212

A follow-up study of longterm effects of unemployment on

children: loss of self-esteem and self-destructive behavior
among adolescents

Christoffersen MN. A follow-up study of longterm effects of unemployment on children: loss of M. N. Christoffersen

self-esteem and self-destructive behavior among adolescents. The Danish National Institute of
Childhood 1994: 4: 212-220. © Munksgaard, 1994 Social Research

Key words: self-esteem;

A sample longterm unemployed parents were interviewed as 25-year
of children of considered suicide; battered child;
olds. Their present living conditions and their experiences during childhood were com- incest; addict problems; bullying
pared with a simple random sample of the same cohort born in 1967. Results revealed in school;
stealing; unemployment;
that violence, separation from parents (in care according to files), and parents’ addiction abuse; neglect.
problems during childhood were significantly more common in the risk group than in
the control group. Their present situation also differed decisively in vocational training,
unemployment and psychological problems (lack of self-confidence, sleeping problems,
anxiety, and considerations of suicide). The logistic regression model revealed that the
factors which statistically could explain the loss of self-esteem were partly due to experi-
ences during childhood and partly to their present situation. Parental unemployment,

violence in the home, being bullied in school seems to drain self-esteem. Present unem-

ployment and no vocational training have a statistical effect on their self-esteem, as well
as lack of support from a spouse.

viewed at the age of 25. This statistical dependence was

Method and research design examined using multiple regression analysis control-
In Danish survey of people born in 1967, two samples
a ling for mediating factors.
were made. One (433 interviews) was on parents receiv-

ing cost allowances during a period of at least 9 months Results and

in 1981. This group (the risk group) consists of children
previous findings
of long-term unemployed parents. The control group The assumption that unemployment is considered to
did not match these requirements, but was a simple cause psychiatric distress seems to be supported by for-
random sample (465 interviews) of a cohort born in mer studies, no matter the variety of methods used
1967(Christoffersen 1993). The survey evidenced that (Schwefel 1984, Jones 1990). Review of danish research
unemployment was accompanied by a number of social (Christoffersen 1984), as well as nordic studies (Thau-
problems for parents and their children when inter- low 1988) can be interpreted as confirmation of this as-

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 2 1 3

sumption. Compulsory unemployment may lead to de- McLoyd (1990) found that poor mothers were less
creased social status, disruption of roles, loss of self- supportive, nurturing and involved with their
esteem and increased financial strain. All these changes children. These and other findings support an as-
may have consequences for the mental health (En- sumption that
family hardship affects ado-
economic
sminger & Celentano 1988, Jahoda 1982). As children lescents’ self-esteem indirectly by decreasing parental
are highly sensitive to their
parents’ emotional state support and involvement (Whitbeck et al 1991).
(Harris 1994) unemployment can indirectly affect the
lives of the children. Conflicts within families
Unemployment has a negative effect on marital and
Parenting may suffer as an effect of unemployment family support through its effect on the husband’s
Several researchers assume the parents’ unemployment psychological well-being (Atkinson et al 1986). Un-
to be a social event in terms of failure. First influencing stable work, under-employment and unemployment
the children’s lives, indirectly, by the parents’ possible may increase the level of depression and marital hos-
changed attitude towards them. tility. A likely result is that marriage becomes a battle-
The
unemployed may behave more harshey and un- ground of conflicting interests and emotions (Elder et
predictably towards their children (McLoyd 1989, Lem- al 1992). Increased economic pressures were associated
pers et al 1989, Kloep & Tarifa 1993). Such conclusions with marital conflict and disruptions in skilful par-
confirm evidence from earlier studies that fathers enting (Conger et al 1992). Not to much surprise, Flana-
deeply rooted in their bread-winner role could be par- gan (1990) found relatively more conflicts among the
ticularly sensitive and under stress when unemployed children and their parents and between the parents
(Komarovsky 1971 (1940)). Income loss can lead to par- themselves during long-term unemployment. Even if
ental pessimism and a father’s pessimism can in turn the conflict ratio was high in the unemployed families,
lead, to lowered job success expectancy in girls (Gal- the conflicts were reduced when the parents started to
ambos & Silbereisen 1987). Accordingly Elder et al work again.
(1992) conclude that male breadwinners were pivotal in The statistical connection between the father’s unem-

intensifying the negative impact of economic pressure ployment and family break down is well-documented
in family life. (Jones 1988), and in Danish studies (Sorensen 1984,
Amato (1987) earlier found evidence that a mother’s Jensen & Smith 1989).
employment status was not related to the amount of Two-thirds of the adolescents in the risk group had
support children reported receiving from them or experienced parental separation in the present study
fathers. However, girls had higher self-esteem, and ado- while this was only the case for about 20% in the con-

lescents scored highest on competence when mothers trol group (Table 1). Thus, relatively many of the ado-
were employment. Turner (1970) found that sons
in full lescents in the risk group had no contact whatsoever
of fathers engaged in entrepreneurial roles in their oc- with their fathers.

cupation seem most likely to have high achievement

motivation. Increased risk of addiction and self-destructive
Consequently, economic
hardship may probably behavior
diminish a mother’s capacity for supportive par- Some studies find a statistical connection between un-

enting. A study of single mothers found evidence that employment and addiction problems. A Danish study
the mother’s communication with the child about (Morch 1986) and Swedish (Hammerstrom 1986)
a

financial matters and personal problems reflects the show that the consumption of both alcohol and mari-
degree of psychological distress experienced by their huana (narcotics) increased among the young unem-

children (McLoyd & Wilson 1990). It was found that ployed. This connection between unemployment and
highly stressed and depressed mothers were less re- alcohol abuse is repeated in many studies (Buss &
sponsive, more hostile and domineering. Highly de- Redbum 1983, reviews Thaulow 1988 Christoffersen
pressed mothers shouted and hit their children more 1984) but these cross-sectional data have limitation in
frequently than mothers with lower levels of de- establishing a causal relationship.
pression (Longfellow et al 1982). Not surprisingly Cross-sectional individual studies reveal that more

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Table 1. Strains m the family The risk group compared with the control group expressed as percent of those expenencing different kinds of strains
in the family

Note. The proportion of boys and girls were identical m the risk group and in the control group.

parasuicides and suicides are found among the unem- punishment with their children. These findings held
ployed than would be expected among the general across social classes (Parke & Collmer 1975).
population. Several longitudinal studies point to sig- Usually spouse abuse and child abuse within families
nificantly more unemployment, job instability and oc- are linked together (McKay 1994). In the present study
cupational problems among suicides compared with the risk of violence between the parents and abuse of
non-suicides (Platt 1984). the children was significantly higher in the unem-

In the present study addiction problems and mental ployed families than in the control group. About 40%
diseases preventing one or both parents from attending of the risk group had experienced violence between
job for longer periods were experienced more fre- parents, physical, or sexual abuse, alcohol or mentally
quently in the risk group than among the adolescents disabled parents (Table 1). The adolescents in the risk
in the control group (Table 1). group had more frequently wished to get away from
home during childhood and relatively many of them
Increased risk of abuse and neglect had been in care (Table 2).
Unemployment may, in certain cases, be the extra strain
on top of other problems augmenting the risk of a lack Tendency to isolation among the unemployed
of care. Steinberg et al. (1981) and Zuravin (1989) found O’Brien & Kabanoff (1979) studying unemployment
that child abuse often took place after a period of par- identified a
tendency to concentrate the leisure activi-
ents being unemployed. Some studies indicate a con- ties in the home, comparatively more often activities
nection between unemployment and physical abuse not involving others. Other studies have found the

(Steinberg et al 1981, Dalgaard & Kyng 1985, Marg- same tendency isolation among the unemployed
to
olis & Farran 1983). However, others questioned the (Lajer 1980, Olafsson et al 1986, Jones 1988, Christoffers-
causal sequence (Catalano 1991) and concluded that the en 1994). Families with low levels of contact outside the

risk of physical abuse in stable families is not increased home were the most stressed (Jones 1988). A Swedish
when unemployed (Taitz et al 1987). The abuse might study found that adolescents limited the number of ac-

be started by many different events occurring at the tivities (for example: sports, leisure activities, and
same time (Gil 1971). Unemployment might be the last courses) when they were unemployed (Fredlund &
straw. Tomth 1985). This tendency were also found among
Both McKinley’ and Gil argue that serious work children. Children of unemployed parents were more
alienation may be a contributor to child abuse. McKin- likely to avoid social interaction and have strained re-

ley (1964) found that the lower the job satisfaction, the lationships with peers than children of the employed
higher the percentage of fathers who employed harsh (Buss & Redburn 1983). In the present study children of

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 2 1 5

the unemployed relatively more often omitted to bring school and completed school earlier than their peers
home friends because it was not allowed or because the (Table 2).
child was ashamed (Table 1).
Who is bullied in school and who is not?
The present study gives some information on this. It
is found that those adolescents who have often experi-
Children’s response to the changes of enced problems in the family have a higher risk of
unemployment been bullied in school. The bullying in school is not
Children’s psychosomatic symptoms randomized among the pupils. Schoolboys and girls
A survey of children’s health at school-entrance (Mads- from homes with violence abuse, incest or addiction
en et al. 1991) evidenced that children significantly problems were also relatively frequently victimized in
more frequently had psychosomatic symptoms (head- school. They were more isolated from their peers and
ache, stomach ache, weretired without reason, had had more frequent problems of concentration in
sleeping andeating problems) when the father was un- school. The children of unemployed parents had
employed. Furthermore, the study evidenced that changed schools many times during childhood. The
children of the unemployed were reported to be more factors that give the best statistical prediction of who
unhappy. More often their motor function and speech is bullied, controlled for other confounding factors,
did not correspond to their age and they had behavioral are: isolation in relation to peers, difficulties in con-
problems. The sickness ratio was also over norm among centrating in school, moving between many schools,
the children of unemployed parents. These cross-sec- and placed outside home during childhood (Table 3).
tional, studies give little evidence of causal sequence.

School performances reduced Mediating

Few studies have elucidated the more long-term conse- To predict who is managing well as adults and who is
quences of unemployment on the new generation. Ha- stillsuffering from adversive parenting, the importance
kim (1982), in going through these, finds to a certain of mediating factors are often mentioned. In some
degree contradictory or undefined results and based on studies the importance of a supportive husband/wife is
this, she recommends cohort-based longitudinal sur- emphasized. Rutter et al (1983) concluded that adverse
veys. experiences in childhood do indeed predispose to poor
A Dutch study (Grotenhuis & Drokers 1989, Groten- parenting in early adult life, but those women enjoying
huis 1992) found a connection between parents’ unem- a harmonious marital relationship with a non-deviant

ployment and their children’s school performance, ac-
cording to a control of the parents’ education and occu-
pation, etc. The present study confirmed these findings.
Adolescents of the unemployed (risk group) were more
frequently bullied in school, they have more trouble in
husband were much more likely to show good par-
enting.
Another mediating factor might be to have a job. This
may supply an extra network and support by fellow
workers. Job or a vocational training may confirm and

Table 2. Children’s reactions to the strains m the family The nsk group compared with the control group Per cent who have had problems

Note The proportion of boys and girls were idenUcal m the nsk group and m the control group

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2 1 6

Table 3. Percentage who had been bullied often in school. Two groups who respectively had and hadn’t expenenced different kinds of problems in
the family or In school

Note: ’ These factors give some information explaining the variation in who is bullied and who is not, while the other factors might be seen only
as stahstical consequences of these connections.

strengthen the self-esteem. In the present study these and engagement, effecting adolescents’ self-esteem and ’
factors were examined. We found no difference be- their feelings of self respect. It was found in a Danish sur-
tween the risk group and the control group in matters vey of children at school-entrance (Madsen et al. 1991)
of marriage/cohabiting. The adolescents in the risk that unemployed parents had particular difficulty in
group just as stable partners as others and their
were pointing out things that their children were good at.
partners quite as supportive as in the control
were Ortiz & Farrel (1993) found evidence that adolescents’
group (Table 4). But the children from long-term unem- self-image was not directly affected
by parental unem-
ployed families (the risk group) seldom had vocational ployment or income loss. But a path analysis showed

training and they had a much higher risk of being un- that income loss affected adolescent self-image indirectly
employed at the age of 25. Similar findings based on through its impact on parent-child support relations. In
generalhousehold surveys indicated a statistical link the present study we found that the feeling of emptiness,
between parental unemployment and youth unemploy- the loss of self-confidence and the feeling of being re-
ment in Britain (Payne 1987). jected by others were more frequently found in the risk
group than among other adolescents of the same age
(Table 5). Different aspects of psychological problems
were also found more frequently in the risk group.
Children’s lack of self-esteem and
psychological problems as adults
Who looses self-esteem and who does not?
Whitbeck et al. (1991) and others propose the hypothesis Using multiple regression analysis, including mediat-
that parents’ unemployment ends up in lack of support ing factors, the present study can only give an approxi-

Table 4. Support from family, spouse, being employed or being trained

Note The proportion of boys and girls were identical m the nsk and in the control groups.

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 2 1 7

Table 5. Questions of self-esteem and psychological problems. Percentages answenng m the affirmative.

1) Note Loss of self-esteem was of free questions All there gave

expressed by confirming one or more more score 2, it only one or 2 were
confirmed the score were 1, else the score was 0

mate answer question. Results indicate that par-

to this satisfaction with social support, and school absenteeism
ental unemployment has both an indirect and a direct (de Man et al 1993). Therefore, it was not surprising
effect on adolescents’ self-esteem. Violence in the fam- that the present study found evidence that suicide
ily, abuse and being bullied in school drain self-esteem. attempts or suicidal ideation were linked to parental
As consequence concentration problems in school in-
a unemployment. More of the risk group had seriously
dicate difficulties in maintaining self-esteem (Table 6). thought about committing suicide at some time during
The present study indicates that the mediating factors, their lives than the adolescents in the control group
being unemployed or not being trained, have a direct (Table 5). But this statistical connection to parental un-
statistical effect the adolescents’ present self-esteem.
on employment could be an indirect effect of other factors
While lacking support from a spouse seems to under- which themselves were strongly connected to unem-

mine the self-esteem. ployment.

Risk factors for adolescent suicidal behavior

A study compared psychiatric in-patient adolescent Who had considered attempted suicide?
or

attempted suicides and non-attempters. Results were To isolate confounding factors, this question was illumi-
that loss of family support was the best predictor of an nated through multiple regression analysis including
adolescent suicide attempt (Morano et al 1993). Accord- mediating factors. The
statistically analysis gave evi-
ingly, results indicated that suicidal ideation was posi- dence that unemployment only indirectly influenced
tively related todepression, negative stress, and drug self-destructive behavior among adolescents. When un-
and alcohol use, and negatively related to self-esteem, employment was followed by changed parental behav-

Table 6. Percentage who had experienced different kinds of problems m the family or in school by groups with different loss of self-esteem

Note: These factors give some information on the variation m self-esteem, while other factors might be seen only as staUstical consequences of
these connechons The individual P-values have been calculated under the multiple regression model
4 observations were deleted due to missing values

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Table 7. Percentage who had attempted or considered suicide in groups with and without different kinds of family or school problems

Note These factors give some information on the variation m who had considered suicide, while other factors might be seen only as staUstical
consequences of these connections (The individual P-values have been calculated under the log-linear regression model)

ior towards the children, the effects of unemployment contains the relevant background information. Partly,
were statistically visible (Table 7). the observation number must be relatively large to
As expected, having support from apartner seemed allow the necessary multiple variation analyses, etc. But
to shield against suicidal thoughts. In the present study even with such multiple dimensional analyses on a

we found that physical or sexual abuse during child- large material, it is not possible fully to solve the selec-
hood were statistically directly linked to self-destruc- tion problem. So only probable consequences will be
tive ideas. It was also found that victimization in school illuminated.
was directly connected to suicide attempts or consider- The second basicmethodological problem is that a
ation. The adolescents who had suicidal ideas had rela- number of social events other than
unemployment may
tively much difficulty in concentrating in school.
more be affecting children’s conditions while growing up
Furthermore, the study found evidence that stealing, and may cause short-term, as well as long-term, conse-
shop-lifting and the like were directly associated with quences for the children, and the living conditions of
self-destructive thoughts. the young ones.
Serious social events, which might cause children’s
Physical and sexual abuse might be seen as serious negative reactions could be, for instance, the separation
attacks on a child’s integrity and frequently followed from their parents in cases of hospitalization, death of
by bullying in school. Family and school peers who one of the parents, the parents having a conflicting div-
constitute the nearest social network, undermine, in orce or the child
being removed from home (Rarran &
these cases, the child’s identity and personal integrity. Marolis 1987). Therefore, it could be necessary to in-
clude this type of information in the analysis, to isolate

Future research
theunemployment burden from other conditions that
might influence the living conditions of the young, in
Examining the achieved research makes evident three future.
fundamental methodological problems which have A Third basic methodological problem is that one part
been difficult to solve. One of the first is that unemploy- of the written literature is based upon cross-sectional
ment is a social event happening selectively among the study where a comparison is made between the living
population. Certain groups of people (e.g. un-skilled conditions of the unemployed and the employed dur-
and semi-skilled workers, as well as blue collar) have a ing a certain period. This problem might be solved, if
greater probability of becoming unemployed and it is possible, by longitudinal studies.
more difficult for them than for other groups to get
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