The Nervous System

Biological bases of human behavior

The Nervous System
• A network of billions of nerve cells linked together in a highly organized fashion to form
the rapid control center of the body.
• Functions include:
– Integrating center for homeostasis, movement, and almost all other body
functions.
– The mysterious source of those traits that we think of as setting humans apart
from animals
Basic Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensation
• Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside the body. Such changes
are known as stimuli and the cells that monitor them are receptors.
2. Integration
• The parallel processing and interpretation of sensory information to
determine the appropriate response
3. Reaction
• Motor output.
– The activation of muscles or glands (typically via the release of
neurotransmitters (NTs))

The Nervous System

• Major division - Central vs. Peripheral
• Central or CNS- brain and spinal cord
Peripheral- nerves connecting CNS to muscles and organs
 Organization of the Nervous System
• 2 big initial divisions:
1. Central Nervous System
• The brain + the spinal cord
– The center of integration and control
2. Peripheral Nervous System
• The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord
• Consists of:
– 31 Spinal nerves
» Carry info to and from the spinal cord
– 12 Cranial nerves
» Carry info to and from the brain

12 Cranial Nerves
1. Olfactory –Smell
2. Optic- Vision
3. Oculomotor- All eye muscles except superior oblique and lateral rectus
4. Trochlear – Superior oblique muscle
5. Trigeminal- Face, sinuses, teeth
6. Abducens- Lateral rectus muscle
7. Facial- Tongue, soft palate
8. Vestibulocochlear- Inner ear
9. Glossopharyngeal- Posterior tongue, tonsils, pharynx and pharyngeal muscles
10. Vagus- Heart, lungs, gastrointestinal tract, bronchi, trachea and larynx
11. Spinal Accessory- Sternomastoid and trapezius muscle
12. Hypoglossal- Tongue muscle
 Neurons: the building blocks of the Nervous System

The brain and spinal cord are made up of many cells, including neurons and glial cells.
• Neuron – (nerve cell) is the basic unit of the nervous system.
- A specialized cell that transmits neural impulses or nerves signals or messages to other
neurons, glands and muscles.
1. Neuron – (nerve cell) are cells that communicate to each other using electrochemical
signals.
2. Neuroglia (Glial Cells) Supporting cells and Outnumber neurons by about 10 to 1.

Two types of Neurons in the NS:

-The very tiny neurons known as local neurons
-the larger neurons known as macroneurons
It is important to understand neurons because they hold the secret of how the brain works & in
turn, the nature of human consciousness.
Neuron Anatomy
 Cell body
 Nucleus
 Large nucleolus

Parts of a Neuron:
 Cell Body – (or soma) which contains the cell nucleus & mitochondria. It is responsible
for growth and maintenance.
 Dendrite – from the Greek word dendron meaning “tree”.
- Are the main recipients of info from other neuron and channels them toward the cell body.
 Axon – the slender tube like extension
- carries information away from the cell body.
 Myelin Sheath –a layer of fat cells which encases and isolates most axons.
◦ Myelin serves as insulator and helps messages travel faster.
 ◦ Myelin develops as the human brain gets larger and messages need to travel faster
over long distances.

• Terminal Buttons – tiny branches at the end.

- does not actually touch the adjacent neuron
- When a message is received at the terminal button a chemical called a neurotransmitter is
released
- Neurotransmitter – a chemical that diffuses across the synaptic gap & stimulates the
next neuron.
• Synapse – tiny junctions between neurons.
• Synaptic gap – the gap between neurons.

Classification of Neurons
according to their
function:
• Afferent (Sensory )
Neurons – transmit
impulses received by
receptors to the CNS.
Carries impulses from receptors e.g pain receptors in skin to the CNS( brain or spinal cord)
The receptors are specialized cells in the sense organs, muscles, skin, and joints that detect
physical or chemical messages and translate these events into impulses that travel along the
sensory neurons.

 Efferent (Motor) Neurons - Carry outgoing signals from the brain or spinal cord to the
muscles or
glands.

Carries impulses from CNS to effector e.g. muscle to bring about movement or gland to bring
about secretion of hormone e.g ADH.
 Interneurons – receive the signals from the sensory neurons and send impulses to other
inter neurons or to motor neurons.
>They are found only in the eyes, brain and spinal cord.

Carries impulses from sensory nerves to motor nerves.

 The Neural Impulse

The Neural Impulse

• Messages are carried from the dendrites down to the axons as a series of single electrical
clicks.
• Variations in the rate and timing of the clicks differentiate messages.
• Ions (electrically charged particles) float inside and outside the axon.

>Positively charged ions include sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+).

>Negatively charged ions include chloride (Clˉ).
 A neuron at rest has a negative charge (-70mv), with more negative ions inside the cell
membrane than in the surrounding fluid. This is called the RESTING POTENTIAL.
 Ions can pass through the cell through the semipermeable membrane. (Others can pass
while others are not allowed)
 If enough excitatory input enters the neuron, an ACTION POTENTIAL is initiated.
 Sodium gates at the base of the neuron open.
 Sodium ions enter the axon, bringing a +charge with them.
 The charge on the sodium ion causes the next gate to open.
 Gates open and close sequentially down the length of the axon.
 When a gate closes, potassium ion flows out of the cell to reestablish the resting state.
 An action potential “fires” according to the ALL or NONE Principle.
 Synapses and Neurotransmitters
 Neurotransmitters are specialized chemicals that carry information from the axon
terminal button, across the synaptic gap to the next neuron.
a. As the nerve impulse travels down the axon, vesicles containing neurotransmitters
migrate to the end of the axon.
b. At the axon end, vesicles burst and empty their neurotransmitters into the synapse.
c. As neurotransmitters accumulate in the gap, they land on receptor sites on the next
dendrite.
d. When enough sites are filled, an electrical signal may begin in the next neuron.
e. After delivering its message, the neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the axon.

The Neurotransmitters
• Some neurotransmitters are excitatory and some are inhibitory, and some are both.
Excitatory: they excite an electrochemical response in the dendrite receptors
Inhibitory: they block the response of the dendrite receptors
• Most neurons secrete only one type of neurotransmitter, but receive a mixture of neuro
transmitters.
• May be likened to ‘narrow currents’ flowing through the ocean of the brain;
• Agonists: substances that increase the activity of a neurotransmitter by mimicking its
effects;
• Antagonists: those that decrease or block a neurotransmitter
• Inverse agonists: substances that produce effects opposite to those produced by the
neurotransmitter;
• Reuptake: the process of ‘recycling’ or quickly drawing a neurotransmitter from the
synaptic cleft back into the same neuron that released it;

Major Types Neurotransmitters:

1) Amino acids: glutamate(an excitatory transmitter that “turns on” different neurons),
aspartate, serine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA—regulates or inhibits transmission of
information and action potential), glycine
2) Monoamines: dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (noradrenaline; NE, NA), epinephrine
(adrenaline), serotonin (SE, 5-HT), melatonin
• Others: acetylcholine (ACh), adenosine, anandamide, histamine, nitric oxide, etc.
• ACETYLCHOLINE (Ach)
>the first neurotransmitter to be discovered
>an important excitatory neurotransmitter
>the most widely used neurotransmitter in the body
>particularly prevalent in the area of the brain called hippocampus (formation of
memories)
>is involved in the process of learning, memory and muscular activity.
>too little is associated with Alzheimer’s disease; Forgetfulness is one of the earliest
symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. Victims suffer from loss of intellectual capacity,
disintegration of personality, mental confusion, hallucinations, and aggressive—even
violent—behavior.
>too much causes muscle paralysis or convulsions, sometimes death.

• NOREPINEPHRINE (NE) (or noradrenaline)

 produced mainly by neurons in the brain stem; active in the PNS and CNS
 Controls heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration: It increases blood pressure and rate
and depth of breathing, raises the level of blood sugar, and decreases the activity of the
intestines.
 Related to the body’s alarm reactions, it may contribute generally to and indirectly to
panic attacks and other disorders;
 plays a role in the control of alertness and wakefulness
 >too little is associated with depression
 >too much with agitated, manic states

• DOPAMINE
 an inhibitory neurotransmitter; – a chemical in the brain involved in regulating movement
and emotion, mediating reward, motivation and the feeling of pleasure, and learning
through reinforcement;
 affects sleep, mood, attention, learning and voluntary movement;
 release of dopamine in certain areas of the brain produces intense feelings of pleasure;
 too much dopamine may cause schizophrenia; also, increased levels of dopamine make
us more likely to opt for instant gratification, rather than wait for a more beneficial
reward;
 Too little may lead to Parkinson’s disease.
 too much of it is also implicated in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD),
characterized by high levels of dopamine in the brain and extremely impulsive behavior;
 plays a wide role in the brain, from movement through to cognition; lowering dopamine
levels may be able to reduce impulsivity;
 Released when pain is felt and when one expects pleasure to come.

SEROTONIN
 Serotonin was originally discovered by Italian Vittorio Erspamer in Rome in 1935 and
American scientists in the late 1940s.
 Isolated and named in 1948 by Maurice M. Rapport, Arda Green, and Irvine Page of the
Cleveland Clinic; it was initially identified as a vasoconstrictor substance in blood
serum – hence “serotonin”, a serum agent affecting vascular tone.
 the serum agent was later chemically identified as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)
 80 percent of the human body’s total serotonin is located in the enterochromaffin cells.
 in the gut, where it is used to regulate intestinal movements
 is primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter
 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) found in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, platelets, and central
nervous system (CNS) of humans and animals
 plays an important role in the regulation of mood and emotion, cognitive functions like
memory & learning, and sleep
 feelings of calmness and being positive are associated with serotonin, a well-known
contributor to feelings of well-being
 low levels of serotonin have been associated with depression, anxiety, insomnia
 helps to regulate muscle contraction, homeostasis, and blood clotting in blood platelets
 too much: unknown
 Serotonin production is linked to the consumption of carbohydrates
 helps control the appetite
When serotonin is produced in the brain, then it works on our appetite making us feel full, thus
preventing us from overeating.
Carbohydrates such as bread, cereal and pasta contribute to producing a temporary increase in
serotonin, as well as having a calming effect
Protein-rich foods, such as tuna or eggs, contribute to producing dopamine and norepinephrine
which increase alertness and concentration.

• GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID (GABA)

>major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system;
>without the GABA’s inhibiting influence, muscle movement cannot be controlled
 Main function is to reduce anxiety and irritability in the brain and central nervous system.
>low GABA levels are linked with anxiety; if GABA is lacking in some parts of the
brain, epilepsy results.
>too much: unknown
• other functions:
 It helps retain balance.
 It is responsible for providing a relaxing effect on the muscles of the body.
 It is also responsible for assisting in the production of endorphins.
 It improves sleep quality.

• ENDORPHINS (“natural opiates”)

>give us the natural high
>stimulate the reward/pleasure center of the brain
>also involved in pain reduction
>too much: for the inhibition of pain
>too little: increased pain
 The Division of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)

 CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
 The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
 The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles
 Four chambers within the brain
 Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 The Central Nervous System is made up of the brain
and the spinal cord.
 The Central Nervous System controls everything in the body.
 The human brain is the expanded upper portion of the neural tube formed within the
cranial cavity.
 It is a relatively small structure weighing abut 1,400 grams & about 2% of the total body
weight.
 Brain Portion of the CNS is made up:
 Cerebrum (left & right brain)
 Cerebellum
 Brain stem

The brain is the largest part of the nervous

system that is protected by the skull and
meninges or coverings, namely, the dura
mater, the arachnoid, and the inner most
portion, the pia mater. Protection of the
Central Nervous System

Meninges -------------------------------------->>>>>
 Dura mater (“dura” means “hard”)
 Double-layered external covering
 Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
 Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
 Folds inward in several areas
 Is the outermost tough menynx , the outer layer of w/c is adherent to the inner surface of
the cranium.
 Arachnoid layer
lies between the 2 meninges.
 Middle layer
 Web-like
 Pia mater
 Innermost layer of menynx
 A thin membrane that follows the convolutions of the brain & the contours of the
spinal cord.
 Clings to the surface of the brain

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

 Similar to blood plasma composition
 Formed by the choroid plexus
 Forms a watery (colorless) cushion to protect the brain
 Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
 Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)

 Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
 Excludes many potentially harmful substances
 Useless against some substances
 Fats and fat soluble molecules
 Respiratory gases
 Alcohol
 Nicotine
 Anesthesia
 Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBI)
 Concussion
 Slight or mild brain injury
 Bleeding & tearing of nerve fibers happened
 Recovery likely with some memory loss
 Contusion
 A more severe TBI
 Nervous tissue destruction occurs
 Nervous tissue does not regenerate
 Cerebral edema
 Swelling from the inflammatory response
 May compress and kill brain tissue
 Cerebral edema
 Swelling from the inflammatory response
 May compress and kill brain tissue
 Subdural hematoma
 Collection of blood below the dura
 Standards for these conditions were revised in 2004. Please check out TBIs at
Mayoclinic.com for more current information on diagnostic terminology.

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

 Commonly called a stroke
 The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain
 Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies
 Loss of some functions or death may result

Alzheimer’s Disease
 Progressive degenerative brain disease
 Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age
 Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers
within neurons
 Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion and ultimately, hallucinations and
death
 Forebrain: telencephalon and diencephalon.
 Diencephalon (Interbrain)
 Sits on top of the brain
stem
 Enclosed by the cerebral
heispheres
 Made of three parts
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus

Diencephalon Thalamus
 Surrounds the third ventricle
 The relay station for sensory impulses
 Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and interpretation
 Is a relay station that receives sensory info & sends it to appropriate areas of the brain.
Consequently, it is the neuron in the thalamus that sends projections to the cortical
centers transmitting the neural signals for the proper cortical mechanisms of sensation
and perception.
Diencephalon Hypothalamus
 Under the thalamus (prefix “hypo”)
 Important autonomic nervous system center
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Controls water balance
 Regulates metabolism

Hypothalamus
 An important part of the limbic system (emotions)
 The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus
 Is in close communication w/ the pituitary gland, & has been key site of investigation for
motivational behavior such as eating, drinking, emotional, & sexual behaviors.
 plays a significant role in the regulation of stress response, the mechanisms of w/c lead to
the secretion by the adrenal cortex of the stress hormone (cortisol) that will give the
necessary energy for fight or flight reactions. Hypothalamus is regarded as the “stress
center”.
 Surrounding the thalamus are structures that form the limbic system. This system is
closely interconnected w/ the hypothalamus.
  It appears to exert additional control over some of the instinctive behaviors already under
the regulation of the hypothalamus and the brainstem.

Structure of Limbic System

 Hippocampus – lies between the thalamus & the cortex., plays a crucial role in memory.
o It is associated w/ temporal lobe.
 Amygdala – located at the base of the temporal lobe is concerned w/ the control of
appetitive, sexual, & aggressive behavior.
 It also concerned w/ emotional memory
 Hypothalamus.

Telencephalon
 Is made up of the two cerebral
hemispheres containing the cortex, the
basal ganglia and the limbic system
 Cortex – convoluted area of the brain.
- is made up of peaks and troughs. The large
troughs (canal or groove) in the
convolution are called fissures.
 The small troughs are called sulci.
 In between the fissures &
 sulci are the gyri (the peaks).
 The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci)

The brain is bilateral organ w/ 2 cerebral

hemispheres. The bilateral nature of the brain is not a complete mirror image, but it is close.
A fissure separates the 2 hemispheres. This has given rise to the concept of a right & left brain.
Between the hemispheres are small connections called the cerebral commisures; the corpus
callosum is the most obvious to the naked eye.
Brain has 2 Hemispheres

- Left & Right sides are separate

- Corpus Callosum : major pathway between hemispheres
- Some functions are ‘lateralized’
- language on left
- math, music on right
- Lateralization is never 100%

The Lateral &

Central fissures divide the brain into 4 lobes Frontal

 Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum

into lobes Pariet
 Frontal lobe al
 Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe
 Temporal lobe Occipi
tal

Tempo
ral

 Frontal lobe – appears to be involved in organization & planning, judgment or decision

making, the ability to adapt to new situations (flexibility of behavior), & personality.
The frontal lobe is separated from the parietal lobe by a central fissure sometimes called the
fissure of Rolando
 Parietal lobe –is concerned w/ the integration of complex sensorial info like recognizing a
particular stimulus perceived through the sense of touch only, or from among a group of
stimuli using the visual sense.
 Occipital lobe – contains the primary visual area for the perception of basic visual info
such as the perception of something green, rough, or smooth.
 Temporal lobe – regarded as the center of memory.
The temporal lobe is separated by the lateral cerebral fissure, or Sylvanian fissure, from the
frontal & parietal lobes.
 Cortical Areas & Their Functions
Motor Area – located in the frontal lobe &
lying just before the central fissure in the
motor area. It controls voluntary
movements of the body in a contralateral
manner such that movements of the right
side of the body are controlled by the left
motor area, while movements of the left
side of the body are controlled by the right
motor area.

Cortical Areas & Their Functions

Primary Visual Area – is located in the occipital
lobe of both cerebral hemispheres. Also called the
striate cortex, it receives visual signals from the
thalamus.
the primary visual area is the cortical structure
responsible for basic visual sensations, such
sensation include seeing colors, seeing lines or
something straight, & seeing something rough &
smooth.
Primary Auditory Area – lies in the temporal
lobe of the brain. It receives the auditory signals
from the thalamus for basic auditory sensation.
Association Area – occupy the bigger part of the
brain. Neural signals form the primary and
secondary sensory areas are transmitted to the association are for the meaningful interpretation of
sensory experiences.
Telencephalon
Basal Ganglia
 Comprise the striatum,
the globus pallidus & the
substantia nigra. The
striatum is further
subdivided into caudate
& putamen. The globus
pallidus has an internal
& external part. The
substantia nigra divides
into 2 areas called the pars compacta & pars reticulata.
 The basal ganglia are extremely important in motor control & it is this area that
contains the underlying fault in Parkinson’s disease & Huntington’s disease.

Hippocampus- is associated w/spatial memory

Amygdala- is associated w/ fear and emotion

Midbrain: Mesencephalon
Divided into 2:
Tectum is dorsal (near the back) and
Tegmentrum is ventral (on the front)

Tectum comprises the inferior & superior

colliculli. This relate to auditory & visual
functions.
Tegmentum comprises the substantia nigra & another motor area called the red nucleus.
The mesencephalon is the target of analgesics w/c is the sleep area.
Hindbrain: Metencephalon
Metencephalon comprises the pons and
the cerebellum
Pons – contains a part of the reticular
formation, and descending and ascending
neural fibres.
- is the structure that lies above the
medulla. It is ventral to (in front) the
cerebellum.
- It is the coordinating body (link)
between cerebral motor cortex and
cerebellum in order to execute the motor movement or behavior.

Hindbrain: Metencephalon
Cerebellum – is the cauliflower-like structure & is involved in motor control.
is concerned w/ the coordination of somatic motor activities, or voluntary movements, the
regulation of muscle tone, & mechanisms that influence & maintain equilibrium.

Hindbrain: Myelencephalon is also called

Medulla
– is the structure that lies just above the spinal
cord. It is the lowest part of the brainstem
concerned w/ regulation of breathing & some
vital bodily functions such as the beating of the
heart and blood circulation.
 Spinal Cord

 Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of

T12
 Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of
spinal nerves)
 Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar
regions

Spinal Cord Anatomy

 Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
 Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies
 Dorsal (posterior) horns
 Anterior (ventral) horns
 Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
 Meninges cover the spinal cord
 Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae
 Dorsal root
 Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections
of cell bodies outside the central nervous system
 Ventral root

Peripheral Nervous System

 Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system
 Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
 Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue

Structure of a Nerve
• Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
• Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium
 • Fascicles are bound together by epineurium

Classification of Nerves
 Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers
 Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward the CNS
 Informs the CNS of the state of the body interior and exterior
 Sensory nerve fibers can be somatic (from skin, skeletal muscles or joints) or visceral
(from organs w/i the ventral body cavity)
 Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from the CNS

Spinal Nerves
There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae.

Autonomic Nervous System

 The involuntary branch of the nervous system
 Consists of only motor nerves
 Divided into two divisions
 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division

Autonomic Functioning
 Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
 Responds to unusual stimulus
 Takes over to increase activities
 Remembered as the “E” division = exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment

Sympathetic – tends to function as a unit. When confronted by an emotion-provoking stimulus,

an individual experiences an increase in heart rate, a dilation of the arteries of the skeletal
muscles, and heart, and sweating.
Autonomic Nervous System
• Can be divided into:
Sympathetic Nervous System
• “Fight or Flight”

Parasympathetic Nervous System

• “Rest and Digest”
These 2 systems are antagonistic.
Typically, we balance these 2 to keep ourselves in a state of dynamic balance.
Autonomic Functioning
• Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites
• Conserves energy
• Maintains daily necessary body functions
• Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and diuresis
• Parasympathetic - act in the opposite direction to sympathetic neurons and induce
relaxation.

Summary of autonomic differences

Autonomic nervous system controls physiological arousal
DIFFERENCES
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
division (arousing) division (calming

Pupils dilate EYES Pupils contract

Decreases SALVATION Increases

Perspires SKIN Dries

Increases RESPERATION Decreases

Accelerates HEART Slows

Inhibits DIGESTION Activates

Secrete stress ADRENAL Decrease secretion

hormones GLANDS of stress hormones

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

• The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development
• Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects
• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop
• No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for several
years (new evidence!)
• The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult
• However, we can always grow dendrites!