NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Module 4

Lecture 13 to 16
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS: ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITY
AND SETTLEMENT

Topics

13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 VERTICAL STRESS INCREASE IN A SOIL MASS CAUSED
BY FOUNDATION LOAD
13.3 STRESS DUE TO A CONCENTRATED LOAD
13.4 STRESS DUE TO A CIRCULARLY LOADED AREA
13.5 STRESS BELOW A RECTANGULAR AREA
13.6 AVERAGE VERTICAL STRESS INCREASE DUE TO A
RECTANGULAR LOADED AREA
13.7 STRESS INCREASE UNDER AN EMBANKMENT
13.8 STRESS INCREASE DUE TO ANY TYPE OF LOADING

14.1 SETTLEMENT CALCULATION

14.2 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT BASED ON THE THEORY OF
ELASTICITY
14.3 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATION ON
SATURATED CLAY
14.4 SETTLEMENT OF SANDY SOIL: USE OF STRAIN
INFLUENCE FACTOR
14.5 RANGE OF MATERIAL PARAMETERS FOR COMPUTING
ELASTIC SETTLEMENT
14.6 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
14.7 SKEMPTON-BJERRUM MODIFICATION FOR
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
14.8 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT-GENERAL COMMENTS
AND A CASE HISTORY
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

15.1 ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITY

15.2 ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE IN SAND BASED ON
SETTLEMENT CONSIDERATION
15.3 FIELD LOAD TEST
15.4 PRESUMPTIVE BEARING CAPACITY
15.5 TOLERABLE SETTLEMENT OF BUILDINGS
15.6 FOUNDATION WITH SOIL REINFORCEMENT
15.7 SHALLOW FOUNDATION ON SOIL WITH
REINFORCEMENT
16.1 STRIP FOUNDATION ON GRANULAR SOIL REINFORCED
BY METALLIC STRIPS
 Mode of Failure
 Location of Failure Surface
 Force Induced in Reinforcement Ties

16.2 FACTOR OF SAFETY OF TIES AGAINST BREAKING AND

PULLOUT
16.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR STRIP FOUNDATION ON
REINFORCED EARTH

 Determination of 𝒒𝒒𝒐𝒐
 Determination of 𝑸𝑸𝑹𝑹
 Calculation of Tie Force
 Calculation of tie Resistance Due to Friction, 𝑭𝑭𝑩𝑩
 Calculation of Tie Thickness to Resist Tie Breaking
 Calculation of Minimum Length of Ties
PROBLEMS
REFERENCES
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Module 4
Lecture 13
SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS: ALLOWABLE BEARING CAPACITY
AND SETTLEMENT

Topics

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 VERTICAL STRESS INCREASE IN A SOIL MASS CAUSED
BY FOUNDATION LOAD
1.3 STRESS DUE TO A CONCENTRATED LOAD
1.4 STRESS DUE TO A CIRCULARLY LOADED AREA
1.5 STRESS BELOW A RECTANGULAR AREA
1.6 AVERAGE VERTICAL STRESS INCREASE DUE TO A
RECTANGULAR LOADED AREA
1.7 STRESS INCREASE UNDER AN EMBANKMENT
1.8 STRESS INCREASE DUE TO ANY TYPE OF LOADING
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

INTRODUCTION

It was mentioned in chapter 3 that, in many cases, the following settlement of a shallow
foundation may control the allowable bearing capacity. The allowable settlement may be
controlled by local building codes. Thus the allowable bearing capacity will be the
smaller of the following two conditions:
𝑞𝑞 𝑢𝑢
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝑞𝑞all = � or
𝑞𝑞allowable settlement

The settlement of a foundation can be divided into two major categories: (a) elastic, or
immediate, settlement, and (b) consolidation settlement. Immediate, or elastic, settlement
of a foundation takes place during or immediately after the construction of the structure.
Consolidation settlement occurs over time. Pore water is extruded from the void spaces of
saturated clayey soils submerged in water. The total settlement of a foundation is the sum
of the elastic settlement and the consolidation settlement.

Consolidation settlement comprises two phases: primary and secondary. The

fundamentals of primary consolidation settlement have been explained in detail in
chapter 1. Secondary consolidation settlement occurs after completion of primary
consolidation caused by slippage and reorientation of soil particles under sustained load.
Primary consolidation settlement is more significant than secondary settlement in
inorganic clays and silty soils. However, in organic soils, secondary consolidation
settlement of more significant.

For calculation of foundation settlement (elastic and consolidation), it is required that we

estimate the vertical stress increase in the soil mass due to the net load applied on the
foundation. Hence, this chapter is divided into four parts.

They are:

1. Procedure for calculation of vertical stress increase

2. Settlement calculation (elastic and consolidation)
3. Allowable bearing capacity based on elastic settlement
4. Foundation with soil reinforcement.
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

VERTICAL STRESS INCREASE IN A SOIL MASS CAUSED BY FOUNDATION

LOAD

STRESS DUE TO A CONCENTRATED LOAD

In 1885, Boussinesq developed the mathematical relationships for determining the

normal and shear stresses at any point inside homogeneous, elastic, and isotropic
mediums due to a concentrated point load located at the surface, as shown in figure 4.1.
According to his analysis, the vertical stress increase (∆𝑝𝑝) at point A (figure 4.1) caused
by the point load of magnitude P is

Figure 4.1 Vertical stress at a point, A, caused by a point load on the surface

3𝑃𝑃
∆𝑝𝑝 = 5/2 [4.1]
𝑟𝑟 2
2𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧 2 �1+� � �
𝑧𝑧

Where

𝑟𝑟 = �𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2

𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 = coordinates of the point 𝐴𝐴

Note that equation (1) is not a function of the Poisson’s ratio of the soil.
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

STRESS DUE TO A CIRCULARLY LOADED AREA

The Boussinesq equation [equation (1)] can also be used to determine the vertical stress
below the center of a flexible circularly loaded area, as shown in figure 4.2. Let the
radius of the loaded area be 𝐵𝐵/2, and 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 be the uniformly distributed load per unit area.
To determine the stress increase at a point A, located at depth z below the center of the
circular area, consider an elemental area on the circle, as shown in figure 4.2. The load on
this element area may be considered as a point load and expressed as 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. The
stress increase at point A caused by this load can be determined from equation (1):

Figure 4.2 Increase of pressure under a uniformly loaded flexible circular area

3(𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 5/2 [4.2]
𝑟𝑟 2
2𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧 2 �1+� � �
𝑧𝑧

Thus the total increase of stress caused by the entire loaded area may be obtained by
integration of equation (2), or
𝜃𝜃=2𝜋𝜋 𝑟𝑟=𝐵𝐵/2 3(𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )
∆𝑝𝑝 = ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝜃𝜃=0 ∫𝑟𝑟=0 5/2
𝑟𝑟 2
2𝜋𝜋𝑧𝑧 2 �1+� � �
𝑧𝑧
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

1
= 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 �1 − 3/2 � [4.3]
𝐵𝐵 2
�� � �
2𝑧𝑧

Similar integrations could be performed to obtain the vertical stress increase at A’ located
at a distance r from the center of the loaded area at a depth z (Ahlvin and Ulery, 1962).
Table 1 gives the variation of ∆𝑝𝑝/𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 with 𝑟𝑟/(𝐵𝐵/2) and 𝑧𝑧/(𝐵𝐵/2) [for 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟/(𝐵𝐵/2) ≤ 1].
Note that the variation of ∆𝑝𝑝/𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 with depth at 𝑟𝑟/(𝐵𝐵/2) = 0 can be obtained from
equation (3).

STRESS BELOW A RECTANGULAR AREA

The integration technique of Boussinesq’s equation also allows evaluation of the vertical
stress at any point A below the corner of a flexible rectangular loaded area (figure 4.3).
To do that, consider an elementary area 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 on the flexible loaded area.

Table 1 Variation of ∆𝒑𝒑/𝒒𝒒𝒐𝒐 for Uniformly Loaded Flexible Circular Area

𝑓𝑓/(𝐵𝐵/2)

𝑧𝑧/(𝐵𝐵/2) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000

0.1 0.999 0.999 0.998 0.996 0.976 0.484

0.2 0.992 0.991 0.987 0.970 0.890 0.468

0.3 0.976 0.973 0.963 0.922 0.793 0.451

0.4 0.949 0.943 0.920 0.860 0.712 0.435

0.5 0.911 0.902 0.869 0.796 0.646 0.417

0.6 0.864 0.852 0.814 0.732 0.591 0.400

0.7 0.811 0.798 0.756 0.674 0.545 0.367

0.8 0.756 0.743 0.699 0.619 0.504 0.366

0.9 0.701 0.688 0.644 0.570 0.467 0.348

1.0 0.646 0.633 0.591 0.525 0.434 0.332

1.2 0.546 0.535 0.501 0.447 0.377 0.300

1.5 0.424 0.416 0.392 0.355 0.308 0.256

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

2.0 0.286 0.286 0.268 0.248 0.224 0.196

2.5 0.200 0.197 0.191 0.180 0.167 0.151

3.0 0.146 0.145 0.141 0.135 0.127 0.118

4.0 0.087 0.086 0.085 0.082 0.080 0.075

Figure 4.3 Determination of stress below the corner of a flexible rectangular loaded area

If the load per unit area is 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 , the total load on the elemental area is

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [4.4]

This elemental load, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, may be treated as a point load. The increase of vertical stress at
point A caused by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 may be evaluated by using equation (1). Note, however, the need to
substitute 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for P, and 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 for 𝑟𝑟 2 , in equation (1). Thus

3𝑞𝑞 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )𝑧𝑧 3

The stress increase at 𝐴𝐴 caused by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝜋𝜋(𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜2 +𝑦𝑦 2 +𝑧𝑧 2 )5/2

The total stress increase caused by the entire loaded area at point A may now be obtained
by integrating the preceding equation:
𝐿𝐿 𝐵𝐵 3𝑞𝑞 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )𝑧𝑧 3
∆𝑝𝑝 = ∫𝑦𝑦=0 ∫𝑥𝑥=0 2𝜋𝜋(𝑥𝑥𝑜𝑜2 +𝑦𝑦 2 +𝑧𝑧 2 )5/2 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼 [4.5]

Where
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

∆𝑝𝑝 = stress increase at 𝐴𝐴

1 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 √𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +1 𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +2 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 √𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +1

𝐼𝐼 = influence factor = 4𝜋𝜋 �𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛 2 +1 ∙ 𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +1 + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +1−𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛 1 � [4.6]

1 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 √𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +1 𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +2 2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 √𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +1

𝐼𝐼 = influence factor = � ∙ + 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 �𝜋𝜋 − �� [4.6a]
4𝜋𝜋 𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛 2 +1 𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +1 𝑚𝑚 2 +𝑛𝑛 2 +1−𝑚𝑚 2 𝑛𝑛 1

𝐵𝐵
𝑚𝑚 = [4.7]
𝑧𝑧

𝐿𝐿
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑧𝑧 [4.8]

The variation of the influence values with 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 are given in table 2. For convenience,
they are also plotted in figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Variation of I with m and n-equations (5, 6, and 6a)

Table 2 Variation of Influence Value, /[𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 (𝟔𝟔)]𝐚𝐚

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

𝑛𝑛

𝑚𝑚 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4

0. 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03
1 470 917 323 678 978 223 420 576 698 794 926 007

0. 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.54 0.05 0.58
2 917 790 585 280 866 348 735 042 283 71 733 94

0. 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08
3 323 585 735 742 593 294 858 308 661 938 323 561

0. 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10
4 678 280 742 024 111 009 734 314 770 129 631 941

0. 0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.13
5 978 866 593 111 403 473 340 035 584 018 626 003

0. 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14
6 223 348 294 009 473 688 679 474 105 605 309 749

0. 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.16
7 420 735 858 734 340 679 772 653 356 914 703 199

0. 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.17
8 576 042 308 314 035 474 653 607 371 978 843 389

0. 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.18
9 698 283 661 770 584 105 356 371 185 835 766 357

1. 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19
0 794 471 938 129 018 605 914 978 835 522 508 139

1. 0.02 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20
2 926 733 323 631 626 309 703 843 766 508 584 278

1. 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21
4 007 894 561 941 003 749 199 389 357 139 278 020

1. 0.03 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21
6 058 994 709 135 241 028 515 739 737 546 731 510

1. 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.21 0.21
8 090 058 804 260 395 207 720 967 986 814 032 836

2. 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.21 0.22
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

0 111 100 867 342 496 326 856 119 152 994 235 058

2. 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22
5 138 155 948 450 628 483 036 321 375 236 512 364

3. 0.03 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22
0 150 178 982 495 684 550 113 407 470 341 633 499

4. 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22
0 158 194 007 527 724 598 168 469 540 417 722 600

5. 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22
0 160 199 014 537 737 612 185 488 561 440 749 632

6. 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22
0 161 201 017 541 741 617 191 496 569 449 760 644

8. 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22
0 162 202 018 543 744 621 195 500 574 455 767 652

10 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22
.0 612 202 019 544 745 622 196 502 576 457 769 654

∞ 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22
162 202 019 544 745 623 197 502 577 458 770 656
a
After Newmark (1935)

The stress increase at any point below a rectangular loaded area can also be found by
using equation (5) in conjunction with figure 4.5. To determine the stress at depth z
below point O, divide the loaded area into four rectangles. Point O is the corner common
to each rectangle. Then use equation (5) to calculate the increase of stress at depth z
below point O caused by each rectangular area. The total stress increase caused by the
entire loaded area may now be expressed as

Figure 4.5 Stress below any point of a loaded flexible rectangular area

∆𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 (𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐼4 ) [4.9]

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Where

𝐼𝐼1 , 𝐼𝐼2 , 𝐼𝐼3 , and 𝐼𝐼4 = the influence values of rectangles 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively

In most cases, the vertical stress below the center of a rectangular area is of importance.
This can be given by the following relationship:

∆𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 [4.10]

Table 2 continued

𝑚𝑚 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 ∞

0. 0.030 0.030 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031 0.031
1 58 90 11 38 50 58 60 61 62 62 62

0. 0.059 0.060 0.061 0.061 0.061 0.061 0.061 0.062 0.062 0.062 0.062
2 94 58 00 55 78 94 99 01 02 02 02

0. 0.087 0.088 0.088 0.089 0.089 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090 0.090
3 09 04 67 48 82 07 14 17 18 19 19

0. 0.111 0.112 0.113 0.114 0.114 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115 0.115
4 35 60 42 50 95 27 37 41 43 44 44

0. 0.132 0.133 0.134 0.136 0.136 0.137 0.137 0.137 0.137 0.137 0.137
5 41 95 96 28 84 24 37 41 44 45 45

0. 0.150 0.152 0.152 0.154 0.155 0.155 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156 0.156
6 28 07 36 83 50 98 12 17 21 22 23

0. 0.165 0.167 0.168 0.170 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171
7 15 20 56 36 13 68 85 91 95 96 97

0. 0.177 0.179 0.181 0.183 0.184 0.184 0.184 0.184 0.185 0.185 0.185
8 39 67 19 21 07 69 88 96 00 02 02

0. 0.187 0.189 0.191 0.193 0.194 0.195 0.195 0.195 0.195 0.195 0.195
9 37 86 52 75 70 40 61 69 74 76 77

1. 0.195 0.198 0.199 0.202 0.203 0.204 0.204 0.204 0.204 0.204 0.204
0 46 14 94 36 41 17 40 49 55 57 58

1. 0.207 0.210 0.212 0.215 0.216 0.217 0.217 0.217 0.217 0.217 0.217
2 31 32 35 12 33 22 49 60 67 69 70

1. 0.215 0.218 0.220 0.223 0.249 0.226 0.226 0.226 0.226 0.226 0.226
4 10 36 58 64 9 00 32 44 52 54 56
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

1. 0.220 0.223 0.226 0.229 0.230 0.232 0.232 0.232 0.232 0.232 0.232
6 25 72 10 40 88 00 36 49 58 61 63

1. 0.223 0.227 0.229 0.233 0.234 0.236 0.236 0.236 0.236 0.268 0.236
8 72 36 86 34 95 17 56 71 81 4 86

2. 0.226 0.229 0.232 0.236 0.237 0.239 0.239 0.239 0.239 0.239 0.239
0 10 86 47 14 82 12 54 70 81 85 87

2. 0.229 0.233 0.236 0.240 0.241 0.243 0.243 0.244 0.244 0.244 0.244
5 40 34 14 10 96 44 92 12 25 29 32

3. 0.230 0.234 0.237 0.241 0.243 0.245 0.246 0.246 0.246 0.246 0.246
0 88 95 82 96 94 54 08 30 46 50 54

4. 0.232 0.236 0.239 0.233 0.245 0.247 0.247 0.248 0.248 0.248 0.248
0 00 17 12 44 54 29 91 17 36 42 46

5. 0.232 0.236 0.239 0.243 0.246 0.247 0.248 0.248 0.249 0.249 0.249
0 36 56 54 92 08 91 57 85 07 14 19

6. 0.232 0.236 0.239 0.244 0.246 0.248 0.248 0.249 0.249 0.249 0.249
0 49 71 70 12 30 17 85 16 39 46 52

8. 0.232 0.236 0.239 0.244 0.246 0.248 0.249 0.249 0.249 0.249 0.249
0 58 81 81 25 46 36 07 39 64 73 80

10 0.232 0.236 0.239 0.244 0.246 0.248 0.249 0.249 0.249 0.249 0.249
.0 61 84 85 29 50 42 14 46 73 81 89

∞ 0.232 0.236 0.239 0.244 0.246 0.248 0.249 0.249 0.249 0.249 0.250
63 86 87 32 54 46 19 52 80 89 00

Where

2 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑛𝑛 1 1+𝑚𝑚 12 +2𝑛𝑛 12 𝑚𝑚 1
𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 = 𝜋𝜋 � � + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−1
�1+𝑛𝑛 12 �(𝑚𝑚 12 +𝑛𝑛 12 )
[4.11]
�1+𝑚𝑚 12 +𝑛𝑛 12 � 𝑚𝑚 12 +𝑛𝑛 12 �1+𝑛𝑛 12

𝐿𝐿
𝑚𝑚1 = 𝐵𝐵 [4.12]

𝑧𝑧
𝑛𝑛1 = 𝐵𝐵 [4.13]
� �
2

The variation of 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 with 𝑚𝑚1 and 𝑛𝑛1

Table variation of 𝑰𝑰𝒄𝒄 𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰𝐰 𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

𝑚𝑚1

𝑛𝑛1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.20 0.994 0.997 0.977 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997 0.997

0.40 0.960 0.976 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.977

0.60 0.892 0.932 0.936 0.936 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937 0.937

0.80 0.800 0.870 0.878 0.880 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881 0.881

1.00 0.701 0.800 0.814 0.817 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818 0.818

1.20 0.606 0.727 0.748 0.753 0.754 0.755 0.755 0.755 0.755 0.755

1.40 0.522 0.658 0.685 0.692 0.694 0.695 0.695 0.696 0.696 0.696

1.60 0.449 0.593 0.627 0.636 0.639 0.640 0.641 0.641 0.641 0.642

1.80 0.388 0.534 0.573 0.585 0.590 0.591 0.592 0.592 0.593 0.593

2.00 0.336 0.481 0.525 0.540 0.545 0.547 0.548 0.549 0.549 0.549

3.00 0.179 0.293 0.348 0.373 0.384 0.389 0.392 0.393 0.394 0.395

4.00 0.108 0.190 0.241 0.269 0.285 0.293 0.298 0.310 0.302 0.303

5.00 0.072 0.131 0.174 0.202 0.219 0.229 0.236 0.240 0.242 0.244

6.00 0.051 0.095 0.130 0.155 0.172 0.184 0.192 0.197 0.200 0.202

7.00 0.038 0.072 0.100 0.122 0.139 0.150 0.158 0.164 0.168 0.171

8.00 0.029 0.056 0.079 0.098 0.113 0.125 0.133 0.139 0.144 0.147

9.00 0.023 0.045 0.064 0.081 0.094 0.105 0.113 0.119 0.124 0.128

10.00 0.019 0.037 0.053 0.067 0.079 0.089 0.097 0.103 0.108 0.112

Foundation engineers often use an approximate method to determine the increase of

stress with depth caused by the construction of a foundation. It is referred to as the 2:1
method (figure 4.6). According to this method, the increase of stress at depth z is
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 4.6 2:1 method of finding stress increase under a foundation

𝑜𝑜 𝑞𝑞 ×𝐵𝐵×𝐿𝐿
∆𝑝𝑝 = (𝐵𝐵+𝑧𝑧)(𝐿𝐿+𝑧𝑧) [4.14]

Note that equation (14) is based on the assumption that the stress from the foundation
spreads out along lines with a 2 vertical to 1 horizontal slope.

Example 1

A flexible rectangular area measures 5 ft × 10ft in plan. It supports a load of 2000 lb/
ft 2 . Determine the vertical stress increase due to the load at a depth of 12.5 ft below the
center of the rectangular area.

Solution

Refer to figure 4.5. For this case

5
𝐵𝐵1 = 𝐵𝐵2 = 2 = 2.5 ft

10
𝐿𝐿1 = 𝐿𝐿2 = = 5 ft
2

From equation (7 and 8)

𝐵𝐵1 𝐵𝐵2 2.5
𝑚𝑚 = = = 12.5 = 0.2
𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧

𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2 5
𝑛𝑛 = = = 12.5 = 0.4
𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧

From table 2, for 𝑚𝑚 = 0.2, and 𝑛𝑛 = 0.4, the value of 𝐼𝐼 = 0.0328. Thus
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

∆𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 (4𝐼𝐼) = (2000)(4)(0.0328) = 262 lb/ft 2

Alternate solution from equation (10)

∆𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐

𝐿𝐿 10
𝑚𝑚1 = 𝐵𝐵 = =2
5

𝑧𝑧 12.5
𝑛𝑛1 = 𝐵𝐵 = 5 =5
� � � �
2 2

From table 3, for 𝑚𝑚1 = 2 and 𝑛𝑛1 = 5, the value of 𝐼𝐼𝑐𝑐 = 0.131. Thus

∆𝑝𝑝 = (2000)(0.131) = 262 lb/ft 2

AVERAGE VERTICAL STRESS INCREASE DUE TO A RECTANGULAR

LOADED AREA

In section 4, the vertical stress increase below the corner of a uniformly loaded
rectangular area was given as (figure 4.7)

Figure 4.7 Average vertical stress increase due to a rectangular loaded flexible area

∆𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

In many cases it is required to determine the average stress increase, ∆𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , below the
corner of a uniformly loaded rectangular area with limits of 𝑧𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻, as shown in
figure 4.7. This can be evaluated as
1 𝐻𝐻
∆𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐻𝐻 ∫0 (𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 [4.15]

Where

𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛) [4.16]

𝐵𝐵
𝑚𝑚 = 𝐻𝐻 [4.17]

𝐿𝐿
𝑛𝑛 = 𝐻𝐻 [4.18]

The variation of 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 is shown in figure 4.8 as proposed by Griffiths (1984).

Figure 4.8 Griffiths’ influence factor 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎

In the estimation of the consolidation settlement under a foundation, it may be required to

determine the average vertical stress increase in only a given layer; that is, between
𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻1 to 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻2 as shown in figure 4.9. This can be done as (Griffiths, 1984)
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 4.9 Average pressure increase between 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻1 to 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻2 below the corner of a
uniformly loaded rectangular area
𝐻𝐻2 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝐻𝐻 2 ) 𝐻𝐻1 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝐻𝐻 1 )
∆𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐻𝐻2 /𝐻𝐻1 ) = 𝑞𝑞𝑂𝑂 � � [4.19]
𝐻𝐻2 −𝐻𝐻1

Where

∆𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐻𝐻2 /𝐻𝐻1 ) = Average stress increase immediately below corner of a uniformly loaded
rectangular area between depths 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻1 to 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻2
𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎(𝐻𝐻2 ) = 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 for 𝑧𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻2 = 𝑓𝑓 �𝑚𝑚 = 𝐻𝐻 , 𝑛𝑛 = 𝐻𝐻 �
2 2

𝐵𝐵 𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎(𝐻𝐻1 ) = 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 for 𝑧𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐻𝐻1 = 𝑓𝑓 �𝑚𝑚 = 𝐻𝐻 , 𝑛𝑛 = 𝐻𝐻 �
1 1

Example 2

Refer to figure 4.10. Determine the average stress increase below the center of the
loaded area between 𝑧𝑧 = 3 m to 𝑧𝑧 = 5 m (that is, between points A and A’).
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 4.10

Solution
𝐻𝐻2 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝐻𝐻 2 ) 𝐻𝐻1 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝐻𝐻 1 ) (5)𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝐻𝐻 2 ) −(3)𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝐻𝐻 1 )
∆𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐻𝐻2 /𝐻𝐻1 ) = 𝑞𝑞𝑂𝑂 � � = 100 � �
𝐻𝐻2 −𝐻𝐻1 5−3

For 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎(𝐻𝐻2 ) :
𝐵𝐵 1.5
𝑚𝑚 = 𝐻𝐻 = = 0.3
2 5

𝐿𝐿 1.5
𝑛𝑛 = 𝐻𝐻 = = 0.3
2 5

Referring to figure 4.8, for 𝑚𝑚 = 0.3 and 𝑛𝑛 = 0.3, 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎(𝐻𝐻2 ) = 0.136. For 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎(𝐻𝐻1 ) :
𝐵𝐵 1.5
𝑚𝑚 = 𝐻𝐻 = = 0.5
1 3

𝐿𝐿 1.5
𝑛𝑛 = 𝐻𝐻 = = 0.5
1 3

Referring to figure 4.8, 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎(𝐻𝐻1 ) = 0.175, so

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

(5)(0.136)−(3)(0.175)
∆𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐻𝐻2 /𝐻𝐻1 ) = 100 � � = 7.75 kN/m2
5−3

The stress increase between 𝑧𝑧 = 3 m to 𝑧𝑧 = 5 m below the center of the loaded area is
equal to

4∆𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝐻𝐻2 /𝐻𝐻1 ) = (4)(7.75) = 31 kN/m2

STRESS INCREASE UNDER AN EMBANKMENT

Figure 4.11 shows the cross section of an embankment of height H. for this two-
dimensional loading condition the vertical stress increase may be expressed as
𝑞𝑞 𝑜𝑜 𝐵𝐵1 +𝐵𝐵2 𝐵𝐵
∆𝑝𝑝 = �� � (𝛼𝛼1 + 𝛼𝛼2 ) − 𝐵𝐵1 (𝛼𝛼2 )� [4.20]
𝜋𝜋 𝐵𝐵2 2

Where

𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 = 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾

𝛾𝛾 = unit weight of the embankment soil

𝐻𝐻 = height of the embankment

𝐵𝐵1 +𝐵𝐵2 𝐵𝐵
𝛼𝛼1 (radians) = tan−1 � � − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 � 𝑧𝑧1 � [4.21]
𝑧𝑧

𝐵𝐵
𝛼𝛼2 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 � 𝑧𝑧1 � [4.22]

For a detailed derivation of the equation, see Das (1997). A simplified form of equation
(20) is

∆𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼′ [4.23]

Where

𝐼𝐼 ′ = a fundation of 𝐵𝐵1 /𝑧𝑧 and 𝐵𝐵2 /𝑧𝑧

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 4.11 Embankment loading

The variation of 𝐼𝐼′ with 𝐵𝐵1 /𝑧𝑧 and 𝐵𝐵2 /𝑧𝑧 is shown in figure 4.12. Application of this
diagram is shown in example 3.

Figure 4.12 Influence value of I’ for embankment loading (after Osterberg, 1957)
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Example 3

An embankment is shown in figure 4.13a. Determine the stress increase under the
embankment at points 𝐴𝐴1 and 𝐴𝐴2 .

Figure 4.13
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Solution

𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = (17.5)(7) = 122.5 kN/m2

The left side of figure 4.13b indicates that 𝐵𝐵1 = 2.5 m and 𝐵𝐵2 = 14 𝑚𝑚, so
𝐵𝐵1 2.5
= = 0.5
𝑧𝑧 5

𝐵𝐵2 14
= = 2.8
𝑧𝑧 5

According to figure 4.12, in this case, 𝐼𝐼 ′ = 0.445. Because the two sides in figure 4.13b
are symmetrical the value of 𝐼𝐼′ for the right side will also be 0.445, so

∆𝑝𝑝 = ∆𝑝𝑝1 + ∆𝑝𝑝2 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 [𝐼𝐼 ′ (left side ) + 𝐼𝐼 ′ (right side ) ]

= 122.5[0.445 + 0.445] = 109.03 kN/m2

Stress Increase at 𝐴𝐴2

Refer to figure 4.13c. For the left side, 𝐵𝐵2 = 5 m and 𝐵𝐵1 = 0, so
𝐵𝐵2 5
=5=1
𝑧𝑧

𝐵𝐵1 0
= =0
𝑧𝑧 5

According to figure 4.12, for these values of 𝐵𝐵2 /𝑧𝑧 and 𝐵𝐵1 /𝑧𝑧, 𝐼𝐼 ′ = 0.25, so

∆𝑝𝑝1 = 43.75(0.25) = 10.94 kN/m2

For the middle section,

𝐵𝐵2 14
= = 2.8
𝑧𝑧 5

𝐵𝐵1 14
= = 2.8
𝑧𝑧 5

Thus, 𝐼𝐼 ′ = 0.495, so

∆𝑝𝑝2 = 0.495(122.5) = 60.64 kN/m2

For the right side,

𝐵𝐵2 9
= 5 = 1.8
𝑧𝑧

𝐵𝐵1 0
= =0
𝑧𝑧 5
 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Thus, 𝐼𝐼 ′ = 0.335, so

∆𝑝𝑝3 = (78.75090.335) = 26.38 kN/m2

Total increase at point 𝐴𝐴2 is

∆𝑝𝑝 = ∆𝑝𝑝1 + ∆𝑝𝑝2 − ∆𝑝𝑝3 = 10.94 + 60.64 − 26.38 = 45.2 kN/m2

STRESS INCREASE DUE TO ANY TYPE OF LOADING

The increase of vertical stress under any type of flexible loaded area can be easily
determined by the use of Newmark’s (1942) influence chart. The chart, in principle, is
based on equation (3) for the estimation of vertical stress increase under the center of a
circularly loaded area. According to equation (3),

1
∆𝑝𝑝 = 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 �1 − 3/2 �
𝐵𝐵 2
�1+� � �
2𝑧𝑧

Where

𝐵𝐵/2 = Radius of the loaded area = R

The preceding equation can be rewritten as

1/2
𝑅𝑅 ∆𝑝𝑝 −2/3
= ��1 − 𝑞𝑞 � − 1� [4.24]
𝑧𝑧 𝑜𝑜

We now substitute various values of ∆𝑝𝑝/𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 into equation (24) to obtain corresponding
values of 𝑅𝑅/𝑧𝑧. Table 4 shows the calculated values of 𝑅𝑅/𝑧𝑧 for ∆𝑝𝑝/𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 = 0, 0.1, 0.2, … . , 1.

Using the nondimensional values of R/z shown in table 4, we can draw the concentric
circles having radii equal to 𝑅𝑅/𝑧𝑧, as shown in figure 4.14. Note that the distance AB in
figure 4.14 is unity. The first circle is a point having a radius of zero. Similarly, the
����). The last circle has a radius of infinity. These
second circle has a radius of 0.2698 (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
circles have been divided by equally spaced radial lines, producing what is referred to as
Newmark’s chart. The influence, value, IV, of this chart is
1
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = number [4.25]
of elements on the chart

For the chart shown in figure 4.14, 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 1/200 = 0.005.

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Figure 4.14 Influence chart for vertical pressure calculation (after Newmark, 1942)

Following is a step-by-step procedure for using Newmrk’s chart to determine vertical

stress under a loaded area of any shape:

1. Identify the depth z below the loaded area at which the stress is to be determined.
2. ���� (that is, unit length according to Newmark;s chart).
Adopt a scale 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
3. Draw the plan of the loaded area based on the scale adopted in step 2.
4. Place the plan drawn in Step 3 on the Newmark’s chart so that the point under
which the stress is to be determined is directly above the center of the chart.
5. Count the number of elements of the chart that fall inside the plan. Let it equal N.
6. Calculate the stress increase as

∆𝑝𝑝 = (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)(𝑁𝑁)(𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 )

Where

𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 = load per unit area on the loaded area

 NPTEL – ADVANCED FOUNDATION ENGINEERING-I

Example 4

A flexible rectangular area, 2.5 m × 5 m, is located on the ground surface and loaded
with 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 = 145 kN/m2 . Determine the stress increase caused by this loading at a depth of
6.25 m below the center of the rectangular area. Use Newmark’s chart.

Solution
���� in figure 4.14 is 6.25 m. with this scale, the plan of the
Here, 𝑧𝑧 = 6.25 m, so length 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
loaded rectangular area can be drawn. Figure 4.15 shows this plan placed over the
Newmark’s chart with the center of the loaded area above the center of the chart. The
reason for this placement is that the stress increase is required at a point immediately
below the center of the rectangular area. The number of elements from the influence chart
that are inside the plan is about 26, so

∆𝑝𝑝 = (𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)(𝑁𝑁)(𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 ) = (0.005)(26)(145) = 18.85 kN/m2 [4.26]

Figure 4.15