ECE 238 Lecture 2

8/27/15
ECE 238L – 2
Computer Logic Design
Dr. Ramiro Jordan

rjordan@ece.unm.edu
ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

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Textbook and Website

Fundamentals of Digital and
Computer Design with VHDL
Authors:
Richard S. Sandige
Michael L. Sandige
Website:
http://www.mhhe.com/sandige

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Codes, Function Minimization,

Kaurnaugh-Maps, Implicants,
Number Base Conversions,
Arithmetic Operations,
Complements
Dr. Ramiro Jordan
rjordan@ece.unm.edu

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Binary Codes

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Logarithms
•  In general: logB A = x is equivalent to A = Bx
–  log2 8 = 3 since 8 = 23
–  log5 1/5 = -1 since 1/5 = 5-1
–  log81 3 = 1/4 since 3 = 811/4
•  Properties:
–  logB (ab) = logB a + logB b
–  logB (a/b) = logB a - logB b
–  logB (ap) = p logB a
–  logB (a1/r) = 1/r logB a
–  logA (B) logB (C) = logA (C)
•  ln B logB C = ln C
•  logA B logB A = 1

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Binary Codes
•  How many distinct elements can we represent with n
bits?
–  N = 2n
–  n-bit code is found by counting in binary from 0 to (2n – 1)
•  We can let a set of bits represent distinct elements
by a CODE (language)
•  EX: wish to find a binary code to represent the ten
decimal numbers (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)
–  Have 10 distinct elements
–  Need log2 N = n (number of binary digits) Ceiling Function
–  Need four bits minimum: 24 = 16 > 10 elements; n = 4
•  10 symbols with meaning or CODE are used
•  6 symbols are extra; not used

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Powers of 2n
Base Power Result Denomina2on

2 1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
7 128
8 256
9 512
10 1024 KILO
11 2048
12 4096
13 8192
14 16384
15 32768
16 65536
17 131072
18 262144
19 524288
20 1048576 MEGA
30 1073741824 GIGA
1073741824
1.09951E+12
40 1.09951E+12 TERA


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Binary Codes for Decimal Digits

8-4-2-1
Decimal Code 6-3-1-1 Excess-3 2-out-of-5 Gray
Digit Code Code Code Code
(BCD)
0 0000 0000 0011 00011 0000
1 0001 0001 0100 00101 0001
2 0010 0011 0101 00110 0011
3 0011 0100 0110 01001 0010
4 0100 0101 0111 01010 0110
5 0101 0111 1000 01100 1110
6 0110 1000 1001 10001 1010
7 0111 1001 1010 10010 1011
8 1000 1011 1011 10100 1001
9 1001 1100 1100 11000 1000

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Binary Codes
•  EX: wish to find a binary code to represent
1009 different objects
–  Need log2 N = n (number of binary digits) Ceiling
Function
–  Need ten bits minimum: 210 = 1024 > 1009
elements; n = 10
•  1009 symbols with meaning or CODE are used
•  15 symbols are extra; not used

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Binary Codes
•  EX: wish to find a binary code to represent
20,234,567 different objects. Only have log10
or ln functions
–  Make C = 20,234,567; B =2; A =10
–  Using: ln (B) logB (C) = ln (C)
•  log2 (20,234,456) = ln (20,234,567)/ln(2) = 16.823/0.693 = round
up the integer 25
–  Using: logA (B) logB (C) = logA (C)
•  log2 (20,234,456) = log10 (20,234,567)/log10 (2) = 7.306/0.30 =
integer 25
–  Need 25 bits minimum: 225 = 33,554,432 >
20,234,567 elements; n = 25
•  20,234,567 symbols with meaning or CODE are used
•  13,319,865 symbols are extra; not used

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Function
Minimization,
K-Maps

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Karnaugh Maps
Switching/Boolean functions can generally be
simplified by using the algebraic techniques.
However, two problems arise when algebraic
procedures are used:
1. The procedures are difficult to apply in a systematic

way.
2. It is difficult to tell when you have arrived at a
minimum solution.
The Karnaugh map method is generally faster and

easier to apply than other simplification methods.

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Rules for Combining Squares

(Simplification, Elimination)
1.  Can combine 2k adjacent cells; where 0≤k≤n and n is
the number of variables; implies that
•  Can combine 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc, cells; a power of 2
•  Cannot combine 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, etc cells
2.  Want to combine the largest number of cells possible to

eliminate as many variables as possible, implies that:
•  Combine 2 cells, eliminate 1 variable
•  Combine 4 cells, eliminate 2 variables
•  Combine 2n, eliminate n variables

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3.  Once a minterm (maxterm) is used we can use it again

4.  Avoid redundancy!!!

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Karnaugh Maps
1-variable map: minterm and maxterm coding
X minterm maxterm symbols
0 X’ X m0/M0
1 X X’ m1/M1
X 01 01
m0 m1 X’ X minterm
X 01 01
M0 M1 X X’ maxterm

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Two- Variable Karnaugh Maps
Just like a truth table, the Karnaugh map of a function

specifies the value of the function for every combination of
values of the independent variables.
Most significant variable = A
Least significant variable = B

m0 m2
m1 m3

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Example: two – variable K-map
(a)

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Karnaugh Maps
2-variable map: minterm and maxterm coding
X Y minterm maxterm symbols
0 0 X’Y’ X+Y m0/M0
0 1 X’Y X+Y’ m1/M1
1 0 XY’ X’+Y m2/M2
1 1 XY X’+Y’ m3/M3
Most significant variable = X Least significant variable = Y
X Y 01 X Y 01
m0 m1
minterm M0 M1
maxterm
10
10
m2 m3 M2 M3

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Karnaugh Maps
2-variable map: observe, minterms
m0 + m1 = X’Y’ + X’Y = X’(Y’+Y) = X’(1) = X’ row 1

m0 + m2 = X’Y’ + XY’ = (X’+X)Y’ = (1)Y’ = Y’ col 1
m2 + m3 = XY’ + XY = X(Y’+Y) = X(1) = X row 2
m1 + m3 = X’Y + XY = (X’+X)Y = (1)Y = Y col 2
Any 2 minterms in adjacent squares that are ORed will

cause removal of the different variable

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Karnaugh Maps
2-variable map: observe, maxterms
M0M1 = (X+Y)(X+Y’) = X row 1

M0M2 = (X+Y)(X’+Y) = Y col 1
M2M3 = (X’+Y)(X’+Y’) = X’ row 2
M1M3 = (X+Y’)(X’+Y’) = Y’ col 2
Any 2 maxterms in adjacent squares that are ANDed

will cause removal of the different variable

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Examples: two – variable K-Maps

EX: simplify the function F = XY’ + X’Y
EX: simplify the function F = X’Y’ + XY’ + X’Y

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3 Variables K-Maps

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Three- Variable Karnaugh Maps
Most significant variable = X
Least significant variable = Z

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Three- Variable Karnaugh Maps

EX: mo + m1 + m2 + m3 =
NOTE: sequence 00 – 01 – 11 – 10; only one bit

changes (Gray Code)

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Karnaugh Map for

Three-Variable Function
Least significant variable = C

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Location of Minterms on a
Three-Variable Karnaugh Map

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Karnaugh Map of F(a, b, c) =

Σm(1, 3, 5) = ∏ M(0, 2, 4, 6, 7)

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Karnaugh Maps for Product

Terms

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f(a,b,c) = abc' + b'c + a'

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Simplification of a
Three-Variable Function

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Complement of Map
The map for the complement
of F is formed by replacing
0’s with 1’s and 1’s with 0’s
on the map of F.
F′ = c′ + ab

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Karnaugh Maps Which Illustrate

the Consensus Theorem

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Function with Two Minimal Forms

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4 Variable K-Map

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Four- Variable Karnaugh Maps
Most significant variable = X
Least significant variable = W

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Location of Minterms on
Four-Variable Karnaugh Map
Each minterm is located Most significant variable = A
adjacent to the four
terms with which it can
combine. For example,
m5 (0101) could
combine with m1
(0001), m4 (0100),
m7 (0111), or m13
(1101).
Least significant variable = D

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Plot of acd + a’b + d’

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Simplification of
Four-Variable Functions

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Simplification of an Incompletely
Specified Function

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Example
Use a four variable Karnaugh map to find the minimum
product of sums for f:
f = x′z′ + wyz + w′y′z′ + x′y
First, we will plot the 1’s on a Karnaugh map.

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Example
Then, from the 0’s we get:

f ' = y'z + wxz' + w'xy
Finally, we can complement f ' to get a

minimum product of sums of f :
f = (y + z′)(w′ + x′ + z)(w + x′ + y′)

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Implicants, Prime
Implicants,
Essential Prime
Implicants

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Implicants and Prime Implicants
Any single 1 or any group of 1’s which can be combined

together on a map of the function F represents a product
term which is called an implicant of F.
A product term implicant is called a prime implicant if it

cannot be combined with another term to eliminate a
variable.

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Implicants
Prime
Implicant
Implicant
Implicant
Implicant
Prime
Implicant
Prime
Implicant

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Determination of All Prime

Implicants

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Examples

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Essential Prime Implicants

If a minterm is covered by only one prime implicant, that
prime implicant is said to be essential, and it must be
included in the minimum sum of products.
Essential
Prime
Implicants
Prime
Implicants
Implicants

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Example
Note: 1’s shaded in

blue are covered by
only one prime
implicant. All other
1’s are covered by
at least two prime
implicants.

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Choose a 1 which has not been covered.
Find all adjacent 1’s and X’s.
Are the chosen 1 and its adjacent 1’s

and X’s covered by a single term?
no
yes
That term is an essential prime implicant. Loop it.
no
All uncovered 1’s checked?
yes
Find a minimum set of prime implicants
which cover the remaining 1’s on the map.
Flowchart for Determining a Minimum Sum of Products Using a

Karnaugh Map

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Example
Shaded 1’s are covered by

only one prime implicant.
Essential prime implicants:
A′B, AB′D′
Then AC′D covers the

remaining 1’s.

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5 Variable K-Maps

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Five-Variable Karnaugh Maps

A five-variable map can be constructed in three dimensions
by placing one four-variable map on top of a second one.
Terms in the bottom layer are numbered 0 through 15 and
corresponding terms in the top layer are numbered 16
through 31, so that the terms in the bottom layer contain A'
and those in the top layer contain A.
To represent the map in two dimensions, we will divide each
square in a four-variable map by a diagonal line and place
terms in the bottom layer below the line and terms in the top
layer above the line.

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A Five-Variable Karnaugh Map
Note that terms m0

and m20 do not
combine because
they are in different
layers and different
columns (they
differ in two
variables).
Least significant variable = E

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Example
Each term can be

adjacent to exactly five
other terms: four in the
same layer and one in
the other layer.

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Example
When checking for

adjacencies, each term
should be checked
against the five possible
adjacent squares.
P1 and P2 are essential
prime implicants.

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Example
P1, P2, P3, and P4 are

essential prime
implicants.
F(A, B, C, D, E) = Ʃ m(0, 1, 3, 8, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 25, 27, 31)

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Example

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Other Forms of Karnaugh Maps
Instead of labeling the sides of a Karnaugh map

with 0’s and 1’s, some people prefer to use Veitch
diagrams. In Veitch diagrams, A = 1 for the half of
the map labeled A, and A = 0 for the other half. The
other variables have a similar interpretation.

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Veitch Diagrams

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Two alternative forms of five-variable maps are also used.

One form simply consists of two four-variable maps side-by-
side.
A modification of this uses a mirror image map. In this map,
first and eighth columns are “adjacent” as are second and
seventh columns, third and sixth columns, and fourth and
fifth columns.

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Five- Variable Karnaugh Maps
Least significant variable = E

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Five- Variable Karnaugh Maps

000 001 011 010 110 111 101 100
00 m0 m1 m3 m2 m6 m7 m5 m4
01 m8 m9 m11 m10 m14 m15 m13 m12
11 m24 m25 m27 m26 m30 m31 m29 m28
10 m16 m17 m19 m18 m22 m23 m21 m20
Most significant variables drive rows and least significant variables drive columns.

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Side-by-side Form of Five-

Variable Karnaugh Maps

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Mirror Image Form of Five-

Variable Karnaugh Maps

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1.  Can combine 2k adjacent cells; where 0≤k≤n and n is
the number of variables; implies that
•  Can combine 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc, cells; a power of 2
•  Cannot combine 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, etc cells
2.  Want to combine the largest number of cells possible to

eliminate as many variables as possible, implies that:
•  Combine 2 cells, eliminate 1 variable
•  Combine 2n, eliminate n variables

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3.  Once a minterm (maxterm) is used we can use it again

4.  Avoid redundancy!!!

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Binary Number
Conversions

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Binary Number Conversions

•  The primary number
systems used in digital
systems are decimal
(base-10), binary
(base-2), octal (base-8)
and hexadecimal
(base-16)
•  Octal and Hexadecimal
number systems are
used to represent
binary numbers in a
more compact form

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8-4-2-1
(BCD)
0 0000 0000 0011 00011 0000
1 0001 0001 0100 00101 0001
2 0010 0011 0101 00110 0011
3 0011 0100 0110 01001 0010
4 0100 0101 0111 01010 0110
5 0101 0111 1000 01100 1110
6 0110 1000 1001 10001 1010
7 0111 1001 1010 10010 1011
8 1000 1011 1011 10100 1001
9 1001 1100 1100 11000 1000

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Review of Decimal Number System

•  Consider the symbol 9,437.25
1.  9 – 1000s 9000 most significant digit (MSD)
2.  4 – 100s 400
3.  3 – 10s 30 Weighted-Positional Number System
4.  7 – 1s 7
5.  2 – 1/10s .2
6.  5 – 1/100s .05 least significant digit (LSD)
•  Add them up and you get 9,437.25
•  To be more exact 9,437.25 should be written as: 9x103 + 4x102 +
3x101 + 7x100 + 2x10-1 + 5x10-2
•  By convention we write only the coefficients (9,437.25)10
–  10 indicates the base, in this case is base 10 or decimal
–  Position of coefficient is a power (weight) of the base and
specifies the information to be conveyed

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Review of Decimal Number System
•  Consists of 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
•  Coefficients are multiplied by powers of 10
•  Said to be of base 10 or radix 10
We can generalize to any base or radix “r”.

•  “r” is any integer greater than 1 (r > 1)
•  Why r > 1?
•  Consists of “r” possible values: 0, 1 , ….. r-1
•  Coefficients are multiplied by powers of “r”

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Binary Number System
•  Consists of two possible values (coefficients): 0 and 1

•  Binary digits are called bits (short for binary digits)
•  Byte = 8-bit binary number
•  Nibble = 4-bit binary number
•  Binary system is of base 2 or radix 2
•  EX: (101.01)2 = 1x22 + 0x21 + 1x20 + 0x2-1 + 1x2-2
= (5.25)10
MSB LSB

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Octal Number System
•  Consists of eight possible values (coefficients): 0, 1,

2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7
•  Octal system is of base 8 or radix 8
•  EX: (724.06)8 = 7x82 + 2x81 + 4x80 + 0x8-1 + 6x8-2 = 448
+ 16 + 4 + 0.015625 = (468.015625)10
(724.06)8
MSD LSD

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Hexadecimal Number System
•  Consists of sixteen possible values (coefficients): 0,

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
•  Hexadecimal system is of base 16 or radix 16
•  EX: (6AC.9E)16 = 6x162 + Ax161 + Cx160 + 9x16-1 +
Ex16-2 = 1536 + 160 + 12 + 0.5 + 0.05468=
(1708.55468)10
(6AC.9E)16
MSD LSD

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Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal

NOTE: binary, octal and hex numbers are all powers of 2
•  23 = 8: each octal digit corresponds to 3 binary digits; with 3
binary digits we can represent 8 combinations; 000 to 111, 0 to
7 decimal
•  24 = 16: each hexadecimal digit corresponds to 4 binary digits;
with 4 binary digits we can represent 16 combinations; 0000 to
1111, 0 to F (15) decimal
Octal and Hex are easier to read and more compact to display
than Binary

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Number Base
Conversions

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Number of Base “r” to Decimal

Number
(number)r (number)10
Any base to decimal: form products by multiplying the

coefficients times appropriate powers of the base, and then
sum the products
EX: (101.01)2 = 1x22 + 0x21 + 1x20 + 0x2-1 + 1x2-2 =(5.25)10
EX: (724.06)8 = 7x82 + 2x81 + 4x80 + 0x8-1 + 6x8-2 = 448 + 16 + 4 +

0.015625 = (468.015625)10
EX: (6AC.9E)16 = 6x162 + Ax161 + Cx160 + 9x16-1 + Ex16-2 = 1536 +

160 + 12 + 0.5 + 0.05468= (1708.55468)10

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Decimal Number to Number of

Base “r”
(number)10 (number)r
We will use an Algorithm: efficient procedure (sequence of steps),

recipe
Decimal to any base:

1.  Separate number into an integer part and a fraction part
2.  Integer portion is repeatedly divided by the base to which we
are converting. NOTE: remainders are the appropriate
coefficients
3.  Fractional part is repeatedly multiplied by the base to which we
are converting. NOTE: integer portions of resulting numbers
are the appropriate coefficients
4.  Combine the resulting answers from 2 and 3

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EXAMPLE: Convert (25.375)10 to base 2 (binary)

Integer = 25 Fraction = 0.375
Integer part:
25/2 = 12 + 1 (least significant bit - lsb)

12/2 = 6 + 0
6/2 = 3 + 0
3/2 = 1 + 1
1/2 = 0 + 1 (most significant bit - msb)
Read back in this
(25)10 = (11001)2 direction

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EXAMPLE: Convert (25.375)10 to base 2 (binary)

Fraction part:
.375 * 2 = .75 + 0 (most significant bit - msb)

.75 * 2 = .5 + 1
.5 * 2 = 0 + 1 (least significant bit - lsb)
Read back in this
(0.375)10 = (011)2 direction
Result: (25.375)10 = (11001.011)2

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EXAMPLE: Convert 5310 to binary.
Conversion (a)
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EXAMPLE: Convert .62510 to binary.
Conversion (b)
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EXAMPLE: Convert 0.710 to binary.
Conversion (c)
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EXAMPLE: Convert (720.75)10 to base 8 (octal)

Integer part:
720/8 = 90 + 0 (least significant bit - lsd)

90/8 = 11 + 2
11/8 = 1 + 3
1/8 = 0 + 1 (most significant bit - msd)
(720)10 = (1320)8 Read back in this

direction

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EXAMPLE: Convert (720.75)10 to base 8 (octal)

Fraction part:
.75 * 8 = .0 + 6 (most significant bit - msd)

and (least significant bit - lsd)
(0.75)10 = (0.6)8 Read back in this

direction
Result: (720.75)10 = (1320.6)8

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EXAMPLE: Convert 231.34 to base 7.
Conversion (d)
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Binary, Octal and

Hexadecimal
Conversions

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How to Convert Between Binary,

Octal and Hexadecimal
Conversion of base is done by partitioning
•  If needed add zeros to extreme left when converting the integer
portion
•  Add zeros to extreme right when converting fractional part
•  Binary to Octal
–  Partition binary number into groups of three digits starting
from binary point
•  Octal to Binary
–  Each octal digit is converted to its 3-digit binary equivalent
•  Binary to Hexadecimal
–  Partition binary number into groups of four digits starting
from binary point
•  Hexadecimal to Binary
–  Each hex digit is converted to its 4-digit binary equivalent

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Binary to Octal
–  Partition binary number into groups of three digits starting
from binary point
–  (101100.01101)2
–  101 100. 011 010
–  5 4. 3 2
–  (54.32)8
Octal to Binary
–  Each octal digit is converted to its 3-digit binary equivalent
–  (3.1)8
–  3. 1
–  011. 001
–  (011.001)2

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Binary to Hexadecimal
–  Partition binary number into groups of four digits starting
from binary point
–  (111010.011)2
–  0011 1010. 0110
–  3 A. 6
–  (3A.6)16
Hexadecimal to Binary
–  Each hex digit is converted to its 4-digit binary equivalent
–  (6.D)16
–  6. D
–  0110. 1101
–  (0110.1101)2

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Binary ó Hexadecimal
Conversion
Conversion from binary to hexadecimal (and conversely) can be done by

inspection because each hexadecimal digit corresponds to exactly four
binary digits (bits).
How about conversion between Octal and Hexadecimal and vice versa?

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EXAMPLE: Convert (31.7)8 to Hex.
Octal to Hexadecimal
–  (31.7)8
–  31. 7
–  011 001. 111 (binary equivalent)
–  0001 1001. 1110 (group digits by four)
–  (19.E)16

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EXAMPLE: Convert (AB.6)16 to octal.
Hexadecimal to Octal
–  (AB.6)16
–  A B. 6
–  1010 1011. 0110 (binary equivalent)
–  010 101 011. 011 (group digits by three)
–  (253.3)8

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Arithmetic
Operations

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Arithmetic Operations
•  Numbers in base “r” follow the same rules as

for decimal numbers; (r > 1)
•  When using another base be sure to use only
the “r” allowable digits; (r > 1: 0, 1, …, r-1)

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Addition
The addition table for binary numbers is
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 0 and carry 1 to next column
Carrying 1 to a column
is equivalent to adding 1 to that column.

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Add 1310 and 1110 in binary.
Binary Addition:
1) can only use a 0 or a 1
2) Carry, use with the next significant position higher

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Subtraction (a)
The subtraction table for binary numbers is
0–0=0
0–1=1 and borrow 1 from the next column
1–0=1
1–1=0
Borrowing 1 from a column

is equivalent to subtracting 1 from that column.

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Subtraction (b)
EXAMPLES OF BINARY SUBTRACTION:

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Subtraction (c)
A detailed analysis of the borrowing process for this example, indicating first
a borrow of 1 from column 1 and then a borrow of 1 from column 2, is as
follows:

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Multiplication (a)
The multiplication table for binary numbers is
0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1

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Multiplication (b)
The following example illustrates
multiplication of 1310 by 1110 in binary:

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Multiplication (c)
When doing binary multiplication, a common way to avoid carries greater than 1
is to add in the partial products one at a time as illustrated by the following
example:
1111 multiplicand
1101 multiplier
1111 1st partial product
0000 2nd partial product
(01111) sum of first two partial products
1111 3rd partial product
(1001011) sum after adding 3rd partial product
1111 4th partial product
11000011 final product (sum after adding 4th
partial product)

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Binary Division
Binary division is similar to decimal division, except it is much easier
because the only two possible quotient digits are 0 and 1.
We start division by comparing the divisor with the upper bits of the
dividend.
If we cannot subtract without getting a negative result, we move one
place to the right and try again.
If we can subtract, we place a 1 for the quotient above the number we
subtracted from and append the next dividend bit to the end of the
difference and repeat this process with this modified difference until we
run out of bits in the dividend.

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Binary Division
The following example illustrates
division of 14510 by 1110 in binary:

105
Complements

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Complements
Allows us to represent negative numbers and
we can do subtraction using addition.
Two types for each base “r” number system (r>1)

–  The r’s complement; “radix complement”
–  The (r-1)’s complement; “diminished radix
complement”
–  Given a positive number N in base r, with integer
part of n digits, and a fractional part of m digits
N=dn-1dn-2 ….d2d1d0.d-1d-2 …d-m

107
Complements
The r’s complement is defined as N*
N=dn-1dn-2 ….d2d1d0.d-1d-2 …d-m
*
N = 0 if N = 0
*
N = r n − N if N > 0

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Complements
The (r-1)’s complement is defined as N-
N=dn-1dn-2 ….d2d1d0.d-1d-2 …d-m
−
N = (r n − r − m ) − N
* −
NOTE: N = N + r−m
€
−
NOTE: if m=0 then N = (r n −1) − N
€ * −
N = N +1

109
Complements
Example: base 10 (r = 10)

•  N = 43.375; n = 2; m = 3
•  10’s complement
–  N* = 102 – 43.375 = 100 – 43.375 = 56.625
–  N- = (102 – 10-3) – 43.375 = 99.999 – 43.375 = 56.624
•  Note: N* = N- + r -3 = 56.624 + 0.001 = 56.625

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Complements
Example: base 2 (r = 2)
•  N = 101011.011; n = 6; m = 3
–  N* = 26 – N = 1000000 – 101011.011 = 10100.101
–  N- = (26 – 2-3) – N = 10100.1
•  Note: N* = N- + r -3 = 10100.1 + 0.001 = 10100.101

111
Complements
Most of the time we work with integer numbers; i.e. no
fractional part
* *
N = 0 if N = 0; N = r n − N if N > 0
*
or N = rn − N
•  Note: given a negative integer represented by its 2’s
complement, N*, we can obtain the magnitude of the
integer by taking the 2’s complement of N*
€

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Complements
Most of the time we work with integer numbers; i.e. no
fractional part
−
N = (r n −1) − N
−
or N = (r n −1) − N
•  Note: given a negative integer represented by its 1’s
complement, N-, we can obtain the magnitude of the
integer by taking the 1’s complement of N-
€
* −
•  NOTE: N = N +1

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Complements: Algorithms
2’s complement
–  Leave all least significant zeros unchanged as well as the
least significant one
–  Replace 1’s by 0’s and 0’s by 1’s in all higher significant
digits
1’s complement
–  Flip every bit, replace 0’s by 1’s and 1’s by 0’s
NOTE: 2’s complement = 1’s complement + 1

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Subtraction using r’s complement

•  Assume M and N are two positive numbers
•  Want to perform the following operation M - N
•  Algorithm
–  Add M to the r’s complement of N
•  M – N = M + N*
–  Inspect result for end carry
•  If end carry occurs, discard it
•  If no end carry occurs, then take the r’s complement of result
and place a negative sign in front

115
EXAMPLE: binary subtraction, 2’s

complement; 4-bit arithmetic
•  0110 M = 610
•  -0011 N = -310
•  Result is 310
•  0110 M
•  + 1101 N*
•  --------------
•  10011 carry not used, 0011 is correct answer

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•  0011 M = 310
•  -0111 N = -710
•  Result is -410
•  0011 M
•  + 1001 N*
•  --------------
•  1100 no carry; take complement and add
negative sign -0100

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Subtraction using (r-1)’s

complement
•  Assume M and N are two positive numbers
•  Want to perform the following operation M - N
•  Algorithm
–  Add M to the (r-1)’s complement of N
•  M – N = M + N-
–  Inspect result for end carry
•  If end carry occurs, add 1 to LSB (end-around carry)
•  If no end carry occurs, then take the (r-1)’s complement of
result and place a negative sign in front

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•  1001 M = 910
•  -0100 N = -410
•  Result is 510
•  1001 M
•  + 1011 N-
•  --------------
•  10100 add 1 to 0100, result is 0101

119

•  0100 M = 410
•  -1001 N = -910
•  Result is -510
•  0100 M
•  + 0110 N-
•  --------------
•  1010, no carry, take 1’s complement 0101 and
add negative sign in front, result is -0101

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and 2’s complement
Perform 1100 - 1100

•  1100 + 0011 = (carry = 0) 1111 (positive zero)
•  Result = -0000 (negative zero)
•  1100 + 0100 = (carry = 1) 0000
•  Result = 0000

121
OVERFLOW
When the word length is n bits, we say that an

overflow has occurred if the correct
representation of the sum (including sign)
requires more than n bits (n+1 bits).
An overflow occurs if adding two positive numbers

gives a negative answer or if adding two negative
numbers gives a positive answer.

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2’s Complement Addition (a)

4-bit arithmetic
Range of numbers: -8 to +7

123
2’s Complement Addition (b)

4-bit arithmetic

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2’s Complement Addition (c)

4-bit arithmetic

125
1’s Complement Addition (b)

4-bit arithmetic

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1’s Complement Addition (c)

4-bit arithmetic

127
1’s Complement Addition (d)

8-bit arithmetic

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2’s Complement Addition (d)

8-bit arithmetic

129
Signed Binary
Numbers

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Signed Binary Numbers

•  Sign of a number must be represented with a 0 or a 1
in the leftmost position (by convention)
–  0 = positive and 1 = negative
•  Digital system (Computer) does not care whether
number is + or -, user is responsible for keeping
track
•  Not convenient for computers
•  Number = (sign) (magnitude)
–  n-bits = (1-bit) (n-1 bits)
•  Correction must be made when subtraction is
performed

131
EXAMPLE: Signed-Magnitude System (127)10

Use 8-bit arithmetic, limited by hardware (register)
Integer part:
127/2 = 63 + 1 (least significant bit - lsb)
63/2 = 31 + 1
31/2 = 15 + 1
15/2 = 7 + 1
7/2 = 3 + 1
3/2 = 1 + 1
1/2 = 0 + 1 (most significant bit - msb)
Read back in this
direction
(127)10 is then: sign = 0 magnitude = 1111111
(-127)10 is then: sign = 1 magnitude = 1111111

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EXAMPLE: Signed 1’s complement (127)10

•  Positive numbers start with a 0, msb
•  Negative numbers start with a 1, msb
•  Convenient for digital systems
(127)10 is then: 01111111

(-127)10 is then: 10000000
(1)10 is then: 00000001
(-1)10 is then: 11111110
(11111111)2 is then (-0)10 NOTE: 1’s complement has

(0000000)2 is then (+0)10 two representations of zero

133
EXAMPLE: Signed 2’s complement (127)10

•  Positive numbers start with a 0, msb
•  Negative numbers start with a 1, msb
•  Convenient for digital systems
(127)10 is then: 01111111

(-127)10 is then: 10000001
(1)10 is then: 00000001
(-1)10 is then: 11111111
(11111111)2 is then (-1)10 NOTE: 2’s complement has

(0000000)2 is then (0)10 one representation of zero

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Signed Binary Integers (word length n = 4)
NOTE: for a word length N

•  the range of 2’s complement numbers that can be represented is
•  -2N-1 to (2N-1 – 1)
•  The range of 1’s complement numbers that can be represented is
•  –(2N-1 -1) to (2N-1 – 1)

135
More on Binary
Codes

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Binary Codes
•  Digital systems represent and manipulate many
other discrete elements of information (not only
binary numbers)
•  If information is continuous (analog signal) we must
discretize it by sampling it at specified intervals
(Nyquist Sampling Theorem) - ADC
•  If information is discrete (digital signal) we must
convert it to an analog signal if peripheral device
requires it (DAC)
•  Bit = binary digit

137
Binary Codes
•  How many distinct elements can we represent with n
bits?
–  N = 2n
–  n-bit code found by counting in binary from 0 to (2n – 1)
•  We can let a set of bits represent distinct elements
by a CODE
•  EX: wish to find a binary code to represent the
colors RED, BLUE, and WHITE
–  Need two bits minimum: 22 = 4 > 3 elements; n = 2
•  Symbols with meaning or CODE for colors: 00 – RED; 01 – BLUE; 10 –
WHITE; 11 Not Used

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Binary Codes
Although most large computers work internally with binary numbers, the
input-output equipment generally uses decimal numbers. Because most
logic circuits only accept two-valued signals, the decimal numbers must
be coded in terms of binary signals. In the simplest form of binary code,
each decimal digit is replaced by its binary equivalent. For example,
937.25 is represented by:

139
Decimal Codes
•  Binary codes for decimal digits require a minimum of
4 binary digits or bits
–  Have 10 distinct elements ( 0 – 9)
–  Need four bits minimum: 24 = 16 > 10 elements; n = 4
•  0000 0
•  0001 1
BCD Code: Binary Coded
•  0010 2
Decimal
•  0011 3
•  0100 4
•  0101 5
•  NOTE: 10 of 16 possible
•  0110 6
distinct elements are used; 6
•  0111 7
are not used.
•  1000 8 •  One-to-one mapping to avoid
•  1001 9 ambiguity.
• This is not a conversion it is a
CODE.
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8-4-2-1
(BCD)
0 0000 0000 0011 00011 0000
1 0001 0001 0100 00101 0001
2 0010 0011 0101 00110 0011
3 0011 0100 0110 01001 0010
4 0100 0101 0111 01010 0110
5 0101 0111 1000 01100 1110
6 0110 1000 1001 10001 1010
7 0111 1001 1010 10010 1011
8 1000 1011 1011 10100 1001
9 1001 1100 1100 11000 1000

141
Decimal numbers represented

in various binary codes

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Decimal to Reflective Gray Code conversion

using the mirror method

143
Binary to RGC conversion method

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Modulo-2 addition table

145
RGC to binary conversion method

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Alphanumeric Codes
•  Permit representation of information other than just
numbers
–  We can represent
•  Alphabetic characters
•  Punctuation marks
•  Special symbols #, $, *, @, …
•  Numbers
–  Most common codes
ASCII: American Standard for Information Interchange
•  7 bits + parity bit = 8 bit code
•  27 = 128 different symbols (elements)
EBCDIC: Extended BCD Interchange Code
•  8 bits + parity bit = 9 bit code
•  28 = 256 different symbols (elements)
UNICODE: Universal Code
•  16 bits
•  216 = 65,536 different symbols (elements)
•  Universal characters; encode all world languages

147
7-bit ASCII character et code (nonextended form)

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Table 1-3
ASCII code
(incomplete)

149
Error Detection Codes

•  Most computers manipulate an 8-bit quantity as a
single unit: 8-bits = byte
–  Or multiple bytes, examples
•  16-bits = 2 bytes = 1 word
•  32-bits = 4 bytes = 1 longword
•  Some codes make use of a parity bit

Parity bit = extra bit included with a message to make total
number of 1’s ODD or EVEN
–  EX: ASCII letter A is 1000001 (7-bit code)
–  With ODD parity = 1 1000001 odd number of 1’s in message
“A”
–  With EVEN parity = 0 1000001 even number of 1’s in
message “A”
–  An error is detected if check parity (receiving end) is not
equal to parity adopted. Detects only an ODD combination
of errors. EVEN combination of errors is undetectable.

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151
7-segment Code

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7-segment code for a 7-segment display

153
Letter Display System

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TABLE 2.5

155
VHDL code for letter display system

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157
Q&A

158
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ECE 238 Lecture 2

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8/27/15

Dr. Ramiro Jordan

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Textbook and Website

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Codes, Function Minimization,

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Binary Codes for Decimal Digits

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

1. The procedures are difficult to apply in a systematic

The Karnaugh map method is generally faster and

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Rules for Combining Squares

2. Want to combine the largest number of cells possible to

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Rules for Combining Squares

3. Once a minterm (maxterm) is used we can use it again

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Two- Variable Karnaugh Maps

Just like a truth table, the Karnaugh map of a function

Least significant variable = B

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Example: two – variable K-map

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Most significant variable = X Least significant variable = Y

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

m0 + m1 = X’Y’ + X’Y = X’(Y’+Y) = X’(1) = X’ row 1

Any 2 minterms in adjacent squares that are ORed will

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

M0M1 = (X+Y)(X+Y’) = X row 1

Any 2 maxterms in adjacent squares that are ANDed

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Examples: two – variable K-Maps

EX: simplify the function F = X’Y’ + XY’ + X’Y

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Three- Variable Karnaugh Maps

Most significant variable = X

Least significant variable = Z

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Three- Variable Karnaugh Maps

NOTE: sequence 00 – 01 – 11 – 10; only one bit

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Karnaugh Map for

Least significant variable = C

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Karnaugh Map of F(a, b, c) =

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Karnaugh Maps for Product

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

f(a,b,c) = abc' + b'c + a'

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

ECE 238L – ECE Dept, Fall 2015

Karnaugh Maps Which Illustrate

2.  Want to combine the largest number of cells possible to

3.  Once a minterm (maxterm) is used we can use it again