inertia weight 0.9, the final
inertia weight is 0.4.
swarm is 100, the maximum number of iterations is 100, the initial inertia weight 0.9, the final inertia
weight is 0.4.
The optimization result is shown in Figure 13, the optimal value of k is 4.38,
The optimization result is shown in Figure 13, the optimal value of k is 4.38, and the optimaland the optimal fuel
consumption
The is 3.945
optimization L. Comparison
result is shown results
in of two
Figure 13,equivalent
the optimalfactor determining
value of k
fuel consumption is 3.945 L. Comparison results of two equivalent factor determining methods areis methods
4.38, and are
the given
optimal
in Table
fuel
given in 3, the equivalent
consumption
Table 3.945factor
3, theisequivalent determining
L. Comparison
factor by PSO
results
determining byalgorithm
of two can saved
PSOequivalent
algorithm factorfuel consumption
determining
can saved by 0.55%
methods
fuel consumption are
by
compared
given in to
Tablethe3,trial
the and error
equivalent method.
factor
0.55% compared to the trial and error method. determining by PSO algorithm can saved fuel consumption by
0.55% compared to the trial and error method.
PSO Matlab/Simulink
PSO Matlab/Simulink
Start
Start
Generate particle swarm Assign a value to k
Generate particle swarm Assign a value to k
Run vehicle simulation model based

Update operation of Particle swarm on Simplified-ECMS-based
Run strategy
vehicle simulation model based
Update operation of Particle swarm on Simplified-ECMS-based strategy
No
No
Terminating
condition satisfied? Calculate fitness function
Terminating
condition satisfied? Calculate fitness function
Yes
End Yes
End
Figure 12. The flow chart of k optimization.
Figure 12.
Figure The flow
12. The flow chart of kkoptimization.
chart of optimization.
6
6
(L)(L)
5.5
5.5
consumption
consumption
5
5
4.5
4.5
Fuel
Fuel
4
4
3.5
3.50 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 Number
40 of iterations
60 80 100
Number of iterations
Figure 13. The optimization result.
Figure13.
Figure 13.The
Theoptimization
optimizationresult.
result.
Table 3. Comparison results of two equivalent factor determining methods.
Table3.3.Comparison
Table Comparisonresults
resultsof
oftwo
twoequivalent
equivalentfactor
factordetermining
determiningmethods.
methods.
Equivalent Factor Determined Equivalent Factor Determined
Results Equivalent Factor Saving
by Trial and ErrorDetermined
Method Equivalent
by PSOFactor Determined
Algorithm
Results Equivalent Factor Determined Equivalent Factor Determined Saving
Fuel consumption
Results (L) by Trial and Error
3.967 Method by PSO Algorithm
3.945 0.55%
Saving
by Trial and Error Method by PSO Algorithm
Fuel consumption
Final SOC (L) 3.967
0.2501 3.945
0.2502 0.55%
---
Fuel consumption
Final SOC (L) 3.967
0.2501 3.945
0.2502 0.55%
---
Final SOC 0.2501 0.2502 —
Equivalent factor is mainly affected by driving distance and initial SOC in certain driving cycle
Equivalent
[32], then, based factor is mainly
on Equation affected
(19), by driving
correction distance
coefficient k isand initial
also SOCaffected
mainly in certain
bydriving cycle
the driving
[32], Equivalent
then, basedfactor
on is mainly
Equation affected
(19), by driving
correction distance
coefficient and
k initial
is also SOC in
mainly certain
affected
distance and the initial SOC in certain driving cycle, Above k optimization is based on the given driving
by cycle
the [32],
driving
then, based on
distancedistance
driving Equation
and the initial (19), correction
SOC inSOC,
and initial certain coefficient
driving
Next, under k is
cycle,also mainly
Above
NEDC affected by
k optimization
driving the driving
cycle, the is kbased distance and
on the given
optimization is
the initial SOC in certain driving cycle, Above k optimization is based on the given
implemented one by one in different driving distance and initial SOC through off-line optimization,is
driving distance and initial SOC, Next, under NEDC driving cycle, the k driving distance
optimization
implemented
and one byofone
the MAP figure in different
correction drivingk distance
coefficient under theand initial
NEDC SOC through
driving cycle, asoff-line
shown optimization,
in Figure 14,
and the MAP
is obtained. figure of correction coefficient k under the NEDC driving cycle, as shown in Figure 14,
is obtained.
and initial SOC, Next, under NEDC driving cycle, the k optimization is implemented one by one
in different driving distance and initial SOC through off-line optimization, and the MAP figure of
correction coefficient k under the NEDC driving cycle, as shown in Figure 14, is obtained.
8
7
6
k
5
4
3 150
0.2
0.4 100
0.6 50
0.8
SOC 1 0 Driving distance (km)
Figure
Figure14.
14.The
TheMAP
MAPfigure
figureofofcorrection
correctioncoefficient k.
coefficient k.
As shown in Figure 14, when the driving distance is less than the pure electric mileage, k is a
As shown in Figure 14, when the driving distance is less than the pure electric mileage, k is a
constant, and its value is minimum, the reason is that electrical energy is enough in this condition, a
constant, and its value is minimum, the reason is that electrical energy is enough in this condition,
small k makes driving using battery power as more as possible; when the driving distance is larger
a small k makes driving using battery power as more as possible; when the driving distance is larger
than the pure electric mileage, k increases with the increasing driving distance in certain initial
than the pure electric mileage, k increases with the increasing driving distance in certain initial SOC,
SOC, which can blend electric energy with the trip distance adding. k reduces with the increasing
which can blend electric energy with the trip distance adding. k reduces with the increasing initial
initial SOC in certain driving distance, then, the opportunity of motor participation increases under
SOC in certain driving distance, then, the opportunity of motor participation increases under this way.
this way.
5.3. Implementation of the Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-Based Strategy
5.3. Implementation of the Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-Based Strategy
Determining the correction coefficient k in actual driving conditions is a key issue for
Determining
implementing the correction
adaptive coefficient k in
Simplified-ECMS-based actual In
strategy. driving conditions
the real-time is aofkey
control issuethefork
PHEV,
implementing
could adaptivebySimplified-ECMS-based
not be obtained PSO algorithm on-line strategy.
due to theIngreat
the real-time controlburden.
computational of PHEV, the k
However,
could not be obtained by PSO algorithm on-line due to the great computational
the value of k in different driving distances, initial SOC and driving cycles can be obtained by PSO burden. However,
the value of
algorithm k in which
off-line, different
hasdriving
been donedistances, initial
in Section 5.2.SOC and driving
Therefore, cyclesflowchart
the control can be obtained by PSO
of the adaptive
algorithm off-line, whichstrategy
Simplified-ECMS-based has been done
can in Section
be set in Figure5.2.15.
Therefore, thecorrection
Firstly, the control flowchart of the
coefficient’s adaptive
MAPs (like
Simplified-ECMS-based strategy can be set in Figure 15. Firstly, the correction
Figure 14) under different driving cycles are obtained by global off-line optimizer based on the coefficient’s MAPs
PSO
(like FigureSecondly,
algorithm. 14) underidentify
differentthe
driving
type ofcycles are obtained
the real by global
driving cycle basedoff-line
on the optimizer
recognition based on the
algorithm.
PSO algorithm. Secondly, identify the type of the real driving cycle based on
Thirdly, the driving distance is gained by vehicle’s navigation system. Fourthly, extract the optimal the recognition
algorithm. coefficient
correction Thirdly, the driving
k from distance
above MAPs is through
gained by thevehicle’s
obtained navigation system.cycle,
type of driving Fourthly, extract
the driving
the optimal
distance andcorrection coefficient
the initial SOC. from above MAPs through
Finally,kSimplified-ECMS-based strategytheisobtained
applied totype of driving
distribute cycle,
the engine
and motor’s torque, and out put the optimal engine and motor’s torque to vehicle power system. to
the driving distance and the initial SOC. Finally, Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is applied
distribute the engine and motor’s torque, and out put the optimal engine and motor’s torque to
vehicle power system.
Recognition algorithm
40
30
20 Cycle features
10 extraction
0
0 200 400 600
Real-time driving cycle
Navigation system
The type of
drive cycle
Driving distance  MAP of correction Global off-line optimizer

 coefficient k based on PSO algorithm
Initial SOC 
(t)Accelerator
(t) Brake correction coefficient k
Vref  t   (t) Tm , N m  V(t)
Treq (t)  
Torque Simplified-ECMS- Te , N e  Vehicle power
Driver (t) requirement SOC(t)
based strategy system
Figure 15.The
Figure15. Theflow
flowchart
chartofofthe
theadaptive
adaptiveSimplified-ECMS-based
Simplified-ECMS-basedstrategy.
strategy.
5.4.Simulation
5.4. SimulationValidation
Validationofofthe
theAdaptive
AdaptiveSimplified-ECMS-Based
Simplified-ECMS-BasedStrategy
Strategy
Anotherkey
Another key business
business for for applying
applying the adaptive
the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
Simplified-ECMS-based strategystrategy is pattern
is driving driving
pattern recognition.
recognition. Generally, Generally,
the methodsthe methods
of the drivingofpattern
the driving pattern
or system or system
recognition recognition
mainly include amainly
fuzzy
include a fuzzy logic controller [33,34], cluster analysis [35], k-means clustering method
logic controller [33,34], cluster analysis [35], k-means clustering method [36], support vector machine [36], support
vector[37],
(SVM) machine (SVM)
extended support[37], extended
vector machine support vector
(SVM) [38], machine
neural network(SVM) [38], neural
[39], learning vectornetwork [39],
quantization
learning[40]
network vector quantization
and genetic network
programming [40]
(GP) forand genetic
system programming
recognition [41,42]. In(GP) for system
this paper, extremerecognition
learning
[41,42]. (ELM)
machine In this is
paper,
used extreme learning
for driving patternmachine (ELM) is used for driving pattern recognition.
recognition.
5.4.1.
5.4.1.Driving
DrivingPattern
PatternRecognition
RecognitionBased
Basedon
onELM
ELM
ELM
ELMisisan aneasy
easyand
andeffective
effectivealgorithm
algorithmfor forsingle
singlelayer
layerfeed
feedforward
forwardneural
neuralnetwork,
network,was wasfirst
first
introduced
introducedby byHuang
Huangetetal.al.[43].
[43].TheThestructure
structureofofELM ELMmodelmodelisisshown
shownininFigure Figure16.16.
The
Thetarget
targetofofdriving
drivingpattern
patternrecognition
recognitionisistotoanalyzeanalyzethe thevelocity
velocityinformation
informationand andclassify
classify
practical
practical driving patterns as similar standard driving cycles. Recognized driving cyclesshould
driving patterns as similar standard driving cycles. Recognized driving cycles shouldbe be
included
includedininthe
therepresentative
representativedriving
drivingcyclecyclegroup.
group.SixSixrepresentative
representativestandard standarddriving
drivingcycles,
cycles,shown
shown
ininTable
Table4 4and
andFigure
Figure17,
17,were
wereselected
selectedininthis
thispaper
papertotocover
covermost
mostofofthe thedifferent
differentstreet
streettypestypesand
and
driving
drivingbehaviors.
behaviors.Therefore,
Therefore,ininFigure
Figure16,16, the
theoutput
outputlayer
layerhashassix sixneurons
neuronsthatthatrepresent
representabove abovesixsix
typical
typicaldriving
drivingcycles.
cycles.The
Theinput
inputvector
vectorof ofthe
theinput
inputlayer
layerisisXX==[x1, [x1,x2, . , x11], wwijij isisthe
x2,. .…, theweight
weight
between
betweenthe theith
ithneuron
neuronofofthe theinput
inputlayer
layerandandthethejth
jthneuron
neuronofofthe thehidden
hiddenlayer.
layer.To Toidentify
identifythe
the
driving
drivingpattern,
pattern,thetheeleven
elevenfeatures
featureswerewereextracted
extractedfromfromthe thevehicle
vehiclespeed speedduring
duringthe thetimetimeinterval,
interval,
and
andthe
theeleven
elevenneurons
neuronsofofthe theinput
inputlayer
layermatched
matchedthese theseeleven
elevencharacteristic
characteristicparameters:
parameters:average average
speed (v), maximum speed (vmax ), maximum acceleration (amax ), average acceleration (a), maximum
speed ( v ), maximum speed ( vmax ), maximum acceleration ( amax ), average acceleration ( a ),
deceleration (dmax ), average deceleration (d), idle time factor ri (idle time/total time), acceleration
maximum
time factor rdeceleration ( d max ), average deceleration ( d time
), idle timer factor ri (idle time/total time),
a (acceleration time/total time), deceleration factor d (deceleration time/total time),
acceleration
uniform time time
factorfactor ra (acceleration
rc (uniform time/total time/total
time) and time),
idle times deceleration
( f i ). time factor rd (deceleration
time/total time), uniform time factor rc (uniform time/total time) and idle times ( f i ).

wij
 jk
Average speed wij

 jk Driving cycle 1
Average speed Driving cycle 1

Max speed Driving cycle 2
. . . .
. . . . .
. speed
Max . . .. . cycle 2
Driving
Idle.times Driving cycle 6

. . .
. . . . .
. . . .. .
Input layer
Idle times Driving cycle 6
Output layer
Input layer The hidden layer Output layer
Figure 16. The structure of ELM model.

Figure 16. The The
structure of ELM model.
hidden layer
Figure 16. The structure of ELM model. Table 4. Representative standard driving cycles.
Table 4. Representative standard driving cycles.
Driving Cycle Type Name Driving Cycle Number
Table 4. Representative standard driving cycles.
Driving Cycle Type NYCC
Name DrivingCycle
Driving CycleNumber
1
Urban Road
Driving Cycle Type NewYorkBus
Name Driving
Driving Cycle
Cycle 2
Number
NYCC Driving Cycle 1
Urban Road ECE_EUDC_LOW
NYCC Driving
Driving Cycle
Cycle31 2
Suburb
Urban Road
Road NewYorkBus Driving Cycle
UDDS
NewYorkBus Driving
DrivingCycle
Cycle42
ECE_EUDC_LOW Driving Cycle 3
Suburb Road HWFET
ECE_EUDC_LOW Driving
DrivingCycle
Cycle53
Highway
Suburb Road UDDS Driving Cycle 4
US06_HWY
UDDS Driving
DrivingCycle
Cycle64
HWFET
HWFET Driving Cycle5 5
Driving Cycle
Highway Road
Highway RoadNYCC US06_HWY Driving Cycle 6
NewYorkBus
US06_HWY 50 Driving Cycle 6
(km/h) (km/h)
(km/h) (km/h)
40
40
30 30
20 NYCC 50 NewYorkBus
(km/h) (km/h)VelocityVelocity
(km/h) (km/h)VelocityVelocity
40 20
10 40
10
30 30
0 0
200 300 600 200 300 600
Time (s) Time (s)
10 10 cycles
(a) Urban driving
0 0 ECE_EUDC_LOW
300 600 1000 0 UDDS
300 600
80 Time (s) Time (s)
80
60 (a) Urban driving cycles
60
40 ECE_EUDC_LOW 100 UDDS
40
VelocityVelocity
(km/h) (km/h) VelocityVelocity
2080
80
20
0600 400 800 1200
60
0
40 400 400 800 1200
20 Time (s) Time (s)
20
00 (b) Suburban driving
0 cycles
400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200
100 HWFET US06_HWY
Time (s)
(km/h) (km/h)
Time (s)
80 (b) Suburban120driving cycles
60 HWFET 80 US06_HWY
VelocityVelocity
VelocityVelocity
100
40
80 120
40
20
60
0 80
00
400 200 400 600 800 200 400
20 Time (s) 40 Time (s)
0 (c) Highway driving
00 cycles
0 200 400 600 800 200 400
Time
Figure (s)17. Six typical driving cycles. Time (s)
(c) Highway driving cycles
The training samples can be Figure obtained based

17. Six ondriving
typical characteristic
cycles. parameters of the six typical
driving cycles. If only the characteristic Six typical driving
Figure 17.parameters of whole cycles.
driving cycle are taken as training
samples, the accuracy of training and recognition is difficult to guarantee
The training samples can be obtained based on characteristic parameters for too little sample
of the data.
six typical
Therefore,
The
driving it
training
cycles.is preferable
samples
If only can to
the be divide each
obtained based
characteristic driving cycle into
on characteristic
parameters the appropriate
parameters
of whole driving number
of the
cycle are of
six as
taken 120
typical s
driving
training
samples,
cycles. If onlythetheaccuracy of training
characteristic and recognition
parameters is difficult
of whole to guarantee
driving cycle arefor too little
taken sample data.
as training samples,
Therefore,
the accuracy of it is preferable
training to divide each
and recognition driving
is difficult to cycle into the
guarantee for appropriate number
too little sample of Therefore,
data. 120 s
it is preferable to divide each driving cycle into the appropriate number of 120 s overlapping shorter

overlapping shorter periods and then to extract their characteristic parameters. Table 5 shows the
NYCC driving cycle divided into ten time periods. Using this method, characteristic parameters of
the six driving
periods cycles
and then in different
to extract their periods are taken
characteristic as training
parameters. samples.
Table 5 shows the NYCC driving cycle
divided into ten time periods. Using this method, characteristic parameters of the six driving cycles in
different periods areTable
taken5.as
Recognition characteristics of the six typical driving cycles.
training samples.
Driving Cycle v vmax amax a dmax d ri ra rd rc fi
Table 5. Recognition characteristics of the six typical driving cycles.
1 11.41 44.6 2.68 0.62 −2.64 −0.64 0.351 0.326 0.304 0.020 18
1 Cycle
Driving 7.07
v v36.9
max
2.50
amax 0.74
a d−2.06
max
−0.72
d r0.433
i ra0.283 rd 0.258 rc 0.025fi 5
11 22.64
11.41 42.5
44.6 2.68
2.68 0.68
0.62 −−2.64
2.64 −0.63
−0.64 0.033
0.351 0.442
0.326 0.483
0.304 0.0200.04218 2
11 10.23
7.07 36.1
36.9 2.24
2.50 0.62
0.74 −−1.39
2.06 −0.54 0.433
−0.72 0.308 0.283
0.3250.2580.3580.0250.0085 4
1 22.64 42.5 2.68 0.68 −2.64 −0.63 0.033 0.442 0.483 0.042 2
11 6.26
10.23
25.4
36.1
1.43
2.24
0.38
0.62
−1.48
−1.39
−0.47
−0.54
0.542
0.308
0.2420.3580.1920.0080.0254 5
0.325
11 10.84
6.26 44.6
25.4 1.83
1.43 0.62
0.38 −−2.49
1.48 −0.90 0.542
−0.47 0.437 0.242
0.3360.1920.2270.0250.0005 2
−2.49 −0.90
11 10.84
16.45 44.6
40.6 1.83
2.50 0.62
0.70 −2.06 −0.58 0.437
0.108 0.336
0.4080.2270.4580.0000.0252 3
1 16.45 40.6 2.50 0.70 −2.06 −0.58 0.108 0.408 0.458 0.025 3
11 19.04
19.04 42.5
42.5 2.68
2.68 0.77
0.77 −−2.64
2.64 −0.65 0.142
−0.65 0.142 0.383
0.3830.4330.4330.0420.0423 3
11 6.04
6.04 22.1
22.1 1.61
1.61 0.50
0.50 −−1.39
1.39 −0.58
−0.58 0.433
0.433 0.292
0.2920.2580.2580.0170.0175 5
1 8.81 33.8 1.48 0.46 −2.46 −0.71 0.417 0.333 0.242 0.008 3
1 8.81 33.8 1.48 0.46 −2.46 −0.71 0.417 0.333 0.242 0.008 3
Unlike
Unlike conventional
conventional neural networks
neural whose whose
networks weights weights
need to beneed
tuned to using
be the backpropagation
tuned using the
algorithm, in ELM the weights between the input layer and the hidden
backpropagation algorithm, in ELM the weights between the input layer and the hidden layer and the biases of and
layer the
hidden layer
the biases of are
the randomly assigned.
hidden layer In default,
are randomly sigmoidInfunction
assigned. default,issigmoid
chosen as the activation
function is chosenfunction.
as the
Then, the ELM only needs to set the number of hidden layer nodes. In this work,
activation function. Then, the ELM only needs to set the number of hidden layer nodes. In this work, this number is
determined through gradually increasing the number of hidden neurons from
this number is determined through gradually increasing the number of hidden neurons from 10 to 10 to 150 in interval of
10.
150The accuracy
in interval ofof
10.recognition against
The accuracy the numberagainst
of recognition of hidden
the neurons
number of forhidden
ELM onneurons
the testfor
sets, which
ELM on
is randomly extracted from training samples, is shown in Figure 18. It is seen that the highest
the test sets, which is randomly extracted from training samples, is shown in Figure 18. It is seen that accuracy
has
the been achieved
highest accuracywhenhasthe number
been of hidden
achieved when neurons is between
the number 70 and
of hidden 100. In
neurons is this paper,7080and
between hidden
100.
neurons are chosen to create the training model.
In this paper, 80 hidden neurons are chosen to create the training model.
100
90
80
70
Accuracy (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
The number of hidden neurons
Figure 18.
Figure 18. Accuracy
Accuracy vs.
vs. number
number of
of hidden
hidden neurons
neurons for
for ELM.
ELM.
5.4.2. Simulation Validation of the Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-Based Strategy

5.4.2. Simulation Validation of the Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-Based Strategy
To validate the effect of the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy, the CD-CS-based and the
To validate the effect of the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy, the CD-CS-based and the
adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy are simulated in Matlab/Simulink. The testing driving
adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy are simulated in Matlab/Simulink. The testing driving
cycle, made up of Manhattan, SC03, UDDS, Japanese1015, WVUCITY and HWFET driving cycle, is
cycle, made up of Manhattan, SC03, UDDS, Japanese1015, WVUCITY and HWFET driving cycle,
structured in Figure 19a. The speed profiles from 0 to 1090 s, from 1090 to 1691 s, from 1691 to 3061
is structured in Figure 19a. The speed profiles from 0 to 1090 s, from 1090 to 1691 s, from 1691 to 3061
s, from 3061 to 3721 s, from 3721 to 5129 s, from 5129 to 5895 s, from 5895 to 7303 s, from 7303 to 8673
s, from 3061 to 3721 s, from 3721 to 5129 s, from 5129 to 5895 s, from 5895 to 7303 s, from 7303 to
8673
s, ands, from
and from
86738673 to 9763
to 9763 s represent
s represent Manhattan,
Manhattan, SC03,
SC03, UDDS,Japanese1015,
UDDS, Japanese1015,WVUCITY,
WVUCITY,HWFET,HWFET,
WVUCITY,
WVUCITY, UDDS, and Manhattan driving cycle, respectively. The speed profiles of Manhattan, SC03,
UDDS, and Manhattan driving cycle, respectively. The speed profiles of Manhattan, SC03,
UDDS, Japanese1015, WVUCITY and HWFET are obtained from ADVISOR
UDDS, Japanese1015, WVUCITY and HWFET are obtained from ADVISOR (2002, National (2002, National Renewable
Energy
Renewable Laboratory, Golden, CO,Golden,
Energy Laboratory, USA). CO, USA).
The
The ELM is used to identify thedriving
ELM is used to identify the drivingpatterns, and
patterns, andthethe
recognition result
recognition is shown
result in Figure
is shown 19b.
in Figure
From this result
19b. From and combining
this result and combining withwith
the speed curve
the speed of test
curve of driving cycle,
test driving ELMELM
cycle, can can
recognize the
recognize
types of the test driving cycle well. The simulation results of above strategies under the testing
the types of the test driving cycle well. The simulation results of above strategies under the testing driving
cycle
drivingarecycle
shownareinshown
Figuresin 20–22,
Figuresrespectively.
20–22, respectively.
100
90
80
velocity/(km/h)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
00 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000
Time (s)
(a)The testing driving cycle
6
Type of the driving cycle
5
4
3
2
1
0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000
Time (s)
(b) The recognition result
Figure
Figure 19.
19. The
The testing
testing driving
driving cycle
cycle and
and recognition result.
recognition result.
Figure 20 is the SOC variation trajectories from the CD-CS-based and the adaptive Simplified-
Figure 20 is the SOC variation trajectories from the CD-CS-based and the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-
ECMS-based strategy. With the CD-CS-based strategy, the vehicle is driven mainly by electricity
based strategy. With the CD-CS-based strategy, the vehicle is driven mainly by electricity before it is
before it is fully depleted, so the SOC declines quickly in charge depleting stage, but the electrical
fully depleted, so the SOC declines quickly in charge depleting stage, but the electrical energy of the
energy of the vehicle, which is using the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy, is blended over
vehicle, which is using the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy, is blended over the whole driving
the whole driving trip, therefore it can make the SOC dropping more slowly.
trip, therefore it can make the SOC dropping more slowly.
1
1 CD-CS-based
0.9 adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
CD-CS-based
0.9 adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
0.8
0.8
SOC 0.7
0.7
0.6
SOC
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000
0.2
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 Time (s) 7000 8000 9000 10,000
5000 6000
Time (s)
Figure20. SOC variation trajectories.
Figure20. SOC variation trajectories.
The engine operating points under the test driving cycle are shown in Figure 21. It can be seen
that The
the engine
The engineoperating
adaptive operating points
pointsunder
underthe
Simplified-ECMS-based thetest driving
test cycle
driving
strategy areare
cycle
intelligentlyshown in Figure
shown
controlsinengine21. in
Figure It can
21. It be
the canseen
low that
bebrake
seen
the
that adaptive
the fuel
specific Simplified-ECMS-based
adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
consumption strategy intelligently
(BSFC) regions forstrategy
any power controls
intelligently engine in
controls the
level. In contrast, the
engine low brake
in the low
CD-CS-based specific
brake
strategy
fuel consumption
specific
operatesfuel (BSFC)
consumption
the engine regions for any
(BSFC)region.
over a wider regions power
Tofor level.
anyextent,
some In
powerthecontrast,
level. the CD-CS-based
In contrast,
comparisons cantheprove strategy
CD-CS-based operates
strategy
that the proposed
the engine
operates
method canover
the tunea equivalent
wider
engine overregion.
a wider To someaccording
region.
factor well extent,
To somethe tocomparisons
extent, can of
the comparisons
the information provecanthat
driving the proposed
prove
cycle,that method
the proposed
driving distance
can tune
method
and initial equivalent
canSOC,
tuneand factor
equivalent well according
also canfactor well
explain to the
according
why information of
to the information
the proposed driving
method canofsave cycle,
driving driving
fuel cycle, distance and
driving distance
consumption.
initial SOC,SOC,
and initial and also
and can
alsoexplain why why
can explain the proposed
the proposedmethod can save
method fuel consumption.
can save fuel consumption.
160
160
140 Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
CD-CS-based
140 Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
240 254
CD-CS-based
120
(Nm)
240 254 260

120
(Nm)
270
260 280
of engine
100
270
280 300
of engine
100
80 300
80
Torque
60
Torque
60
40
40
20
20
0
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
0 Speed
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000of3500
Engine (rpm)
4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
Speed of Engine (rpm)
Figure 21. Engine working points under the test driving cycle.
The fuel consumption variation trajectories from the CD-CS-based strategy and the adaptive
The fuel consumption
Simplified-ECMS-based variation
strategy trajectories
are totally fromasthe
different, CD-CS-based
shown in Figure 22.strategy andCD–CS-based
With the the adaptive
The fuel consumption
strategy, the vehicle is driven variation
strategy trajectories
are totally
almost from
different,
completely the CD-CS-based
as shownbefore
by electricity in Figure strategy
it is22. With
fully and the soadaptive
the CD–CS-based
depleted, the fuel
strategy,
consumption the vehicle strategy
is driven
in the charge are totally
almost completely
depletion different,
stage is close as shown
by electricity in Figure
beforeprovides
to zero. Engine 22. With
it is fullythe the CD–CS-based
depleted,
main powerso theafter
fuel
strategy,
consumptionthe vehicle
in the is driven
charge almost
depletion completely
stage is by
close electricity
to zero. before
Engine it is
providesfully
electricity is fully depleted, therefore, the fuel consumption increases rapidly after the charge depleted,
the main so
powerthe fuel
after
consumption
electricity is in
depletion stage. thedepleted,
fully chargethe
However, depletion
therefore,stage
electrical the isfuel
energy close to zero.
consumption
is blended Engine
over provides
increases
the whole the event
rapidly
driving main
after power after
the charge
when using
electricity
depletion
the adaptive is fully
stage. depleted, therefore,
However, the electrical
Simplified-ECMS-based the fuel consumption
energy Correspondingly,
strategy. increases
is blended over the rapidly
whole
the after the charge depletion
driving eventaccumulates
fuel consumption when using
stage.
the However,
adaptive the electrical energy
Simplified-ECMS-based is blended
strategy. over the whole
Correspondingly, driving
the event
fuel when using
consumption
with the increasing of the driving distance. The fuel consumption underthe CD-CS-based strategy the adaptive
accumulates is
with
1.874the increasing
L. The of the driving
fuel consumption distance.
under The fuel Simplified-ECMS-based
the adaptive consumption underthe CD-CS-based strategy
strategy is 1.566 is
L, this
1.874 L. The
strategy do helpfueltoconsumption
reduce the fuelunder the adaptive
consumption Simplified-ECMS-based
significantly. strategy is 1.566 L, this
The adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
strategy do help to reduce the fuel consumption significantly. The adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
Simplified-ECMS-based strategy. Correspondingly, the fuel consumption accumulates with the increasing of
the driving distance. The fuel consumption underthe CD-CS-based strategy is 1.874 L. The fuel consumption
underSustainability
the adaptive 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Simplified-ECMS-based 20 ofthe
strategy is 1.566 L, this strategy do help to reduce 24 fuel
consumption significantly.
Sustainability 2018, 10,the
x FOR
The
PEER
adaptive
REVIEW
Simplified-ECMS-based strategy reduces the fuel consumption
20 of 24
by
strategy reduces fuel consumption by 16.43% under the testing driving cycle, comparing to CD-
16.43% under the testing
CS-based strategy.
driving cycle, comparing to CD-CS-based strategy.
strategy reduces the fuel consumption by 16.43% under the testing driving cycle, comparing to CD-
CS-based strategy. 2
1.874L
1.8 CD-CS-based
2
1.6
Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based 1.874L
1.8 1.566L
CD-CS-based
(L) (L)
1.4
1.6
Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based
Fuel consumption
1.566L
1.2
1.4
Fuel consumption
1
1.2
0.8
1
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.4
0
0.2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Driving distance (km)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 22. Fuel consumption variation trajectories.
Driving distance (km)
Figure 22. Fuel consumption variation trajectories.
Figure
6. Road Test on the Prototype 22. Fuel consumption variation trajectories.
Vehicle
6. Road Test on the Prototype Vehicle
TheTest
6. Road Simplified-ECMS-based Strategy for PHEVs has been experimentally validated on a
on the Prototype Vehicle
The Simplified-ECMS-based
prototype PHEV. The parameters Strategy for PHEVs
of the prototype has been
vehicle experimentally
are shown validated
in Table 1. The on avehicle
prototype prototype
The in
is The
shown Simplified-ECMS-based
Figure 23. Strategy for PHEVs has beenonexperimentally validated on a
PHEV. parameters of The
the vehicle’s
prototype control software
vehicle is developed
are shown in Table 1.theThe
Development
prototypeto Production
vehicle is shown
prototype
(D2P, PHEV.
DEV+PROD, The parameters
Germany of
E.ON, the prototype
Essen, vehicle
Germany) andare shown in Table
Matlab/Simulink 1. The prototype
platforms. vehicle
in Figure 23. The vehicle’s control software is developed on the Development to Production (D2P,
is shown in Figure 23. The vehicle’s control software is developed on the Development to Production
DEV+PROD, GermanyGermany
(D2P, DEV+PROD, E.ON, Essen,
E.ON,Germany) and Matlab/Simulink
Essen, Germany) and Matlab/Simulink platforms.
platforms.
Figure 23. The prototype vehicle.
The results of the road test have Figure

been 23. The prototype vehicle.
Figure 23.presented in Figure
The prototype 24. The velocity curve of the vehicle is
vehicle.
shown in Figure 24a. The vehicle speed ranges from 0 to 61.58 km/h, the velocity of the test is low,
The results
the reason ofthe
is that theprototype
road test havePHEV been
canpresented in Figure
only be tested 24. The velocity
on campus, curve
for the sake of of the vehicle
safety, the road is
shown
The in
results Figure
of the24a. The
road vehicle
test havespeed
been ranges from
presented 0into 61.58
Figure km/h,
24. Thethe velocity
velocity
test is only carried out at the low speed. The curves of five candidates’ total equivalent fuel rate are of the
curve test
of is
the low,
vehicle
the
is shown reason
shown is that24a.
ininFigure
Figure the prototype
24b. Thedriving
The PHEV
vehicle caninclude
speed
modes only bethe
ranges tested
starton
from campus,
0control
to 61.58mode for(driving
km/h,the sake of
themode safety,
velocity the road
of the
is equal test is
to 0),
test
low, the is only carried
reasondriving
the electric out
is thatmode at the low
the prototype speed.
(driving mode PHEVThe curves
can to
is equal of
only five candidates’
be tested
1), engine total
on campus,
driving equivalent
mode (drivingfor the fuel
mode rate
sake ofaresafety,
is equal
shown
to 2),test in Figure
hybrid 24b. mode
driving The driving modes include
(driving is equaltheto start controland mode (driving mode is equal to 0),
the road is only carried out at the mode
low speed. The 3), driving
curves of fivecharging
candidates’mode (driving
total mode
equivalent is fuel
the electric
equal to 4),driving
and the mode (driving
regenerative mode
braking is equal
mode to 1),
(driving engine
mode driving
is 0.5). mode
a1 is (driving
the start mode
stage, sois equal
driving
rate are shown in Figure 24b. The driving modes include the start control mode (driving mode is
to 2), hybrid
mode driving
is equal to mode
0, the (driving mode
vehicle is equal in
operates to 3), driving
start and charging modeIn(driving
the a2mode is
equalequal
to 0), to the electric
4), and driving
the regenerative mode
braking(driving modethe
mode (driving ismode
equal control
to
is 0.5).
mode.
1),a1engine driving
is the start stage,mode
stage,
so driving(driving
mode is equal to 0, the vehicle operates in the start control mode. In the a2 stage,
mode is equal to 2), hybrid driving mode (driving mode is equal to 3), driving and charging mode
(driving mode is equal to 4), and the regenerative braking mode (driving mode is 0.5). a1 is the start
stage, so driving mode is equal to 0, the vehicle operates in the start control mode. In the a2 stage,
. Sustainability. 2018, 10, x FOR . PEER REVIEW . . . 21 of 24
min(meq ( Tm1 ), meq ( Tm2 ), meq ( Tm3 ), meq ( Tm4 ), meq ( Tm5 )) = meq ( Tm5 ) , this means the fifth candidate
has the minimum
min (meq (Tm1 ), mtotal equivalent fuel rate. Therefore, the vehicle operates in the electric driving mode,
eq (Tm 2 ), meq (Tm 3 ), meq (Tm 4 ), meq (Tm 5 ))=meq (Tm 5 ) , this means the fifth candidate has the minimum
and driving mode is equal to 1. Other stages can be analyzed in the same way. The engine and motor’s
total equivalent fuel rate. Therefore, the vehicle operates in the electric driving mode, and driving
toque distribution
mode is equalduring to 1. Othertesting is shown
stages in Figurein24c.
can be analyzed the The
sameengine
way. Theand motor’s
engine and total output
motor’s toque torque’s
response to the require
distribution duringtorque testing is is shown
shown in inFigure
Figure24c. 24d,TheFrom theand
engine figure, thetotal
motor’s totaloutput
output torque of the
torque’s
engine response
and motor to the tracks
require thetorque
require is showntorque very well,
in Figure which
24d, From theproves that
figure, the theoutput
total Simplified-ECMS-based
torque of the
Strategyengine
can be andapplied
motor tracks to realthetime require torquecompletely.
control very well, which proves that the Simplified-ECMS-based
Strategy can be applied to real time control completely.
140 64
Require torque
Velocity
Require torque (Nm)
105 48
Velocity (km/h)
70 32
35 16
00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 0

Time (s)
a5 (a)
3 6
a4
Driving mode
m eq (Tm 1 )
2.5 5
meq (Tm 2 )
The total equivalent fuel rate (g)

meq (Tm3 )
2 m eq (Tm 4 ) 4
Driving mode
m eq (Tm 5 )
1.5 3
a1 a2 a3
1 2
0.5 1
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Time (s)
(b)
150 Motor torque
Engine torque
Torque (Nm)
100
50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

Time (s)
(c)
200
Require torque
Engine and motor’s total output torque
Torque (Nm)
150
100
50
0
-50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Time (s)
（d）
0.825
SOC
0.82
0.815
0.81 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Time (s)
(e)
Figure 24. Road test results. (a) Velocity and require torque curve of the road test; (b) the curves of
Figure five Road test results.
24. candidates’ (a) Velocity
total equivalent and(c)require
fuel rate; torque
engine and curve
motor ofdistribution
toque the road test; (b) testing;
during the curves
(d) of five
candidates’
enginetotal
and equivalent
motor’s totalfuel rate;
output (c) engine
torque’s andtomotor
response toquetorque;
the require distribution during
(e) variation testing;
of battery SOC.(d) engine
and motor’s total output torque’s response to the require torque; (e) variation of battery SOC.
7. Conclusions
The models of the engine’s fuel rate and battery’s consumption rate are approximately fitted by
the piecewise function, which is made up of two quadratic functions. Then, the total equivalent fuel
rate can also be expressed by piecewise function, which is a convex function actually. According to the
properties of convex functions, the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is proposed, this strategy only
needs to calculate and compare five candidates’ total equivalent fuel rate to determine the optimal
control for the Plug-in HEV.
CD-CS-based, ECMS-based and Simplified-ECMS-based strategies are simulated under ten
repeated NEDC driving cycles, simulation results show that the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy
can obtain excellent fuel economy, and shorten the calculation time obviously.
An initial function of the equivalent factor is established, then, searching the optimal equivalent
factor converts to searching the optimal correction coefficient. After that, the parameter of the
Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is optimized using the PSO algorithm, and the MAPs of this parameter
under different driving patterns, driving distances and initial SOC are obtained.
Based on above MAPs, the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is proposed, and the simulation
is carried out to validate the control effect of this strategy. The simulation results show that the proposed
strategy reduces the fuel consumption by 16.43% under the testing driving cycle, compared to CD-CS-
based strategy.
Finally, the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is validated on a prototype PHEV by a road test.
The test results show that the Simplified-ECMS-based strategy can effectively distribute the engine
torque and motor torque, and can be applied to real time control completely.
Currently, the adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is only verified through simulations.
The next step is to perform hardware-in-the-loop test or experimental validations.
Author Contributions: Y.Z. wrote the paper and provided algorithms; Y.C. built the simulation model and
completed the simulation for different strategies; G.K. and W.G. analyzed the simulation results; D.Q. provided
suggestions and made revisions to the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51665020)
and the state key laboratory of mechanical transmission’s open fund (Grant No. SKLMT-KFKT-201617).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Energy Management For Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Based On Adaptive Simplified-ECMS

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sustainability

Sustainability 2018, 10, 2060; doi:10.3390/su10062060 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

The adaptive Simplified-ECMS-based strategy is presented in Section 5. Road test is conducted in

Figure 1. Parallel CVT-based PHEV powertrain system.

3. Powertrain System Modeling

3.1. Vehicle Dynamic Model

Pin , Tin , , win Pout , Tout, , wout Pr , T r , , w r

Figure 2. A simplified structure of the powertrain system.

Then the CVT’s output power Pout can dr

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9550Preq 5 of 24

The best efficiency point at the

3.3. Battery’s Consumption Rate Model

where Cb1i and Cb2i (i = 0, 1, 2) are constants.

Sustainability 2018, 10, 2060 8 of 24

––1150 –100 –50 0 50 100 150

Figure 7. The fitted consumption rate of the battery.

(1) If Treq − Topt <, then

(2) If Treq − Topt ≥ 0, then

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24

Obtain the optimal control variable:

Figure 10. Engine working points under three strategies.

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24

(t) ≤TTmm (t) (t)≤

Run vehicle simulation model based

Driving distance  MAP of correction Global off-line optimizer

Sustainability 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

Average speed wij

Average speed Driving cycle 1

Idle.times Driving cycle 6

Input layer The hidden layer Output layer

Figure 16. The structure of ELM model.

The training samples can be Figure obtained based

Sustainability 2018, 10, 2060 17 of 24

5.4.2. Simulation Validation of the Adaptive Simplified-ECMS-Based Strategy

240 254 260

Figure 23. The prototype vehicle.

The results of the road test have Figure

00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 0

The total equivalent fuel rate (g)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180

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