How To Photograph The Northern Lights v3.6

HOW TO
PHOTOGRAPH
the
Northern
Lights
3rd Edition
PATRICK J. ENDRES
With aurora science notes by Neal Brown
How to Photograph
Northern
the
Lights
By Patrick J. Endres
3rd Edition v3.6
i
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ✤ Kp-Index Map for North America (Map)

✤ Kp-Index Map for Eurasia (Map)
How to Photograph the Northern Lights (3rd Edition) • University of Alaska Geophysical Institute
★ Neal’s Notes
• POES
✦ Side Bar
✤ Graphic
• SWEP Ovation Prime Model
• Aurora Web Cams
Chapter 1 - Aurora Science and Forecasts • Aurora Alerts
Section 1:1 | Aurora Science • In Summary
• Understanding the Aurora Section 1:3 | Aurora Colors
★ Neal’s Notes: WHAT CAUSES THE AURORA? • Color and the Aurora
• Space Weather and the Aurora ★ Neal’s Notes: THE AURORA COLORS
✦ Side Bar: Space weather definitions ✤ Altitude and Aurora Colors (Diagram)
• The Sun and Aurora Science ✤ The Colors of the Aurora (Graphic)
✦ Side Bar: Aurora facts Section 1:4 | Aurora Shapes
★ Neal’s Notes: THE 11-YEAR SOLAR CYCLE
• Aurora Shapes and Movement
• SOTERIA Flare Predictor Tool ★ Neal’s Notes: AURORA SHAPES
✦ Side Bar: Facts about the sun
★ Neal’s Notes: CORONAL AURORA
• Sun-Earth observing spacecraft (Graphic)
✦ Side Bar: Sun-Earth observing spacecraft Chapter 2 - In Search of the Aurora Borealis
• World Space Weather Science Section 2:1 | Circumpolar Destinations
✦ Side Bar: International Space Environment Service Affiliates
✤ The Polar Auroral Zone (Map)
Section 1:2 | Aurora Forecasts ✤ The Circumpolar Countries (Map)
• Understanding Aurora Forecasts • Links to airports on Google maps
★ Neal’s Notes: CAN WE PREDICT THE AURORA?
Section 2:2 | Alaska
• Types of Forecasts ✤ Alaska, the U.S. Destination (Map)
• 27-Day Solar Cycle ★ Neal’s Notes: DESTINATION FAIRBANKS, ALASKA
★ Neal’s Notes: THE 27-DAY SOLAR CYCLE
• Aurora Destinations in Alaska
• Short-term Forecasts and Current Data • The Fairbanks Area (Map)
• Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) and Bz
• Alaska Aurora locations
• Solar Wind Speed and Density
✦ Side Bar: Aurora Information resources
• Sharing Photo Locations
✤ Planetary Kp-index (Chart)
• Northern Alaska
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres ii

Table of Contents
• Bettles and Nome • Clear Skies and Weather

• Coldfoot ✤ Average Sky Conditions in Fairbanks, Alaska. (Diagram)
• Considerations for Remote Alaska • Temperature
• Travel on the Dalton Highway ✤ Fairbanks temperatures (Diagram)
• Communication and Road Etiquette
• Traveling with Emergency Safety Gear
• Daylight and Darkness
• Central Alaska • Snowfall
✤ Average monthly snowfall in Fairbanks (Diagram)
• Richardson Highway
• George Parks Highway • Reflective Surfaces: Water and Ice
• Southcentral Alaska • In Summary
• Winter Camping ✤ Weather and aurora considerations for Fairbanks, Alaska (Diagram)
Section 2:3 | Fine-tuning Your Location Section 3:2 | Circumpolar Arctic Weather
• Refining the Destination • Circumpolar Destinations
✦ Side Bar: Finding a photo worthy spot • Average Weather Conditions
• The Specific Location • Weather Graphs
• Scouting Your Location in Daylight • Churchill, Manitoba, Canada
• Choose Multiple Locations • Whitehorse, YT, Canada
• Ivalo, Finland
Section 2:4 | Photo Tours
• Tasiilaq, Greenland
• Choosing an Aurora Photo Tour • Reykjavik, Iceland
• Trip Duration • Tromso, Norway
• Local Guides • Murmansk, Russia
• An Experienced Guide • Kiruna, Sweden
• Transportation Section 3:3 | Time of Night
• It Should Be About Your Photos • What Time of Night is Best?
• Get References ★ Neal’s Notes: WHAT IS MAGNETIC MIDNIGHT?
• When is Magnetic Midnight?
Chapter 3 - Timing, Seasons, and Weather
• The Critical Hours
Section 3:1 | Seasons and Weather ★ Neal’s Notes: AURORA BOREALIS AND AUSTRALIS
• Choosing a Season to Photograph the Aurora • Be Persistent

✦ Side Bar: Seasonal pros and cons Section 3:4 | The Moon and Moonlight
• Spring and Autumn Equinoxes • Is There a Preferred Moon Phase?
• Geomagnetically Disturbed Days ✦ Side Bar: Considering moonlight
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres iii

Table of Contents
• Is a Full Moon Bad? Section 5:1 | Understanding Exposure

• Where is the Moon? • The Importance of Exposure Fundamentals
• Moonlight Presence ✦ Side Bar: The essentials of exposure
• Moonlight Absence • The LCD Display, Your Learning Tool
✤ ISO Sensitivity (Figure)
Chapter 4 - Dealing with the Cold
✤ Lens Aperture (Figure)
Section 4:1 | Clothing for the Cold ✤ Camera Shutter (Figure)
★ Neal’s Notes: DOES THE AURORA AFFECT THE WEATHER? • Aperture
• Dressing Appropriately for the Cold ✤ The Relationship of Aperture and Shutter Speed (Diagram)
★ Neal’s Notes: CAN YOU HEAR THE AURORA IN THE COLD? • Shutter Speed
• Inner Layers ✤ The Relationship of ISO and Shutter Speed (Diagram)
• Outer Layers • ISO

• Head • Pushing the Limits
• Feet • Aurora Exposure
• Hands ✤ Exposure values for average aurora brightness (no moonlight) in ½ stop
• External Heat Sources increments (Chart)
• Shooting in the Cold Summary Section 5:2 | Achieving Exposure
✦ Side Bar: Dressing for the cold
• Achieving Correct Exposure
Section 4:2 | Cold and Camera Gear
• The Histogram
✦ Side Bar: Tips for equipment and the cold
✦ Side Bar: Working with a histogram
• Photographing in the Cold
• Adobe Photoshop Lightroom Histogram
• Will My Camera Work in the Cold?
• The Importance of Proper Exposure
• Battery Consumption and the Cold
✤ Battery depletion in -31°F / -35 °C temperatures (Canon 5D Mark III)
Section 5:3 | Perfecting Exposure
✦ Side Bar: The correct exposure
(Diagram)
• Media Cards • Do Not Overexpose
• Plastic and the Cold • Don’t Be Fooled by the LCD Display
• Tripods and the Cold • RAW or JPEG?
• Frost on the Lens • RAW Lossless File Format verses JPEG Lossy File Format (Diagram)
• Keep a Warm Backup Camera and Lens • What Should my Highest ISO Setting Be?
• Preventing Condensation • Post-Production Adjustments
Chapter 5 - Aurora Exposure Chapter 6 - Choosing Cameras and Photo Gear
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres iv

Table of Contents
Section 6:1 | Digital Cameras • Lenses for APS Sensor Cameras

✦ Side Bar: Basic camera requirements • The Importance of a Wide Angle Lens
• Digital Cameras • Fast Lenses
• Which Camera is Best for me? ✤ Faster lenses = shorter shutter speeds and more frames-per-minute
• The Minimalist (Diagram)

• The Universalist • Compromises of an f/1.4 Lens
• The Landscaper ✤ Recommended Lens Focal Lengths According to Sensor Size (Diagram)
• The Hard Core Aurora Photographer • Choosing a Prime or Zoom Lens
✤ The Three Important Camera Factors (Diagram)
• Why a Prime Lens?
• Sensor Sizes • Why a Zoom Lens?
✤ Comparative Diagram of Sensor Sizes (Diagram) • Lens Mount Adapters
✤ Digital SLR Cameras and Sensor Sizes (Diagram) • Prime Lenses
✤ Mirrorless Cameras and Sensor Sizes (Diagram) • Fisheye Primes
• Image Quality Benefits of Large Sensors • Ultra-Wide-Angle Primes
• Ultra-wide Angle Lenses for FX Cameras • Wide-Angle Primes
✤ 35mm Equivalent Lens Focal Length Per Sensor Size (Chart) • Fast Wide-Angle Primes
✤ The Importance of High ISO (Chart) • Medium Wide Angle Primes
• The Tradeoff of High ISO • Standard Lenses
• Know Your Camera’s ISO Limits • Zoom Lenses
• Wide-Angle Zooms
• Live View
• Ultra-Wide-Angle Zooms
• A Brief Camera Review • Lenses for APS Sensors
• Full-Frame Sensor Cameras
• Lenses for Micro Four Thirds Cameras
• APS Sensor Cameras
• Mirrorless APS Sensor Cameras • Renting a Lens
• Mirrorless Micro 4/3” Sensor Cameras Section 6:3 | Tripod Legs
• Camera Rental • Choosing a Tripod
• U.S Camera Rental ✦ Side Bar: Advice on tripods
• Compact Cameras • Tall and Sturdy

Section 6:2 | Lenses • Limit Center Column Extension
• Choosing a Lens for Aurora Photography • Leg Clamps and Collars
✦ Side Bar: What to look for in a lens • Tripod Feet
• A Note About Terminology • Insulate the Legs
• Tripod Weight
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres v

Table of Contents
• Leg Sections • Benefits of Exposures under 30 Seconds

• Benefits of Carbon Fiber Tripods • When to Use Manual Mode
• Tripod Manufacturers • When to Use Bulb Mode
• My Tripod of Choice • Set Appropriate ISO
Section 6:4 | Tripod Ball Heads • Noise Reduction
• Tripod Ball Heads • Long Exposure Noise Reduction (LENR)
✦ Side Bar: What to look for in a ball head • High ISO noise reduction (HINR)
• Quick-Release Plates • Post Production Noise Reduction
• Luminance Noise
Section 6:5 | Gear Accessories
• Chrominance Noise
• Aurora Camera Accessory Kit • Know Your Camera
✦ Side Bar: Some accessory equipment
Section 7:2 | Preparing Your Lens
• What to Look for in a Head Lamp ✦ Side Bar: Lens preparation quick list
• Loupe • Remove Your Lens Filter
• Remote Release Options • Turn Off Image Stabilization
• Third Party Firmware • Use the Camera’s Lens Hood
Chapter 7 - Preparing Your Camera Gear • Achieving Critical Focus
Section 7:1 | Preparing Your Camera • Pre-focus using autofocus
• Focus Using Live View
✦ Side Bar: Camera settings quick list
• Using Filters to Aid in Live View Focusing
• Basic Camera Settings • Star Filter
• Set the Histogram to RGB • SharpStar2 Filter
• Set the Date and Time • A Final Note About Focusing
• Turn On Highlight Warning
Chapter 8 - In the Field
• Cover the LED Card-Writing Light
• Set Quality to RAW or RAW + JPEG Section 8:1 | Working in the Dark
• WB, Color Temperature and Picture Style ✦ Side Bar: Preparing for the dark
• LCD Display Brightness • Preserving Night Vision

• Drive Mode • Looking Through the Viewfinder
• Metering Mode • Light Leak through the Viewfinder
• Exposure Mode • Make Mounting Lenses Easier
• When to Use Aperture Priority Mode • Avoid Lens Hood Vignetting
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres vi

Table of Contents
• Mark Remote Shutter Release Button • Long Exposure Noise Reduction

• Headlamp Etiquette • Long Exposure Battery Consumption
• Side Bar: When using your headlamp • Star Trail Exposure Time Examples
Section 8:2 | Lens Focal Length
Chapter 9 - Wrapping Up
✦ Side Bar: Lens focal length
• Selecting the Correct Focal Length Section 9:1 | Aurora Pre-flight

✤ 35mm Equivalent Lens Focal Length Per Sensor Size (Diagram) • Aurora Photography Quick Review
Section 8:3 | Composing the Aurora Section 9:2 | Aurora Photo Checklist
✦ Composing the Aurora • Aurora Quick Review List
• Composing the Aurora • Before you Go
• Utilizing the Foreground • Gear
• Bring the Aurora to the Ground • Camera
• Ambient Light and Composition • Lens
• F/Stop and Depth of Field Section 9:3 | Aurora Apps and Resources
✤ Closest sharp object using infinity focus (Diagram)
• Resources for Aurora Photography
Section 8:4 | Taking the Picture • Photography Websites
✦ Side Bar: Throughout the night
• Aurora Information Websites
• Check Your Horizon • Books
• Take Periodic Test Shots • Smartphone Apps
• Reposition Frequently Section 9:4 | Good Luck
• Check Your Lens for Frost ✦ Side Bar: Have fun, be safe
• Don’t Forget to Check Your Battery Level • May the Aurora be with you
• Be Mindful of Light Pollution • Share this eBook
• Avoid the Wind • Patrick’s Network
• Use Two Cameras
Section 9:5 | Diagram Quick Reference
Section 8:5 | Photographing Star Trails
✤ Average sky conditions in Fairbanks, Alaska
• Star Trails and the Aurora ✤ Exposure values for average aurora brightness
• Shutter Speed and Focal Length ✤ Histogram examples for proper exposure
• Dark Skies and Light ✤ 35mm equivalent lens focal length per sensor size
• Excluding Star Trails ✤ Closest in focus object using infinity focus
✤ The 500 Rule (Chart) ✤ 500 rule time to avoid star trails
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres vii

Table of Contents
✤ Planetary Kp-Index chart
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres viii

Text and photography by Patrick J. Endres
Contributing author: Neal Brown 
Copy editor: Kelly Bell 
Third Edition: March, 2015  
v3.6, updated Sept. 19, 2016
© 2015 www.alaskaphotographics.com.
No part of this publication may be copied or
reproduced without the publisher’s written permission.
ISBN 978-1-62209-717-3
ix
Ab!t " Au#ors
Patrick J. Endres: Photographer Neal Brown: Scientist

Lured north by a quest for Neal Brown came to Fairbanks
adventure and wilderness, in 1963 to undertake graduate
Patrick J. Endres came to studies of the aurora borealis at
Fairbanks, Alaska in 1981. Since the world-famous Geophysical
then, he has extensively trekked, Institute of the University of
explored, and photographed Alaska Fairbanks. He remained
Alaska's wild spaces. As an there as a researcher/scientist
established professional for 47 years before retiring. He
photographer and guide, he was director of Poker Flat
continues to document Alaska's Research Range 1971 to 1989,
dynamic natural world. For taught science for non-science
nearly 20 years he has guided Photo by Hugh Rose majors, initiated several Photo by Fran Brown
photo enthusiasts through the state, with a current emphasis on education-outreach programs while at UAF, and was director of
northern lights photography. the State of Alaska Space Grant Program from 2002 to 2008.
Patrick is one of Alaska’s most prominently published nature During his 49-year career, Neal has taught for a number of
photographers. His work has appeared in National Wildlife, USA education programs, such as Elderhostel and the Osher Life
Today, Time, Sierra, Natural History, Audubon, The Washington Long Learning Institute, and he has appeared on several national
Post, Newsweek, National Geographic Explorer, Outside, and television programs, including Discovery Channel, Newton’s
numerous other publications and calendars. In 2003, he was Apple, and Good Morning America. He is currently the director of
featured in the book The World's Top Photographers: Landscape. Alaska Science Explained (alaskascience.com).
See more of Patrick’s work at alaskaphotographics.com.
x
Foreword
When I step outside of my Fairbanks home into the clear, dark night understanding some information about aurora activity. I’ve come
and gaze at the shimmering lights in the north and a gossamer to enjoy our interaction, as Patrick is the consummate aurora
curtain of light, stretching from east to west, fills the subarctic sky photographer, and I am someone who tries to explain the
that held only stars a few moments ago, I know from experience science of the aurora to the non-scientist.
that good aurora displays are likely to build up later in the night.
Patrick’s wonderfully informative book is well illustrated with
My longtime fascination with the aurora has also involved many of his beautiful aurora pictures to show you the type of
photography, with varying degrees of success. When I first came results you might get, with a little practice and luck. He
to Fairbanks in 1963, I used to wait days for my processed film addresses complex topics in a way that’s easy to understand,
to be returned to learn from the results. Before I bought my first and his book will be with me as I travel to scenic locations and
digital camera, I made many queries about cameras, and spent continue to take my own pictures of the aurora.
hours searching the Internet for information on photographing
the aurora and processing the digital images. Along the way, I While I enjoy photographing the aurora, when it really flares up—
discovered Patrick Endres’ website (alaskaphotographics.com), full of dynamic movement and bright colors—I’ve been known to
although I had long admired his photos. I learned that he not stop my car and lie down beside the road to watch. While you’ll
only takes great pictures, but he also blogs and leads learn how to capture images of aurora using information in this
photography expeditions to help others with their photographic book, I hope sometimes you’ll just lie down and enjoy the show.
efforts.
Neal Brown
In my experience, using a digital camera, while seemingly Director, Alaska Science Explained 
simpler, can have great complexity and a frustrating learning (alaskascience.com)
curve. I asked Patrick about common problems when
photographing aurora, and he asked for my help in
xi
A Note from Pat$ck
While photography may be a gift, its gift back to me has questions I’ve been asked over the years on how to
been the many things I’ve learned as I’ve followed its photograph the aurora led me to make this book. Much
process. I’ve experienced not only the outward of the information is specific to camera models that will
discovery of sights and sounds of majestic lands, but continue to change and evolve, but the crux of the
also the inward discovery of myself, life, and art. I’ve advice should remain true for digital photography as we
been a student of that story process for more than 20 know it today.
years of my professional photography career, and I’m
continually reminded that the gift of photography I hope that by sharing my
requires more than what my eyes see. experience and knowledge,
you will learn to capture your
Alaska’s epic landscape includes many natural wonders, own photos of this intriguing and
and the aurora borealis is one difficult to rival. For mysterious subject.
decades, I’ve photographed that elusive subject and
guided photo tours filled with enthusiasts in pursuit of
capturing it with their own cameras. The many
Photo by Amy Johnson xii

Chapter 1
Aurora
Science and
Forecasts
Today’s sophisticated space science,
combined with Internet access to current
solar data, provides photographers with
a wealth of helpful information about
aurora activity.
13
16 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 24mm f/1.4 Rokinon)
Way Back Then
The first time I photographed the aurora, in my hand preliminary test results, I’d make comments to tweak the
was a 35mm film camera, and in my mind was little final processing. My, how things have changed. The
knowledge about how to go about it. Photography trade reality is, however, that “way back then” was not that
secrets were held tightly back then and detailed, how-to long ago. Although I made an early transition from film to
information was nowhere to be found. That was before digital, the digital revolution swept through the industry
the Internet, when there were no aurora forecast charts with a force and pace beyond my wildest prediction.
or space weather websites to guide you. The Today’s digital cameras, combined with the electronic
photographic experience was largely one of trial and information age, have propelled aurora photography.
error—and a good dose of the latter! Choosing the right Space weather and aurora science is as fascinating and
film type and processing technique was critical. After a accessible as digital cameras are sophisticated. With
photo excursion, I’d send the film to a professional lab these resources at your fingertips, it is a fun time to be a
for processing. Weeks later, after reviewing the photographer on the quest for the northern lights.
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres 14

Chapter 1 ❖ Section 1
Aurora
Science
“I think I'll just
let the mystery be.”

~ Iris Dement
15
13 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 1250 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14-24mm f/2.8 Nikon)
1 ❖ 1 Aurora Science
Understanding the Aurora

Neal ’s Notes
It was only 100 years ago that scientists discovered that the sun was responsible
for the aurora. We have come a long way in our understanding of space science
Director, Alaska Science Explained
since then. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Heliophysics Research Division has made significant efforts in trying to better
WHAT CAUSES THE AURORA? understand the sun and its effects on Earth. Scientists have engaged in
The aurora are caused by solar storms that collaborative efforts to monitor how, why and when solar storms happen, and we
throw huge numbers of fast-moving aurora photographers benefit from the knowledge they share.
electrons and protons away from the sun in
a twisting mass of electric and magnetic
fields. These microscopic particles typically
take two days to travel the 150 million
kilometers from the sun to Earth.
These energetic electrons and protons
initially move past Earth for several
thousands of miles before traveling back
along Earth’s magnetic field lines into
Earth’s atmosphere. Then, through a
process similar to that of a neon sign, they
collide with the atoms and molecules of
Earth’s atmosphere to create the light we
call the aurora. Not all solar storms produce
aurora. Only if the solar storm’s magnetic
field couples with Earth’s magnetic field, do
we have a chance to see auroras. Figure 1.1
Illustration of a coronal mass ejection solar storm hurling microscopic charged particles from the
sun’s surface. Particles are carried along the solar wind and typically take two days to reach
Earth’s atmosphere. If they collide with Earth’s inner magnetosphere we see auroras.

Space Weather and the Aurora

SPACE WEATHER DEFINITIONS
What we refer to as “space weather” occurs when a solar storm on the sun’s
❖ Solar Cycle: An 11-year cycle during surface ejects electromagnetic particles through space that interact with Earth’s
which the sun produces sunspots and
magnetosphere. Studying this is important because the impact of powerful solar
solar storms.
storms on Earth can be serious and adversely affect our communication systems.
❖ Sunspot: Dark, cooler areas on the solar
surface that contain strong, constantly
These negative effects can be especially more perilous today due to our increasing
shifting magnetic fields. reliance on and integration with the digital and electronic age.
❖ Solar Storms: There are two kinds of
solar storms that can result in ejected
particles that travel close to the speed of
light. Storms peak during the solar
maximum.
• Coronal Mass Ejection (CME): Figure 1.2
Explosive outbursts of plasma from the This beautiful collage of
sun’s outer atmosphere. The plasma solar images from
expands to more than 30 million miles NASA's Solar Dynamics
by the time it reaches Earth. Observatory (SDO)
• Solar Flare: Huge explosions on the shows how
observations of the sun
sun, typically lasting minutes or hours.
in different wavelengths
❖ Solar Wind: A stream of charged particles helps highlight different
(a plasma) released from the upper aspects of the sun's
atmosphere of the sun, consisting mostly surface and
of electrons and protons. atmosphere. (The
❖ Interplanetary Magnetic Field: The sun’s collage also includes
images from other SDO
magnetic field carried by the solar wind
instruments that display
among the planets of the Solar System.
magnetic and Doppler
information.)
NASA/SDO/Goddard Space Flight Center

The Sun and Aurora Science

In recent years a sophisticated fleet of spacecraft and satellites have been
deployed to monitor the sun and Earth environments. These exploratory craft
transmit real-time solar wind and geomagnetic information back to Earth. Thanks
to digital photography, they also capture images from space that offer views and
observational data of the aurora never before seen. All of this information has
helped further our understanding of the aurora and space science in general.
However, the world’s leading space scientists still say that there is a lot we don’t
understand about the aurora and how to predict their occurrence. But one thing is
AURORA FACTS clear, the sun is responsible for the aurora displays that are so popularly sought
❖ The term “aurora borealis” is derived from

the word Aurora, the Roman goddess of
the dawn, and boreas, the Greek name for
wind of the north.
❖ Aurora appear on other planets besides
Earth.
❖ The aurora can cause interference with
radio, television and other communication
systems on Earth.
❖ The aurora appear most frequently
between 60-200 miles (96-320 km) above
Earth.
❖ The colors of the aurora are the result of a
collision with different types of gas
particles.
NASA
Figure 1.3
Clouds and the aurora, as seen from the International Space Station over the Gulf of Alaska.

after by space enthusiasts, aurora viewers and photographers alike. A complicated

series of circumstances cause these events to happen, but the larger solar storms
Neal ’s Notes that make the most dramatic and colorful aurora displays visible in more southerly
Director, Alaska Science Explained latitudes tend to occur around the peak of the 11-year sunspot cycle (Figure 1.5).
Thanks to ground based data stations and orbiting spacecraft that send back data,
we have current space science measurements to look at. This data is analyzed and
THE 11-YEAR SOLAR CYCLE
interpreted on a number of websites that offer aurora photographers some
The gigantic electric and magnetic sun
guidance in timing their quest.
storms that create the aurora follow an 11-
year cycle of activity, with the current peak
occurring in 2013. It is an 11-year cycle (or
half of a 22-year cycle) because sunspots
appear in pairs with a signature of
magnetically "north" or magnetically "south."
At the end of 11 years, the spots switch
their signature from "south" to "north" (or
vice versa) and begin a new solar cycle.The
11 year sun cycle is not always exact and
throughout history it has seen periods of
significant variation.
NASA Marshal SpaceFlight Center

Wikipedia
Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5
Historical variations in the sun cycle. NOAA Solar Physics Marshall Space Flight Center prediction for Sunspot
Cycle 24.

SOTERIA Flare Predictor Tool
NASA
FACTS ABOUT THE SUN

❖ If the sun was hollow, Earth would fit
333,000 times inside its mass.
❖ The sun’s core temperature is about 27
million degrees (F),15 million degrees (C).
❖ Solar wind travels about 1 million miles per
hour.
❖ Sunspots can be several times the
diameter of Earth.
❖ Solar flares have three classifications:
• C-Class: Small
• M-Class: Medium
• X-Class: Large
SOTERIA Flare Predictor SOTERIA
❖
Figure 1.6
An interactive map provides links to plots of sunspot groups and flaring probabilities for C, M and
X flares.

NASA
SUN-EARTH OBSERVING SPACECRAFT

❖ ACE: Advanced Composition Explorer
❖ SOHO: Solar & Heliospheric Observatory
❖ POES: Polar-orbiting Operational
Environmental Satellite
❖ VOYAGER 1 & 2: NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory
❖ TRACE: Transition Region and Coronal
Explorer
❖ SAMPEX: Solar Anomalous and
Magnetospheric Particle Explorer
❖ ULYSSES
❖ IMAGE: Imager for Magnetopause-to-
Aurora Global Exploration NASA
Figure 1.7
❖ WIND Spacecraft Artist rendition of the fleet of Sun-Earth observing spacecraft operated by NASA and its
partners. These spacecraft take sophisticated measurements that help us understand the aurora.

World Space Weather Science

There are many different organizations around the world
that collect and share space weather data. The
International Space Environment Service (ISES) is a
collaborative network of space weather service-providing
organizations around the globe. Each of the member
affiliates have websites with space weather data worth
exploring. The collective collaboration and information
ISES
contributed by these organizations have helped us
INTERNATIONAL SPACE ENVIRONMENT understand and forecast potential aurora activity.
SERVICE AFFILIATES
Figure 1.8
“Our mission is to improve, to coordinate, and to deliver
China (Beijing)  International Space
USA (Boulder)  operational space weather services. ISES is organized Environment Service
Russia (Moscow)  and operated for the benefit of the international space
Canada (Ottawa)  weather user community.”
Czech Republic (Prague) 
Japan (Tokyo) 
Australia (Sydney)  “A data exchange schedule operates with each center providing and relaying data
Sweden (Lund)  to the other centers. The center in Boulder, Colorado, USA, plays a special role as
Belgium (Brussels) 
‘World Warning Agency’, acting as a hub for data exchange and forecasts. The
Poland (Warsaw) 
South Africa (Hermanus)  data exchanged are highly varied in nature and in format, ranging from simple
South Korea (Jeju)  forecasts or coded information up to more complicated information such as
Brazil (São José dos Campos)  images. An important strength of the data exchange system is that members often
The European Space Agency (Noordwijk) 
have access to data from unique instrumentation available from the scientific
France (Toulouse) 
community in its region. Exchange through ISES makes these data available to the
wider international scientific and user community.”

Aurora
Forecasts
“A photograph is 
usually looked at, 
seldom looked into.”
~ Ansel Adams
23
1 ❖ 2 Aurora Forecasts
Understanding Aurora Forecasts

Neal ’s Notes
Much of the data collected from the Sun-Earth orbiting spacecraft that provide
scientists with the information to make aurora forecasts is complex and beyond the
average layperson’s scientific grasp. But by referencing some simple graphs and
understanding a few terms, a photographer can use current space weather
information with some degree of success to determine if, and when, the aurora
CAN WE PREDICT THE AURORA?
may be visible. Remember, however, that these are predictions based on forecast
We cannot accurately predict when aurora
models and not guarantees. The more current and real-time the data, generally, the
will occur on Earth. However, NOAA and
more accurate it is.
others publish online records of solar activity
compared with historical information over
the last 400 years. Types of Forecasts
From these records, we can predict how If you are planning to photograph the aurora, it’s helpful to get familiar with the
close we are to the most active sun storms, available forecasts. I live in the far north, near the auroral belt, where the aurora can
based on the current solar cycle. The storms
be seen about 250 nights of the year if the skies are clear. Visibility is reduced
originate well below the visible surface of the
considerably in more southern latitudes, so forecast information becomes even
sun and can’t be seen until they pop out to
the outer layers of the sun, where we can more helpful there. The forecasts fall into three general categories:
then use many kinds of instruments to
diagnose what that storm consists of and • Long-term forecasts look ahead a number of weeks, for example: the 27-day
what it might do. solar cycle.
Using instruments aboard the broad array of
Sun-Earth orbiting space craft we can now • Short-term forecasts range from one to three days, since that is the
approximate time that it takes particles ejected from the sun to reach Earth. If
estimate the energy of these sun storms and
a large explosion happens on the sun and is headed toward Earth, we can be
determine if the solar storm will get to Earth
on alert for possible aurora activity. Large Solar events don’t always result in
and result in aurora.
visible aurora, as discussed later in the section.

• Current conditions reference real-time space weather data. Some are based
on averages taken over minutes or a few hours. These forecasts help further
Neal ’s Notes refine the probability of aurora.
27-Day Solar Cycle

THE 27-DAY SOLAR CYCLE Let’s start by looking at a long-term forecast model called the 27-day solar cycle.
The solar storms that create the aurora Because specific active areas of the sun discharge particles that produce the
often last several Earth months, with aurora, the 27-day solar
auroras that recur every 27 days. The 27-
rotation cycle makes long-term
day solar cycle is because the sun turns on
its axis once every 24 Earth days. predictions fairly reliable,
presuming that the same
For example, a spot on the sun's face
rotates once every 24 Earth days until it
active areas on the sun in the
again faces Sirius, the dog star. But Earth previous rotation cycle, remain
orbits the sun once each 365 days. So in active in the next cycle. For
24 Earth days, Earth will have moved its example: If you know that
orbit such that the sun needs to rotate the there was a strong solar event
equivalent of 3 more Earth days for the
on a specific night, it’s likely
stormy spot on the sun to again line up with
Earth.
that solar activity may happen
again 27 days later. These
Why the aurora recur on a 27-day schedule
was a mystery until astronauts obtained
predictions are not
images of the sun storms in ultraviolet light guaranteed, and they vary in
that is absorbed by Earth’s lower accuracy, but calendar-based,
Shutterstock
atmosphere. Today, satellites regularly long-term predictions can at Figure 1.9
provide ultraviolet images of solar storms. Sunspots line up with Earth every 27 days, based on the
least serve as a general guide
sun’s 24-day rotation and Earth’s orbit of the sun once
in your planning. They can each 365 days.

later be refined by more calculated short-term predictions and to current space weather data, then your odds of success
current, real-time space weather data. While the long-term increase by watching current aurora forecast indices.
forecast is probably the least reliable, it is still worth noting since
aurora photography excursions often require advanced planning Short-term Forecasts and Current Data
because not everyone has the luxury to respond flexibly to the To understand and interpret the short-term and current forecast
most current data. Spaceweather.gc.ca presents a long-term data, there are some terms and graphic charts you should be
forecast model based on three geographic zones, and quantifies familiar with. While there is world-wide collaboration in collecting
geomagnetic field disturbance in four levels (Figures 1.10 and and sharing space weather data, how the data is presented may
1.11). If you have a flexible schedule that allows you to respond
Space Weather Canada Space Weather Canada

Space Weather Canada shows geomagnetic field disturbance by three Space Weather Canada plots a 27-day forecast with geomagnetic field
geographic zones: Polar Cap, Auroral Zone and Sub-Auroral Zone. disturbance measured in four levels.

vary slightly based on the agency that reports it and the degree of
shared data used in generating the chart or graph.
Figure 1.12
Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) and Bz 15-minute average

from real-time solar
Although solar storms ultimately cause the aurora, not all solar wind data from
storms produce viewable aurora. A few things need to coincide NASA's ACE
satellite.
for this to occur. One important factor is the direction of the
interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). This refers to the solar
magnetic field that comes to Earth from the sun by the solar
wind. Why is this so important in predicting aurora activity?
Because it is only when the magnetic fields from Earth and the
Bz
sun couple that we get auroras. Scientists call the component of
the sun’s nearby magnetic field “Bz.” Only negative (or south-
pointing) Bz, open a door through which energy from the solar
wind can reach Earth’s inner magnetosphere and create the
aurora. The direction of Bz is shown visually in a dial (Figure 1.12)
and a graph (Figure1.13), plotted over a six-hour period from the
Density
ACE Satellite, located 1.5 million kilometers from Earth! Look for a
strong negative, or south pointing, Bz reading. The more negative Speed
the better.
Solar Wind Speed and Density

Other factors to monitor are the density and speed of the solar
NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center
wind (Figures 1.13 and 1.14 next page). The speed of the solar Figure 1.13
wind is variable, but the average velocity is around 400 km/s, with (Advanced Composition Explorer) Space Weather Prediction Center shows
real-time solar wind data in a variety of 6-hour time plots.

a density around 5 ions (protons)/cm3. It tends to be highest in

Planetary Kp-index
early March and September but ramps up during major solar
The Kp-index is an average based on global geomagnetic data
events. The higher these numbers are, the better indication for
gathered from multiple locations around the world. It predicts the
aurora activity. Another presentation of the data referenced on
probable southern edge of an aurora display, based on
the previous page is given at spaceweatherlive.com (Figure 1.14).
geomagnetic latitude (Figure 1.15). The scale goes from zero to
There are many websites similar to this which organize the data
nine. The higher the number, the farther south one might expect
slightly differently.
Kp-index activity levels per geomagnetic latitude

Lat. Kp Cities by approximate geomagnetic latitude
66.5 0 Churchill, MB, Canada / Tromso, Norway
64.5 1 Reykjavik, Iceland / Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
62.4 2 Kemi, Finland / Kiruna, Sweden
60.4 3 Anchorage, Alaska, USA / Providenya, Russia
58.3 4 Trondheim, Norway / Edmonton, AB, Canada
56.3 5 Helsinki, Finland / Quebec City, Canada
54.2 6 Minneapolis, MN, USA / Toronto, Canada
52.2 7 Moscow, Russia / Copenhagen, Denmark
50.1 8 Newcastle, England / Christchurch, NZ
48.1 9 Denver, CO, USA / Berlin, DE / Melbourne, AU
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.14 Once you know your magnetic latitude, reference aurora forecasts to see
Screenshot from spaceweatherlive.com that shows a slightly different what the current Kp-index is. If the level corresponds to your latitude there is
graphical representation of the IMF and Solar Wind data. good probability for aurora.

to see the aurora. On NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center website this is
shown as both a bar plot (Figure 1.16) and a magnetic latitude map (Figures 1.17
and 1.18). For example: For the aurora to be visible in Northern Wisconsin, a Kp-
index of 5 is necessary, but for Fairbanks, AK, a Kp-index of only 1 is necessary.
Remember, these are geomagnetic latitudes and not geographic latitudes. They are
calculated from the geomagnetic North Pole that is 11.5 degrees off from the
geographic North Pole. Be sure to reference your area using the list of cities (Figure
1.15) or the magnetic latitude map provided by NOAA to get a corrected magnetic
latitude.
NASA
AURORA INFORMATION RESOURCES

❖ UAF Geophysical Institute: Alaska long-
and short-term aurora predictions.
❖ Solar Ham: A great collection of real-time
K < 4 
Northern Wisconsin, USA (little magnetic change)
aurora information.
Southern Finland
❖ NOAA POES: Polar-orbiting Operational K = 4 
Environmental Satellite. Central Sweden (moderate magnetic change)
❖ SpaceWeatherLive.com: Real-time plots Fairbanks, AK
of aurora activity, aurora alert email. K > 4 
❖ Space Weather Prediction Center:  (storm warning)
Space weather related subjects.
❖ NOAA Ovation website: 30-40 minute
location-based aurora forecasts.
❖ Alaska Aurora Cam: Updated every 30
seconds. Figure 1.16
The estimated 3-hour planetary Kp-index graph is derived from data taken from ground-based
magnetometers around the world. It updates dynamically every 5 minutes on the NOAA website.

Kp-Index Map for North America
Figure 1.17 Kp-index web map for North America

The Kp-index map for North America shows the predicted southern edge of the visible aurora based on the local midnight average
equatorial boundary. Reference your latitude against the current predicted Kp-index value of a solar storm to know if the aurora will be
visible in your region.

NOAA Space Environment Center
Kp-Index Map for Eurasia

Figure 1.18 Kp-index web map for Eurasia
The Kp-index map for Eurasia shows the predicted southern edge of the visible aurora based on the local midnight average equatorial
boundary. Reference your latitude against the current predicted Kp-index value of a solar storm to know if the aurora will be visible in
your region.

NOAA Space Environment Center
North America or Europe, and indicates the general latitudinal

University of Alaska Geophysical Institute
range where the aurora may be visible.
The Geophysical Institute in Fairbanks, Alaska shows short-term
and long-term aurora predictions in a map that overlays Alaska,
University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute

University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute
UAF Geophysical Institute publishes map-based projections of aurora UAF Geophysical Institute map shows the time-based position of the auroral oval
activity for Alaska, North America and Europe. in the northern hemisphere.

SWEP Ovation Prime Model

The Ovation Prime Model provides 30-40 minute forecasts of
probable auroral displays, updated every 30 seconds. Ovation is
driven by real-time solar wind and interplanetary magnetic field
information from the Advanced Composition Explorer satellite.
NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center & National Geophysical Data Center
Figure 1.22
Ovation model screen shot from the 2015 St. Patrick’s Day aurora storm,
one of the strongest in 2015.
The ovation model in Figure 1.22 represents what the 2015 St.
Patrick’s Day aurora storm looked like. The red coloring indicates
maximum possibility for aurora viewing. If you ever see anything
like this, it is time to grab your camera and run outside!
Aurora Web Cams

Other than stepping outside of your own door to look at the sky,
it’s hard to get more current than a real-time web cam of the
aurora. Here are a few, but be aware that camera malfunctions
Figure 1.21 NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center & National Geophysical Data Center are common.
The Ovation image shows probable aurora location and brightness.

• Aurora Max Camera: Yellowknife, Canada

• Alaska Aurora Cam: near Fairbanks, AK
Aurora Alerts
A number of websites and applications offer email or text alerts
for possible aurora activity. This is an example alert from the UAF
Geophysical Institute, sent when the Kp-index is 4 or greater:
“An unusual solar event occurred on Sept 30th. The effects of this
event should reach Earth in approximately 24 hours from this
message. How large and persistent these effects will be is not known.
Alaska Aurora Cam
Watch the "short term forecast" for the increase in auroral activity that
Figure 1.23
may occur in your sector.”
Screen capture from Alaska Aurora Cam near Fairbanks, Alaska
This is another example from Softserve News, which uses an

Ovation model based on the subscriber’s exact location:
“This is an Aurora Alert from Soft Serve News.
For Latitude: 46.692, Longitude: -94.462 (Walden, MN, USA) . . .
In 26 minutes the chance of a visible Aurora will be 58 %.
See the GPS Ovation Map.”
Many of the aurora resource websites also have social media

accounts, like Facebook or Twitter. If you use these platforms for
information, you may follow their account for time sensitive
information, alters and updates.
AuroraMax
Figure 1.24
Screen capture from AuroraMax, Yellowknife, Canada

Figure 1.25 Figure 1.26 Figure 1.27

Aurora alert on AuroraMax Facebook. Updates posted on Twitter Aurora Forecast app screenshot.
For example:
Forecast Data
• Aurora Max Facebook (facebook.com/AuroraMAX)
These aurora forecast models and information websites are
• Aurora Max Twitter (twitter.com/auroramax)
wonderful examples of how complex and detailed data can be
• Solarham Facebook (facebook.com/SolarHam)
presented in a visual and understandable fashion. Many of the
• Solarham Twitter (twitter.com/solarham)
resources discussed in this section are also available as
• NOAA SWPC Facebook (facebook.com/NWSSWPC)
smartphone applications. Figure 1.27 shows a screen shot of the
• Spaceweather Twitter (twitter.com/spaceweather)
Aurora Forecast app, which presents some of the aurora data

discussed previously. See Chapter 9:3 for additional smartphone
apps that provide space weather data. If you live in a southern
latitude farther from the aurora belt and you are waiting for the
aurora to come to you, then monitoring this real-time space
information is great help in targeting a specific time or night.
In Summary
Great technical assistance from aurora forecast information is
only one aspect to increase your success with aurora
photography. Experience has taught me that getting out and
being in the field for periods of time is the critical part. Successful
aurora photography often requires more than a one-night
attempt. Luck may happen occasionally, but it doesn’t produce
on a consistent basis. Other factors, such as specific location,
weather, equipment and technique, are important as well, and I
discuss them in the following chapters.

Aurora Colors
“Color speaks all
languages.”
~ Joseph Addison
37
1 ❖ 3 Aurora Colors
Color and the Aurora

Neal ’s Notes
When the solar wind collides with Earth’s atmospheric atoms and ions, a bright
light occurs. After the collision, the excited electron returns to its original energy
level and emits a wavelength of light that we see as color. The color is determined
by the atmospheric gas at altitude, (mainly atomic oxygen and nitrogen), its
THE AURORA COLORS electrical state, and the energy of the particle that hits the gas. The colors of the
The colors of the aurora change depending aurora are made up of red, blue and green light emissions. Other colors may be
on which sun storm electrons and protons seen as a mixture, or blending, of the three.
collide with which atoms and molecules in
Earth’s atmosphere.
The typical human eye can see wavelengths from about 430 to 790 nm and has a
The green light and the deep, broad red
maximum sensitivity around 555 nm, which, interestingly, is the same wavelength
color that often occur high in aurora appear
as the green-colored aurora. Atomic oxygen causes the two most common aurora
when electrons collide with atoms of atomic
oxygen. colors of green, 557.7 nm (O plus high-energy electrons) and red, 630.0 nm (O plus
low-energy electrons). Nitrogen (N2) causes the blues (470 nm) and reds (600-700
The bluish-tinged vertical rays in the aurora
appear when electrons impact singly ionized nm). Other lighter gases high in the ionosphere, such as hydrogen and helium, can
molecules of nitrogen. contribute colors but they are less visible to the naked eye.
The brighter lower borders of some aurora

appear when electrons impact molecules of
nitrogen and oxygen, and may briefly appear
Nitrogen (N2) Oxygen (O) Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N2)
magenta in color.
A faint broad band of blue that runs from
magnetic east to west, and just south of the Figure 1.28
greenish aurora, appears when protons
Color wavelength chart in nanometers. Some of the aurora colors, such as the deep reds occur
impact hydrogen atoms in Earth’s high on the very outer edges of the color spectrum and are difficult for the human eye to see.
upper atmosphere. Cameras can capture those colors much better, which is why your pictures reveal colors that you
can’t see with your naked eye.

1 ❖ 3 Aurora Colors e
Red Light
Altitude and Aurora Colors (630 nm) e

O
The aurora occur most frequently from 60 to 200 miles (100 to e
60-200 mi (100-320 km)

320 km) above Earth. Because the composition of atmospheric O + low-energy  
electrons
gases varies depending on their distance from Earth’s surface,
O e
altitude also influences aurora color. For example: Atomic oxygen O
is more common in higher altitudes, so the red aurora typically + high-energy  
O electrons
appear above the green aurora (Image 1.3). Green is commonly
seen with the human eye, and captured with the camera, but we e O
Blue Light
don’t see reds very well because they are on the edge of the
(470 nm)
human eye’s perception. Camera sensors can capture reds much
N2
e Green Light  
better than we can. Some of the other colors we see in the aurora (557.7 nm)
displays are mixtures of other light emission colors. For example,
N2
purple is a blend of the red and blue emissions from the Nitrogen
Red Light
atoms. O (600-700 nm)
60 mi (100 km)
When evaluating an aurora picture on my camera’s LCD display,
I’m often shocked by the colors I see there that were not visible
to my naked eye. If you can see even the faintest bit of color with
the human eye, the camera captures a much more vibrant color.
I’ve learned to shoot test shots often, even if the aurora is not
particularly active or apparently colorful to your eyes; you may be
Earth
surprised by what you find in the final image. See the colorful
collage of pictures from aurora displays on the next page (Image
1.1). Diagram 1.1
The aurora colors of red, green and blue light occur at different altitudes due to
the presence of different atmospheric gases.

The Colors of the Aurora
Image 1.1 Examples of the colorful aurora taken from crops of larger photos. 40
15 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 1000 (Canon EOS 5D Mark III, 14-24mm f/2.8 Nikon)
Image 1.2 Green arcs are the most commonly observed color of the aurora. 41
Image 1.3 Red auroras, resulting from Atomic oxygen and low-energy electrons, occur at a higher altitude and, therefore, appear 42
above the green colors.
Image 1.4 I could barely see the deep red color in this scene, but the camera could. Colors in this wavelength spectrum are on 43
the outer limits of what human eyes perceive.
Image 1.5 Light green is the color most commonly observed with the naked eye. 44
Image 1.6 During strong solar storms, the coronal displays that occur directly overhead reveal an array of colors caused by the 45
overlapping of red, blue and green light.
Image 1.7 Shafts of violet and purple against a blue sky as late spring daylight emanates from the north. 46
Image 1.8 While green is the most common aurora color, brilliant magentas, reds and violets occur during strong solar storms. 47
Aurora Shapes
“I paint with shapes.”

~ Alexander Calder
48
1 ❖ 4 Aurora Shapes
Aurora Shapes and Movement

Neal ’s Notes
While aurora shapes vary from night to night, they do follow a general range of
movement that is somewhat predictable, and the types of shapes can be
recognizable. Because of this it is possible to some degree to anticipate aurora
action and movement, although it’s less obvious to a novice. Where the aurora are
AURORA SHAPES located in the night sky also changes their appearance, much the way curtains
Most often, the aurora appear as hanging
curtains of light that are aligned from east to
west along Earth’s magnetic field lines. As
the evening progresses, the aurora brightens
and develops vertical rays caused by
electrical currents that flow down the
magnetic field lines. As these currents get
larger, huge folds develop that resemble
Greek omega letters. Scientists have
determined mechanisms for some of these
configurations but are still trying to formulate
a clear explanation for the general public.
5 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 24mm f/1.4 Canon)
Figure 1.29
Swirling aurora bends and twists in curtain-like folds over the Brooks Range mountains.

1 ❖ 4 Aurora Shapes
hanging in a window look different if you view them from an oblique angle or from
underneath. The aurora shapes appear differently depending on the angle from
Neal ’s Notes which they are viewed. These shapes have descriptive names, whether they be a
Director, Alaska Science Explained homogenous arc, rayed arc or corona. See Dr. Syun-Ichi Akasofu’s book The
Northern Lights: Secrets of the Aurora Borealis for further explanation on this topic
and to familiarize yourself with the types of aurora shapes and when they occur
CORONAL AURORA
during the course of an average auroral display.
A completely awesome optical illusion are
aurora that look like they are coming out of a
single point in the sky. These are called
coronal aurora because each ray of the
aurora is centered on a magnetic field line.
The outer edges of these rays are 100
kilometers above Earth.
So when you follow each ray to the center,
it’s the same optical illusion as looking at
railroad tracks that seem to narrow as they
disappear into the distance.
Figure 1.30
Coronal displays occur directly overhead and are often a challenge to photograph because it
requires shooting straight up, and they often appear and move quickly. A tall tripod is helpful.

8 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 500 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 24mm f/1.4)
Image 1.9 The aurora often begins as a broad arc spanning from northwest to northeast across the northern sky. 51
Image 1.10 As the night progresses, the aurora begin bending in arcs and curtain-like shapes. 52
25 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 16-35mm f/2.8)
Image 1.11 Aurora shapes “breaking up.” This disruption in the arc shapes occurs most often near magnetic or solar midnight. 53
Image 1.12 A very short exposure of 2 seconds helps capture all of the moving shapes in this auroral corona. 54
Image 1.13 Green and violet auroral curtains. 55

Image 1.14 These repeated arcs with a bluish color were not moving quickly and are a less common color. 56
Image 1.15 Aurora curtains in the common green color spectrum. 57

30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 1000 (Canon 5D Mark II, 16-35mm f/2.8)
Image 1.16 Sometimes the aurora appears more milky white or light green. 58
Image 1.17 Swirling circular aurora shapes often occur very quickly and last for short periods of time. 59
Chapter 2
In Search of
the Aurora
Borealis
The quest for the aurora borealis can
take you around the circumpolar world.
Eight countries contain unique
destinations, all in the polar north.
Wherever you choose, your best odds of
photographing the aurora are found in
the aurora belt region.
60
15 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 400 (Canon 1Ds, 17-35mm f/2.8)

The Unending Quest
In late March, high above Alaska’s Arctic circle, I stood in the howling chorus of a pack of wolves. A few minutes
the snow watching the mountain horizon merge with later, I gazed into a star-flecked sky to find faint green
darkness as the final light faded into a cold and silent wisps of the aurora borealis that seemed to appear out
night. Surrounded by miles and miles of both nothing of nowhere. I rushed for my camera, and in those first
and everything, I felt the power and solitude of late-night and early morning hours, I began a pursuit
wilderness; I felt tiny and beautifully alone. My that has yet to end. For more than two decades now,
photography career was young, my enthusiasm high, I’ve chased that celestial magic and spent many
my motivation strong. Sight yielded to sound as my sleepless nights photographing the aurora wonders of
vision faded during that ambiguous moment of changing the night sky. If you are beginning your own quest to
light when you can, and then cannot, define objects any photograph the northern lights, this book will help guide
longer. A great-horned owl called from the spruce- you in that process.
dotted hillside of the Brooks Range, soon followed by

Circumpolar
Destinations
“Every hundred feet,

the world changes.”
~ Roberto Bolaño
62
2 ❖ 1 Circumpolar Destinations
The Polar Auroral Zone

Charged particles in solar wind storms are drawn to Earth’s
northern and southern magnetic poles, where they collide
with the atoms and molecules of Earth’s atmosphere to
generate the aurora. Hovering approximately 60 to 200 Auroral Zone
miles (96 to 320 km) above Earth’s surface, the aurora
appear in curtains of light encircling the pole in a ringed
Geographic Pole
or oval shape. Due to distortions in Earth’s magnetic
field, the magnetic poles are offset by 11.5 degrees Geomagnetic Pole
from the geographic poles, which causes the aurora
oval to be slightly shifted off of geographic center.
The “auroral zone” or “belt” is the region in the

circumpolar north where the aurora borealis can be
seen approximately two-thirds of the year. This region
reaches all eight circumpolar countries. While chances of
seeing the aurora are statistically much greater in the
aurora belt region, it is not necessary to travel all the way
there to see them. During large geomagnetic storms, the
aurora oval expands and the northern lights can be
seen in more southerly latitudes. However, this may
happen on a much more limited frequency. In the
U.S., Alaska is the only state under the aurora belt.
Figure 2.1
The auroral belt encircles the geomagnetic north pole, and in this zone the aurora can be seen
approximately 250 nights a year.

2 ❖ 1 Circumpolar Destinations
THE CIRCUMPOLAR COUNTRIES
All eight of the circumpolar countries are

worthy destinations to photograph the
(USA)
northern lights. Some are easier to access
ALASKA
than others, and they offer a variety of
Fairbanks, AK
topography and climate variations. Cities
with airports provide a starting point to
Whitehorse, YT
explore the surrounding regions.
RUSSIA
LINKS TO AIRPORTS ON GOOGLE MAPS
❖ Canada:   Longyearbyen
Murmansk
via Churchill airport 
via Whitehorse airport GREENLAND Tromso Ivalo
CANADA
Kiruna
❖ Finland: via Ivalo airport
FINLAND
❖ Greenland: via Tasiilaq airport Churchill, MT
❖ Iceland: via Reykjavik airport SWEDEN
ICELAND NORWAY
❖ Norway:  
via Tromso airport  Reykjavik
Tasiilaq
via Longyearbyen airport
❖ Russia: via Murmansk airport
❖ Sweden: via Kiruna airport
❖ United States: via Fairbanks airport
Figure 2.2
These are some of the cities and villages with airports that serve as launching points for aurora
photography in the circumpolar auroral belt region.

Alaska
“To the lover of wilderness,

Alaska is one of the most
wonderful countries 
in the world.”
~ John Muir
65
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
Alaska, the U.S. Destination

Neal ’s Notes
In the United States, Alaska is the clear winner as a northern lights photography
destination because of its proximity to the aurora belt. Additionally, the mountain
landscapes of northern and interior Alaska make outstanding foregrounds for
diverse and interesting photo compositions. In Alaska, the “auroral belt” or “zone”
DESTINATION FAIRBANKS, ALASKA occurs between a 3° to 6° latitudinal range, near 70° N. I live in Fairbanks, Alaska,
Fairbanks, Alaska, offers special advantages
for those who want to see and photograph
aurora. The great east–west stretch of the Aur
ora
Brooks Range to Fairbanks’ north and the bel
Alaska Range to the south, block
t
movements of moist air and clouds. This Wiseman
Coldfoot
gives the interior of Alaska (and Fairbanks in
Fort Yukon
particular) a continental dry, cold climate
and, therefore, frequently clear skies.
The crown of light, the typical oval of aurora,
Delta
hovers around Earth's magnetic poles, and Denali Park
varies in its southernly reach depending on
the strength of solar storms. Most nights,
this puts the northern aurora oval right over
the top of the southern part of the Brooks
Range of Alaska, near Fort Yukon. Aurora
line up on Earth's magnetic latitudes and
longitudes, so when looking for auroras, it’s
Figure 2.3
more important where you are magnetically
Fairbanks, Alaska is located
than geographically.
between two mountain ranges,
with a dry, cold climate and frequent
clear skies.

2 ❖ 2 Alaska
which is situated at latitude 64.8° N, just below the auroral belt,

and offers excellent aurora viewing opportunities. Fairbanks
International Airport provides relatively easy access to perhaps
the best launching place for aurora photography in the United
States.
Aurora Destinations in Alaska

If you are planning to travel to Alaska to photograph the aurora,
your approach should be guided by your goals and expectations.
You can take a short, one-night aurora viewing excursion, or a
longer guided photography tour, or you can explore on your own.
The longer you stay, the greater your odds for seeing and
photographing the aurora. Due to Alaska’s northern latitude, the
climate is cold during the aurora season, and I’ll address clothing
and what time of year to visit in the following sections.
The Fairbanks Area

Whatever you decide to do, flying into the Fairbanks International
Airport is a good start. There are companies for vehicle rental and
many hotel or B&B accommodations to choose from, should you
make Fairbanks your base to explore on your own. By traveling
the paved and fairly well-maintained roads that lead out of town
within a 60 mile radius, you can find plenty of locations that are
suitable for aurora photography. Chena Hot Springs Resort,
which is located along the Chena Hot Springs Road just 65 miles
Image 2.1 30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 320 (Canon 1Ds 17-35mm f/2.8)
Log cabin located about 60 miles north of Fairbanks, Alaska.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
Wiseman
Coldfoot
wy
Bettles
on H
Dalt
Circle
H wy
ese
Ste
ALASKA AURORA LOCATIONS Elli

ot H
wy White Mtns. Chena Hot
❖ Fairbanks Area: 
Springs
White Mountains National Rec. Area 
Delta
Ester Dome and Murphy Dome 
Chena Hot Springs Resort 
Cleary Summit
Denali Park
❖ Central Alaska: 
Denali National Park area  
Rich wy
Delta Junction area  Denal
i
summ Hwy 
y
Hw
Black Rapids Lodge
H
ards
er onl
y
rks
on
❖ Northern Alaska: 
Pa
Glennallen
Coldfoot and Wiseman 
Bettles  y
n Hw
Nome le n
G
Southcentral Alaska: 
Palmer
❖
Denali Highway 
Valdez
Glenn Highway Figure 2.4
Within a 60 mile (96 km) radius of Fairbanks, there are many locations to photograph the aurora.
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres

K en ai 68
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
east from Fairbanks takes guests on night excursions to see and

photograph the aurora. You can combine a few nights at the
resort with your own exploration of the broader Fairbanks vicinity.
There are also one-night guided excursions in the Fairbanks area,
and companies providing this service are increasing. If you do
plan to explore on your own, practice attentive driving.
Photographers are known for looking at the landscape instead of
the road. This is can be precarious, especially at night. While road
surfaces are generally in good shape, icy conditions are common
in the winter in Alaska’s Interior. Exploring the areas ahead of
time, during the daylight, is safer. Stop and pull off the road if you
want to check out the night sky, and don’t drive sleep-deprived.
Sharing Photo Locations

As Fairbanks’ popularity increases as an aurora photography
destination, you’re likely to share some favored destinations that
have parking lots and overlooks. Using basic light pollution
prevention etiquette goes a long way toward being welcomed by
other photographers. Be cautious of where your vehicle’s
headlights are shining. Use them only when necessary, to keep
light pollution to a minimum. It is not always necessary to keep
your vehicle running, as the exhaust can interfere with
photography, depending on wind conditions. Park efficiently to
maximize use of space and make room for others. If you are
using a headlamp, see headlamp etiquette in Chapter 6.
Image 2.2
Roads in the Fairbanks area give access to aurora photo destinations.
30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 320 (Canon 1Ds 17-35mm, f/2.8)
Image 2.3 Photo taken 10 miles from the town of Fairbanks, looking south over the city lights. 70
15 sec @ f/1.8, ISO 400 (Canon EOS 3, 50mm, f/1.8)
Image 2.4 This aurora corona was taken from the driveway of my home, about 10 miles northwest of Fairbanks, looking directly 71
up at the big dipper constellation.
30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 400 (Canon EOS 3, 17-35mm f/2.8)
Image 2.5 This red aurora display was taken looking south over the city of Fairbanks. The city lights reflect in the clouds, 72
contributing a warm tone to the photo.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
Northern Alaska
Bettles and Nome
If you want a more remote setting, you can fly from Fairbanks
to the small outpost of Bettles, to the north, or to the
community of Nome, to the far west. Both Bettles and Nome
are off the road system and must be accessed by air. In
Bettles, the Bettles Lodge is limited to only six cozy rooms.
Nome is a small town and has many options for lodging.
Coldfoot
You can fly to Coldfoot or drive there by way of the James
Dalton Highway (also known as the Haul Road). Coldfoot is
located about 250 miles (402 km) north of Fairbanks and
consists of an airport, a visitor’s center (summer only) and
Coldfoot Camp, which is basically a truck stop with a few extra
amenities. Its services include hotel rooms at the Slate Creek
Inn, and the only gas station, tire repair shop, public telephone,
showers and cafe along the entire 500 (804 km) mile stretch of
road between Fairbanks and Prudhoe Bay. If you’re
uncomfortable driving the Dalton Highway, then a flight to
Coldfoot with a stay at the Slate Creek Inn is an option.
However, photography would be restricted to the local area
unless you arranged other travel logistics.
Image 2.6 10 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 16-35mm f/2.8)
Truckers in the parking lot at Coldfoot Camp truck stop.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
Wiseman
The tiny, historic gold mining community of Wiseman is located
17 miles (27 km) north of Coldfoot on the Wiseman Spur Road,
just 3 miles off the Dalton Highway. The Arctic Getaway Cabin
and Breakfast offers cozy log cabin housing for up to 10
people, and guests enjoy a hearty, home-cooked breakfast in
the adjacent, historic Igloo #8 Pioneer Hall. It receives
excellent reviews on Trip Advisor and is a gem tucked away in
the Arctic. Keep in mind that there are no stores, restaurants,
gas stations or public facilities in Wiseman. Be sure to bring
necessary food and supplies with you. Accommodations in
Wiseman are limited, so booking in advance is strongly
recommended. Do not rely on last-minute walk-in
opportunities.
Considerations for Remote Alaska

The areas mentioned along the Dalton Highway are situated in
beautiful, rugged, and statistically great aurora viewing locations.
But they are also very remote, with limited public services. There
are no stores, vehicle repair shops, or medical facilities in the
region. Bathroom facilities along the Dalton and Elliot highways
consist of non-flush toilets in limited locations. Trash receptacles
are sparsely maintained during the winter, so I recommend that
you carry out your trash. Increased traffic over the years has
resulted in more trash, combined with poor judgment by travelers
Image 2.7
Overfilled trash receptacles along the Dalton Highway. Carry out your trash.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
who stuff receptacles to overflowing. Trash attracts wildlife, and

the wind blows it across the tundra. Help keep Alaska clean and
beautiful. In addition, since bathrooms are limited, please use
considerate “yellow snow” etiquette and be conscious of where
you go. Step off trails, avoid going in public, and especially avoid
high-use areas.
Travel on the Dalton Highway

If you plan to rent a vehicle to drive the Dalton Highway, note that
many companies do not permit travel on gravel roads, and
therefore traveling the Dalton is not allowed. Please check in
advance with the rental company, and don’t take this lightly
because vehicle repairs or problems can result in significant
expense if the rental agreement contract is violated. Travel on the
Dalton highway can be treacherous and dangerous for the novice,
and even the veteran driver. This is particularly true in the winter
season. While many of Alaska’s roads can be tenuous during the
snowy season, the Dalton Highway is in its own league. There is a
reason it was chosen for the popular reality TV show Ice Road
Truckers. Many sections of the road are unpaved, and it is steep
and narrow in places and known for snow drifts from high winds.
It also receives heavy traffic from industrial trucking that
transports supplies to the Arctic oil fields of Alaska’s north coast.
The road is maintained in winter, but due to its long length it can
take a while to be plowed after a big snowfall or heavy winds that
Image 2.8
Blowing and drifting snow is common along the Dalton Highway.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
create deep snow drifts quickly. If you plan to travel this highway,
be well prepared for a variety of weather, including blowing and
drifting snow, severe cold and potential temporary road closures.
While conditions are not always bad, the weather can change
quickly and the Dalton Highway will live up to its reputation. Your
vehicle should have some type of winter tire, with sufficient tire
tread. Before departure, confirm that you can release the wheel
lug nuts with the tire iron, should you need to change a flat tire.
Be sure to have these additional items with you. I’ve used every
one of these items at one point or another.
• CB radio for communication
• Vehicle tow strap
• Battery jumper cables
• Battery jump box
• Flares
• Reflective road triangles
• Extra fuel
• Tire chains
• Flash light
• Tire repair plug kit
• Small air compressor
• Shovel
• First aid kit
• Tire jack and lug wrench
• At least one good spare tire
Image 2.9
Snow plows are common on the highway due to drifting snow.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
Communication and Road Etiquette

The Dalton Highway was built to service the infrastructure of
the Trans Alaska Pipeline. CB radios are the method of
communication on the road and, as of 2013, cell phones don’t
work along the remote highway. The trucks that travel it are
large and often haul oversized loads flanked in the front and
rear by flag cars. A CB radio is used to communicate with
these flag cars and stay informed of potential accidents or
poor road conditions. Additionally, when approaching some of
the precarious sections of the road, such as Rollercoaster,
Chandalar Shelf and Atigun Pass, road signs advise that
vehicles use radios to alert on-coming traffic of your ascent or
descent. You can also use the radio to inform a truck that you
would like to pass, or that you will slow down so they can pass
you.
When meeting an oncoming truck, slow down and pull over

slightly. This is both a courtesy to the truckers and it helps
keep your vehicle’s windshield free of cracks from gravel
thrown by the truck tires. Should you encounter vehicle
problems, towing back to Fairbanks can cost more than
$1500, depending on your location, so be sure you depart with
a reliable vehicle. While satellite phones may not be a
requirement, they can help out in a pinch should there be an
Image 2.10
Steep sections of the Dalton Highway require careful driving.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
emergency along the way. They can be rented from Radio

Fairbanks, in Fairbanks, Alaska, before your departure.
Traveling with Emergency Safety Gear

Whenever I travel the Dalton Highway in the winter, I always
take a winter safety kit along with my regular cold weather
clothing. The safety kit includes:
• Cold weather sleeping bag
• Sleeping pad
• Camp stove
• Stove fuel
• Tent
• Extra food
While average low temperates can serve as a guide, you still
need to be prepared for the extreme bitter cold that can occur
in this region. I’ve experienced severe, below-freezing
temperatures as late as the first week of April.
Central Alaska
In Central Alaska, the Alaska Range mountains make for some
splendid photography backgrounds for the aurora. While this
range is not under the aurora belt, it is far away from light
pollution and offers excellent topography and scenery for aurora
photography.
Image 2.11 5 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 800 (Canon 5D Mark III, 24mm f/1.4)
Aurora over the Dalton Highway.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
Richardson Highway
While there are very few accommodations in the mountain
passes of the Alaska Range along the Richardson Highway,
the small town of Delta Junction, 100 miles south of Fairbanks
can serve as a base while exploring the area. Black Rapids
Lodge is located an hour south of Delta Junction in the Alaska
Range, in a beautiful mountain setting. They offer meals and
lodging accommodations. Booking in advance is
recommended.
George Parks Highway

The Denali National Park and Broad Pass area are also
situated in the Alaska Range mountains, south of Fairbanks
approximately three hours along the George Parks Highway.
While there are fewer hotels and B&B’s in operation during the
winter season than during the busy summer tourist season,
there are plenty of accommodations to choose from. Travel
into Denali Park for the first 15 miles of the Park Road offers
scenic, mountain backdrops. Current plans are to keep this
limited section of the Park Road plowed during the winter
season, although that may change in the future.
Southcentral Alaska
There are other beautiful locations even farther south. Both the
Denali Highway (not maintained in the winter) and the Glenn
Image 2.12 30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 400 (Canon EOS 3, 24mm f/2.8)
View from camp in the Alaska Range mountains, south of Delta Junction.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
Highway transect mountain passes and give excellent context for

photography. Keep in mind, however, that the farther south you
go, the more you move away from the aurora belt, and the less
statistical probability you have of seeing the aurora.
Photographing in these areas is most productive during stronger
solar storms. In fact, aurora photography can be excellent across
the entire state during a big solar event.
Winter Camping
If you are experienced with winter camping the options for aurora
photography destinations are in accord with your appetite for
adventure. I’ve made excursions into Alaska’s backcountry on
snow machine and skis and these off-the-beaten-path
destinations are spectacular. They do, however, require planning
and logistics, and are a more complex process altogether. While
the scenery on these kinds of trips can be grand, you do not have
the flexibility to easily relocate any significant distance should
cloudy weather obscure the aurora in your area. When planning
such a venture, it is best to spend a week or so, timing it to the
best of your ability with the local weather and long-term aurora
forecasts.
Keeping your body warm, and your camera gear when necessary,
are challenges when winter camping. The tent you see in Image
2.13 was my winter camp for a few nights in the Alaska Range. I
Image 2.13 90 sec @ f/5.6, ISO 400 (Fuji 680GX, 24mm f/5.6)
Keeping yourself warm when winter camping is a challenge.
2 ❖ 2 Alaska
stayed up late photographing the aurora but my friend grew tired

and went to bed. When I crawled into my sleeping bag at 2 a.m.,
after four hours of northern lights photography, I was cold and my
feet were especially cold. Much to my welcomed surprise, I found
a Nalgene® bottle filled with hot water in the bottom of my
sleeping bag making it toasty warm for my cold feet. My friend
had slid it in there before he went to sleep. That is not only a
thoughtful guy but one who shows evidence of winter camping
experience. I discuss clothing and how to deal with the cold
weather in Chapter 4.
Image 2.14 10 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14-24mm f/2.8 Nikon)
Winter camping opens up opportunities for unique aurora destinations.
Fine-tuning
Your Location
“When images become

inadequate 
I shall be content  
with silence.”
~ Ansel Adams 82

2 ❖ 3 Fine-tuning Your Location
Refining the Destination

For the best northern lights photography, it is conventional wisdom to choose a
location far from cities and light pollution. If you want to maximize the versatility for
photography in all directions, it is best to travel far from a city, which results in
darker skies and the option to shoot in a southerly orientation, should more intense
solar activity produce expansive displays. It is possible, however, to photograph
near a town, and if you plan to do so then be sure
that the region north of the city is relatively free of
light pollution. Northern latitudes tend to be less
populated than more urban areas in southern
FINDING A PHOTO WORTHY SPOT
latitudes, so you’re more likely to find darker skies in
❖ Geographic Latitude: The ideal location these locations.
from which to view the aurora is within the
polar auroral belt, because the aurora is
visible for about two-thirds of the year. I live on the Northwest side of Fairbanks, Alaska,
Bigstock
Direction/Orientation: In northern where backyard aurora photography is possible not
❖
Figure 2.5
regions, most shooting is between the only due to its proximity to the auroral belt, but also Auroral displays are often
northwest and southeast sky, so try to because of the absence of city lights farther north, photographed with an
position yourself with light sources (towns orientation that spans from the
and subsequent dark skies in that direction.
or cities) to the south. northwest to the southeast part
Locations on the southern side of town are less of the sky. Find a spot with
❖ Foreground: Choose locations with an
interesting foreground, because anchoring optimal since they require photographing across the good foregrounds when looking
the aurora makes a big difference in photo city lights when oriented northward. Anchorage, in that general direction.
appeal. Alaska, although a convenient airport destination, is
❖ Avoid Light Pollution: Maximize your surrounded to the North by suburban development and therefore requires driving
directional shooting options by going far
out of the city a few hours to access areas free of light pollution.
from a city or light pollution.

The Specific Location

Whether you choose to photograph near a town, or find a more
remote area far from a city, choose a specific location that has
favorable foreground features when oriented toward the
northwest-to-southeast sky, which is statistically the most
probable region in which the aurora will appear. While you hope
for great aurora displays in the night sky, don’t overlook a
foreground that provides interesting context. Whether it’s a
mountain horizon or silhouetted trees, the foreground anchors the
photo and provides added interest. If possible, find an area that
includes interesting foregrounds in multiple directions because it
increases your photographic options. It is common to turn 180
degrees to capture distinctive shapes, as the aurora changes
often throughout a night.
Scouting Your Location in Daylight

If you have the luxury of time, scout your locations during the day.
Knowing what is in the foreground of your composition ahead of
time is important. On a dark night, it is often difficult to see all the
details in your frame. I’ve been surprised many times by what
showed up in the foreground of my picture under a long exposure
that I did not notice beforehand. If you don’t have the opportunity
to scout during the day—which is often not possible—you can
take a test shot with a lengthy shutter speed to brighten the
foreground, and then evaluate the image on your camera’s LCD
Image 2.15 25 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 21mm f/2.8 Zeiss)
Using a geographic feature in the foreground anchors the aurora.
display. Zoom in and scroll through the frame to make a close

inspection. Having a compass, or your smartphone, on hand,
helps you know which direction you may expect the aurora to
appear.
Choose Multiple Locations

If you have the good fortune of an aurora display that occurs for a
long time, you may want to move to another location to
experiment with different compositions. Consider lining up a few
different places that suit your interest and are accessible within a
short drive or walk. Beginning aurora photographers often get
mesmerized by the show and just stand in one spot without
moving. Enjoy the show, but think about composition and
variation in your photos.
Image 2.16 30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 400 (Canon 1Ds, 17-35mm f/2.8)
Remember to change your composition often.
30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 21mm f/2.8 Zeiss)
Image 2.17 While your eyes are looking up for the aurora, remember that the foreground gives context and interest to whatever 86
happens in the sky. Find a location that is interesting and contributes to your sky composition.
Image 2.18 Evaluate your shooting location with a shrewd eye, preferably during the daylight hours. Objects may appear in your 87
photo that were not visible to your naked eye.
Photo Tours
“A photograph is a click
away. A good photograph
is a thousand clicks away
and a better one, 
a million clicks away.”
~ Kowtham Kumar
88
2 ❖ 4 Photo Tours
Choosing an Aurora Photo Tour

Instead of traveling on your own, you may choose to do a guided photo tour, such
as a one-night excursion or a multi-day trip. Both are reasonable options. Trips to
photograph the northern lights have greatly increased in popularity in the past
decade. In fact, photo tours in general have increased considerably, and if you are
considering one, I’d like to offer a little advice. Most of it is general in nature to all
photo tours, but is essential with aurora photography, due to the specific demands
of the subject and the difficulties of working in the dark and in cold climates.
Photographers have different demands and expectations than people content with
CHOOSING AN AURORA PHOTO TOUR simply watching the aurora, so be sure that you find a tour that’s oriented toward
photography and not just aurora viewing.
❖ Pick a location that has a dynamic
landscape to anchor your photos against
an aurora-filled sky. Trip Duration
❖ Plan for a trip that’s about a week long, in The longer the trip, the better your chances of seeing and photographing the
case of cloudy weather. aurora. As any seasoned photographer will tell you, the weather will do what it
❖ Find a tour guide who’s a local. It’s hard to wants, and you should be prepared to be out for multiple days to optimize the
beat local knowledge and resources.
opportunity for clear skies and weather conducive to aurora photography. A tour
❖ Do your research and check references to that spans about a week is good because it offers a number of chances for both
be sure the guide has extensive
knowledge and experience photographing
clear skies and aurora presence.
the aurora.
❖ Choose someone you like being with who Local Guides
can teach you well. I’ve long been partial to guides with in-depth local knowledge. Even as a
professional photographer, I’ve hired guides when photographing in other parts of
the world. Guides that live where they work have a knowledge base that results in

2 ❖ 4 Photo Tours
excellent networking and backup plans, should they be

necessary. For example, here’s one advantage of having a
knowledgeable, local guide. Years ago while walking through a
rainforest in Costa Rica, my guide stopped and told me to be
quiet. He listened intently while walking off the trail following a
faint sound. Soon, he returned holding a tiny poison dart frog. He
had recognized its call and found it among the leaves. I would
have never seen, let alone photographed, that subject without
being with someone who could find it.
Locals not only know the landscape, the wildlife, the hallmark
geological features, and the people, but they also can respond to
unpredictable circumstances with a well-developed, and often
more thorough, resource base. This is true for most any situation
or geographic location, but it is especially important in Alaska,
where weather and unpredictable twists in logistics happen often
given the remote nature of locations visited. Many great aurora
destinations are in the circumpolar Arctic where resources are
limited, so good planning can’t be overemphasized.
An Experienced Guide
And, of course, your guide should have extensive knowledge and
experience with aurora borealis photography, including how to
execute proper exposures, working in potentially cold conditions
and especially familiarity with locations that work well for aurora
Image 2.19 10 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 3200 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14-24mm)
Do your research before choosing a photo tour.
2 ❖ 4 Photo Tours
photography. Inquire about your guide’s depth of experience and with and can learn something from. Be thorough in your research.
how long the tour has been operating in the specific destinations If you don’t know the person directly, ask for a reference (if none
you will visit. are offered). If the person is not willing to provide any, then move
on to someone else.
Transportation
Wherever you choose to go, evaluate the itinerary and look for a
substantial amount of time in the field. If you will be traveling in a
vehicle, inquire about its model and make, and how many people
it accommodates. Often “aurora” photography tours end up
being mixed in with a few other subjects. Be sure you’re seated
next to a window for any daytime photography opportunities
while in transit.
It Should Be About Your Photos

Be sure you are not just joining another photographer on their
tour, but that they are there to assist you, and to help you take
pictures. It may seem unnecessary to bring attention to this, but
during the span of my guiding career I’ve heard so many stories
of photo tour leaders that seem more interested in taking their
own pictures than helping their guests get theirs.
Get References
Ask around. Today’s online forums, blogs, and social
communities can help you get a feel for your trip leader and
guide. And, finally, you should choose someone you enjoy being

Chapter 3
Timing,
Seasons, and
Weather
In high latitudes, the “season” of aurora
photography exists whenever it is dark
enough. Many different factors influence
where and when you choose to go.
92
Seasonal Surprises
What we call “spring” in Fairbanks, Alaska is the time of daybreak the car sputtered and the engine halted. We
year when the sun feels warm upon your face again and both looked at each other with that wide-eyed “peril in
daylight increases rapidly. During this beautiful season of the cold Arctic” look. My friend jumped out and
late March and early April, I ventured northward into discovered the vehicle’s exhaust pipe had frozen shut
Alaska’s high Arctic to photograph the aurora. The night with ice. He chopped away the ice with a screwdriver, I
debuted under brilliantly clear and starry skies. But what started the vehicle again, and we happily waited for the
came with that cloudless night was the dissipation of the sun to rise and bring the temperature up with it! We let
day’s heat, followed by a plummeting temperature. the aurora do its dance without us that night. Instead,
Much to my surprise, I watched the thermometer drop we enjoyed a dinner of hot burritos and then crawled
continually until it bottomed out at -50ºF (-45º C). I was under a nest of down sleeping bags and coats to enjoy
camping in the back of my SUV with a friend. We kept the paradox of being toasty warm on a dangerously cold
the car running all night to add a little warmth, but at night in the Arctic.

Seasons and
Weather
“If I have any ‘message’

worth giving to a beginner, 
it is that there are no
shortcuts in photography.”
~ Edward Weston
94
3 ❖ 1 Seasons and Weather
Choosing a Season to Photograph the Aurora

Now that you know the benefits of photography in latitudes that reach the auroral
belt, and have some idea of how to understand the aurora forecasts, it’s time to
explore other factors that influence the timing of your photography venture. If you
live in a region near the auroral belt, you have a lot more flexibility to be
spontaneous and respond to short-term aurora forecasts. But for many, travel is
necessary, and that requires advanced planning and logistics. For starters,
optimizing your travel dates for both high solar activity and good weather is helpful.
While there are no guarantees with the weather, and aurora predictions are not
SEASONAL PROS AND CONS completely reliable, it still pays off to consider the statistics and plan accordingly.
❖ Benefits of Autumn
I’ve photographed the aurora in all of the months dark enough to do so, but I
• It is usually warmer in autumn than
photograph most frequently near the spring and autumn equinox. They present
during late winter and spring.
very different climate conditions, and therefore the photographic contexts in the
• Open water is more prevalent in
autumn and offers reflective surfaces
landscape are also quite different. While the geomagnetic data referenced in this
for composition. book is global, the weather data in this particular section is specific to Fairbanks,
❖ Benefits of Late Winter and Spring Alaska. But many of the general principles about weather and seasons are
• In higher latitudes, snow provides a true applicable in other global destinations too, as discussed in Chapter 3:2. First, let’s
winter landscape, which complements take a look at the periods surrounding the spring and autumn equinoxes and why
the auroral sky. they are a preferred period for photography.
• Sculpted snowy foregrounds provide
interesting compositional features. Spring and Autumn Equinoxes
• Snow on the mountains and hills
The equinox periods (roughly March 21 and September 22, although the dates
reflects both ambient and aurora light.
change per year and per time zone), are a statistically good time for aurora
photography. During this time, the tilt of Earth’s magnetic field is best oriented for

coupling with the sun’s magnetic field, opening the window for
Geomagnetically Disturbed Days
solar wind energy to flow in and create that beautiful light show
Analysis of data from 1932 to 2002 by NOAA solar physicist
that we call the northern lights. The equinox periods also offer
David Hathaway shows that March and October are statistically
warmer temperatures than the midwinter months of November to
the most geomagnetically disturbed months of the year, with
February.
April and September close behind (Diagram 3.1 next page). And
geomagnetic disturbance causes the aurora. These numbers are
statistical averages and significant variation can occur. Therefore,
being aware of current solar activity helps determine the optimal
times for photographing auroral displays. The stronger the
geomagnetic solar storms, the farther south the aurora can be
seen.
Clear Skies and Weather

Even if every solar storm event and geomagnetic data point line
up in your favor, you still need clear skies to photograph the
aurora. Temperature, daylight and precipitation are some
additional weather factors that may affect your photography
excursion. Cloudy skies are likely to frustrate you at some point,
but cold weather can affect both you and your camera gear. So
the pros and cons of each season may tip your preference for
timing.
Shutterstock
Figure 3.1
Increased solar activity surrounding the spring and autumn equinox periods
make for good aurora photography.

Average Sky Conditions in Fairbanks, Alaska.
% aurora activity cloudy partly cloudy mostly clear clear

22% 26% 28% 20% 13% 9% 8% 9% 12% 13% 17% 17%
11% 10% 10%

11% 9% 9%
20% 10% 13%
12% 23% 19%
11% 17% 14%
23%
12%
% Days per month
12% 15%
16%
14% 20%
63% 64%
15% 62% 62%
15%
57% 58%
53% 53% 54%
47% 48%
45%
20
15
10
5
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Diagram 3.1
March has the highest, and October the lowest percentage of clear or partly clear days in Fairbanks, Alaska. While both equinox periods show higher
geomagnetic activity, the spring equinox period usually has better skies for aurora photography, but it is also colder.

but the nighttime temperatures are considerably colder. While it is

Temperature
possible to spend long nights outdoors photographing in colder
The luxury of photographing the aurora during warm, summer
temperatures, it does introduce challenges. This is especially true
temperatures is not an option because the Arctic summer skies
if you are in a setting that does not offer a chance to warm up
are flooded with constant daylight and the aurora are not visible.
easily, such as in a warm room or vehicle. The cumulative effect
In Alaska, March may have the edge over October for clear skies,
Fairbanks temperatures in degrees F Fairbanks temperatures in degrees C

record high average high average low record low 45 record high average high average low record low
94 93 34 33 34
100 92 31
88 28
82 30
71 72 71 22 21 21 22 22
75 70 19
66
60 14 15
57 55 13
15
49 49 8 9 9
47 44 7
50 41 5
53 10 11
50 47 32 8 0
24 0 -5 3 3
38 36 2
25 32 0
27 11 -4 -12
7 24 -14 -6
20 18 2 -8
-2 -15 -19
0 5 -16 -15
3 -19
-2 -21
-6
-14 -15 -30 -26 -26
-25 -18 -28
-24 -31
-27 -33
-50 -41 -45 -41

-45 -43
-52 -47
-60 -51
-75 -66 -60 -54
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Diagram 3.2 Diagram 3.3
Monthly average and record temperatures in degrees F in Fairbanks, Alaska Monthly average and record temperatures in degrees C in Fairbanks, Alaska

of cold has degrading implications on both you and your camera

gear. September and October are historically much warmer than
February and March.
Daylight and Darkness

Aurora photography ends by early- to mid-April in the higher
latitudes. Even though the aurora may be present, it is not visible
due to the constant daylight and bright skies. During one photo
excursion at approximately 67.5° N, I took the picture in Image
3.1 at midnight on April 10. There is still abundant daylight in the
northern sky, even at such a late hour. Not until late August, at
approximately latitude 64° N (just south of Fairbanks, Alaska), do
the skies get dark enough to see the aurora, and even then, it is
for a brief period of darkness (Image 3.2).
However, the abundant daylight diminishes quickly as the

summer transitions to the autumn equinox and on into winter—at
a rate of approximately 40 to 50 minutes a week. In Alaska, when
dusk occurs just before 10 p.m., or dawn just after 3 a.m., you
may have the opportunity to catch the aurora in conjunction with
the radiant blues in the sky. This is most optimally achieved
around the equinoxes, when the sunset and sunrise are closer to
the night’s peak active aurora period. While the faded dusk or
dawn light might not seem very strong to the human eye, the
camera captures it in a dramatic fashion (Image 3.3).
Image 3.1 8 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark III, 24mm f/1.4)
In high northern latitudes, the night sky is still bright at midnight on April 10.
Image 3.2 Mid-August is about the earliest time to photograph the aurora in the Fairbanks area, as the skies are just beginning to 100
get dark enough. Taken August 18, 2:34 a.m., Denali National Park, Alaska.
Image 3.3 The remnant light in the sky at dusk in this picture, taken at 9:26 p.m. on March 21 in Alaska’s high Arctic, shows the 101
radiant blue sky apparent in a multi-second exposure.
Snowfall
One of my favorite conditions in which to photograph the aurora
is after a fresh snowfall, when the land is covered in a clean and
pure white blanket of snow that conveys that classic winter
wonderland look. If you seek these conditions, plan a trip in the
later winter, or early spring when snow has accumulated in
abundance. In Fairbanks, September generally receives only a
dusting of snow. By later October, snow usually covers the
ground and exists in the higher elevations and mountain
topography in northern Alaska. It continues to accumulate
throughout the year with some fresh snow still falling in early
April, accompanied by daytime melting due to the increasing
warm temperatures and daylight.
Average monthly snowfall in Fairbanks 345

13.6
338
13.3
282
261 11.1
10.3 228 snowfall in inches / mm
9
160
6.3
76
3 40
20 1.6
0.8 0 0 0
0 0 0
Diagram 3.4
Late Autumn and early winter deliver more snow than late winter and early
spring in Fairbanks, Alaska.
Image 3.4 6 sec @ f/2.0, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 24mm f/1.4) 102
Late winter snow accumulation
Image 3.5 The accumulation of snow during the months of late winter contribute a very classic winter feel to an image. 103
8 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 1000 (Canon 1Ds Mark III, 24mm f/1.4)
Image 3.6 Snow can provide a bright reflective surface and and interesting wind-blown foreground patterns. 104
Reflective Surfaces: Water and Ice

An interesting foreground is a vital component of strong wide-
angle landscape photography. This is especially true with aurora
photography because of the typical dark foregrounds that lack
detail and dimension. While autumn may lack the beautiful snow
coverage that winter offers, the open water found in ponds, lakes
and rivers allows foreground reflections. Aurora have distinctive
shapes that often span across the sky. Capturing the aurora “on
the ground” through a reflection allows you to fill in those
otherwise dark foregrounds with the brightness, shapes, and
color appearing in the sky. It also better balances the exposure by
brightening the foreground.
In the Alaska north, most of the open water freezes solid by mid-
to late-October. This leaves a very narrow window for capturing
open water and a snow-covered ground. The conditions for snow
and freeze-up are largely dependent on local weather
movements, since October is a transitional month from autumn to
winter. If snow covers the land before the ice forms in rivers and
lakes, then water serves as a reflective surface until it freezes. If
cold temperatures freeze the water before the snow falls, then a
layer of ice can serve as the reflective surface (Image 3.7). If you
travel to a more temperate region, it may be possible to combine
the best of both worlds, by photographing scenes with abundant
snow and open water.
Ice makes an excellent reflective surface before it is covered by snow.
Image 3.8 Mist rising from the water’s surface hints at the change in temperature occurring when this picture was taken in early 106
September.
Image 3.9 Late autumn is the freeze-up season, when areas of open water contribute wonderful compositional elements, such as 107
reflections, in conjunction with snow and ice.
In Summary
So which is the best season to photograph the aurora? As you
can see, there are different factors that influence this decision
(Diagram 3.5, next page). As far as geomagnetic activity, the
equinox periods hold the statistical advantage. However, other
weather factors contribute considerable variations.
Spring
Spring has more snow and less cloudy weather but is colder
and lacks the reflective surfaces found in open water of the
autumn season. The spring month of April is warmer than
March but has less fresh snow, and daylight restricts
photography to the early part of the month.
Autumn
Autumn has the benefit of warmer temperatures and open
water in the lakes and rivers, but it lacks snow and the skies
are usually cloudier. By mid-October, winter has arrived and
snow generally covers the ground but the skies remain cloudy.
There are benefits and drawbacks to each period. Ultimately, your

seasonal preference and temperature tolerance will influence your
decision as to which season or month is best for you.
White Mountains National Recreation Area, Alaska.
Weather and aurora considerations for Fairbanks, Alaska

100%
Warmer
Cooler
80%
From mid-April to mid-August,
PROS constant daylight prevents PROS
% Days per month
+ Clearer skies aurora photography in high + More reflective

+ More snow latitudes surfaces
60%
+ Warmer temps
CONS
- Less reflective CONS
surfaces - Cloudier skies
40%
- Colder temps - Less snow
20%
16
Diagram 3.5
During the periods of increased aurora activity surrounding the equinoxes, March offers more clear weather than September or October in Fairbanks, Alaska.
Other climate aspects that differentiate the seasons, such as temperature or snowfall, may influence what time or season you consider to be best.

Circumpolar
Arctic Weather
“Skill in photography is
acquired by practice  
and not by purchase.”
~ Percy W. Harris
110
30 sec @ f/1.8, ISO 320 (Canon 1Ds, 50mm f/1.8)

3 ❖ 2 Circumpolar Arctic Weather
One thing is certain, while average weather conditions provide a

Circumpolar Destinations
guideline, the weather always varies, and sometimes,
I have photographed the aurora borealis exclusively in Alaska but significantly.
have been watching the many beautiful photos appear on the
Internet from locations around the circumpolar Arctic. I’ve Weather Graphs
highlighted just a few of the many locations from around the
The digital information age is greatly expanding the collection
world that may serve as a gateway for your aurora venture. As is
and presentation of weather data. It is a great resource when
true in Alaska, and most anywhere else, a city with an airport is
planning a trip to an unfamiliar and far away land. One thing to
just the staging location, and the options for creative
keep in mind when reviewing the graphs included on the
photography are countless when you move away from the city
following pages is that in some cases, the time periods used to
lights to the surrounding region. Some of these destinations are
make these graphs has been short, and lacks the depth and
easier to access and cheaper than others due to remoteness,
accuracy of a more long-term study. The pink color in the graph
varying degrees of travel infrastructure or the country’s currency.
denotes missing data. In general, the larger the city—and
preferably one with an international airport—the longer the
Average Weather Conditions
history of recorded weather, with fewer gaps in data collection.
Besides a travel budget, there are two weather factors that Additionally, to avoid light pollution you are likely to travel away
always come into play when making the decision to go anywhere from any given city during your photography venture, and the
to photograph the aurora— the temperature and the sky conditions can change considerably depending on the changes
conditions. While these can never be predicted with absolute in the region’s topography. The graphs are intended to provide a
accuracy, the historical records of weather data at least offer an general idea of what you can expect for sky conditions and
idea of what to expect at any given destination, during any given temperature. I recommend that you research your destination
season. I take this data into account, but also realize that thoroughly, and review the most current weather data before
weather can vary significantly from year to year. In Fairbanks, departure to best prepare yourself and optimize your travel dates.
Alaska, the summer of 2013 was the second warmest in To do that, here are a few helpful websites: climate-zone.com,
recorded history. Ironically, it was also the shortest period weatherspark.com, and worldweatheronline.com
between a late-spring and early-autumn measurable snowfall.

Churchill Temperatures in Degrees C and F

Churchill, Manitoba, Canada average high °C average low °C
GPS Coordinates: 58.7692° N, 94.1692° W
24 20 19
16
14
11
7 8
8 4 3 3
2
0 -4 -5 -4
-8
-8 -13
-15
-17 -17
-16 -21 -19
-24
-24
-26
-29
World Factbook -31
-32
Churchill is a town on the West shore of Hudson Bay in Manitoba, Canada.
Population approximately 900. -40
average high °F average low °F

68 65
70
57
56 52
45 46
40 38 37
42 36
25 23 25
28
18
14 9 6
2 1
-2
0 -6
-11
-15
-14 -23 -21
-28
-42
Used with permission, courtesy of weatherspark.com Churchill, Manitoba Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Whitehorse Temperatures in Degrees C and F

Whitehorse, YT, Canada average high °C average low °C
GPS Coordinates: 60.7167° N, 135.0500° W
30
20 21 20
23
14 13
15
8 8
5 6 5
8
2
-1 0
0 -4
-5 -5
-7 -8
-8 -12
-13 -13
-15 -17 -17
-21
Whitehorse is the capital and largest city of Yukon Territory, located at -23
kilometer 1426 on the Alaska Highway. Population 23,000. -30


80
71
68 67
69
58 56
57
46 46
41 43 41
46
36
33
34 30
26
23 23
23
20
17
10 8 9
11
1 1
0 -7
-11
Used with permission, courtesy of weatherspark.com Whitehorse, Canada. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Ivalo Temperatures in Degrees C and F

Ivalo, Finland average high °C average low °C
GPS Coordinates: 68.6500° N, 27.5500° E 19
20
16 16
Ivalo is a village in the 15
municipality of Inari, Lapland, 9 9 10
10 7
Finland, located on the Ivalo 6
River. Population 3,998. 5 3 2 3
0
0 -2 -3 -3
-5
-5 -7 -7 -7
-11
-10 -13 -14
-15 -17 -17
World Factbook
-20

70 66
60 61
60
49 50
50 47
45
43
38 37
40 36
31
28
30 26 26
22
19 20 19
20
13
9
10 7
2 2
0
Used with permission, courtesy of weatherspark.com Ivalo, Finland Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Tasiilaq Temperatures in Degrees C and F

Tasiilaq, Greenland average high °C average low °C
GPS Coordinates: 65.6152° N, 37.6375° W 15
11
Tasiilaq, formerly 11 10
9
Ammassalik and 7
8
Angmagssalik, is a
4 4 4
town in the
4 2 2 2
Sermersooq 1
0
municipality in 0 -2 -2 -2
southeastern -4 -4
-3
Greenland. -4 -5
-6
Population 2,017 -8
-8 -9
as of 2013. -10 -10
World Factbook
-11

60
51 50
51 47
44
43 40 39
38
35 35 36
33 34
34
29 28 29
27
25 25
26 23
21
18
17 15 14 15
0
Used with permission, courtesy of weatherspark.com Tasiilaq, Greenland. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Reykjavik Temperatures in Degrees C and F

Reykjavik, Iceland average high °C average low °C
GPS Coordinates: 64.1333° N, 21.9333° W 15 14 14
13
Reykjavík is the 11
11 10
capital and largest
9 9
city in Iceland. Its
the world's 7 7
8 6 6
northernmost 5
capital of a 4 4 4
4 3 3
sovereign state. 2
Population 0
118,488. 0 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
World Factbook
-4
60
58 57
55
52
51 49 48 47
44 44 45
42 41
43 38 39 38 39
37 36
33
34 31
28 28 28
26
26
17
0
Used with permission, courtesy of weatherspark.com Reykjavik, Iceland. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Tromso Temperatures in Degrees C and F

Tromso, Norway average high °C average low °C
GPS Coordinates: 69.6828° N, 18.9428° E
15 15
15
13
Tromsø, including
the city center, is 11 10
9
located on the small 8 8
7
island of Tromsøya, 8
5
in the county of 4 4
4
Troms. Population 2 2
1 1
69,116. 0 0
0 -1
-2
-3
-4
-4 -5 -5
-6
World Factbook
-8

59 58
60 55
51
51 48
46 46
44
42
43 39 40
36 36
34 33 33
34 32 31
28 27
23 24
26 22 21
17
0
Used with permission, courtesy of weatherspark.com Tromso, Norway. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Murmansk Temperatures in Degrees C and F

Murmansk, Russia average high °C average low °C
20
17
15
14
15
10
9
10
7 7
5
5 3 3 3
0
0 -2 -2
-3
-4
-6 -6 -6
-5
World Factbook
-9
-11
-10 -12
Murmansk is a port city of Oblast, Russia, on the Kola Bay, an inlet of the
-15 -15
Barents. Population 305,034. -15

70
63
59
60 57
50
50 47
45 45
41
37 38 38
40
33
29 29
30 27
24
22
20 20
20 15
13
10
10 6 5
0
Used with permission, courtesy of weatherspark.com Murmansk, Russia. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Kiruna Temperatures in Degrees C and F

Kiruna, Sweden average high °C average low °C
20 17
14 15
15
Kiruna is the 9 9
10
northernmost city 7 6 7
in Sweden, 5 2 2 2
situated in the 0
0
province of -3 -4 -4
Lapland. -5 -7 -7 -7 -6
Population -11
18,148. -10 -13
-15 -14
-16
-15
World Factbook
-20

70
63
59
60 57
48 49
50 45 44
42
40 35 35 35
32
30 26 25
24
22
19 19 20
20
12
9
10 5 7
4
0
Used with permission, courtesy of weatherspark.com Kiruna, Sweden. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Time of Night
“Of course it's all luck.”

~ Henri Cartier-Bresson
120
3 ❖ 3 Time of Night
What Time of Night is Best?

Neal ’s Notes
The absolute best time to photograph the aurora is … when it’s up there dancing in
the sky! While this is obviously true, there are some things to keep in mind to help
you show up at the right spot at the right time to maximize your photography
opportunities.
WHAT IS MAGNETIC MIDNIGHT?

Sunlight causes the sky to glow in ultraviolet
light on the side of Earth next to the sun.
The aurora causes the auroral crown of light
over the northern hemisphere, which is
brightest in the midnight sector on planet
Earth, away from the sun.
However, the brightest aurora is visible not
at midnight by the clock but at magnetic
midnight. That is when the magnetic pole of
Earth, which is offset 11 degrees from the
geographic pole, or Earth spin axis, is
opposite the high-noon sun on the other Figure 3.2
side of Earth. The magnetic north pole is
As Earth spins on its axis, during the half offset from the geographic
hour before and after magnetic midnight, North Pole by 11 degrees, so
magnetic midnight is closer
there is an arc of proton and electron light
to 2 a.m. in Fairbanks,
emissions that causes the aurora to go
Alaska. Magnetic midnight
crazy and “break up” in bright, fast motions. varies based on your
geographic location in
relationship with the north.
geomagnetic pole.

my best luck with aurora photography has been between

When is Magnetic Midnight?
approximately 10:30 p.m. and 3 a.m. It is still unclear to me why
Magnetic midnight
aurora activity is not more perfectly balanced on each side of
occurs when you, the
1:50 a.m. (magnetic midnight), but my experience (which is
magnetic pole, and the
confirmed by other aurora watchers) shows that the period on
sun are in alignment.
the early side of magnetic midnight seems to be more active than
Therefore, the specific
the period after. While this time frame may be the statistical
time is dependent on
target, strong solar activity can result in aurora presence much
your location (latitude),
earlier or much later. I have photographed the aurora early in the
and the time of year
night when the skies are still bright, and late into the following
rather than on a time
morning, just before dawn. During your excursion, it is important
zone. In Fairbanks,
to spend the necessary time watching the sky. Going to bed and
Alaska, the magnetic
trying to be on aurora alert by waking up and checking
north pole lines up with
Figure 3.3 occasionally never works well. By the time you get dressed and
the sun at about 21
Aurora activity is often heightened between get all the camera gear ready, the show may be over.
degrees to the east of 10:30 p.m. and 3 a.m.
true north around 1:50
Be Persistent
a.m (Alaska Daylight Standard Time). In contrast, if you are
Bursts of aurora activity tend to happen over the course of the
viewing the aurora borealis from a location west of true north,
night. They may be short spans of movement and/or shape, or
such as Europe, then magnetic midnight may be closer to the 11
longer periods, depending on the intensity of the solar storms.
p.m. hour.
The aurora may have little or no activity and then flare up again.
The best general advice is to dedicate the time and watch the
The Critical Hours
skies persistently between the hours surrounding magnetic
Scientists at the University of Alaska Geophysical Institute say
midnight in order to maximize your opportunities. Whenever
that the timeframe most conducive to aurora activity surrounds
possible, try to get out early in the night to catch a little bit of the
magnetic midnight. In Fairbanks, Alaska, that is at 1:50 a.m., and

fading dusk light in combination with the aurora, which can add some wonderful
blue colors to the sky and highlight your foreground elements. It does not take
Neal ’s Notes much ambient light on a multi-second exposure to render some very dramatic, blue
Director, Alaska Science Explained sky color.
Of course, there are no guarantees on any evening, and I’ve spent many nights
AURORA BOREALIS AND AUSTRALIS
hoping for aurora action that never happened. But spending time under the star-
Our research at the Geophysical Institute of
filled night sky has helped me appreciate the wonders of the galaxy, learn about
the University of Alaska has shown that
the constellations, and become familiar with the planets and moon.
aurora of the northern hemisphere (the
aurora borealis) and aurora of the southern
hemisphere (the aurora australis) are mirror
images of each other in time and space.
In quiet conditions, when the aurora is not
very active or bright, the northern and
southern aurora move and brighten in sync.
NOAA POES
Figure 3.4
The aurora borealis (northern lights) and australis
(southern lights) ovals are mirror images of each
other.

Image 3.11 Photographing early in the night offers a chance to capture the fading light of dusk on the horizon. 124
Image 3.12 Aurora activity can vary drastically throughout the night. Be patient and stick with it for the best chance. 125
Image 3.13 This frame is one of many from a display that lasted five hours. Sometimes they only last a few minutes. Be ready. 126
Image 3.14 Waiting is often part of the game you agree to play when you embark upon a quest to photograph the aurora. Dressing 127
warm and watching the night sky is fun, but it can be tiring, too.
13 sec @ f/1.6, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark II, 24mm f/1.4)
Image 3.15 Although the hours around solar midnight are the best for aurora photography, I have photographed the aurora earlier 128
and later on numerous occasions during stronger solar events, such as this image, taken October 15, 5:24 a.m.
The Moon and

Moonlight
“Moonlight drowns
out all but the
brightest stars.”
~ J.R.R. Tolkien
129
3 ❖ 4 The Moon and Moonlight
Is There a Preferred Moon Phase?

Does the phase of the moon influence when you should photograph the aurora?
Yes, it does make a difference but not necessarily in a good or bad way. It mostly
depends on your interests and preferences and the type of photos you seek. Not
Shutterstock
CONSIDERING MOONLIGHT
❖ Be aware of the directional light of the
moon on your subject.
❖ It’s helpful to know moon rise/set time,
location and relative intensity.
❖ Moonlight brightens the sky and
minimizes the intensity of the aurora and
stars.
❖ Moonlight illuminates the landscape and
creates interesting compositions.
❖ A snowy landscape reflects light and
brightens the photo.
❖ Dark nights usually require longer
exposures.
❖ Beware of lens flare from moonlight. Shutterstock
Figure 3.5
Familiarize yourself with the moon phases and its rise and set times.

only the phase of the moon, but when and where it rises and sets
along the horizon are also things you should know to best plan
and time your trip.
Is a Full Moon Bad?

Most aurora viewing resources suggest that photographing the
aurora during a full moon is less optimal than shooting during a
new moon. This is because a bright sky results in less-defined
and less-dramatic presentation of stars, solar objects, and the
aurora. While this is true, it does not necessarily mean that you
can’t create beautiful aurora images during a full moon phase. I
have photographed the aurora in all moon phases, and the results
can be drastically different and equally interesting (Images 3.16 to
3.18). In my opinion, both extremes, and all the variations in
between, provide acceptable photography conditions. Because I
live where the aurora can frequently be seen, I’ve learned to not
be too concerned with the moonlight variables, since the aurora
does what it wants, when it wants. Getting everything to line up
perfectly can be a challenge, and I’m just happy to be there
photographing whenever the aurora happens to show up.
Where is the Moon?

Knowing where and when the moon rises is as important as
knowing the moon phase. It appears in the sky at different times
and at different places along the horizon, and knowing this helps
Image 3.16 30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 250 (Canon 1Ds, 17-35mm f/2.8)
Waning gibbous moon: March 31, 12:51 a.m.
Image 3.17 6 sec @ f/2.0, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 24mm f/1.4) Image 3.18 30 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark III, 24mm f/1.4)132
Waxing gibbous moon: February 28, 2:43 a.m. Last quarter moon: October 11, 1:02 a.m.
you anticipate the lighting conditions during your photography

Moonlight Absence
excursion. Where and when the moon will rise can be easily
If you want a black, star-studded night sky, then you should
determined with a little research. A handful of helpful smartphone
target a new moon period. In contrast to the bright light of a full
apps (Chapter 9:3) provide precise moon phase, moon rise, and
moon, the absence of a moon results in a dark night, more bright
moon set information based on GPS coordinates of your specific
and visible stars, and foreground objects silhouetted against a
location.
sky or obscured in shadow. In these conditions, it is not so much
Moonlight Presence the details within your foreground that matter, but the larger,
overall dark shapes that define your composition. Those
During a full or bright moon phase, pay special attention to your
silhouetted edges, whether from a tree or a mountain horizon
foreground because it will be well illuminated and easy to see.
line, become important elements in your picture (Image 3.20). If
With a long exposure, moonlight can almost emulate daylight.
you take time to consider these elements, you can better
Regardless of its phase, the moon generates a light source that
anticipate and respond to varying phases of the moon and
affects your compositions, so take that into consideration and
moonlight and plan your photo locations accordingly.
use it to your advantage. Always be aware of the direction of the
moonlight. Front light, back light, side light—they all impact your
foreground differently, and knowing how to use that light provides
another level of creativity in composing compelling photos. If you
can only travel during a bright moon phase, it may still be
possible to photograph the aurora in a dark sky when the moon,
regardless of its phase, is below the horizon at your specific
location. The waning light of a moon after it has set can illuminate
the shape of the horizon while the aurora dances above in the
dark sky. This kind of subtle definition can make a big difference
in a photo (Image 3.19).

Image 3.19 The moon is behind the horizon in this scene and creates highlights in the sky that separate the trees from an 134
otherwise very dark sky. In cases such as this, the presence of the moon can help define your foreground.
Image 3.20 On a night with no moonlight, the silhouetted foreground objects become important elements in the photo. 135
20 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 250 (Canon 1Ds, 70-200mm f/2.8 @ 115mm)
Image 3.21 While the aurora is faintly visible in this image, much of the drama comes from the clouds that are illuminated by the 136
moon.
Image 3.22 Bright moonlight casts a strong shadow, illuminates the landscape, and makes stars much less distinctive. Compare 137
this scene with the one on the next page. This exposure was the equivalent of four times faster.
Image 3.23 No moonlight results in a darker sky, prominent stars, and silhouetted foreground objects. Darkness required an 138
exposure of 30 sec @ f/1.4, the equivalent of four times longer than the photo on the previous page.
Image 3.24 The moon can be useful as a light source when the foreground requires it. In this case it highlights the steam rising 139
from the surface of the water.
Image 3.25 When including the moon, watch for lens flare; some lenses handle it better than others. You may need to zoom in on 140
your display and closely evaluate the image.
Image 3.26 Moonlight can also illuminate clouds, which can provide a different creative element to an image. 141
5 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 24mm f/1.4)
Image 3.27 Moonlight can also help define mountain ridges or other geological features. 142
Image 3.28 If the moon is present, it will cast light upon your subjects. Consider the direction and angle of light. As in most 143
landscape photography, side lighting is more interesting than front lighting.
Chapter 4
Dealing with
the Cold
Because aurora photography is most

possible in polar regions, you are likely
to be outside in cold—and sometimes
very cold—conditions. Being properly
prepared enhances your productivity and
enjoyment when photographing the
aurora.
144
Better Grades Ahead
My first encounter with a camera and Alaska's snowy be found. Soon I found myself trekking up the snow-
winter weather was in my teenage years. I was freshly covered Cathedral Mountain hillsides, thrilled at the
transplanted to Alaska from the Midwest, attending the sights and immersed in the experience. But the thrill
University in Fairbanks. At age 18, I was a true slowly diminished that first night as I laid in a tattered old
greenhorn. In October of that first year, I had an sleeping bag with mere patches of fabric between me
opportunity to explore the wilderness of Denali National and the cold tundra. That long, chilly night made me a
Park and make a photo essay for my photography class very early riser the next morning. One sure and
assignment. I jumped all over that with the desire and inadvisable way to learn how to prepare for
enthusiasm of a young adventurer, and virtually none of photographing in cold weather is to do it the wrong way
the gear or knowledge necessary for the task. In the way first. I received a “C” on my photo essay from that trip,
that college students often problem-solve such and a personal “D-” for being poorly prepared.
dilemmas, I borrowed things from wherever they could

Clothing for the

Cold
“When your feet

are cold, cover
your head.” 
~ Inuit saying
146
4 ❖ 1 Clothing for the Cold
Dressing Appropriately for the Cold

Neal ’s Notes
There is a rare beauty in winter, both in the quality of light and color, and its silence
and simplicity. But it can be cold, particularly in the northern polar regions. While I
like being in the cold, I do not like being cold. Photographing the aurora in winter
weather tends to be more physically passive than other wintertime activities—for
DOES THE AURORA AFFECT THE instance, skiing or other aggressive exercise—so staying warm is challenging. Over
WEATHER?
the years, I’ve tried almost everything possible to stay warm but have found no
Although there are “best” times of the year magic solution. However, my constantly tweaked system works sufficiently if
and night to see aurora, they actually occur
implemented well. To enjoy yourself on a chilly night, the first step is to dress
24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Even in the
appropriately. The clothing required for late autumn (September/October) need not
warm summer months, the aurora are still
active overhead, but in latitudes of the far be as heavy as that required for the late winter months (February-April), so adjust
north, the constant daylight prevents us as necessary.
from viewing them.
We don't think the appearance of aurora Inner Layers
affect local weather and cause cold weather. The primary layer, or base layer, of
Nor are aurora necessarily any more visible
clothing is very important. For the
in colder temperatures. It’s just that we can
top and bottom layers, I begin
see them best on cold, clear nights—and in
northern latitudes in the winter, clear usually with a lightweight merino wool or
also means cold. Capilene® layer that’s soft on the
skin. Over that goes a midweight
layer of similar but heavier fabric.
Be sure the top layer covers the
neck. And over that goes a down
Patagonia Patagonia
sweater. Avoid cotton because it Base layer long   Base layer long
is a hydrophilic fabric that absorbs underwear shirt underwear pants

sweat instead of wicking it away with down or lofty synthetic. I prefer a

from the body. When moist, cotton down parka for my top outer layer
cools the body, rather than and a pair of insulated snow pants or
insulates it. This is why cotton is a bib overalls for my legs. This
preferred fabric in warm climates, combination does provide some
not cold ones. degree of thermoregulation should
that be necessary. If an article of
Outer Layers clothing fits tightly, don’t wear it
Patagonia
When standing around because it limits loft and restricts
Patagonia down sweater
photographing in circulation. If you are using an
cold—and often exterior shell coat, be sure it fits
subzero— loosely enough that it does not
temperatures, compress the “loft” of the
layering your undergarment. The fill rating of down
outerwear is less is not critical, but the higher-rated
important because down is generally loftier, lighter, and
thermal regulation more expensive.
Amazon
due to exertion is Full-body down suit
usually not If you will be photographing during
necessary, unless the very cold, winter months, a full-body down suit might be
you want to hike or worth considering. It depends on how much you might be
Marmot walking or moving. Suits such as this are very warm, but more
trek some distance
Marmot down parka Outer layer overalls
to your photo difficult to thermoregulate. They are especially good for camping
location over rugged terrain. What you really want is the benefit excursions, due to their light weight.
of insulation, which comes from loft and air. This is best achieved

Head Feet
It is hard to compete with a fur When choosing a boot, a tight fit is bad, period. Boots should fit
hat for warmth during the cold with room to wiggle your toes easily, even when wearing a thick
winter months. Although, if your pair of socks. Remember, this is not performance footwear for
parka has a well-insulated hood,
then a less-bulky hat made of
wool or fleece will suffice. In
addition, I use a neck insulator
(gaiter) made of wool that can be
Icebreaker
pulled up over the face when Neck gaiter
necessary.
If it is really cold, I use a

fleece-lined facemask with
breathing holes for the mouth
and nose, which minimizes
frost and condensation against
the skin. It is soft and
lightweight, and dries easily Amazon
and quickly (unlike heavy

Baffin
neoprene). This is particularly Fleece-lined facemask
helpful during the winter
months, when even a slight breeze can make conditions much
colder.
Choose boots with well-insulated soles and sidewalls

running and hiking; this is coated gloves, even though

primarily for low activity in they may be more rugged
very cold conditions, with because they are less
lots of standing around dexterous. If any
and waiting. Because of glove fits tight, it
this, the best boot is one Amazon restricts circulation.
that has a well-insulated In colder
Felt insoles for boot liners
sole and sidewall, with temperatures I use a
room for a wool sole pair of midweight
insert. The old military-issue “bunny boots,” although ugly and heavy, fleece gloves.
are well loved in Alaska because they are amazingly warm in really
cold temperatures. I have used a pair for more than 30 years. A Ibex
Lightweight gloves
lighter felt-lined boot is sufficient during the autumn months. Boots
with removable felt or foam liners make it easy to dry the liner at the
end of the day. A thick wool sock is my preference; avoid cotton
socks.
Hands
Hands are the toughest part of the body to keep warm, especially
when photographing because they’re often held above the heart,
operating small dials and buttons, and frequently touching cold
objects. The gloves I use vary based on the season and temperature.
In the milder temperatures that hover around 32°F (0°C), I can get by
with a single layer glove. I prefer ones made of softer material
Mountain Hardware
because it makes operating the camera dials much easier. I avoid the Midweight gloves

In the well-below-freezing temperatures of mid-winter to early The fur mittens in (Figure 4.2) can be custom ordered from
spring, I put these midweight gloves inside a pair of large mittens Skwentna Furs by Christine. These are especially small and made
made of fur (or other large mitts will suffice), with a supple leather with beaver fur, without an external leather pad for the mitten
pad that lets me operate the dials without removing the mittens. I palm, which makes them even more supple. Contact Christine for
prefer fur mittens because it is about the only combination I’ve details on ordering and shipping. They are my go-to mitten when
found that offers an extremely warm mitt, along with the supple temperatures get really cold.
hand surface that permits operation of the camera with the
gloves on. Most gloves and mittens have an exterior surface for
durability, but for operating camera buttons, the suppleness of
fur is hard to beat.
One reason I favor Canon’s large back

wheel dial on the back of the camera
(Figure 4.1) is because it is relatively
easy to operate in cold weather. If I
need to remove my mitts for extra
dexterity, a chemical hand warmer
inside the mitt lends additional heat. In
spite of this, my hands still get cold
often, so I resort to the backcountry Figure 4.1
travelers’ trick of swinging the arms The wheel on the back of
the Canon camera makes
back and forth (or windmilling) until adjustment possible while
warm blood moves into my hands by wearing gloves or mittens.
centrifugal force. And a little bit of
Figure 4.2
aurora action in the night sky goes a long way toward taking your
Fur mittens have a very soft and supple pad that allows enough dexterity to
mind off of your cold fingers! operate the camera buttons without removing the mittens.

External Heat Sources Shooting in the Cold Summary

There comes a point when • No bare skin: Do not remove your gloves unless absolutely
clothing isn’t enough, and necessary. If possible, leave on a thin pair of glove liners.
some sort of additional heat Heat leaves bare skin quickly; don't squander it needlessly.
is needed. That other heat
• Limit touching cold objects: Your camera and tripod
source may be a warm become quite cold. Touch them only when necessary. Use
vehicle, hot liquids, or padded insulation for your tripod legs.
chemical warmers. There
are many varieties of
• Keep your hands below your heart: Circulation into the
fingers becomes more difficult when photographing because
chemical hand, foot, and the hands are often held higher than the heart. Get into the
body warmers on the habit of lowering your hands when not using camera controls
market. I use them in my and keeping them in your parka pockets.
mittens regularly. REI
• Hand warmers: After activation, place them in the pockets of
your jacket or inside your mittens.
A thermos full of hot liquids
is a great way to increase Chemical hand warmers are effective • Be well nourished: A cold body uses more energy. A well-
to warm the fingers. fueled body gives you essential energy to draw upon.
warmth and stay hydrated
in the cold, dry Arctic. • Stay hydrated: Drink lots of fluids. Dehydration is common
Dressing appropriately for cold-weather photography is critical. in the cold and dry Arctic, and it inhibits optimal circulation
Along with being well outfitted with the right clothing and gear, due to thickened blood (also called sludge blood).
here are a few other tips to help you stay warm. Remember that
• Move around: If the aurora is in a lull, take a short walk or
all the little things you do add up during a cold night, so if you move around to get the blood flowing.
take proper heat-conserving precautions throughout the night,
you will fare better and last longer. • Drink hot liquids: If possible, bring a thermos filled with a
hot beverage. If your beverage of choice for a long, cold

night includes caffeine, be sure to drink extra fluids to compensate for the
diuretic effect so that you remain hydrated. For a fast warmup, quickly chug
the hottest liquid tolerable to create a little heat bomb in your stomach that
radiates and warms you from the inside.
• Windmilling: If your hands or feet do get cold and you can’t seem to get them
warmed up, start windmilling. Swing your arms in a circle and use centrifugal
force to push the blood into your finger tips. Keep at it until you feel warmth
come back. For the feet, swing one back and forth while standing on the other.
It works amazingly well.
DRESSING FOR THE COLD

❖ Feet: Be sure boots have wool insoles,
substantial base and sidewall depth, and
are not tight fitting.
❖ First layer: Do NOT use cotton! Use
merino wool or Capilene®.
❖ Outer layer: Loft and air equal insulation,
so a down parka and insulated snow
pants or overalls are best.
❖ Hands: Wear loose-fitting glove liners that
fit inside larger mitts.
❖ Head: Wear a hat and facemask or neck
gaiter—synthetic material is best.
❖ Additional: Keep a few chemical
warmers handy.

Cold and
Camera Gear
“Every mile is two 

in winter.”
~ George Herbert
154
25 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, Rokinon 24mm f/1.4)
4 ❖ 2 Cold and Camera Gear
Photographing in the Cold

Cameras, tripods, batteries, fingers—they don’t work quite the same when chilled
down in subzero temperatures. Taking a few precautions can make your camera
gear work better in cold temperatures.
TIPS FOR EQUIPMENT AND THE COLD

❖ Batteries: Batteries decline quicker in the
cold, so keep a spare inside your coat.
❖ Release/remote: Shorten the remote
cord with a strap or band so it doesn't
dangle in the way.
❖ Tripod legs: Put foam padding around
your tripod legs to insulate from cold.
❖ Breathing: Don’t breathe directly on your
camera or viewfinder; it will fog/ice up.
❖ Prevent condensation: Place your
camera inside a well-insulated coat or
camera bag before entering a warm
building, and allow it to slowly come to
room temperature. Photo by Hugh Rose
Figure 4.3
❖ Frost: Watch for frost on your lens.
Be careful handling fragile plastic parts in the super cold. My remote switch for the Canon
camera becomes frozen stiff at -40ºF (-40°C).

Will My Camera Work in the Cold?

Neal ’s Notes
In my decades of
photographing the
aurora in cold
temperatures, I can’t
CAN YOU HEAR THE AURORA IN THE recall a time when my
COLD?
camera completely quit
On clear, cold nights, we often get reports working because of
that people hear a low buzzing or swishing
cold weather. That’s not
sound that they associate with bright aurora
to say that it can’t
forms overhead that appear to be rubbing
against one another in the sky. happen, but I have
found both Canon and
We believe these reports and treat them as
reliable, but we have yet to record these Nikon cameras to be
sounds, even though some claim they have. amazingly hardy. In the
The near-instantaneous correlation of very cold, such as -20°F
hearing sounds while seeing movement is (-29°C) and colder,
puzzling, because aurora are tens of miles
equipment slows down
distant, so perhaps the sound is generated
a little bit, especially the
by something local.
camera’s LCD display, but it still functions.
Or maybe it just depends on the individual,
because we often have reports of two
people, each with good hearing, telling us
Battery Consumption and the Cold
that one hears the aurora and the other As a general rule, the colder it is, the more batteries you want to have on hand.
does not. There are obvious variations depending on the camera model. For example, the
Canon 1D-series batteries are significantly larger than the 5D-series batteries and
last longer. In temperatures around +20°F (-6°C), the batteries perform quite well. I

photographed for five hours on a single battery in those camera’s battery level frequently. Depending on your camera, this
temperatures. In subzero temperatures, it is important to note may be displayed in the top LCD panel, found through the
that battery level indicators do not necessarily work in a linear viewfinder, or accessed through a menu button. Change the
fashion. After two hours, the battery showed 50% remaining, but battery before it goes completely dead so you don’t lose an
in just another 20 minutes, the battery died (Diagram 4.1). important photo opportunity. It is a good idea to have extras
Because cold weather decreases battery performance, check the tucked into a warm pocket. If the temperature is -10°F (-23°C) or
Battery depletion in -31°F / -35 °C temperatures (Canon 5D Mark III)

100%
% Battery Power
80%
% Battery Power
60%
40%
20%
0%
0 :20 :40 1 hr 1:20 1:40 2 hrs 2:20 2:30
Time
Diagram 4.1
In subzero temperatures, be aware that camera battery indicators do not seem to measure battery decline in a linear fashion. Beginning with a warm camera
body and battery may result in longer battery performance than beginning with a cold camera, or putting a warm battery in a cold camera body.

colder and you are just break in the very cold

standing around waiting for the weather is the wired
aurora to appear, remove your remote switch that
camera battery and tuck it into attaches to the
a warm coat pocket until you camera with about a
begin shooting. three foot cord. They
get very stiff in the
Media Cards Check the camera’s battery cold and under these B&H Photo
performance frequently conditions, can break Figure 4.4

After more than 10 years of
I recommend a backup wired remote switch
photographing in cold easily. I recommend
since the cord can easily break in the bitter
temperatures with digital cameras, having a back up cold. Vello makes some inexpensive versions.
I have not yet had a media card remote switch, just in
fail due to cold temperatures. In case. There are inexpensive models made by off brand
particular, I have used SanDisk companies if you want a backup.
Extreme or Lexar Professional
UDMA media cards with excellent Tripods and the Cold
SanDisk
results. After a tripod chills down in the cold weather, the leg collars often
SanDisk Extreme flash cards
work well in cold temperatures
become more difficult to operate. Wrapping foam insulation
Plastic and the Cold around the legs helps considerably to keep hands warm as you
Be gentle with your equipment in cold temperatures. Things adjust them. Be mindful of the little plastic or rubber feet
break more easily in the cold, and plastics in particular become attached to the bottom of the tripod legs. The difference in
rigid and are particularly susceptible to cracking or breaking. temperature between the metal legs and rubber feet can result in
Plastic that is soft and flexible in a warm room becomes hard as shrinkage, and the feet can loosen or fall out. I recommend
a rock in the super cold, so if you use plastic cases or other taping the feet ahead of time in warm conditions, which ensures
accessories, handle them with care. One of the easiest things to a much better stick than attempting it in the cold.

camera lens downward when not in use. If frost does collect on

Frost on the Lens
the front element of the lens, use a lens cloth with gentle circular
If the conditions are right, frost can collect on the front of your
movements to remove the frost. It might take a while to generate
lens if it is pointed upward at the sky for a long time. Using the
enough warmth from friction to loosen the frost. Sometimes, if
lens hood can help prevent this, but it is a good habit to point the
the glass element is really large, for example f/1.4 apertures or an
ultra wide, such as the 14-24mm, the glass mass is greater and it
can be a challenge to remove the frost without slowly warming
up the lens. You want to prevent this from happening since that
process requires a warm place and a chunk of time. Frost is
especially problematic if you are photographing near open water
during the freeze up or break up season, and the climate
conditions are conducive to this phenomenon.
Keep a Warm Backup Camera and Lens

If you are photographing in extreme cold conditions for long
periods of time, frost on the front element of a very cold lens can
stop your aurora photography because it is nearly impossible to
remove the frost without warming the lens. One way to deal with
this is to keep a back up camera and lens in a warm place, that
you can trade out as necessary should your first system become
nonfunctional. This does require the resources of a second body
and lens and a nearby warm environment, but it is sometimes the
only option in very cold conditions. During a recent and
spectacular solar storm, I had the front element of my lens frost
Figure 4.5 up badly about three hours into the event and in spite of all of my
You don’t want frost to form on the lens.

efforts, I could not get the frost off. It would have taken a long glasses understand this well, when they walk into a warm room
time to slowly warm that frozen camera and lens up, since the after being outside in cold temperatures, their glasses fog over.
temperatures were well below freezing. I wished I had another Condensation can form on the outside of your camera, but also
camera and lens in the nearby warm cabin that I could have on the inside of your lens and the camera’s internal electronic
traded out. Instead, I ended up calling it a night. While I was parts. To prevent this, either wrap your camera in a thick
satisfied with the many photos I did take, there was still great insulated jacket, place it in a zippered camera bag, or put it
aurora action in the sky, and special nights such as that don’t inside an airtight ziplock bag. Be sure to do this before you enter
come along too often. the warm room, and leave it until it comes up to room
temperature. I use my camera bag or wrap my down coat around
Preventing Condensation the camera since plastic bags are fragile and difficult to operate
If you do need to warm up in the cold. Condensation is not a problem when you take a
your camera or lens, or want camera from a warm temperature into a colder one. While
to take your cold-soaked condensation is not a big problem with a tripod, I still prefer to
camera equipment into a leave my tripod legs extended and bring it inside where it can
warm room after a night of warm up in an upright position. That way, if there is any snow,
aurora photography, you ice, or condensation, it will drain down the legs and away from
must protect it from the column joints.
condensation. Condensation
happens when you take a
cold object into a warm
room. Since warm air
contains more moisture, it
condenses on the cold B&H Photo
Figure 4.6
surfaces unless they are Putting your camera in a zipper tight
insulated. People who wear camera bag before entering a warm
place prevents condensation.

Chapter 5
Aurora
Exposure
Optimizing the exposure for aurora

borealis photography is critical, and it’s
not that difficult, thanks to immediate
digital feedback and the camera’s
histogram.
161
Getting It Right the First Time
Early in my photography career, I traveled with a friend less confidence and accuracy in executing proper
deep into the Alaska Range mountains on snow exposure. It was a magnificent aurora display, even
machines. We rode 20 miles along a magnificent glacier under full moonlight. But my underestimating the
to a beautiful location for camp and photography. intensity of the moonlight resulted in many excessively
Nestled among the mountains, we set up our tent and bright images. That, in conjunction with accidentally
began cooking dinner as the evening slipped into kicking my tripod during the most impressive aurora
shadow. The aurora appeared early that night, and I shape of the evening, makes me wish I could play that
hastily dashed for my cameras, leaving my meal half- night over again. Today’s digital camera, with its
eaten. Moonlight poured over the snow-covered glacier immediate LCD display feedback, removes much of the
and mountains, as I ran back and forth between two aurora exposure mystery. With a few pointers, you can
very different cameras doing my best to calculate increase your confidence and accuracy in capturing
exposure. Back then, in the film days, there was often well-exposed aurora photos.

Understanding
Exposure
“Correct exposure may be

defined as an exposure
that achieves the effect the
photographer intended.”
~ Bryan Peterson
163
30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 320 (Canon 1D, 17-35mm f/2.8)

5 ❖ 1 Understanding Exposure
The Importance of Exposure Fundamentals

Because of the demands
of aurora borealis
photography—lengthy
exposures, wide aperture
lenses, and pushing ISO ISO
Shutter
limits—you need a good
understanding of the
Exposure
Bigstock
basic fundamentals of
THE ESSENTIALS OF EXPOSURE exposure. Grasping the
relationship between
❖ The combination of f/stop, shutter, and
aperture, shutter speed,
ISO make an exposure.
and ISO helps you
Once exposure values are established,
f/stop
❖
changing one value requires changing the understand the exposure

others to maintain the same exposure. process. It also helps you
❖ The smaller the f/stop number, the wider make decisions in
the opening and less the depth of focus. selecting the appropriate
Figure 5.1
❖ The larger the f/stop number, the smaller camera equipment, Shutter, ISO and f/stop all work together to make an exposure.
the opening and greater the depth of lenses, and ultimately,
focus.
guides you in the picture taking process in the field. If you already understand
❖ Slow shutter speeds reveal movement
these principles, you can skip ahead to the next section.
and blur.
Fast shutter speeds stop action.
The LCD Display, Your Learning Tool
❖
Digital cameras have increased the popularity of aurora photography by making it

more accessible to photographers with a wide range of skill and experience levels.

This is largely due to the immediate feedback offered through the because some setting alteration is inevitable. To do that, you
digital camera LCD display, which has mitigated much of the trial must understand how to change the aperture, shutter speed and
and error of the 35mm film days. I used to wait sometimes weeks ISO as necessary.
to see the results of my film-based aurora photos, and because
of that, I experimented a tremendous
amount and made many errors.
But today, at your fingertips is an

amazing learning tool that allows you to
review and make real-time exposure
corrections in the field. In a very practical
sense, “what you see is what you get”
has come to the camera in the field.
However, relying on today’s sophisticated
metering and auto exposure capabilities,
although very good, does not replace the
need for fine tune control over your
exposures. To turn good exposures into
excellent ones requires an understanding
of how the aperture, shutter speed and
ISO work in relationship with one another
to create an exposure. If any one of these
settings is altered, it affects the others.
Aurora borealis photography in particular
requires more than just a compose-and- Figure 5.2
shoot relationship with the camera, The immediate feedback of today’s digital SLR cameras is a fantastic real-time learning tool.

ISO Sensitivity << High --------------------------------------------------------------- Low >>

ISO controls the camera sensor’s sensitivity to
ISO
light. The higher the setting, the more sensitive Sensitivity
<< More light sensitivity, grain, Less light sensitivity, grain,
to light. High ISO settings increase grain and noise noise >>
allow the shutter speed to be reduced, which
6400 | 3200 | 1600 | 800 | 400 | 200 | 100
results in more defined aurora shapes. High ISO
performance varies among camera models.
Lens Aperture << Wide ------------------------------------------------------------ Narrow >>

Aperture
Aperture regulates the lens opening. The wider << Wider f/stop, more light, less Opening Narrow f/stop, less light, more
focus depth focus depth >>
the opening, the more light reaches the camera’s
sensor. This permits shorter shutter speeds and f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.8 f/4 f/5.6 f/8 f/11
produces more defined aurora shapes. The
smaller the opening, the greater amount of focus
depth, or depth of field.
Camera Shutter << Slow --------------------------------------------------------------- Fast >>

The shutter regulates how much light reaches
Shutter
the camera’s sensor based on time. Long << More time, more light Time Less time, less light >>
shutter speeds let in more light, but they also seconds 
blur the aurora shapes. Reducing shutter
30  15  8  4  2  1  ½
speed requires higher ISO or wider aperture.
Diagram 5.1
Exposure equals the correct combination of ISO, aperture, and shutter speed.

Diagram 5.2
The Relationship of Aperture and Shutter Speed The wider the f/stop, or aperture
opening, the more light reaches the
camera’s sensor. If your lens has a
very wide aperture, the shutter speed
can be reduced by half the amount
for each full f/stop. This can be
useful in aurora photography
because a short shutter speed helps
isolate quickly moving aurora shapes.
f/1.4  f/2.0  f/2.8  f/4 

@ 800 ISO @ 800 ISO @ 800 ISO @ 800 ISO
sec. sec. sec. sec.
Bigstock
the lens focal length and the diameter of its front element. The
Aperture
difference between each full f/stop equals a 2x change. So f/1.4
Aperture (or f/stop) refers to the size of the opening in the lens,
lets in twice as much light as f/2.0, and f/2.8 lets in twice as
which regulates the amount of light that reaches the camera's
much light as f/4.0. Diagram 5.2 shows the significant reduction
sensor. The wider the aperture opening, the more light comes in.
in shutter speed that results from using a wide aperture lens. A
The specific size of the aperture opening is called an f/stop, as in
reduced shutter speed lets you shoot more frames, and it helps
f/2.8, or f/4.0. While f/stop numbers are consistent between
isolate the aurora shapes.
lenses, the fractional figure represents a relative value based on

Diagram 5.3
The Relationship of ISO and Shutter Speed Cameras that can achieve good
image quality at high ISO values
are desired because for every
<-- High ISO = more grain & noise Low ISO = less grain & noise --> full-stop higher ISO that can be
used, the shutter speed can be
reduced by half. A shorter shutter
ISO 3200 ISO 1600 ISO 800 ISO 400 speed results in more defined
aurora shapes and the ability to
@ f/2.8 @ f/2.8 @ f/2.8 @ f/2.8 take more unique frames in the
same amount of time.
sec. sec. sec. sec.
Bigstock
Shutter Speed ISO

Shutter speed refers to the duration of time in which the shutter ISO indicates how sensitive the sensor is to light. The higher the
mechanism in the camera remains open, allowing light to reach ISO, the more sensitive it is to light. The difference between 400
the sensor. The longer it is open, the more light comes in. Fast and 800 ISO is exactly double the sensitivity. So ISO 800 is twice
shutter speeds are used to freeze action. Slow shutter speeds as sensitive as ISO 400. Diagram 5.3 shows how the shutter
are used to blur them. A 30-second shutter speed lets in twice as speed can be reduced by increasing the ISO setting. Having a
much light as a 15-second shutter speed. camera that performs well at high ISO enables shorter shutter
speeds.

All three of these values,

shutter, aperture and f/stop, Dim aurora Dim aurora
work together to make the 6 sec @ ISO 5000 25 sec @ ISO 1600
proper exposure based on the
amount of available light. Every
scene requires a certain
amount of light, and it can be
achieved through a proper
combination of aperture size,
shutter speed and sensor
sensitivity.
Pushing the Limits

Because aurora photography
occurs in the dark, the
exposures require long shutter
speeds in conjunction with a
wide aperture and a high or
“sensitive” ISO. That is why
people often say that aurora
photography pushes the limits
of the exposure variables. This
is certainly true for ISO and Relatively dim, (not average brightness) but very colorful This image is just ⅓ of a stop different in actual exposure
aperture. Long-duration shutter aurora required a high ISO to get an exposure of 6 time than Figure 5.3. Note the blur and lack of detail in the
speeds can be easily set, but seconds. The Canon 5D Mark III file at ISO 5000 is of curtains of light between 6 and 25 seconds. 25 sec @ f/
surprisingly good quality. 6 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 5000. 2.8, ISO 1600.

because the aurora is often moving, and sometimes moving shutter needs to stay open long enough to let in enough light.
quickly, a shorter shutter speed is preferred because it captures How long is long enough? Try a test shot. If your picture is too
the shape better. A long exposure blurs the shape of the aurora, dark, increase the shutter speed, or increase the ISO if your
making it less defined. camera can handle it. If the picture is too bright, reduce the
shutter speed, or reduce the ISO. Eventually, you will find the
Aurora Exposure appropriate settings for the brightness of the aurora display. This
When creating an exposure for the aurora, setting your camera to varies from night to night, based on the intensity of the aurora
an acceptable high ISO and opening your lens aperture to its and other factors of ambient light, such as the moon. How to
widest opening is a good starting point. With those variables set, evaluate your exposure using the camera's LCD display and
the shutter speed is most often the changing variable, and the histogram is discussed in the next section.
Exposure values for average aurora brightness (no moonlight) in ½ stop increments
f/1.4 f/1.8 f/2.0 f/2.5 f/2.8 f/3.5 f.4.0

ISO 200 30 sec 45 sec 60 sec 1.5 min 2 min 3 min 4 min
ISO 400 15 sec 20 sec 30 sec 45 sec 60 sec 1.5 min 2 min
ISO 800 8 sec 10 sec 15 sec 20 sec 30 sec 45 sec 60 sec
ISO 6400 1 sec 1.5 sec 2 sec 3 sec 4 sec 6 sec 8 sec
Figure 5.5
Exposures for the aurora vary greatly depending on the brightness of the aurora and the amount of ambient light. Experiment and consult your histogram.
These values are only approximations and should be adjusted according to the real-time variables.

Achieving
Exposure
“...above all, know light... 

and you will know  
the key to photography.”
~ George Eastman
171

5 ❖ 2 Achieving Exposure
Achieving Correct Exposure

Digital photography has removed much of the mystery from aurora photography
exposure. Real-time feedback and the ability to make adjustments on the spot,
have made a once-complex process much more accessible to the amateur photo
enthusiast.
The Histogram
The histogram is the
Shutterstock fundamental visual tool for
WORKING WITH A HISTOGRAM evaluating the accuracy of
exposure. It is especially
❖ The histogram is a visual record of tonal
values from black to white. useful in aurora photography
❖ If the histogram shows data reaching the because nighttime conditions
far-right and far-left sides, you are losing present potentially deceptive
valuable image data. interpretations of images on
❖ Use RGB view instead of Brightness view. the camera display. The
❖ Consult the histogram often and make histogram doesn’t lie. What is Figure 5.6
adjustments as necessary. The histogram spans the tonal range of pure black (0) to
a histogram? It is a graphical
pure white (255) as measured in values of 0-255.
❖ Depend on the histogram to accurately presentation of the tonal
represent aurora brightness levels.
values in your picture, ranging
❖ Learn to trust the histogram; correct
from pure black (far left) to pure white (far right) and everything in between. By
exposure while shooting is the only way to
guarantee the highest quality images. comparing this data with your picture, you can judge whether the exposure reflects
the levels of brightness (whites, blacks, and grays) in the scene appropriately.
Many people have written in-depth articles on histograms. I strongly recommend
understanding histograms at luminous-landscape.com.

Figure 5.7 Adobe Photoshop Lightroom Histogram

Blacks Figures 5.7 to 5.11 show the histogram as portrayed in Adobe®
Photoshop® Lightroom®, the post-production software I use for
making adjustments to RAW files. The three channels—red,
green and blue—are overlaid, and on top of that a combined
Figure 5.8 average of all three channels is shown in light gray. This average
area is also called the brightness histogram in your camera
Shadows setting, as opposed to the RGB histogram, which shows the
three independent color channels. Either or both of these can be
viewed on your camera’s LCD display.
Figure 5.9
Exposure Lightroom currently uses the following terminology to describe
the five regions of tonal values in a histogram: Blacks, Shadows,
Exposure, Highlights and Whites. Alternately, they may be
referred to as: Very Dark, Dark, Medium, Light, and Very Light.
Figure 5.10 The yellow shaded overlay in Figures 5.7 to 5.11 show the
precise region of the histogram where these respective tonal
Highlights
values exist.
As a general rule, a histogram that shows data reaching either

Figure 5.11 the far-right or the far-left sidewall indicates blocked-up darks
(blacks) or blown-out highlights (whites). It is especially important
Whites to prevent blown-out or overexposed highlights on the right side.

Overexposed aurora cannot be recovered!

This is underexposed. For an This histogram reveals a more

average bright aurora, expect to accurate exposure than Figure
see at least some data in this 5.12. Some data is represented in
shaded area (the mid-tones and the shaded area.
highlights).
it is true that a RAW file permits some post-production

The Importance of Proper Exposure
adjustments, you need to be careful to not introduce
Making the proper exposure at the time of capture is all the more
unacceptable noise and other artifacts into the image. The more
critical with photos taken at high ISO settings because the grain
accurate the initial exposure, the better the final results from
and noise intrinsic to high ISO leave less latitude for making
post-production work on the image. Reading the histogram helps
exposure adjustments later with post-production software. While
you achieve proper exposure.

If there is brightness in the aurora, This histogram represents a

then the histogram should show more accurate exposure, with
that. Since very little data exists in some data in the mid-tones and
the mid-tones or highlights, it highlights area.
indicates underexposure.

If the exposure of this image was doubled from 2 to 4 seconds, it would Since I was photographing in manual mode, the exposure value is the same
have moved the brightness values more to the right to properly reflect what in this image as in Figure 5.14. However, the aurora increased in brightness,
I saw. While this can be corrected in post production, it is better to get the which made the exposure more accurate. The small portion of nearly white
exposure correct in the field. brightness is shown on the far-right side of the histogram.

Poor brightness Fair brightness Good brightness

3.2 sec @ ISO 1250 6 sec @ ISO 1250 25 sec @ ISO 1250

Overall underexposed. Most of the values are in Some presence of mid-tone values but lacks The brightness values are good in the image,
the blacks and shadows, no bright values. brightness. There is good shape in the aurora in but the aurora shape is more blurred.
Boosting shadows or blacks in post production this frame, but increasing the ISO would have Increasing the ISO instead of the shutter speed
would introduce grain and noise. increased brightness and maintained the aurora would have increased brightness and retained
shape. the aurora shape in Figure 5.17.

Underexposed Correctly Exposed

5 sec @ ISO 1250 25 sec @ ISO 1250
This is another example of two different

exposures of a similar scene. The aurora
shape in Figure 5.19 has better
definition due to a considerably faster
shutter speed of 5 seconds. However,
the exposure in Figure 5.20 is more
accurate and produces a much better
file in post production. Increasing the
ISO in Figure 5.20 instead of the shutter
speed would have corrected the
Underexposed Correctly exposed exposure while also maintaining the
5 sec @ ISO 1250 25 sec @ ISO 1250
more defined aurora shape captured in
Figure 5.19. If shape is important and
your camera can handle high ISO, boost
that instead of the shutter speed.

Underexposed by 3+ Underexposed by 1.5 Correctly Exposed for

Stops Stops Shadow Detail
Expect data here for Expect data here for Expect data here for
proper exposure proper exposure proper exposure

Greatly underexposed. Note that all of the values This is a little better but still most values are in the This exposure represents the brightness of the
are in the blacks and shadows. blacks and shadows. aurora more accurately and boosts the shadows.

Perfecting
Exposure
“We are what we

repeatedly do.
Excellence, then,  
is not an act,  
but a habit.”
~ Aristotle 179
5 ❖ 3 Perfecting Exposure
Do Not Overexpose
Red highlighted area indicates
Bright flares of auroras can
overexposure and the right side of
sometimes be prone to
the histogram shows blown-out
overexposure, especially when
whites.
shooting in manual mode with
widely changing degrees of aurora
brightness. While it is important to
expose for maximum detail in the
Shutterstock
shadow areas, it is more important
THE CORRECT EXPOSURE to not overexpose the highlights.
Use the camera's blinking highlight
❖ Understand shutter speed, f/stop, and
warning feature and review the
ISO so you know the benefits and limits of
high ISO and fast-aperture lenses. RGB histogram frequently to
❖ Practice night photography to find your prevent overexposure. If you see
camera’s acceptable high-ISO limits. highlight blinking or notice the
❖ Don’t be fooled by the LCD display. The RGB histogram data reaching the
camera display brightness level can be right sidewall (Figure 5.24), the
misleading.
scene is overexposed. Unlike
❖ Learn to read your histogram. This is daytime landscape photography,
fundamental to proper exposure.
where slight post production
❖ Learn to trust your histogram. For
recovery on a RAW file is possible,
exposure, trust your histogram, not the
display image. recovering overexposed highlights
in post-production on aurora Figure 5.24
❖ Be careful to not overexpose.
photos is nearly impossible, so err If you see highlight blinking on your camera display,
decrease your exposure. Overexposed aurora can’t
on the conservative side.
be recovered.

8 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 24mm f/1.4)
Image 5.1 This is an example of what you want to avoid, overexposing the aurora and blowing out the highlights. 181
on the histogram. This is important enough to bear repeating, so

Don’t Be Fooled by the LCD Display
Figures 5.25 and 5.26 show how an LCD display can be
While reviewing pictures on the camera’s LCD display, refer to
deceiving. Look at the LCD image for composition, but train
the histogram for proper exposure, not the picture itself. On a
yourself to be instructed by your histogram for proper exposure
dark night, it is very easy to be fooled by an apparently bright
evaluation.
LCD picture, only to find out later that it looks much darker on
your computer. Setting the LCD brightness to low helps, but rely

This histogram shows no values in the bright areas and is underexposed, This histogram more accurately represents the tonal range of the bright aurora
despite how the camera display makes it appear. This is especially remarkable and is therefore preferred to Figure 5.25, even though it does not appear as
since this exposure is 15 seconds shorter than the image in Figure 5.26. bright. This underscores the importance of using your histogram to make
exposure judgments, not the camera LCD display.

file seems intimidating, shoot in RAW + JPEG (if your camera

RAW or JPEG?
permits it). If ever there was a shooting situation in which RAW is
There are numerous benefits to shooting in the RAW image
critical, it is aurora borealis photography. Because of the
format. RAW is a lossless file format that retains all the data
demands of nighttime photography, high ISO and digital noise,
captured when the photo was taken. Because of this, RAW files
it’s important to begin with a file that permits the maximum
allow the maximum adjustment latitude for exposure correction,
amount of adjustment. Even if you lack the skills to process a
brightness levels, noise reduction, white balance, sharpening,
RAW file today, you may wish to do so in the future. Or you can
etc., in post-production software. Because of this, RAW
pass the file to someone more skilled to do the work. Consider
produces a better quality file after post production modifications.
the RAW file like a negative. It is always there, and it can be
In contrast, a JPEG file undergoes in-camera file compression,
processed at any time. The RAW format takes up more
and some of the data is lost during this process (Diagram 5.4). So
megabytes, but if you are worried about media space, just buy
less data is available for post-production adjustments. If a RAW
another card. Gigabytes are cheap these days.
RAW Lossless File Format verses JPEG Lossy File Format
RAW
Camera  Writes to card with no quality loss
Raw Capture Processor
on Camera
Sensor performs
actions Memory Card
JPEG
Writes to card with negative destructive actions performed by the
camera processor affecting White balance, Saturation, Contrast,
Sharpening, Color space, Lossy file compression
Diagram 5.4
Raw is a lossless file format and produces a better file than JPEG.

What Should my Highest ISO Setting Be? Post-Production Adjustments

The answer to this question varies considerably from camera to Among the variety of subjects I photograph, northern lights
camera, so experiment with yours to find the acceptable high- photos seem to benefit the most from post-production
ISO limit. The acceptable limit is most likely defined by the adjustments, largely because of the broad tonal value ranges
amount of noise and grain evident in the file. Canon and Nikon’s found between bright aurora and the dark night sky. A full
top-level cameras perform exceptionally well at high ISO. From discussion of which treatments to perform on the RAW file in
experience, I know the Canon 5D Mark III produces excellent post-production software is beyond the scope of this book, but
images at 3200 ISO. It is possible to use even higher ISO settings I’ll discuss a few basic adjustments that help to refine your
in certain situations (See Image 5.2 on the next page, taken at image.
5000 ISO).
In particular with aurora images, noise reduction adjustments are
As a professional photographer, I have stringent quality criteria an important treatment to a RAW file, because photographing at
because of the wide variety of size and reproduction high ISO inevitably introduces noise and grain (Figure 5.27 next
specifications that may be required for publication of a single page, and Chapter 7:1). The other combined post-production
image. Your acceptable standards may be different from mine, treatments that address the various tonal values help balance the
and they may depend on the end purpose for your photo—that image.
is, a print, a digital slide show, etc. Ultimately, the ISO judgment
call is made based on the following factors. As is often the case with landscape photography, some degree of
sky control, or balancing the tonality of a bright sky with the
• Amount of ambient light (either from the moon or the aurora) foreground is essential. Programs such as Adobe Photoshop
• Brightness of the aurora Lightroom, or Adobe Photoshop, which extend the ability to
• How fast the aurora is moving apply local adjustments to specific areas of an image, are as
• Desire for star trails important as a good lens and a good camera in reaching the
final, optimized image.

Figure 5.27
Before-and-after comparison using Lightroom to apply color and luminance noise reduction on files taken at high ISO.

Image 5.2 A 100% crop of a photo taken at 5000 ISO with the Canon 5D Mark III. 186
Raw Capture    
Before Processing in Lightroom After Processing in Lightroom
Compare the histogram in Figure

5.28 with Figure 5.29 to see changes
after Lightroom processing. The
adjusted tonal values as noted below
were applied to this image in post
production using Lightroom.
Blacks: +24
Shadows: +51
Exposure: -.11
Highlights: -73
Whites: +37

Before Processing After Processing
Figure 5.30
Screenshot of Adobe Lightroom showing the various panels and respective adjustments made to the image.

Chapter 6
Choosing
Cameras and
Photo Gear
The right camera and gear for the
conditions help to prevent many
headaches and frustrations in the field.
189
A Thief in the Night
The aurora activity slowly began as I waited along a shapes. Reaching for the camera, I quickly composed
frozen river on a cold, dark night. At first, I was hopeful the photo and pressed the camera shutter button, but
that the action might increase, but nothing very dramatic nothing happened. I pushed it again, and nothing
developed. So I did what everyone does in such happened. And then I noticed the dead battery icon
situations–waited longer. And so I waited, walking back flashing in the viewfinder. I changed the battery quickly
and forth, moving enough to keep the blood flowing and but the show was over for the night. Fast isn’t fast
stay warm. After a few hours, the little voice that is half enough in some cases. I've lost more camera equipment
reason and half tempter said, “It's pretty cold out here to theft than I have to the perils of wilderness and
and not much is happening. Why don't you go warm up backcountry travel. But there is a battery juice thief out
and get a little sleep.” Just as I was about to give in to there that every aurora photographer should be aware of
that desire, I looked up in the sky and, to my surprise, on a chilly winter night. Always monitor your equipment,
the aurora rallied into vivid displays and dramatic especially the batteries.

Digital Cameras
“I hate cameras.  
They are so much
more sure than I am
about everything.”
~ John Steinbeck
191
6 ❖ 1 Digital Cameras
Mirrorless ILC
BASIC CAMERA REQUIREMENTS Single Lens Reflex
❖ Good performance at high ISO:
Choose a camera that exhibits little noise
in the shadow areas at high ISO settings.
❖ Sensor size: Full-frame, FX (24 x 36mm)
sensors often produce high quality
images and offer a great variety of fast,
wide-angle lens choices.
❖ Lens selection: Make sure a fast Compact non-ILC
aperture and wide-angle lens is available.
Digital Cameras
❖ Live view option: This is helpful to aid in
securing critical focus with some lenses. We live in an exciting time of camera technological development. The number of
❖ Camera reviews to help you decide: Digital Single-Lens Reflex (DSLR), Mirrorless Interchangeable Lens Cameras
Digital Photography Review (MILC), and compact, non-ILC cameras is ever increasing. Many can capture
(dpreview.com). The Digital Picture: (the- satisfactory aurora photos, with varying degrees of quality. Since these camera and
digital-picture.com) 
lens systems continue to emerge and develop, my intent is to equip you with
enough general information to help you understand which type of camera may be

most appropriate for you and why. Photographers often shoot a I will discuss the essential factors to look for in a camera, but you
wide range of subjects and want a system that has some should consider these factors as well:
versatility. Some may end up with two different systems to best • Price
optimize a camera and lens combination targeted specifically for • Size
aurora photography. • Design
• Build and durability
Which Camera is Best for me? • Ease of use in cold weather
When I’m asked, “What camera should I buy?” it usually • Lenses available for the model
provokes me to ask a battery of questions to help decide the Since each person’s preferences are slightly different, your
most fitting choice. I know that there are myriad options and camera choice will ultimately be guided by what you want to do
figuring it all out can feel daunting. If you are considering with your pictures.
purchasing a camera suitable for aurora photography, or want to
change from a current camera system, here are a few questions The Minimalist
to ponder: If you are an ultra minimalist, love to travel light, photograph most
• What do I want to do with my pictures? frequently in a mid-focal range, and are at ease with smaller
• Share them on the web? image files, then an upper-level compact camera might work for
• Make prints for my wall? you.
• Sell them commercially?
• How much resolution and quality do I need? The Universalist
• Is my focus landscape, wildlife, or both? If you are more universal in your photo interests and prefer one
• Do I want to have two different camera systems? camera system with a lens lineup that includes everything from
• What is my budget? an ultra-wide angle to a 500mm lens, and you need a responsive
• How much camera gear do I want to carry? camera for fast focusing and fast frame rate, then you should
• Do I want zoom lenses or prime lenses? probably explore one of the upper-level DSLRs They take great
• Is renting a better option? aurora photos but also perform well in other situations.

camera, and I use a Nikon 14-24mm lens with a Nikon-to-Canon

The Landscaper
adapter. During your camera selection process, investigate the
If your primary interests are landscape photography, then you
specific lenses available for the specific camera model. This is
might be a candidate for a mirrorless camera. They are capable
addressed in the next section on lenses.
of making excellent, quality images and are lightweight and easy
to travel with. The full-frame sensor versions produce excellent LARGE
quality aurora images. SENSOR
the  
larger  
The Hard Core Aurora Photographer the better
If your priority is to achieve the best quality and largest possible
photos of the aurora, then you will likely seek out a camera with
the largest sensor, excellent high ISO performance, and supreme
optics to match it.
Camera
The Three Important Factors essentials for
The three primary technical considerations you want to look for in aurora
an aurora camera are: photography
• Large sensor size
• Excellent high ISO performance the   the  
• Fast aperture and wide-angle lens availability higher   faster  
In addition, it is important that the camera build, user interface, the better the better
buttons, knobs, etc. match your preference. Keep in mind that QUALITY FAST 
some lenses made by other manufacturers may fit directly on HIGH ISO APERTURE
your camera or with the use of an adapter. For example, I use Figure 6.1
Zeiss and Rokinon lenses made specifically for my Canon Three important factors when determining a camera’s ability to capture
aurora photos.

Sensor Size Comparative Diagram of Sensor Sizes

The first consideration,
regardless of camera type, is Diagram 6.1 Size comparison of today’s common digital camera sensor sizes.
the camera’s sensor size. This
is important because it is often
the sensor’s size that
determines image quality more
than its megapixel count. The
most common sensor sizes are
Full Frame - FX   APS-H   APS-C   APS-C (Canon)  
the 35mm full-frame equivalent,
36.00 x 24.00 mm 27.90 x 18.60 mm 23.60 x 15.60 mm 22.20 x 14.80 mm
often referred to as FX, and the
slightly reduced-size sensor,
APS. A third size, which is
growing in popularity is the
Micro Four Thirds (4/3”).
Compact cameras are sporting
increasingly larger sensors, 1.5”  Micro Four Thirds 4/3”   1” 1/1.2”  
some up to the APS-C size. 18.70 x 14 mm 17.00 x 13.00 mm 12.80 x 9.60 mm 10.67 x 8.00 mm
Medium format digital cameras
have even larger sensors, like
the Pentax 645Z (43.8 x 32.8
mm), but such cameras lack
super wide-angle, fast aperture
lenses. More about the 2/3”  1/1.7”  1/2.3”   1/3” (iPhone 6) 
importance of that later. 8.80 x 6.60 mm 7.60 5.70 mm 6.17 x 4.55 mm 4.80 x 3.60 mm

Digital SLR Cameras and Sensor Sizes 1:1

1.3x
1.5x
Diagram 6.2
1.6x
SLR cameras use a mirror, which makes their overall build larger. This is not a complete list of all digital 2.0x
SLR cameras. Only the more recent releases by Nikon and Canon are featured because they are the sensor size comparison
most popular and offer the widest lens selection among the DSLR cameras.
1:1 1.3 Crop 1.5 Crop 1.6 Crop

Full Frame APS-H APS-C APS-C
24 x 36mm 28.7 x 19.1mm 23.6 x 15.8mm 22.2 x 14.8mm
Canon | Nikon | Sony Canon Nikon | Sony | Pentax Canon
Nikon 1:1 Canon 1:1 Sony 1:1 Canon 1.3 x Nikon 1.5 x Canon 1.6 x
D5: 20.8MP 5D Mk IV: 30MP A99: 24MP 1D Mk IV: 16MP   D500: 20.7MP 7D II: 20MP
D750: 24MP 5Ds: 50MP 1D Mk III: 10MP   D7200: 24MP 70D: 20MP
D810: 36MP 6D: 20MP   D5500: 24 MP T5i/700D: 18MP
D4s: 16MP 1D X: 18MP  D3300: 24MP SL1/100D: 18MP
D600 & D610: 24MP  5D Mk III: 22MP  D5300: 24MP T4i/650D: 18MP
D800 & 800e: 36MP  1Ds Mk III: 21MP D7100: 24MP 60D: 18MP  
D4: 16MP 1Ds Mk II: 17MP D5200: 24MP T3i: 18MP

Mirrorless Cameras and Sensor Sizes 1:1
1.5x
Diagram 6.3
1.6x
Due to the absence of a mirror, these cameras are smaller and lighter than digital SLR cameras. Rather 2.0x - 4/3”
than supply a comprehensive list of all camera models, I have highlighted some of the more popular ones. sensor size comparison
Like DSLR cameras, they come in a variety of sensor sizes.
1:1
Full Frame 1.5x Crop 1.6x Crop 2x Crop
24 x 36mm APS-C APS-C 4/3”
23.6 x 15.6mm 22.2 x 14.8mm 17.3 x 13mm
Sony | Leica Fujifilm | Sony | Pentax | Samsung Canon Panasonic | Olympus
Sony Leica Fujifilm Sony Canon Panasonic Olympus

A7s: 12MP  M Typ 240: X-T2: 24MP a6300: 24.2MP EOS-M: 18MP Olympus PEN E-P5: 17MP
A7II: 24MP 24MP  X-T1: 16MP a6000: 24MP Olympus OM-D E-M1: 16MP
A7R: 36MP X-M1 16MP NEX-6: 16MP Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH4: 16MP
The mirrorless camera system is new and will continue to develop considerably.
There are always hopeful rumors about new releases. Watch this system closely
because there will likely be some excellent options in the years to come.

quality issues. Whether this matters to you depends on the end

Image Quality Benefits of Large Sensors
purpose of your photographs. Since I work as a professional, I
Larger sensors allow for larger
often license large reproductions in commercial markets and am
pixels, which translates into two
in constant pursuit of the best quality file possible. However, if
significant quality benefits: a wider
you just want to share pictures online or make prints up to 11 x
dynamic range and lower noise.
16 inches, then the quality benefits of a larger sensor may not be
Dynamic range defines how much
as important.
detail the camera can capture in
both the dark and bright areas
Ultra-wide Angle Lenses for FX Cameras
simultaneously. Essentially, the
Another significant benefit of using an FX sensor is that full-frame
larger pixels can collect more
sensor cameras retain the standard lens focal length of the
photons (light). Noise in a digital
Figure 6.2 original 35mm cameras, which makes ultra wide-angle
image appears as grainy patterns
Larger sensors have larger pixels photography more achievable due to the absence of a crop
or color splotches, which are more
which means wider dynamic factor. For example: a 24mm lens on a full-frame camera retains
evident in the dark areas as range and less noise.
its 24mm focal length. If I put that same lens on a camera with a
explained and illustrated in
1.5x APS-C sensor, it turns into the equivalent of a 36mm focal
Chapter 5. Larger sensors create a cleaner and less noisy image.
length. If I put that same lens on camera with a 1.6x APS-C
sensor, it turns into the equivalent of a 39mm focal length.
Excellent performance in dynamic range and low noise are
Neither of the latter focal lengths are wide enough for aurora
exactly what you want when photographing the aurora because
photography, in my experience. This is detailed in Figures 6.4 to
you are shooting in low-light conditions and favoring high ISO
6.8 on the following pages. While it is true that a few special APS
settings. For this reason, many professionals and serious
lenses are made for achieving an ultra-wide angle view for these
photographers favor a large sensor to maximize the quality of
smaller sensor cameras, the vast majority of fast aperture, wide-
their photos for reproduction in commercial purposes or large
to ultra-wide angle lenses are available for full-frame sensor
fine art displays. Satisfactory images can be created with the
cameras.
smaller sensors, but the end use may be more limited due to

35mm Equivalent Lens Focal Length Per Sensor Size
FX (1:1)   APS-H (1.3x)   APS-C (1.5x)   APS-C (1.6x)   MFT (2x)  

24 x 36mm 28.7 x 19mm 23.6 x 15.7mm 22.2 x 14.8mm micro 4/3” 18mm x 13.5
CANON: 6D, 1DX, 5D & CANON: 1D series: 1D NIKON: D7200, D5500, CANON: 70D, 60D, OLYMPUS: PEN E-P5,
1Ds series. Mk II, 1D Mk III, ID Mk IV D3300, D5300, D7100, 50D, 40D, 7D, 7DII, OM-D E-M1
NIKON: D610, D750, D5200, D3200, D5100, Rebel series PANASONIC: Lumix
D800, D4, and D5 series. D7000 DMC-GH4
SONY: A99, A7s, A7II PENTAX: K-5 series, K-30
LEICA: M SAMSUNG: NX1
SONY: a6000, NEX-6
FUFIFILM: X-T1&2, X-M1
10mm 13mm 15mm 16mm 20mm
16mm (16-35mm) 21mm 24mm 25mm 32mm
Figure 6.3
This is the actual 35mm lens equivalent when mounted on smaller sensor cameras.

1:1
1.3x
1.5x
1.6x
2x - 4/3”
Figure 6.4
Starting with a 14mm lens, the lines represent the capture area of the respective “cropped” sensor cameras.

Figure 6.5. 14mm 1.3x crop = 18mm Figure 6.7. 14mm on a 1.5x crop = 21mm
Figure 6.6. 14mm on a 1.6x crop = 23mm Figure 6.8. 24mm on a 1.6x crop = 39mm

treatment in post-production programs, such as Adobe

The Importance of High ISO
Photoshop’s Lightroom, can remedy much of this.
Besides sensor size, another important camera feature is the
ability to produce quality images at a high ISO. The higher the
Know Your Camera’s ISO Limits
ISO, the faster the shutter speed can be. In other words, if you
Because of increased grain and noise, the upper limits of
increase the ISO from 800 to 1600, then the shutter speed
acceptable ISO settings vary based on the specific camera
decreases from 30 to 15 seconds (Figure 6.9).
model. Do some research and experiment to determine your
tolerance. Just because the camera goes to 64,000 ISO does not
f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.8 f.4.0 mean the results at that setting are satisfying. I’ve discovered
ISO 200 30 sec 60 sec 2 min 4 min that with the Canon 5D Mark III, 1600 and 3200 ISO are
ISO 400 15 sec 30 sec 60 sec 2 min acceptable if the scene is exposed properly. In some
circumstances, even higher ISO settings can be used. Keep in
ISO 800 8 sec 15 sec 30 sec 60 sec
mind however that when using high ISO settings, the exposure
ISO 1600 4 sec 8 sec 15 sec 30 sec should be accurate since there is less tolerance when doing post
ISO 3200 2 sec 4 sec 8 sec 15 sec production edits on images with high ISO. For an informative
ISO 6400 1 sec 2 sec 4 sec 8 sec article on the importance of ISO over megapixels, see this article
on Gizmodo: Why ISO is the New Megapixels.
Figure 6.9
Compare the shutter speed in relationship to ISO and f/stops. If a camera
has quality performance at high ISO, then shutter speeds can be Live View
considerably reduced.
Many DSLRs come with a Live View function. When this function
is activated, the camera mirror lifts, switching the view from the
The Tradeoff of High ISO viewfinder to the back-of-the-camera LCD display. Critical focus
High ISO settings increase grain and the probability of increased on some lenses requires the Live View function, which makes it
noise, particularly in the shadow areas. However, in-camera noise an important feature when photographing the aurora. I’ll explain
reduction features, in conjunction with luminance and color noise this more in Chapter 7:2.

A Brief Camera Review

Hopefully, you now have a better understanding of the important
factors to consider when choosing a camera suitable for
photographing the northern lights. It’s beyond the scope of this
eBook to do a full review of all available camera models, but I Sony Alpha a99ii
want to highlight a few of the cameras that I know to be good Sensor: FX
performers. If your camera is omitted, it does not mean that it Megapixel: 42MP
can’t do the job. I will first address the full-frame sensor cameras, ISO: 100-102400
and then some of the smaller sensor cameras.
DSLR (new)
Full-Frame Sensor Cameras

Canon, Nikon and Sony have excellent cameras. The models B&H Photo
highlighted here deliver excellent ISO performance and offer
sufficient lens options. New versions of similar models will
continue to improve.
Sony Alpha a7Rii Sony Alpha a7sII

Sensor: FX Sensor: FX
Megapixel: 42MP Megapixel: 12.2MP
ISO: 100-102400 ISO: 100-409600
Mirrorless ILC Mirrorless ILC
B&H Photo B&H Photo

Canon 5D Mark IV Nikon D5

Megapixel: 30MP Megapixel: 20.8MP
ISO: 100-32000 ISO: 100-102400
DSLR (new) DSLR (new)
B&H Photo
B&H Photo
Canon 6D Nikon D750
Megapixel: 20MP Megapixel: 24MP
ISO: 100-25600 ISO: 100-12800

DSLR DSLR
B&H Photo B&H Photo

APS Sensor DSLR Cameras

The smaller APS sensor DSLR cameras can capture quality
images of the northern lights. However, there is a limited selection
Nikon D500
of ultra-wide-angle and ultra-fast aperture lens.
Sensor: DX 1.5x
Megapixel: 20.9MP
ISO: 100-164000
DSLR
Canon 7D Mark II
Sensor: APS 1.6x
Megapixel: 20MP
ISO: 100-16000 B&H Photo
DSLR
B&H Photo
Nikon D7200
Rebel T5i Sensor: DX 1.5x

Megapixel: 24MP
Sensor: APS 1.6x
ISO 100-25600
Megapixel: 18MP
DSLR
ISO: 100-25600
DSLR
B&H Photo
B&H Photo

releases. This new breed of mirrorless cameras offers promising

Mirrorless APS Sensor Cameras
quality in a very small package. Since this category is relatively
While Canon and Nikon have dominated the DSLR market for
new, it will be exciting to watch it grow. Here are a few models
many years, other camera manufacturers have taken the lead in
suitable for aurora photography.
the Mirrorless Interchangeable Lens, and non ILC Cameras. That
could change, as the rumors grow about upcoming camera
Samsung NX1
Sensor: APS-C 1.5x
Megapixel: 28MP
Fujifilm X-T2 ISO 100-25600
Sensor: APS-C 1.5x MILC
Megapixel 24.3MP
ISO: 200-51200
B&H Photo
MILC (new)
B&H Photo
Canon M5
Sensor: APS-C 1.6x
Sony Alpha a6300
Megapixel: 24.2MP
Sensor: APS-C 1.5x
ISO: 100-25600
Megapixel: 24.2MP
MILC
ISO 100-25600
MILC
B&H Photo B&H Photo

Mirrorless Micro 4/3” Sensor Cameras Lumix GH4
The micro 4/3” sensor has a 2x crop factor, and while this is Sensor: 4/3” 2x
considerably smaller than a full-frame sensor, the quality of high Megapixel: 16MP
ISO files can be remarkably clean. Currently, Olympus and ISO: 100-25600
Panasonic offer the largest selection of models. MILC
Camera Rental B&H Photo
While renting a lens is a great option for photographing the

Olympus E-P5
aurora, I don’t recommend renting a camera unless you get the
Sensor: 4/3” 2x
camera ahead of time to experiment, practice and become
Megapixel 17MP
familiar with how it works. Attempting to operate a camera that
you are not familiar with in the dark and cold can be challenging ISO: 100-25600
and frustrating. If you don’t own a backup camera, renting an MILC

identical camera body for an aurora trip is wise because the
B&H Photo
investment in getting to an aurora photography destination can
be expensive, and a backup camera can save the day if you have
a mishap or camera failure.
Olympus OM-D EM1
Mark II
Two rental companies in the U.S. include borrowlenses.com and
Sensor: 4/3” 2x
lensrentals.com. Local camera stores that offer a rental service
Megapixel: 20.4MP
can save you fees on shipping. If you are traveling to Fairbanks,
Alaska as a starting point for an aurora photo excursion, Alaska ISO: 100-25600
Camera offers a wide variety of rental camera equipment. MILC (new)
B&H Photo 207

Compact Cameras
The overall benefit of a compact camera is the very small size and lightweight
build, which makes them easy to travel with. But the small build usually requires a
smaller sensor and, therefore, some limitations in image size. Until very recently, I
would have discouraged the use of a compact or point-and-shoot camera for
aurora photography. I still don’t recommend the vast majority of them but there is a
new breed emerging that have much larger sensors than the typical, quite small
sensor found in the bulk of point-and-shoot cameras. Depending on your interests
Panasonic
BASIC COMPACT CAMERA TECHNICAL  

REQUIREMENTS
❖ High ISO, preferably ISO 1600 or greater,
with acceptable performance.
❖ Aperture f/2.8 or faster.
❖ Wide-angle lens, at least 24mm wide;
manual focus capability.
❖ Manual or bulb exposure mode; if no
bulb, at least an in-camera 30-second
shutter speed.
❖ The larger the sensor the better; 1 inch or
larger is best. B&H Photo
❖ Place to attach a ball head plate.

❖ Shoots RAW format.
Panasonic Lumix DMC-LX100: The small size and weight of compact cameras make
them popular and easy to travel with. Some versions have larger sensors, very fast
apertures, wide angle lenses and high quality optics.This Lumix has a 4/3” sensor.

and the type of image file you desire, one of these newer
compact cameras may be sufficient for your needs. If you plan to Canon G1x II
use your compact camera on an aurora outing, it is important to Sensor: 1.5 inch
check your camera’s manual for the features noted in the sidebar
Megapixel: 13MP
on the previous page.
Lens: 24-120mm
Aperture: f/2
Rather than try to provide a comprehensive list of which compact
ISO: 100-12800
cameras may achieve acceptable aurora photos, here are a few
B&H Photo
essential features for aurora photography:
• Fast aperture wide-angle lens
• One inch or larger sensor Lumix DMC-LX100
• High ISO capability with low noise Sensor: Micro 4/3”
When all other points are equal, quality ISO performance is the
Megapixel: 12.8 MP
deciding factor.
Lens: 24-75mm
Aperture: f/1.7
New camera models are release frequently and improving all the
ISO: 100-25600
time. For clarification of your camera’s features, or to investigate
B&H Photo
a model before purchase, there are some websites that present
comprehensive reviews and summaries that can greatly assist
Sony RX100 III
you in the decision-making process. Two that are worthy of note
include steves-digicams.com and dpreview.com. Sensor: 1 inch
Megapixel: 20MP
Lens: 24-70mm
Aperture: f/1.8
ISO: 125-12800
B&H Photo

Lenses
“...and then, I have

nature and art and
poetry, and if that is
not enough, what 
is enough?”
~ Vincent van Gogh
210
6 ❖ 2 Lenses
Choosing a Lens for Aurora Photography

There are many, many lenses on the market, manufactured by a variety of
companies, made from different quality glass, and sold for a wide range in price.
Aurora photography requires lenses that let in a lot of light due to the dark
conditions. These are generally more expensive to make because bigger openings
require bigger glass elements. Bigger glass elements, especially made with high-
quality, professional-grade glass, are expensive. While cost does not always
equate to quality, lenses with the highest optical performance are often more
Shutterstock
expensive.
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A LENS
Canon
❖ Wide-angle: A wide- to ultra-wide-angle Nikon
lens is essential to capture expansive Rokinon
aurora displays.
❖ A wide aperture: Fast lenses (wide
apertures) result in reduced shutter
speeds. Look for an f/2.8 or wider
opening.
❖ Lens sharpness when wide open:
Critical for overall quality and photo
enlargement.
❖ Ability to achieve critical focus: The
very fast f/1.4 lenses are more challenging
to focus.
Sigma
❖ Versatility: A lens suitable for nighttime Zeiss
and daytime landscapes is a bonus.
Rokinon

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
slower f/stops of f/3.5 and f/4, which result in increased shutter

A Note About Terminology
time. The latter can work, but the slower lenses need longer
In the context of this book, when I speak about lenses as “fast”
exposures making isolating the aurora shapes more difficult.
or “slow,” I'm referring to the aperture, or f/stop opening. A “fast”
lens has a large opening, or a small f/stop number. The class of
The Importance of a Wide Angle Lens
“fast” apertures are those below f/2.8 (for example, f/2.0, f/1.8, f/
Most of my aurora photos are taken with a focal length of 24mm
1.4). A standard aperture for aurora photography would be f/2.8,
or wider, because the aurora shapes can be expansive and cover
and a slow aperture would be f/3.5, f/4 or greater. The more light
a large part of the sky. An ultra-wide angle lens can be necessary
the lens allows in, the shorter the shutter speed can be.
to capture this. Aurora shapes vary and they can change quickly,
sometimes too fast to make a lens change in the dark. To prepare
Lenses for APS Sensor Cameras
for this, I usually have two cameras on tripods, one with an f/2.8
Currently, the Tokina 11-16mm f/2.8 AT-X 116 Pro f/2.8 and the
ultra-wide angle zoom lens (Canon 16-35mm or Nikon
Rokinon 12mm f/2.0 are the only fast ultra-wide lenses available
14-24mm), and one with a 24mm f/1.4 lens. The two lenses allow
for APS sensor cameras (although this may change in the future).
the flexibility to capture a variety of scenes.
The similar versions manufactured by Canon and Nikon have
Fast Lenses
I suggest a wide-angle lens with a minimum aperture of f/2.8, or
faster (f/2.0, f/1.4). These values represent one-stop increments,
f/1.4 f/2.0 f/2.8 f/4.0 f/5.6
and one f/stop is equivalent to one stop in shutter speed or ISO.
Using a large aperture lens, such as an f/1.4, in conjunction with
high ISO extends your aurora shooting options. There are two
significant benefits of a fast lens:
Figure 6.10 • Being able to reduce the shutter speed lets you capture
This simple one full f/stop incremental graphic comparison shows the more detail in the aurora shapes. This is especially true when
drastic difference in opening size between a fast f/1.4 and a standard f/2.8 the aurora are moving quickly and twisting and turning into a
lens.

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
variety of shapes. Faster

shutter speeds really help in
revealing more definition
(Figures 6.11 and 6.12).
• Reduced shutter speeds

allow for more frames-per-
minute and a more flexible
and quick response to
changing aurora activity.
Diagram 6.4 shows how many

frames-per-minute can be taken
with f/stops ranging from f/1.4 to
f/4.0. Many more frames can be
captured in the same amount of
time with faster lenses. Imagine if
the aurora flared up for a 1-minute
display and you used an f/1.4
aperture lens instead of an f/2.8.
The f/1.4 lens permits four times
as many images in the same time.
That is quite a difference. The
sheer number of variations in the Figure 6.11 Figure 6.12
aurora can result in substantially A very fast exposure of 2 seconds notably increases If the aurora are moving quickly, shutter speeds that vary
different imagery. If the aurora detail in the aurora shape, compared to Figure 6.12, by just a few seconds can make a big difference. This
which has an exposure time twice as long, at 5 seconds. exposure at 5 seconds loses shape detail compared to
brightness is changing drastically,
Figure 6.11.
shorter shutter times allow for

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
more accurate variations in exposure between pictures. If you With a 7.5-second exposure, you are free to recalibrate your
start a 60-second exposure, and suddenly the aurora brightens, exposure on the next frame more quickly.
it’s too late—you are already locked in for that 60-second period.
Faster lenses = shorter shutter speeds and more frames-per-minute
f/1.4 @ f/2.0 @ f/2.8 @ f/4.0 @
sec sec sec sec
= = =
Bigstock
4 2 1
8
frames-per-minute frame-per-minute
frames-per-minute
frames-per-minute
Diagram 6.4
Fast lenses permit shorter shutter speeds, which better capture aurora shapes and allow for more frames per minute. While I don’t recommend
apertures of f/3.5 or f/4.0, they are included here to show the compromise in both time and frames-per-minute should you choose to use them.

1.3 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 2500 (Canon 5D Mark III, 24mm f/1.4 Rokinon)
Image 6.1 Fast aperture lenses allow you to capture more distinct aurora shapes. This shot was taken at 1.3 seconds at f/1.4, 215
and shows the details in the curtains of light that often appear blurred with longer exposures.
Image 6.2 Wide-angle lenses are essential in capturing expansive aurora shapes. 216
6 ❖ 2 Lenses
lens can be worth it, because often the shape of the overall
Compromises of an f/1.4 Lens
aurora and general composition are the central features of the
Having extolled the virtues of a fast f/1.4 lens, there are often
image, not the tiny stars in the outer corners. I would like to add
compromises with these large-aperture lenses. They are more
here that the Rokinon 24mm f/1.4 shows considerably less
difficult to focus and exhibit comatic aberration in the outer
comatic aberration and it is currently my lens choice in the 24mm
corners of the lens (Figures 6.13 and 6.14). This is a type of
f/1.4 category. It is also considerably cheaper.
optical distortion found in point light sources such as stars,
where they appear to have tails (coma) like a comet. This is the
case for both Nikon and Canon’s 24mm f/1.4, which are
expensive, professional-level lenses. But the tradeoff of a fast
comatic aberration

The square section in the top left has been enlarged to reveal the artifacts The outer edges of f/1.4 lenses tend to have some artifacts in the star
often found on the outer edges of f/1.4 lenses. highlights.

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
Recommended Lens Focal Lengths According to Sensor Size
1:1 FX 1.5 Crop 1.6 Crop 2x Crop

Full-Frame APS-C  APS-C 4/3”
3.6 x 15.8m 17.3 x 13mm
24 x 36mm 22.2 x 14.8mm
Fisheye to 35mm Fisheye to 20mm Fisheye to 20mm Fisheye to 16mm
14mm f/2.8 11-16mm f/2.8 APS = 16mm 11-16mm f/2.8 APS = 16mm 8mm f/3.5 = 16mm
15mm f/2.8 12mm f/2.0 APS = 18mm 14mm f/2.8 = 22mm 10mm f/2.8 = 20mm
20mm f/1.8 12mm f/2.8 APS = 18mm 14-24mm f/2.8 = 22mm 12-35mm f/2.8 = 24mm
21mm f/2.8 14mm f/2.8 = 21mm 16-35mm f/2.8 = 25mm
24mm f/1.4 14-24mm f/2.8 = 21mm 20mm f/1.8 = 32mm
24mm f/2.8 16mm f/2.8 APS = 24mm
24mm f/2.0 16-35mm f/2.8 = 24mm
25mm f/2.0 18mm f/2.0 APS = 27mm
14-24mm f/2.8 20mm f/1.8 = 30mm
16-35mm f/2.8
24-70mm f/2.8 Diagram 6.5

These are some of the known wide-angle lenses made for the cameras with varying sized sensors. Some lenses are only
available for select or limited camera manufacturers. Third party mount adapters permit some lenses to be used on
different cameras, as explained in the section on Lenses.

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
Choosing a Prime or Zoom Lens Lens Mount Adapters

I use a combination of zoom and prime lenses in my kit for aurora Lens options for aurora photography may
photography. Each has its own set of benefits, depending on be expanded through the use of a lens
your photographic goals. Professional lenses with very high- mount adapter, which permits lenses from
quality glass and large apertures are expensive. You often get various manufacturers to be used on your
what you pay for, but there are some reasonable alternatives at camera. For example: A Novoflex EOS/NIK-
more economical prices. The links to lenses in this section go to NT Lens Adapter allows Nikon’s 14-24mm
B&H Photo
BHPhoto.com or Amazon.com, where I do most of my camera lens to be used on a Canon camera. There
Novoflex EOS to NIK
gear shopping. A few of my favorites are marked. are some functional restrictions with these
adapter.
adapters which may vary based on the
Why a Prime Lens? adapter and lens, but functions like
Some prime lenses come with larger apertures (most autofocus, aperture control, and the
notably the 24mm f/1.4) and are an excellent and often transfer of EXIF data may not work
expensive choice. Because they have fewer glass elements electronically. The Novoflex EOS to NIK
they are often—but not always—sharper than zoom lenses. has a manual lever that controls the
aperture opening.
Why a Zoom Lens?
B&H Photo
If you want a versatile lens that serves both for nighttime If you shoot a Sony Mirrorless camera,
Metabones Nikon to Sony
aurora and daytime landscape photography, an ultra-wide- there is a wide selection of lenses mount adapter
angle zoom (16-35mm or 14-24mm f/2.8) is a good option. made possible with adapters.
While it may lack the speed of a prime f/1.4 lens, its variable Photographer Brian Smith has a well organized list of these many
focal length gives great flexibility. Wide-angle zoom lenses adapters. Some of the more popular manufacturers are,
tend be more prone to lens flare because they are made Novoflex, Voigtlander,and Metabones. When reviewing the
with more glass elements than prime lenses. following lenses, keep in mind that adapters may broaden your
options.

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
• Zeiss 15mm f/2.8 Distagon T* ZE  

Prime Lenses
Canon EF, Nikon F, 
Superb quality, expensive,
Fisheye Primes
manual focus, infinity may
• Fisheye lens (variety of manufacturers)  not be true infinity based on
Super-wide-angle lenses with my experience. Some
distortion creating curved models work with manual
horizon lines. infinity focus, others require
Live View focus (note: the
Ultra-Wide-Angle Primes
Nikon version is for the older
• Rokinon 12mm f/2.0 NCS CS  Nikon F mount cameras, not
Available in various lens mounts the new autofocus versions). B&H Photo
(APS-c, Canon M, Sony E, MFT)
Zeiss 21mm f/2.8 Favorite
• Canon 14mm f/2.8L II USM  Wide-Angle Primes
A superb ultra-wide-angle lens,
• Canon 20mm f/2.8 USM 
autofocus. Wide, inexpensive alternative.
B&H Photo
• Nikon 14mm f/2.8D ED  Canon 14mm f/2.8 • Sigma 20mm f/1.8 Canon, Nikon 
A superb ultra-wide-angle lens, Available for both Canon and Nikon, very good performance
autofocus. for an inexpensive lens; moderately dark and soft corners,
• Samyang Premium 14mm f/2.4 Manual Focus UMC   which is mostly eliminated on reduced sensor APS cameras.
Canon EF, Nikon F, Sony E (new)
• Zeiss 21mm f/2.8 Distagon T* EZ for Canon Favorite 
• Rokinon 14mm f/2.8 IF ED Canon, Nikon  Superb quality, manual focus, infinity may not be true infinity
Ultra-wide, manual focus, relatively sharp, good quality for
based on my experience. Some models work with manual
the price, a reasonable choice for APS sensor cameras,
infinity focus, others require Live View focus, Canon EF
functions as a 21mm-23mm lens when calculating for the
focal length magnification.

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
mounts, expensive (note: the Nikon version is for the older • Sony 24mm f/2.0 Carl Zeiss T* 
Nikon F mount cameras, not the new autofocus versions). Excellent quality, fast, expensive, for Sony Alpha & Minolta
• Canon 24mm f/2.8 USM  DSLRs.
Inexpensive alternative to the more versatile zooms. • Zeiss 25mm f/2.0 Distagon T* EZ Canon 
• Nikon AF 24mm f/2.8D   Superb quality, manual focus, infinity may not be true infinity
Inexpensive alternative to the more versatile zooms. based on my experience. Some models work with manual
infinity focus, others require Live View focus, Canon EF
Fast Wide-Angle Primes mounts, expensive (note: the Nikon version is for the older
• Rokinon 24mm f/1.4 Favorite Nikon F mount cameras, not the new autofocus versions).
Nikon, Canon  
Fast f/1.4 lenses, two-stop
Fast Medium Wide-Angle Primes
advantage over an f/2.8, but at   • Canon 28mm f/1.8 USM 
f/1.4, the stars have artifacts Not real wide, but fast.
near the edges; more difficult to • Nikon 35mm f/1.4G AF-S  
achieve critical focus; Not very wide, but very fast.
expensive. • Sigma 35mm f/1.4 DG HSM
• Canon 24mm f/1.4L II USM  B&H Photo Canon, Nikon 
A fast lens but it exhibits more Rokinon 24mm f1.4 Favorite Not very wide, but very fast.
coma artifacts in the outer • Zeiss 35mm f/1.4 Distagon T* EZ
perimeter than the Rokinon, it is also more expensive. Canon 
• Nikon AF-S 24mm f/1.4G ED  Not very wide, but very fast,
B&H Photo
Fast and expensive. expensive. Sigma 35mm f/1.4
• Sigma 24mm f/1.4 DG HSM • Nikon 35mm f/2.0D  
Not very wide, but fast and reasonably priced.

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
build for the Nikon and

Standard Lenses
Tamron is big and heavy, with
“Standard” lenses that are
a large, bulbous front
inexpensive and perform well
element. Because of their
optically; however, 50mm is a focal
thermal mass, once these
length used only in specific
lenses lenses get cold it can
situations, such as capturing the big
be a challenge to clean the
dipper constellation; not Nikon 50mm f/1.8
B&H Photo
front element in frost-
recommended for wide aurora
favorable conditions.
displays.
• Sony 16-35mm f/2.8 ZA SSM
• 50mm f/1.8 Canon, Nikon
Vario-Sonnar T* Favorite
• 50mm f/1.4 Canon, Nikon Excellent quality, expensive,
B&H Photo
Carl Zeiss glass, works for
Zoom Lenses Sony Alpha and Minolta
Tamron 15-30mm f/2.8 Favorite
Ultra-Wide-Angle Zooms Maxxum DSLRs. The

Tamron, Nikon & Sony are outstanding lenses for aurora due
• Canon 11-24mm f/4L USM 
to the composition flexibility available with the ultra-wide-
Expensive but very wide, excellent quality, slow at f/4.
angle zoom range, and their excellent image quality.
• Sigma 12-24mm f/4 DG HSM 
• Canon 16-35mm f/2.8L III USM (new) 
new lens Oct/Nov 2016.
Available in late October 2016, the new version reports
• Nikon 14-24mm f/2.8G ED AF 
improvements in outer and corner sharpness when shooting
Favorite Very sharp, very wide, but large, heavy and
wide open at f/2.8; versatile for both aurora and general
expensive. Can be used with Canon EF with adaptor.
daytime landscapes.
• Tamron SP 15-30mm f/2.8 Di VC USD Canon, Sony, Nikon F
• Nikon 17-35mm f/2.8D ED AF 
Favorite A challenger to Nikon’s 14-24mm, cheaper and
A good performer.
excellent quality with a little longer reach at 30mm. The lens

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
Wide-Angle Zooms • Nikon AF 12-24mm f/4G IF-ED AF-S-DX  

(Equals 18-36mm in 35mm format). Wide but very slow at f/
• Canon 24-70mm f/2.8L II  
4, resulting in exposures twice as long as f/2.8.
A very sharp lens with limited zoom versatility; expensive.
• Tokina 11-16mm f/2.8 AT-X 116
• Nikon 24-70mm f/2.8G ED 
II Canon, Nikon 
A very sharp lens with limited zoom versatility; expensive
(Equals 17-24mm in 35mm
format). Available for Nikon or
Lenses for APS Sensor Cameras
Canon mounts. This ultra-wide
A few ultra-wide-angle zoom lenses are built specifically for APS
lens is sharp, and reasonably
sensor cameras (1.5x to1.6x multiplication factor), such as the
priced. A good choice for both
Canon Rebel, 50D, or Nikon DX series cameras). Because the
aurora and landscapes.
current Canon and Nikon brand lenses are f/3.5 and f/4 at their
• Sony 10-18mm f/4 OSS Alpha
widest aperture, they require a longer shutter speed which results
(15mm - 27mm equivalency in B&H Photo
in some compromises. However, with increasing improvements in Tokina 11-16mm f/2.8 APS
35mm format) A good zoom
high ISO, these lenses may work o.k. The Tokina 11-16mm f/2.8
range but at f/4, it is slow and
lens receives excellent reviews for sharpness and quality, and is a
requires an exposure twice as long as an f/2.8 aperture.
good choice for fast, APS ultra-wide-angle zoom suitable for
aurora photography. APS Prime Wide-Angle Lenses
• Rokinon 8mm f/2.8 UMC Fish-Eye Fujifilm Sony (12mm
APS Wide-Angle Zooms
equivalency in 35mm format).
• Canon EF-S 10-22mm f/3.5-4.5 USM  
• Fujifilm XF 14mm f/2.8 R (21mm equivalency in 35mm
(Equals 16-35mm in 35mm format). A wide-angle range but format).
is slow at only f/3.5, resulting in an exposure two-thirds
• Sony 16mm f/2.8 Alpha E (24mm equivalency in 35mm
longer than at f/2.8. format).

6 ❖ 2 Lenses
• Fujifilm 18mm f/2.0 XF R (27mm equivalency in 35mm

Renting a Lens
format).
Renting a lens is an excellent option for those who want to use a
Lenses for Micro Four Thirds Cameras more specialized and expensive lens one time, or for one specific
trip. Rental rates are reasonable at a variety of locations. Two
There are a number of wide angle zoom lenses made for these
rental companies that are worthy of note in the U.S. include
cameras, but the majority of them are on the slow side with the
borrowlenses.com and lensrentals.com.
widest aperture at f/3.5 or f/4. While it is not impossible to use
these slow lenses, they are not ideal. To expand the selection of
You may have a local camera store that offers a rental service
lenses, there are adapters that permit traditional FX lenses to be
worth exploring. If so, you can avoid time constraints and fees
used on a 4/3” mount. But remember the 2x crop factor, which
from shipping. If you are traveling to Fairbanks, Alaska as a
essentially means that a 12-14mm lens is about the maximum
starting point for an aurora photo excursion, AlaskaCamera.com
focal length that you want to use for general aurora photography.
(formerly Fairbanks Fast Foto) offers a wide variety of rental
camera equipment.
Micro Four Thirds Prime Wide-Angle Lenses
• Rokinon 10mm f/2.8 Ultra Wide Angle. (20mm FX)  
This lens is available for Canon, Fuji, Nikon Samsung and
Sony mounts.
• Panasonic Lumix G 14mm /f/2.5 ASPH (28mm FX)
Micro Four Thirds Wide-Angle Zoom Lenses

• Panasonic Lumix G X Vario 12-35mm f/2.8 ASPH (24mm FX)
• Bower SLY 358OD 8mm f/3.5 Fisheye for Olympus (16mm
FX) A wide lens but a little slow, still usable and one of the
only really ultra-wide options.

Tripod Legs
“Simplicity is the ultimate

sophistication.”
~ Leonardo da Vinci
225

6 ❖ 3 Tripod Legs
Choosing a Tripod
A good, functional tripod is absolutely essential for northern lights photography. It
is worth the time to closely evaluate the options and select one that is appropriate
in height, weight, smooth functionality, and ultimately, price. I have watched many
novice photographers struggle on a cold, dark night, with an unstable tripod that
becomes very difficult to operate in cold weather. A tripod is not a piece of gear to
skimp on. Good tripod legs are expensive. And if you have never priced a set of
carbon fiber lightweight tripod legs, you are probably in for a big surprise. Tripod
legs and heads are often sold separately due to the extensive variety in both
ADVICE ON TRIPODS equipment.
❖ Invest in a quality tripod and head:

Save yourself the frustration of struggling
in the dark with a poor-quality tripod.
❖ Get a tall tripod: Choose a sturdy, tall
tripod so you don’t need to crouch to
look through the camera.
❖ Center column extension: Too much
extension increases sensitivity to vibration,
resulting in possible camera blur.
❖ Insulate your tripod legs: Foam pads
on the legs insulate your hands from the
cold metal.
❖ Stabilize your tripod feet: Materials
expand and contract in the cold weather.
Tape loose tripod feet if necessary.
Figure 6.15
A tripod that functions well in cold weather saves you a lot of frustration.

6 ❖ 3 Tripod Legs
wearing gloves or mittens, so keep this in mind when evaluating

Tall and Sturdy
this aspect of the tripod. I tend to avoid levers that lock the leg
Choose a set of tripod legs that extend high enough so you can
position because levers are more susceptible to breaking,
stand up and look through the camera, without crouching, while
especially in the cold.
it is tilted up toward the sky. Such a tripod is much more
comfortable and easier to operate, because squatting or kneeling
Tripod Feet
under a short tripod becomes uncomfortable very quickly—
Even with some expensive
especially after a few hours of photography. I can’t emphasize
tripods, I’ve had the bottom
this point enough. If you need to access the dials or buttons on Gitzo
rubber or plastic leg feet
top of the camera, then tilt the camera downward using the Figure 6.16
loosen and fall out due to
ballhead. Camera exposure settings can be viewed by looking Cold weather can loosen tripod feet.
shrinking in cold weather.
through the viewfinder or on the back LCD display of many of
Be mindful of this,
today’s digital cameras.
especially if your tripod has never seen cold temperatures. If the
feet become loose, apply some tape that secures the foot to the
Limit Center Column Extension
leg, or use a silicone adhesive to keep them in place.
Full extension of the tripod’s center column (if it has one) is not
advised. Long extension makes the tripod less stable and more
Insulate the Legs
susceptible to wind vibration and movement sensitivity. This is
Add foam to the legs of the tripod
particularly exacerbated by longer exposure times. Select a
for welcome insulation when you
tripod that does not require extending the center column more
need to touch the cold metal
than a few inches to achieve a comfortable position.
surface. It also adds a little padding
that makes it more comfortable to
Leg Clamps and Collars
carry the tripod over your shoulder.
The levers, clamps, and collars that adjust the length of the B&H Photo
You can make these out of
tripod legs should be easy to operate. Mechanical features Figure 6.17
inexpensive pipe insulation foam
Insulated tripod legs are helpful.
become more difficult to operate in the cold, and you’ll likely be

6 ❖ 3 Tripod Legs
from a local hardware store, or section, they are often heavier. I recommend a three section
you can buy them from a tripod especially for cold weather climates. On a cold night, the
variety of manufacturers. tripod gets cold too, and the less contact and time necessary to
adjust it helps preserve the heat in your hands. And that is not a
Tripod Weight small factor on a cold night. Here are some of the benefits of a
While weight is not usually a three-section leg over a four-section leg tripod.
significant factor for aurora • Fewer joints
photography (because there is • More stable
generally less hiking), it always • Fewer adjustments necessary
seems to be an issue when Figure 6.18 • Less hassle to expand and collapse
traveling. Carbon fiber tripods Inexpensive foam pipe insulation • Lighter
works well as an alternative to
are very lightweight, but that
comes with a price. Aluminum
ready-made tripod leg insulation.
Benefits of Carbon Fiber Tripods
tripods are less expensive, but usually heavier. If you photograph • Greatest weight-to-stability ratio.
and travel frequently, you have probably learned that every ounce • Easier to handle in extreme cold because the leg sections do
counts. A lightweight tripod is a popular choice for discriminating not feel as cold as aluminum when you handle them.
photographs. • Dampens vibration faster than aluminum.
• Typically half the weight of a comparable aluminum model.
Leg Sections • Conversely, carbon fiber tripods cost about twice as much
The shorter a tripod collapses, the more leg sections it often as comparable aluminum models.
includes. The conventional advice for a stable tripod is that the
fewer the joints, the more stable the support. Therefore, a tripod Tripod Manufacturers
with three-section legs is stronger than a tripod with four-section Of the very many tripod models and manufacturers, here are a
legs. The fourth leg sections also have smaller diameters and can few to consider. Really Right Stuff, Gitzo, Manfrotto/Bogen,
introduce a point of weakness, and because of the additional leg Velbon, Benro, Vanguard, Induro.

6 ❖ 3 Tripod Legs
to adjust. If you don’t plan to photograph in such very cold

My Tripod of Choice
conditions, then spending the extra money for one of the very
My tripod of choice for the very cold sub zero conditions (-10°F
high-end tripods may not be necessary. The same cold
to -40°F; -23°C to -40°C) often encountered in the deep winter
conditions affect the ball head mounts in a similar way. Let’s take
months is NOT inexpensive, but it performs well. The tripod is
a look at these in the next section.
made by Really Right Stuff. In my experience, it is the sub-zero
temperatures that cause tripod legs to stick and become difficult
Really Right Stuff
Really Right Stuff carbon tripod: TVC-33: Versa series 3

Image 6.3 A sturdy and stable tripod is essential when taking pictures with long shutter speeds. 230
Tripod Ball
Heads
“The sky is the daily

bread of the eyes.”
~ Ralph Waldo Emerson
231
6 ❖ 4 Tripod Ball Heads
Tripod Ball Heads

Good tripod heads can be expensive. Like tripod legs, cameras, and lenses, there
are many to choose from, and you often get what you pay for. A ball head is
recommended over a pan or tilt head for its universal simplicity and its versatility in
most other photographic ventures.
In my experience guiding
photographers, a good-quality ball
head mitigates many problems and
WHAT TO LOOK FOR IN A BALL HEAD frustrations in the field. This is
especially true on a dark and cold
❖ Smooth operation: Dials, knobs and
night, when using gloves or mittens
overall action of the ball should be
smooth. makes operating dials more
❖ Easy to use with gloves: Knobs or difficult. The ability to easily remove
levers should be easy to access and or adjust a camera mounted on a
operate with gloves or mittens on. ball head becomes very important.
❖ Orientation slot: At least one notch Being forced to remove gloves or
should allow for orienting the camera
mittens to perform such tasks
straight up.
contributes to cold hands, and it
❖ Small to medium size: Large ball heads
takes more time. Quick operations
work fine but are not necessary.
are often critical when the aurora
❖ Easy mounting plate: The plate Kirk Enterprises
attached to the camera that mounts it to displays flare up, so invest in a ball Figure 6.19
the ball head should slide on and off head that serves your needs The Kirk Enterprises BH-3 is my favorite ball head for
easily. appropriately. aurora because it is small but easy to operate.

6 ❖ 4 Tripod Ball Heads
Although not a comprehensive list of all the available ball heads to buy two heads to be used in different applications. When
on the market, I can recommend the ones shown here—except choosing a ball head, look for smooth operation of dials, ease of
the Manfrotto Joystick, which has too much vertical rise and can control, low-profile, well-positioned and easy-to-operate knobs
subject the camera to vibration. If you are looking for one and dials, and a smooth plate release. My personal favorite for
universal ballhead that can be used with a variety of lenses for aurora is the Kirk Enterprises BH-3 (Figure 6.19), due to its size
other photographic ventures and subjects, including longer and and simple, smooth operation. The RSS BH-40, BH-25, Acratech
heavier telephoto lenses, you may choose to step up one level in Ultimate or Induro BHL1 are just a few of many options.
ballhead size. Although not necessary for aurora photography,
the larger ballhead (Kirk BH-1 or RSS BH-55) can limit the need Quick-Release Plates
All the ball heads noted here have what are called quick-release
plates, which allow for easy attachment and removal of the
camera body to the ballhead. The L-Bracket makes it very easy
to rotate the camera between a vertical and horizontal
orientation. It also adds some protection to the camera body.
Both Really Right Stuff and Sunwayfoto make these brackets.
Really Right Stuff Really Right Stuff Ultra

Midsize BH-40 Light BH-25
All ball head photos courtesy of manufacturers
X I use an L-Bracket on all of my

Really Right Stuff
Quick release plates allow for

Manfrotto   cameras for easily changing easy attachment of the camera to
Acratech Ultimate Induro BHL1 Joystick 222 between vertical and horizontal. the ball head.

Gear
Accessories
“Once photography
enters your
bloodstream, it is  
like a disease.”
~ Anonymous
234
20 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 250 (Canon 1Ds, 24mm f/1.4)

6 ❖ 5 Gear Accessories
Aurora Camera Accessory Kit

In addition to the camera, lens, and tripod, there are a few additional items that
make your aurora photography experience more efficient and effective. I take all
the items shown in Figure 6.20 with me when I venture out to photograph the
aurora. A headlamp with a red light is crucial. The lens cloth is kept in a warm
pocket, along with the extra batteries. The remote shutter release is in my pocket
or on the camera, depending on conditions, and the loupe helps with Live View
focusing (Chapter 7:2).
SOME ACCESSORY EQUIPMENT

❖ Batteries: Keep extra batteries for your
camera and headlamp in your coat
pocket.
❖ Cable release or remote: These allow
for exposures in excess of 30 seconds.
❖ Tape: Use durable tape to affix the focus
ring to the lens barrel.
❖ Headlamp: Be sure it has an easy on/off
switch and a red filter with a dim light
setting.
❖ Lens cleaning cloth: Use this for
cleaning frost from the front element.
❖ Loupe: Use this to view the LCD display
in Live View when evaluating critical focus.
Figure 6.20
Accessory items that I take with me when photographing the aurora.

What to Look for in a Head Lamp • Easy access to change batteries means less time with
fingers bare in the cold.
The plethora of
headlamp models
Loupe
available at your
I find a loupe helpful for
outdoor equipment
close-focus examination of
store may seem
a photo on the camera’s
overwhelming. The
LCD display, or for
Princeton Tec
assistance in securing
model shown here
critical focus using Live
is an example of a
View. The acuity of
reasonably priced Amazon
Figure 6.21 eyesight and the resolution
version that works The Princeton Tec Headlamp is easy to turn on or
of the camera LCD display
well. A headlamp off while wearing gloves. The first push on the
button activates the red LED light. All of the make a difference when
need not be large or
dimming features and light mode selections are inspecting a photo, but in
feature-loaded but by pressing the single button, and there are not
most cases, a 10x loupe Amazon
should include the filter flaps to access.
provides enough Figure 6.22
following features:
magnification to allow you A 10x loupe helps you evaluate the camera’s
LCD monitor for critical focus when using
to fine-tune the focus
• On/off button should be easy to operate while wearing process in Live View. If the
Live View.
gloves or mittens.
loop does not come with a
• LED lights use less battery power. cord, tape one to it so it hangs around your neck for easy access.
• A red lens option is important. I prefer the models that don’t
require a special plastic lens flap, but rather the red light is
activated by a button.
• A dim light setting lets you retain your night vision.
release from a distance. If you choose to use a wireless release,

Remote Release Options
be sure you monitor the batteries in the device closely. Long
Remote release options include: standard, wireless, infrared, or a
periods in the cold can decrease battery performance.
more sophisticated intervalometer. The standard release requires
no batteries and is what I use most often. To take consecutive
Third Party Firmware
photos with the standard release while the camera is unattended,
Magic Lantern is free, open source firmware that includes an in-
be sure the camera drive mode is set to continuous, and push
camera intervalometer and a custom bulb timer for extra-long
the release button forward to the lock position. The
exposures. Most of the other features are designed for taking
intervalometer is good for more creative, time-sequence
video, but a few are helpful for night photography. Nikon cameras
photography, and a wireless release lets you execute the shutter
come with a built in intervalometer. New Canon cameras (5Ds)
will include built in time lapse options.
B&H Photo
B&H Photo B&H Photo

The Canon remote switch release requires A Vello wireless remote release allows you to trigger The intervalometer offers more creative time
no batteries. the shutter from a distance. sequence shooting but requires batteries.

3.2 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 24mm f/1.4 Canon)
Image 6.4 To take this self-portrait, I locked the standard remote release in the on position and ran to the cabin while the camera 238
took successive frames.
Chapter 7
Preparing
Your Camera
Gear
Having acquired the proper equipment
and positioned yourself well for a night of
aurora photography, it’s time for final
preparation of your camera and lens.
239
Preparation Pays Off
On a wintry October evening in Alaska’s Brooks Range, cameras, lenses, and tripods. It becomes quickly
a colleague and I were guiding a group of photographers apparent to the beginner that success does not come
in dire pursuit of the aurora. Clouds obscured the skies automatically in this endeavor. As they say, “things
for the first half of the trip, and we were all anxious for happen in the dark”—there is no substitute for being
some better luck. To our delight, the clouds dissipated properly prepared. The biggest problem among the
and the dark night morphed into flashes of bright lights group that night, and a common one, was ensuring that
as the aurora danced almost nonstop for eight hours. If the camera lens was accurately focused on infinity. It
you are a photographer, that translates into a very long took a few attempts, but eventually everyone settled into
night, but a happy one—that is, if you’ve prepared a technical and creative groove, and happy but tired
everything correctly. Since the sky-show began rather photographers headed for a warm bed about 5 a.m. It
abruptly, there was much hasty activity finding pays to be prepared and to work fast. Not every aurora
headlamps, gloves, hand warmers, and setting up show is that gracious in its length.

Preparing Your
Camera
“Results are uncertain, 

even among the  
more experienced
photographers.”
~ Matthew Brady
241
7 ❖ 1 Preparing Your Camera
Basic Camera Settings

When you are preparing for a nighttime aurora photography session, there are
some important camera settings to register before the skies turn dark. This is much
easier to do during daylight.
Set the Histogram to RGB

Viewing the histogram in RGB mode
provides individual color channel data and
gives a more informed read of the
CAMERA SETTINGS QUICK LIST histogram than the brightness mode,
which only shows a combined or average
❖ Image: RAW or RAW+JPEG, white
representation of the three color channels
Brightness
balance auto, long exposure noise
reduction on unless the camera has been portrayed in white.
tested with it turned off.
❖ Display settings: Histogram to RGB, Set the Date and Time
highlight warning on, LCD brightness low,
LCD display review 2 seconds, or off. Aurora photography often involves travel,
❖ Metering mode: Matrix, average, or which inevitably requires a time zone
evaluative. change. Be sure the in-camera clock is Figure 7.1
Brightness and RGB are the two modes for
❖ Drive mode: Continuous frame. accurate to the time zone. This is not only
viewing the histogram.
❖ Exposure mode: Aperture priority if helpful for overall time and event
under 30 seconds, add ~+1 stop accuracy, but you may want to know exactly what time the photo was taken later,
compensation. Bulb if more than 30 when referencing other solar objects in the frame, such as constellations or
seconds.
planets. If you forget to set the camera, the date and time can be adjusted in the
❖ ISO: Begin at 800 and adjust.
images later through a program such as Adobe Photoshop Lightroom.

Turn On Highlight Warning Set Quality to RAW or RAW + JPEG

With this setting on, specific If you can do so, shoot in RAW image quality, because it allows
areas of the image on the for post-production corrections and development treatments that
camera display blink during are not achievable in the same way in JPEG. This includes better
the preview, indicating a noise control, exposure corrections or adjustments, white
potentially blown-out or balance, etc. If you are not familiar with making adjustments to a
overexposed area. This is a RAW file, then shoot in RAW + JPEG.
helpful quick alert for a
possible overexposure. If you WB, Color Temperature and Picture Style
Figure 7.2
see any blinking, reduce your Set white balance to auto or daylight. This is generally sufficient
Highlight warning turned on warns of
exposure time until it goes for aurora scenes. The RGB (red/green/blue) histogram displays
possible overexposure.
away. the respective color channels and provides an idea of the warm
or cool tone of the image for general reference. If image quality is
Cover the LED Card- set to RAW, the white balance setting does not make a significant
Writing Light difference, because modifications to color temperature (blue/
On the back of the camera, a small yellow) and tint (green/magenta) can be tweaked later in post-
LED light turns on when the camera is production software. The same is true for the auto picture styles
writing data to the media card. This (such as neutral, landscape or portrait) that come as options in
little light can be amazingly bright many digital cameras. They apply only to JPEG files and can be
during a long exposure, and it hinders ignored if shooting RAW.
night vision along with broadcasting
potential light pollution. Consider LCD Display Brightness
covering this light with dark tape. Set LCD brightness to manual/low. The LCD display on the back
Figure 7.3
of today’s digital cameras is sophisticated, and most have an
Tape the card writing light.

auto-brightness feature that measures the amount of ambient

light and then adjusts the display brightness accordingly. While
this is a great feature, the auto adjustments are not always
perfect, and a very dark night can portray a misleading
interpretation of the tonal values captured in the image. The
image may look good on the LCD display but when viewed on a
computer, it doesn't look good after all—usually dark and Figure 7.4
underexposed. This is why it is important to rely on the Evaluative, matrix, or average metering
histogram, not the image preview, for an accurate reading. is the preferred metering mode.
Canon uses the term “evaluative” and
Nikon uses the term “matrix.” NIKON CANON
Drive Mode
Set the drive mode to continuous frame, as opposed to single no difference. If you are shooting in an auto exposure mode
frame. This permits automatic execution of successive frames (such as aperture priority) and your exposure is less than 30
when using a remote release in the lock position. When locked seconds, I recommend an average metering mode often referred
on, the release executes the shutter when the previous exposure to as matrix or evaluative metering. In this mode, the camera
is complete. Or, if auto exposure bracketing is turned on, the meter analyzes the entire scene and sets an exposure to best
camera fires the number of shots delineated for the bracket reflect the overall image tonal values. This is often a good starting
sequence with one click of the shutter. I generally don't point. In conjunction with this setting, I suggest between +2/3
recommend auto bracketing, which was common in the days of and +1-1/3 stops of exposure compensation (more time), which
film, because today’s camera feedback gives sufficient boosts the overall brightness. This amount may vary based on
information for accurate exposures. your specific camera model. In addition, the exact amount of
exposure compensation varies depending on the brightness of
Metering Mode the aurora and the specific content of your composition, so
If you are shooting in a manual exposure mode (for example, evaluate your histogram and expect to change the exposure
manual or bulb modes), then the type of metering mode makes compensation as necessary.

speeds are rather fast, such as 5 seconds or so (as compared to

Exposure Mode
30 seconds), because altering a 5-second shutter speed by just a
Aperture priority, manual, or bulb are the recommended exposure
few seconds can result in a 50% change in exposure. Making
modes for shooting aurora, depending on the length of the
such adjustments quickly and accurately using manual mode is
average shutter speeds in your test shots. Aperture priority is an
more difficult and requires experience in judging aurora
automatic mode, and bulb and manual are completely manual
brightness along with making very quick adjustments.
modes. Which mode to use varies depending on exposure times,
which also vary based on aurora brightness, moonlight, etc.
Benefits of Exposures under 30 Seconds
When to Use Aperture Priority Mode • Use of a remote release is optional, because most cameras
can execute a 30-second exposure. Remote release cords
Use aperture priority mode for shutter times less than 30
can get in the way when shifting the camera between vertical
seconds. Aperture priority automatically makes exposure
and horizontal orientation.
adjustments based on changes in aurora brightness. Begin by
• If using a remote release, the camera can take continuous
setting the camera to aperture priority mode, using matrix or
frames when the remote is locked on, which is helpful when
evaluative metering. Then add approximately +1 stop of
successive shooting is preferred, such as when moving back
exposure compensation,
and forth between multiple cameras.
which contributes a
• Shorter exposures result in more unique frames per minute
brightness boost helpful
and more distinct aurora shapes.
in overall exposure. The
compensation varies
When to Use Manual Mode
depending on aurora
Manual mode allows you to set the shutter speed and aperture
brightness and slight
independently. With aurora photography, the aperture is rarely
variations in camera
Figure 7.5 changed from its widest opening, so you change shutter speed
metering capabilities.
In aperture priority mode, add +1 stop of and ISO as necessary. While this is an effective mode to use, it
This mode is particularly
exposure compensation and adjust as does require some quick judgments based on the brightness of
helpful when shutter necessary after evaluating the histogram.

the aurora displays, should they be changing frequently. I will

Set Appropriate ISO
also add that during the past few years of guiding aurora tours,
The appropriate ISO varies based on your camera’s capability,
multiple people with Nikon 800 and 810 model cameras had
the amount of ambient light, and the intensity of the aurora
difficulty using aperture mode with long exposures. The reason
display. ISO 400 to 1000 is a reasonable place to start. With high-
for this has never been fully resolved to my satisfaction, so
end cameras, much higher ISO settings from 1600 to 3200 and
resorting to manual mode was necessary.
even higher may be acceptable (Images 7.1 to 7.3 on the
When to Use Bulb Mode following pages). You can modify this based on test experiments
you execute with your camera to define the camera's tolerance
Use bulb mode for
and your preference for acceptable grain and noise.
exposure times that
exceed 30 seconds.
Noise Reduction
In this mode, you
Two in-camera settings found in many digital cameras can
manually control the
control noise in a digital file.
shutter with a
remote or wireless
Long Exposure Noise Reduction (LENR)
release. When this is
In the camera settings, set LENR to auto/on. When turned on,
employed, most
exposures longer than one second initiate a reenergizing of the
cameras show the
Figure 7.6 sensor, which takes a second picture for the same amount of
time count in
Switch to bulb mode if the meter indicates an time with the shutter closed. The camera then compares the
seconds on the top exposure that exceeds 30 seconds.
two frames and performs noise reduction before writing it to
LCD panel or,
the card. This process is also referred to as dark frame
depending on the type of release, some show it on the remote as
subtraction. The drawback to having LENR on is that it ties up
well. Counting the seconds is imperative to ensure a proper and
the camera for twice as long as your initial shutter time before
consistent exposure. Using a separate timer is helpful for
it can execute another frame. Some photographers suggest
exposures longer than a few minutes.
that because noise is often a result of a heated sensor, it is not

hot pixels
Figure 7.8
Full-size image of star trails with an
exposure of 58 minutes @ f/5.6, ISO 100.
Nikon 14-24mm f/2.8. Taken with a Nikon
D800 camera. You can see the faint color
from the aurora beginning on the distant
horizon.
Figure 7.7
Close-up crop showing hot pixels as a result of not using long exposure noise reduction during a 58-minute
exposure in 28ºF (-2ºC) temperatures. Photos by Wendy Hannum.

problematic in cold temperatures, and therefore this setting Photoshop Lightroom, the program I use for post production, has
can be ignored. I conducted a LENR test with a Canon 5D two built-in noise reduction parameters referred to as Luminance
Mark III camera in -30ºF (-34°C) temperatures, with exposure and Color, under Noise Reduction in the Detail panel. These two
of 30 seconds at ISO 1000. I took repeated, consecutive features provide considerable control over noise, and I use them
frames for two hours and examined the files. None showed consistently on aurora borealis photos (Figure 7.9). Many other
any signs of hot pixels, which LENR mitigates. So it is safe to software companies produce noise control plugins, such as
say that in these conditions, LENR is not needed on the 5D Noise Ninja, Imagenomic, NIK Dfine, and others.
Mark III. However, this is camera- and sensor-specific and it is
therefore advisable to test your camera model before choosing Luminance Noise
to turn off this setting. For example, in Figure 7.7, some hot Luminance noise is the gray or black flecks that you often see
pixels are evident, mainly in the shadows during an exposure when you look at a magnified view of an image on a computer
of 58 minutes in temperatures of approximately 28ºF (-2ºC) screen, or on close examination of a large print. Actual subject
using a Nikon D800 camera. detail is a component of luminance noise, so you want to be
very careful about simply removing this noise altogether. It’s
High ISO noise reduction (HINR) very easy to blur out noise and end up with an excessively
Digital noise tends to be most noticeable in plain, solid areas, smooth picture that’s totally lacking in subject detail and looks
particularly in areas of mid- or dark-tonal values. When like a watercolor painting.
shooting RAW (recommended), ignore this in-camera setting
and use post-production software to handle ISO noise in the Chrominance Noise
RAW files. Turn this setting on if shooting JPEG (which is not Chrominance noise, or color noise, is different from luminance
recommended), because HINR is applied in-camera. noise and shows up as pastel-colored, speckled flecks in mid-
tone or shadow areas. This noise has far less effect on the fine
Post Production Noise Reduction details of your subject, so it can often be reduced or removed
Post production is the process of adjusting digital files in a without blurring or softening your images.
computer software program after they are captured. Adobe

Figure 7.9
Before-and-after comparison of color and luminance noise reduction applied in Adobe Lightroom (zoomed to 200% for emphasis).
249
2.5 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 6400 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14-24mm f/2.8 Nikon)
Image 7.1 Having a camera that performs well at high ISO gives you creative options. This photo was taken at ISO 6400. 250
Image 7.2 Having a camera that performs well at high ISO gives you creative options. This photo was taken at ISO 2500. 251
Know Your Camera

This is elementary, but important and worth emphasizing: Be
familiar with your camera. Read the manual, and know the
purpose of the necessary buttons and their location on the
camera. Be familiar with the menu-based settings and know how
to access them. Practice operating your camera in the dark, then
put on a pair of gloves and try doing the same.
Image 7.3
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres 30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 12800 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14-24mm f2.8 Nikon) 252
Preparing Your
Lens
“Photography takes an
instant out of time,
altering life by  
holding it still.”
~ Dorothea Lange 253
7 ❖ 2 Preparing Your Lens
Remove Your Lens Filter

It is important to remove UV or
protective lens filters before
photographing the aurora. I learned
this long ago after a full night of
photographing with many of the
photos looking like the ones in Figure
7.10. Under the right conditions,
filters can create a series of
LENS PREPARATION QUICK LIST concentric rings at the center of the
image. It is a disheartening discovery Figure 7.10
❖ Remove the filter and attach lens hood. Remove your lens filter or these concentric rings
that you don’t want to make when
are likely to show up on your photo.
❖ Establish critical focus before dark:
reviewing photos on your computer.
• Tape the focus ring to the lens barrel. What causes the rings? Charles Deehr, a professor emeritus in physics at the
• Center-point auto focus on the horizon. University of Alaska Geophysical Institute, says:
• Turn the lens to manual focus. “These are interference fringes due to the parallel faces of the filter and to the
❖ Establish critical focus with Live View: narrow spectral emission at 5577 Angstroms in
• Manually set focus to the infinity mark. the aurora. That green, atomic oxygen
X
• Center viewfinder on the brightest star. emission line is the strongest emission in the
• Turn on Live View. aurora near our film and eye peak sensitivity, so
• Turn focus ring to refine focus.

it shows up first when there is any device in the
optical path which sorts out the spectral
• Tape focus ring to lens barrel.
emissions.”
❖ Take test shot and zoom LCD to check
for sharpness. If you can't interpret that, trust me—just take off Figure 7.11
your filter. Take off your lens filter.

Turn off Image Stabilization Use the Camera’s Lens Hood

Some lenses used for aurora photography have image Besides adding a little
stabilization functionality. If your lens has this, make sure to turn protection for your filterless
it off. Leaving it on will result in blurry images. If the switch can lens, using a lens hood
be easily switch when putting it inside or removing it from a helps prevent frost from
camera bag or case, then you might want to tape the switch just forming on the front of the
to be safe. lens. It is also a good
practice to point the lens
slightly down when waiting
Figure 7.13
during lulls in aurora The camera lens hood helps
activity to minimize frost minimize frost formation on the front
formation. element.
Achieving Critical Focus

The new genre of autofocus lenses has a built-in tolerance for the
expansion and contraction effect of temperature changes. For
this reason, you can’t just manually turn the focus dial to infinity
and be confident that it is in critical focus. And when it comes to
focus, close is not good enough. Achieving critical focus can be
challenging with some lenses. Additionally, certain situations and
lenses require Live View to achieve critical focus. No matter what
lens you use, it is absolutely imperative to zoom in on the
camera's display and check a test image, just to be sure it is
Figure 7.12 sharp. In my experience, the very fast, f/1.4 lenses require Live
The Tamron 15-30mm f/28 has image stabilization. Make sure this
View to ensure critical focus. Other auto focus lenses seem to
feature is turned off if your lens has it.

work fine by pre-focusing the most accurate). Aim on a distant object with high
on a distant horizon during contrast, such as a mountain horizon against the sky, then
daylight, but for some odd focus a few times to ensure it registers and the viewfinder
reason this does not seem focus indicator light confirms focus. Immediately switch the
to be true with the f/1.4 lens to manual focus (If you have a manual focus lens, see
lenses. I’ve had too many Live View instructions below). Now both auto and manual
nights of slightly soft photos focus have been disabled and the lens is locked for the
to trust that method. For night of photography.
this reason, I strongly 3. Take a picture and review the image on the camera's LCD
recommend using Live View display. Zoom in to maximum view to ensure the image is
on such lenses. Follow the sharp. If it is, you are all set. If not, repeat. If you are not
steps below to ensure that familiar with what sharp is on your LCD display, do a test
Figure 7.14
your lens is in focus. image during the day to get a feel for how the display
Tape the focus ring to the lens barrel
to prevent movement. renders an image at full magnification. If you forget to do
Pre-focus using this, you can do it at night on a distant and bright object,
autofocus such as the moon. Or you can use Live View to secure
1. Apply a long, wide piece of durable tape (I use white critical focus.
gaffer’s tape) to the lens to lock the rotating focus ring to
the non-movable lens barrel. This ensures that the focus Focus Using Live View
ring is not accidentally moved during an exciting night of 1. Set your lens to manual focus.
photography. You can leave the tape on the lens during 2. Manually turn your camera lens to the infinity focus mark.
daytime photography, unless the lens needs to be focused 3. With the camera on a tripod, look through the viewfinder
manually. and find a bright enough star in the sky and put it dead
2. Before darkness, select single point focus mode, then center of your frame (the moon is too bright and causes
select the center focus point only (this focus point is often

halos on the edges making sharpness evaluation more

difficult. This can also be true with some bright planets.
4. Turn on Live View and adjust your exposure so you can see
the little white dot of a star on the LCD display, then zoom in
to the maximum, usually 10x. (If the star looks too bright
with halo borders, reduce the exposure to make it darker.)
5. Turn your focus ring back and forth while reviewing the B&H Photo
clarity on the display and stop when it is the sharpest. If Figure 7.15 Step down filter ring
magnification is needed (especially if you have difficulty Step down filter rings allow you to use one larger filter on
lenses with smaller threads.
seeing things close up), a small loupe over the LCD display
can help you evaluate the clarity.
6. Turn off Live View, take a photo, review it on the LCD
display or on a computer and zoom in to be sure it is sharp.
7. If sharp, carefully and gently tape the moving lens focus ring
to the nonmoving lens barrel.
Using Filters to Aid in Live View Focus

Applying a special filter to the end of your lens provides more
information to use during the focusing process. There are two
filters for this process.
Star Filter
Tiffen
Tiffen and other manufacturers make special effect star filters that
Figure 7.16 Tiffen star filter
screw on to the end of a lens. The filter produces reflected light
Cross patters in these filters create a reflected light points in
points, stemming from specular highlights objects. They come in the shape of a star making focusing easier.

a variety of filter sizes,

SharpStar2 Filter
and range from 4, 6, 8,
or 12 points. An 8
point is a good choice.
If you have lenses that
vary in the filter size, I
recommend buying
one filter for the largest
lens thread size and
use a step down filter
Figure 7.18 Sharpstar2 Filter
ring so the same filter
Filter mask comes in a variety of mm sizes. It slides into a holder attached to
can be used on smaller Figure 7.17 Star filter effect the front of the lens.
B&H Photo
filter threads. Filters come in a variety of points, but a 6 or
8 point is a good option. The SharpStar2 filter,
made by lonelyspeck.com,
Using the Star Filter is a precision laser etched
1. Thread the filter on to your lens optical plastic mask that
2. Point the lens at a bright star mounts in front of your
3. Use live view at a magnified level along with a loupe to camera lens. It will fit in
examine sharpness. many popular square filter
4. Move focus barrel until star is sharpest. holder systems including
5. Tape down lens barrel Cokin P (85mm), Cokin A, Figure 7.19 Sharpstar 2 Filter
6. Take a picture and examine for sharpness. If not sharp, (67mm), Lee 100mm (4- The filter fits popular square filter holder
inch) Lee Seven5 (75mm) systems.
repeat the process.
and Formatt-Hitech
67mm, 85mm and 100mm filter holders. I use a 100mm Formatt-

perfect focus. Once you’ve verified the focus pattern on

your test shot, you can simply remove the SharpStar and
shoot like normal—knowing that you have perfect focus.”
Figure 7.20 Formatt-Hitech filter holder

This model comes in 67mm, 85mm and 100mm sizes.
Hitech filter holder with step down rings so it will work on my

Canon 16-35mm f/2.8 (82mm) and my Rokinon 24mm f/1.4
Movie 7.1 Sharpstar 2 focusing demo
(72mm).
The diffraction spike pattern that SharpStar creates is a precise visual
reference of focus success. If the central spike is off to the left, focus is
According to Ian Norman with Lonely Speck: too far, if it’s off to the right, focus is too near. If it’s in the center, it’s just
“SharpStar uses the properties of opticlonal diffraction to right.
create a set of three fine spike lines around a bright star.
These diffraction spikes will shift position as you focus your
For a demo of how this filter works see Ian’s youtube video. The
camera. Adjusting focus so the central diffraction spike sits
process for focusing with this filter is the same as the Star filter.
evenly between the other two diffraction spikes will ensure

they were all a little soft. You invest too much in an aurora
encounter to end up with soft images.
Figure 7.21 You tube demo

Ian Norman explains how to use the Lonely Speck SharpStar2 filter.
Make sure to tape the focus barrel once you are sure that you
have secured critical focus.
A Final Note About Focusing

Whether you use autofocus or Live View to pre-focus the lens,
always, always, always take a test shot at the start of the night
and zoom in on the stars to be sure they are sharp. Early on in
my career, I spent hours photographing the aurora only to find
out the next morning when I reviewed them on a computer that

Chapter 8
In the Field
Finally—now that you have invested in a

camera, lens, tripod, ball head, cold
weather clothing, equipment, and most
likely travel—it’s time to go into the field
and give the actual shooting a try!
261
3.2 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 24mm f/1.4 Rokinon)
The Other Half of an Aurora Photo
I have a favorite place where I love to photograph the crystallized snow. Digging out while handling cameras
aurora, mainly because of the beautiful foregrounds and and tripods is challenging. I continued onward, knowing
the abundant snow that collects there by late winter. from my previous visits that there was sure to be a
One February I ventured there in -25ºF (-32°C) foreground with compelling linear elements, which often
temperatures, but a slight, north wind made it seem lend intrigue to a composition. I set up my tripods and
much colder. After parking my car and getting fully clad began experimenting with framing. Any serious
in cold-weather clothing, I strapped on snow shoes and landscape photographer will tell you that the foreground
began a trek across the snowdrifted landscape. Wearing is everything, and it is. From 11 p.m. to 2 a.m. I enjoyed
an astronaut’s suit can’t be too different from the way I a fantastic show of aurora displays and made some
felt under a facemask, hat, and all of that clothing. wonderful photos, before the cold forced me to my car
Walking was increasingly difficult every time I punched to warm up. Knowing the landscape ahead of time can
through the giant snowdrifts, waist-deep in the really enhance your photographic compositions.

Working in the
Dark
“My thought has been

shaped by books; 
my desires by pictures.”
~ Mason Cooley 263
8 ❖ 1 Working in the Dark
Preserving Night Vision

It quickly becomes apparent that working in the dark makes the photography
process more complex. Night vision, or your ability to see better in the dark by
letting your pupils adjust and dilate, makes the whole process of aurora
photography easier. For this reason, use your headlamp sparingly. When reviewing
pictures on the LCD display, look briefly, and only to gather the information
necessary to continue photographing. And remember to set your LCD brightness
to low.
PREPARING FOR THE DARK Looking Through the Viewfinder

When looking through the
❖ Practice in the dark with your equipment.
viewfinder, the camera should be
❖ Develop a system to know what and
where items are located to make quick on a tripod. Avoid breathing on
access easier in the dark. the window, because it fogs up
❖ Use your headlamp as little as possible. easily in cold weather. DSLR
❖ If you need to employ the use of light, be cameras have green LED lights
aware and considerate of others. visible around the border of the
❖ Make it a point to learn a few familiar frame when looking through the
constellations or space objects. viewfinder. Mirrorless cameras
❖ If possible, familiarize yourself with your have electronic viewfinders. They
surroundings during daylight. It will make
display camera, lens, and
your movements in the dark both safer
and more familiar. exposure information, and are Figure 8.1
activated by pressing the shutter The green LED lights in the camera’s viewfinder are
button halfway. The green lights bright enough to inhibit night vision. Do not activate
them via the shutter button until you have
can be quite bright, making it composed the image.

surprisingly difficult to see and compose the scene, besides exposure, just during the exposure calculation and shutter
reducing night vision. It is therefore recommended to first actuation. In addition, there may be a slight lag from the time you
compose your frame without activating the LED lights. This might depress the shutter half way to initiate the in-camera meter until
take a little getting used to, but it makes composing much easier the exposure is fully calculated. Make sure it resolves before you
if you can actually see when looking through the viewfinder. depress the shutter. Some cameras have a built-in curtain that
closes the eyepiece and prevents light bleed. If your camera
Light Leak through the Viewfinder does not have this feature, it might come with a plastic or rubber
When in an automatic exposure modes such as Aperture Priority, viewfinder cap attached to the camera strap. These are not
some cameras leak light through the back of the viewfinder and effective or easy to use in cold weather. If you wish to use a
influence the camera’s auto exposure settings. This only applies shutter remote release locked in the on position so you can
to the automatic exposure modes and not manual exposure operate a second camera, it may be beneficial to switch to
mode. The first exposure generally looks accurate because your manual mode, so you can more accurately control the exposure.
eye was blocking the viewfinder when you composed the image,
but if you step back from the camera and take a second picture
by just depressing the shutter, the exposure time becomes much
shorter and the image looks way underexposed. This is because
ambient light from the moon or some other source has leaked in
through the viewfinder and fooled the meter into making a shorter
exposure. Test your camera to see if this occurs on your model
and, if so, be sure to cover your viewfinder when creating and
executing an exposure.
To do this, either put your eye up to the viewfinder or place your

finger over the viewfinder when executing an exposure. You do
not need to cover the viewfinder for the entire duration of the Figure 8.2
Some cameras have a light block curtain built into the viewfinder.

see at night, so I can change lenses quickly and without the use
Make Mounting Lenses Easier
of a headlamp.
Due to the compositional demands of aurora displays, it’s helpful
to have a few lenses in your kit. If you use only one camera, you
Avoid Lens Hood Vignetting
will need to change lenses in the dark. To make this easier, I mark
Some lens hoods lock into the wrong position and cause
the line-up points on my lenses with colorful tape that’s easy to
significant vignetting. This can be difficult to see when looking
through the camera’s viewfinder and when reviewing your LCD
display, so be sure the hood is mounted properly. This is
especially true with the Zeiss trio of 14mm, 21mm and 25mm
lenses. While I love those beautiful optics, I’m not fond of their
lens hoods.
Figure 8.3
Marking the mounting points of your camera and lens hood with bright Figure 8.4
tape can make adding and removing them in the dark much easier. To avoid vignetting, make sure your lens hood is attached properly.

Mark Remote Shutter Release Button

If your camera does not have an internal intervalometer, and you
are using a wired remote to trip the shutter, it is helpful to place a
piece of white tape on the release button. This makes finding a
black button on a black device in the dark night much easier,
especially when wearing mittens or gloves. I use white gaffer’s
tape for this as well as the lens focus barrel.
Figure 8.6
White gaffer’s tape is easy to see in the dark, and is helpful for marking
lenses and remote shutter release buttons.
Figure 8.5
Marking the remote release button with white tape makes it easier to find
and operate in the dark.

Headlamp Etiquette
Although I have one with me, I rarely use a headlamp during the night. It may seem
awkward at first, but after 10 or 15 minutes, night vision becomes well adjusted as
your pupils dilate. You also need your headlamp less if you’re familiar with your
camera’s features and buttons so it’s easier to operate in the dark. Practice,
practice, practice!
Amazon
WHEN USING YOUR HEADLAMP

❖ Be sure it is on its dimmest setting.
❖ Limit use to retain night vision. Use it as
little as possible, and turn it off as soon as
possible. Night vision helps you see and
compose more critically on a dark night.
❖ Use a red filter/gel. This feature is
standard with most headlamps.
❖ Point it downward. This helps prevent
your light from shining in both your own
and other people’s photos.
❖ Avoid looking directly at others when
wearing it. They will like you for this!
❖ Have a spare battery nearby.
Figure 8.7
This group is about to embark on their first attempt at aurora photography. Everyone is just
getting used to their headlamp. You can see how sensitive the camera is to a light. Learn to use
headlamp as infrequently as possible.

Image 8.1 Here is a group of photographers displaying good night vision and using no headlamps, except for the person out of 269
the frame on the left, who is creating the red glow on the ground. Camera sensors are very sensitive!
Image 8.2 A red headlamp light shows up brightly in a photo. If you are photographing with others, be mindful of where you 270
point your headlamp.
Lens Focal
Length
“My thought has been

shaped by books; 
my desires by pictures.”
~ Mason Cooley 271
8 ❖ 2 Lens Focal Length
Selecting the Correct Focal Length

I have already talked about the importance of a fast aperture lens in order to
capture quickly moving aurora shapes. But the other important lens criterion is its
focal length. As a professional, I want more tools in my toolbox, but if you have to
choose just one, I would lean toward the ultra-wide-angle zooms for their
compositional flexibility. If you have multiple lenses with you, choosing which one
to use depends on a few variables. For example, if the aurora are beginning on a
distant horizon, they can be easily captured with a medium wide-angle-lens. If they
are erupting all over the sky,
LENS FOCAL LENGTH an ultra-wide-angle lens is
required to capture the full
❖ Use an ultra-wide-angle lens when the
display. Or perhaps you want
aurora displays are expansive.
an ultra-wide-angle to include
❖ Wide-angle zoom lenses allow for quick
changes in composition without needing certain foreground elements in
to reposition your tripod. conjunction with a broad
❖ Focal lengths greater than 35mm provide reach of the sky. Your choice
tighter compositions for specific may be dictated by these and
constellations or geographic features in B&H Photo
other factors.
conjunction with the aurora.
Figure 8.8
❖ Fixed focal length prime lenses have
I favor the ultra-wide zooms The Nikon 14-24mm f/2.8 is an excellent focal length
faster apertures. lens for aurora photography because it offers a diverse
for their focal length diversity
❖ Zoom lenses are more susceptible to lens focal range that includes an ultra-wide-angle view.
flare than prime lenses. and creative compositional
options. But such a choice varies from person to person. To capture the broad and
expansive displays of the aurora in conjunction with a foreground, a wide- to ultra-
wide-angle lens is essential. This permits a flexible response to both the shape and

the location of the aurora in the night sky. My lens system of camera, backed up with a 24mm f/1.4 on the other. This gives me
choice to cover a broad focal range includes two lenses (and both the speed of a really fast aperture lens and the zoom
preferably two cameras) that cover an ultra-wide-angle range. I variation of an ultra-wide angle. A third lens might be a 24-70mm
use a 14-24mm f/2.8, 15-30mm f/2.8, or 16-35mm f/2.8 on one f/2.8, rounding out a slightly longer focal range, or possibly a
35mm f/2.0 for speed.
While I have used a
50mm f/1.8, I find that
focal length to be too
tight for most aurora
scenes. However, it is
about perfect for
photographing the Big
Dipper constellation,
and the lenses are both
cheaper and come with
relatively fast apertures.
In rare circumstances, I
have used a mid-range
zoom lens to
Figure 8.9
When the aurora erupts
into broad displays an
ultra-wide-angle lens is
necessary to capture the
scene.

photograph the aurora (Figure 8.9). Fisheye lenses cover an because it easily focuses manually on infinity—unlike today’s
immense area, and while I’m not fond of the distorted view auto focus lenses that require pre-focus measures. This can be
created by these lenses, you can make interesting pictures with helpful if I’m not sure my other lenses are in critical focus, and I
them. I also keep a Zeiss 21mm f/2.8 lens in my camera bag need to respond quickly to a sudden aurora display.
Figure 8.10
Sometimes, a mid-range
zoom can be used to
highlight a geographic
feature. This photo was
taken at 115mm.


To reiterate the importance of how the size of your camera’s shows how much magnification happens when you begin with an
sensor will influence the focal length of your lens, this chart FX lens and mount it on a respective, smaller sensor camera.

8mm fisheye 10mm 12mm 13mm 16mm
16mm (16-35mm) 21mm 24mm 25mm 32mm
Figure 8.11
This is the actual 35mm equivalent focal range of a lens mounted on smaller sensor cameras.The red numbers indicate a focal length not optimal for capturing
wide and expansive aurora displays.

Composing the
Aurora
“What we see
depends mainly on
what we look for.”

~ John Lubbock
276
8 ❖ 3 Composing the Aurora
Composing the Aurora

Fundamentally, aurora photography is landscape photography and it helps if you
approach it this way. Your end goal is to do much more than just point your camera
up at the sky and take a picture of the aurora. Be sure to consider the basic
guidelines of landscape photography, such as a strong foreground, leading lines
and angles, and balance in positive and negative space. When I go out on an
aurora photography venture, I always consider what kind of scene would make a
great landscape, and then I imagine placing the aurora in the picture. There are a
few factors that govern this search: the direction in which you anticipate the aurora
COMPOSING THE AURORA to appear, how wide of a lens may be required given the elements in the frame,
potential reflective surfaces, etc. In effect, there are two compositions going on,
❖ Use an appropriate lens. A wide-angle
one in the sky, and one on the ground. The one in the sky, which is the aurora, may
zoom offers flexibility.
be constantly changing, and requires you to respond appropriately.
❖ Consider how the foreground affects your
composition.
❖ Use ice and water to reflect the aurora in
Utilizing the Foreground
the foreground. Along with the basic composition rules of landscape photography, there are two
❖ Try a lower perspective to include a strong other variables to consider with aurora borealis photography. The darkness, which
foreground. makes it difficult to see your foreground, and the auroral sky, which constantly
❖ Don’t get stuck in one place. Move changes against a static foreground. Together, these make compositions dynamic
around and explore other perspectives
and more challenging. During daytime landscape photography, the ephemeral
and foregrounds.
nature of clouds has taught me to work fast when I see an interesting scene.
❖ Be aware of moonlight and its directional
orientation to your subject. However, nighttime landscape photography of the aurora is in a different league
altogether. It is helpful, even if the aurora is not producing a great display, to
❖ Include a human element for interest and
scale. evaluate the foreground options. Experiment a little when waiting for that right
display and plan ahead. If you see the general area in which the aurora displays are

Image 8.3 Experiment with the placement of objects in your frame. While the distant aurora is of obvious interest, other objects 278
can add positive complexity to your composition.
occurring, try a few options that focus on the foreground and you
will be more aware of that part of your image when the action
heats up. You can add a great deal of interest to your
composition by including a foreground with many linear and
angular dimensions. This is one reason I prefer topographically
dimensional regions, such as the mountain areas of central and
northern Alaska, in contrast to the flatter landscapes in other
popular locations.
Bring the Aurora to the Ground

Consider adding dimension to your composition by bringing the
aurora to the ground through a reflective surface, such as a lake,
river, or the sea during autumn when there is still open water. In
winter, ice can serve the same reflective purpose. This is
especially helpful when ambient light is low and the foreground is
extremely dark. By introducing color, shapes, and brightness
through reflection, those otherwise dark and empty foregrounds
come alive.
Ambient Light and Composition

The moon can create an amazingly strong light source, and
whenever a strong light source creates shadow, the direction of
that light source is important. While it may not always be possible
to execute, it is advisable to attempt to shoot perpendicular to
the light source because it creates the most dimension to your

Image 8.4 13 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 2000 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14-24MM mm)
279
Reflective surfaces let you to bring the aurora into your foreground.
Image 8.5 Strong foreground elements have always been a mainstay for landscape photographers. Using this practice with 280
aurora, through reflective surfaces, patterns, or other linear elements strengthens your composition.
46 sec @ f/4, ISO 640 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 16-35mm f2.8)
Image 8.6 Using a reflective surface that reveals the aurora in the foreground of your composition can open creative 281
opportunities. This can be especially helpful on a very dark night, when foreground detail is hard to see.
photo. The choice to include or exclude foreground material in

your composition may be based on how much it is illuminated by
ambient light. During the span of an exposure, moonlight
provides a consistent light source both in its intensity and
direction. Although weaker, the aurora offers ambient light as
well. In contrast to the moon however, the brightness and
location of the aurora can fluctuate during the span of an
exposure. It may move from a low angle on the horizon to being
directly overhead, or it may flash brightly, both of which influence
how much light it contributes to the foreground. Bright auroras
directly overhead contribute more ambient light to your
foreground than auroras farther away and lower on the horizon.
Two exposures of the same scene can render darker or brighter

foregrounds if the aurora changes significantly in brightness. For
example, if a dim aurora display calls for a 30-second exposure
to properly capture the brightness of the aurora, then the
moonlight fills in the foreground for 30 seconds. If moments later,
the aurora suddenly flares up brightly and calls for a 15-second
exposure, the foreground in the same scene receives only half
the amount of moonlight, resulting in a darker foreground. As a
general rule the brighter the aurora, the darker the foreground,
because whatever available ambient light exists fills in the
foreground for less time.
Image 8.7 5 sec @ f/2.8, ISO1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14-24mm f/2.8 Nikon)
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres Exposing properly for the bright aurora in this scene created an 282
exposure of 5 seconds, resulting in a dark foreground.
Image 8.8 A similar location as Image 8.7 (next page) but more moonlight helps illuminate the foreground. 283
Image 8.9 13 sec @ f/2.8, ISO1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 21mm f/2.8 Zeiss) Image 8.10 13 sec @ f/2.8, ISO1600 (Canon 5D Mark III, 21mm f/2.8 Zeiss)
Compare the shadows created from the moonlight in Image 8.10. With moonlight directly behind the camera, it casts a front light 284
Perpendicular light creates more dimension than front light. shadow, resulting in diminished contrast.
Image 8.11 Reflections of the aurora can help balance and enhance composition lines. 285
Image 8.12 A short exposure of only 8 seconds renders the trees dark and silhouetted. Compare this scene to Image 8.9 (next 286
page), which has an exposure time of 83 seconds.
Image 8.13 In contrast to Image 8.8, I purposefully included the snowy foreground to add interest. The aurora was not real bright, 287
and a longer exposure of 83 seconds allowed for ambient light to reveal detail in the foreground.
Image 8.14 Including a human element or landmark in a photo, such as a person or a cabin, adds interest to a photo by providing 288
scale and a sense of place.
Image 8.15 If moonlight is present, watch the angle of the light source and, if possible, shoot perpendicular to it to create the 289
most contrast and definition in your subject.
F/Stop and Depth of Field Closest in focus object using infinity focus
Depth of field refers to the range or depth of Blurry Sharp Closest focus point
objects in the photo that will be in focus. This f/2.8 22.3ft. / 6.7m
diagram is based on a direct equation between
24mm
the f/stop and lens focal length. The higher the f/2.0
31.5ft. / 9.6m
number of the f/stop (f/22), the greater focus f/1.8
depth in the photo. The lower the number of the f/ 35.3ft. / 10.8m
stop (f/2.8), the less focus depth in the photo. f/1.4
44.5ft. / 13.6m
Since aurora photography by nature requires
using a wide opening, it is also the smallest 0ft.
Infinity
number (for example, f/1.4 or f/2.8). There is little f/2.8
20mm
depth of field with these apertures. However, all 15.5ft. / 4.7m
lenses have a point at which everything beyond a
f/2.0
21.9ft. / 6.7m
certain distance from the camera is in focus when f/1.8
focused on infinity. 25.5ft. / 7.8m
14mm 16mm
0ft.
Because sharp stars are essential with aurora
f/2.8
photography, the lens is usually focused on the 10ft. / 3m
stars or a distant horizon, which equals infinity.
Using an FX camera (a camera with a full-sized 0ft.
sensor) and a 24mm lens set at f/2.8, the closest f/2.8
8ft. / 2.4m
object in focus is approximately 22 feet (6.8m).
10 ft 20 ft 30 ft 40 ft 50 ft
Set at f/1.4 the distance is approximately 44 feet
(13.6m) (Diagram 8.1). Anything closer will be Diagram 8.1
blurry. It is helpful to be conscious of this factor, Focused on infinity, the lens focal length and f/stop dictate the nearest in-focus distance.

but it’s my opinion that not every foreground object needs to be from the nearest object you need to be to have it in sharp focus.
in critical focus. Use it as a guideline, and if you need to back up There is an online depth of field calculator at DOFMaster that lets
five or ten feet from a spruce tree so it is sharper in your image, you to select your camera, lens and f/stop information, and it
then do so. If it is crucial that your foreground subjects be in calculates the distance for you. There is also a smartphone
sharp focus, then study a chart ahead of time to know how far application that performs the same calculation (Chapter 9:3).
Figure 8.12
If there are objects in your
composition that you want in
sharp focus, be sure you’re far
enough away from them. The
proper distance is based on
the f/stop and focal length of
30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 1000 (Canon 5D Mark II, 16-35mm f/2.8) the lens (Diagram 8.1).

Taking the
Picture
“To a photographer,
looking is not the 
same as seeing.”
~ Anonymous 292
8 ❖ 4 Taking the Picture
Check Your Horizon

Composing in the dark can be challenging.
Crooked horizons are not uncommon when
reviewing aurora photos later on your
computer. Some cameras have a horizon
level index that appears on the camera’s
display, which can be helpful to ensure
accurate leveling of your camera. Another
option is a physical level accessory that
Figure 8.13
THROUGHOUT THE NIGHT slides on to the hot shoe of the camera.
Checking the level provided on some
Although less preferred, it can help.
❖ Keep your night vision by composing camera models is helpful in establishing
before you activate the viewfinder LED a straight horizon on a dark night.
lights. Take Periodic Test Shots
❖ Take test shots often and evaluate the The eyes are not capable of seeing the degree of color and/or presence of the
histogram for proper exposure. Zoom in aurora the same way that a digital camera sensor can. For this reason, take test
to check focus sharpness occasionally.
shots often to evaluate what is really happening in the sky. On many occasions,
❖ Monitor the front of your lens for frost.
I’ve been unimpressed by what my own eyes saw but quite amazed at what the
❖ Monitor your battery and change it if it camera was able to capture on a 30-second exposure. In particular, colors are
gets low so you don’t risk missing a
photo.
seldom as intense to the human eye as they are when captured by the digital
camera.
❖ Move around and change your
composition.
❖ If you have multiple lenses, try different Reposition Frequently
focal lengths. Don’t forget to move around and mix up your composition frequently. While it’s true
that the sky is often changing due to the moving shapes of the aurora, even slightly
different foreground compositions provide variation to the imagery. It is easy to get

These two photos

were taken just 50 feet
apart. Finding a
location that lets you
to shoot in multiple
directions increases
your compositional
Image 8.16 Image 8.17
options.
5 sec @ f/1.4, ISO 3200 (Canon 5D Mark III, 24mm f/1.4) 30 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 12800 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14mm f/2.8)

mesmerized by what is happening in the sky and forget to work

the foreground and expand the number of unique compositions,
keeping in mind any available light sources, such as the moon.
Check Your Lens for Frost

Depending on weather conditions,
frost may gather on the front
element of your lens. This is
contingent on a number of weather
factors, but get in the habit of
checking it occasionally, just in case.
If frost does appear on the front
element, use a lens cloth (kept easily
accessible in your coat pocket) to
clean it by applying light pressure in a circular motion.
Don’t Forget to Check Your Battery Level

I discussed this previously, but it merits repeating: Check your
battery level often throughout the night. Be sure you have an
extra battery tucked away in a warm pocket for a quick change
when necessary.
Be Mindful of Light Pollution

Periodic sources of light pollution can be a problem in urban
areas, or when photographing along a road when there is traffic.
Image 8.18
How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres If you are near a road, watch out for traffic lights from cars that light 295
the foreground.
It may be unavoidable in some cases, but be alert to headlights

or other sources of light pollution that may be in the far distance
or that may project light pollution into your composition (Image
8.16).
Avoid the Wind

The wind can negatively influence your aurora photography in two
ways. If it is very strong, it can vibrate the tripod legs and camera
resulting in a blurry image. To avoid this, lower the tripod legs and
add weight to the hook in the center of the tripod (if your model
has that feature). Wind can also cause moving objects, such as
spruce trees in the foreground, to be blurry. If you notice this,
either avoid such objects, or don’t make them primary in your
composition.
Use Two Cameras

If you have the luxury, bring two cameras mounted with different
lenses. If you don’t have two tripods, you can trade out the
cameras without needing to change lenses in the dark. Operating
two cameras may not be recommended for the beginner, but
those experienced with their equipment can increase the
photographic opportunities with two cameras. Sometimes the
great aurora displays or shapes last only briefly, and you’ll want
to be ready to shoot as much as possible during that time.

Photographing
Star Trails
“I will love the light, 

for it shows me the way,
yet I will endure the
darkness because it  
shows me the stars.”
~ Og Mandino
297
15 min @ f/2.0, ISO 100 (Canon 1Ds Mark III, 24mm f/1.4)
8 ❖ 5 Photographing Star Trails
Star Trails and the Aurora Shutter Speed and Focal Length
There may be reasons for or against the inclusion of star trails in The length of star trails in a picture is related to the duration of
your aurora photos. This is often based on personal preference or the shutter and the lens focal length. A 15-minute exposure using
the conditions of the sky and/or aurora. Whether you choose to a 28mm lens would make star trails equal in length to a 30-
emphasize them, or minimize them, there are a few things to minute exposure with a 14mm lens.
consider.

17-minute exposure, 16mm lens 15-minute exposure, 24mm lens 5:45-minute exposure, 70mm lens

Dark Skies and Light The 500 Rule

When making a single exposure of star trails, a dark night void of If you would like to exclude star trails altogether, a basic math
moonlight is preferred, because it renders the darkest sky and equation provides a starting exposure value. It is known as the
the brightest stars. If light pollution is present, a long exposure 500 Rule, which calculates the length of exposure in relation to
results in a bright sky. Thirty-minute
exposures on a dark night free of light
pollution and ambient light can render
sufficiently dark skies. Longer exposures of
up to an hour or more are possible, but
depending on the time of night and location
of the moon below the horizon, some
brightness in the sky may occur. This can
usually be taken care of in post production.
While it is possible to blend multiple, shorter
exposures with software to create a single
image of star trails, these shorter exposures
may not be sufficient to capture the aurora,
should it be present.
Excluding Star Trails

To capture a nighttime image void of star
trails, a short exposure time is necessary.
How short? It depends on the lens focal
Figure 8.17
length and the size of your camera’s sensor. Exposure times vary, depending on how “pin-point” you want the stars to be. In this photo, with a 14mm
lens, a 15-second shutter speed renders nearly pin-point stars.

the lens focal length to produce a photo without trailing stars. To to create the same effect (shutter time is reduced by half when
use this method, take the lens focal length and divide it by 500. the lens focal length is doubled). Conduct a field test, zoom to
For example: A 24mm lens on an FX sensor divided by 500 maximum on the display, and review to establish the precise
equals 21 seconds (500 / 24 = 21); a 14mm lens on an FX sensor exposure time for your lens focal length. What constitutes a
divided by 500 equals 35 seconds (500 / 14 = 35). notable star trail varies among individuals.
500 Rule shutter speeds to avoid star trails Long Exposure Battery Consumption
Long exposures consume battery power. This is exacerbated by
Focal Length FX 1.5x Crop 1.6x Crop 2x Crop
having long exposure noise reduction (LENR) turned on, which
10mm 50 33 31 25 requires additional power to process a
14mm 36 24 22 18 secondary, in-camera dark image. If you
16mm 31 21 20 15 have been photographing for a while before
20mm 25 17 16 12 deciding to make a star trail photo using a

long exposure, I recommend starting with
24mm 21 14 13 11
a fully charged battery. One option to
28mm 18 12 11 9 extend your camera’s battery
35mm 14 10 9 7 power is to use a vertical
Figure 8.18 grip. Models like
Approximate time in seconds to create a picture without star trails. Based on the Canon 5D
lens focal length and camera sensor size.
Mark III will hold
two batteries in
This 500 rule should be used as a starting point, since how large
the BG-E11
your picture will be displayed will also influence the appearance
grip, thereby
of star trails, so experiment. If you make a test exposure of 36
doubling your
seconds with a 14mm lens that reveals little to no star trails, then
battery power. If Figure 8.19
a shorter exposure of 18 seconds with a 28mm lens is necessary Canon’s vertical grip holds two batteries.

you want to make an exposure of one hour, you will need two
hours of battery power at least, so an extra battery can be a real
asset.
Long Exposure Noise Reduction

Remember, while LENR
may not be necessary for
shorter, average aurora
exposures of 15-30
seconds, it should be
turned on for longer
exposures necessary to
capture star trails. If you
fail to do this, you might
Figure 8.21
end up with a photo that
Hot pixels as a result of not turning on LENR on a 77 minute exposure.
looks like Figure (8.20-21), Canon 5D Mark III.
which exhibits hot pixels.
Unlike the two types of Star Trail Exposure Time Examples
digital noise known as
There is a wide range of star trail exposures that vary in
luminance noise and
relationship to lens focal length. Because the exposures are often
chrominance noise, which
Figure 8.20 quite long, very faint aurora may show up that are sometimes not
can be remedied in
Full image referenced in Figure 8.21. even visible to the naked eye. If you prefer star trails in
Lightroom there is no post
conjunction with aurora, then a very faint display of aurora is the
processing technique to remove these hot pixels. One would
best condition, because a bright aurora burns out parts of the
need to resort to the near impossible task of stamping them out.
image.

Image 8.19 15-minute exposure with a 24mm lens. 302

17 min @ f/5.6, ISO 100 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 16-35mm f/2.8)
Image 8.20 17-minute exposure with a 16mm lens reveals notable star trails. 303
Image 8.21 30-minute exposure with a 24mm lens. 304

5.5 min @ f/2.8, ISO 100 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 24-70mm f/2.8)
Image 8.22 5.5-minute exposure with a 70mm lens. 305

6.1 min @ f/2.8, ISO 100 (Canon 5D Mark II, 16-35mm f/2.8)
Image 8.23 6.1-minute exposure with a 35mm lens. 306

Image 8.24 30 min @ f/2.8, ISO 200 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14mm f/2.8) Image 8.25 15 min @ f/8, ISO 800 (Canon 1Ds Mark III, 24mm f/1.4)
Chapter 9
Wrapping Up
A brief review and some final

considerations before you begin your
aurora photography adventure.
308

Submit to Mother Nature
Alaska’s Wrangell St. Elias national park is America’s going outside that night to photograph the aurora as it
largest park, encompassing 13.2 million acres and danced over my comfortable little bed. I’ve got a whole
containing nine of North America’s 16 tallest peaks. I week ahead of me, I thought. The next day, we loaded
thought, what a great place to photograph the aurora! gear and traveled deep into the mountains and set up
Making this happen involved a logistical challenge that camp on a glacier moraine. It was going to be an
included a 350-mile drive, followed by a 75-mile ride incredible foreground for aurora photography, completely
across the wilderness on snow machines. Staging from surrounded by rugged mountains. At this point, I need to
a small town within the park, a friend and I embarked on emphasize the word “was,” because clouds obscured
a scouting trip on day one to get used to the machines the skies for all the remaining nights. Sometimes, in spite
and towing our gear. Actually, I would call that a “boot of a great deal of planning and effort, the aurora may
camp” day as we rode for miles and miles, returning remain elusive. Capitalize on every opportunity, but
home in utter exhaustion, which was my excuse for not remember that being skunked may be part of the game.

Aurora
Pre-flight
“Photography can never

grow up if it imitates
some other medium. 
It has to walk alone;  
it has to be itself.”
~ Berenice Abbott
310

9 ❖ 1 Aurora Pre-flight
Aurora Photography Quick Review • Occasionally check the front element of the lens for frost.
Remove frost with a clean, dry lens cloth kept in your
• The aurora can be observed most frequently under the pocket.
aurora belt.
• Know your camera buttons and menus so you can operate
• The aurora oval is pushed farther south during strong solar the camera more easily and quickly on a dark night.
storms.
• Shoot in RAW and don't let RAW image format intimidate
• The aurora tends to be more active around the autumnal and you, shoot in RAW + JPEG if necessary.
vernal equinox periods and from 10:30 p.m. to 3 a.m.
• Review your camera settings, and perform a test shot to be
• Be aware of the moon phase and its rise and set times. sure your lens is in critical focus!
• Be conscious of the direction of your ambient light sources, • Be well nourished and hydrated, and use chemical hand
such as the moon.
warmers.
• Scout your location options during the daylight if possible. • Don’t give away your heat; practice heat conservation.
• Spending successive nights at your destination increases the • Remember, perseverance pays off.
odds of seeing the aurora.
• And most of all, have a great time out in the black, dark, and
• Find an interesting location and think about your beautiful night skies wherever you choose to photograph.
composition. Move around often to find variations in the
foreground.
• Temperatures are likely to be cold, so dress appropriately.
• Keep a spare battery or two available in a warm coat pocket.
• A good, tall, sturdy tripod with a smooth, easy-to-operate
ball head makes you more efficient and responsive.
• Choose a lens that is f/2.8 or faster, and an ultra-wide angle
zoom gives some focal length flexibility.
• Remember to take off the lens filter.

Aurora Photo
Checklist
“Discipline is
remembering what  
you want.”
~ David Campbell
312

9 ❖ 2 Aurora Photo Checklist
Aurora Quick Review List • Turn on long exposure noise reduction (if you have not
tested your camera with it turned off).
Refer to this list prior to embarking on a night of photography.
• Turn on high ISO noise reduction (if shooting JPEG only).
Before you Go • Turn on highlight warning.
• Set white balance to auto.
• Check the aurora forecasts. • Set metering mode to matrix or evaluative.
• Understand the long/short-term aurora forecast. • Set drive mode to continuous.
• Scout a location in daylight. • If shutter times are < 30 seconds, set exposure mode to
• Know the moon phase and rise and set times. aperture priority, and add approximately +1 compensation.
• If shutter times are > 30 seconds, set exposure mode to bulb
Gear and use release.
• Tall and sturdy tripod. • Test exposure, consult histogram.
• Remote shutter release. • Cover camera card writing light with tape.
• Headlamp set to dim; red filter; use sparingly.
• Point camera lens down when not shooting. Lens
• Don’t breath on your viewfinder. • Remove the filter from your lens.
• Extra batteries and media cards. • Attach lens hood.
• Lens cloth. • Daylight: Tape lens focus ring, autofocus on infinity object,
switch lens to manual focus.
Camera • Night: Manual focus using Live View and loupe, then tape
• Set camera to correct local time. lens focus ring.
• Set image quality to RAW or RAW + JPEG. • Take test shots to ensure sharpness.
• Set LCD brightness to low. • Occasionally check for frost on the lens.
• Set histogram to RGB.

Aurora Apps
and Resources
“Your first 10,000

photographs are  
your worst.”
~ Henri Cartier-Bresson 314
9 ❖ 3 Aurora Apps and Resources
Resources for Aurora Photography • NOAA ACE (srl.caltech.edu/ACE/ace_mission.html)

• NOAA SWPC OVATION(swpc.noaa.gov/products/aurora-30-
Photography Websites minute-forecast/)
• Patrick’s website (alaskaphotographics.com) • NOAA SWPC (swpc.noaa.gov/communities/space-weather-

enthusiasts)
• Digital Photography Review (dpreview.com)
• Steve’s Digi Cams (steves-digicams.com) • NOAA RT Ovation (ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/ovation_prime/)
• Luminous Landscape (luminous-landscape.com) • Swedish Institute of Space Physics (irf.se)
• B&H Photo (bhphoto.com) • Alaska Aurora Web Cam (ronnmurrayphoto.com/
NorthernLights-AuroraCamera/AlaskaAuroraCam)
• The Digital Picture: (the-digital-picture.com)
• Aurora Spy (auroraspy.co.uk/)
Camera Gear Rental
Smartphone Apps
• BorrowLenses (borrowlenses.com) Smartphone apps can be very useful tools to aid in pursuit of the
• Lens Rentals (lensrentals.com) aurora borealis. A few that I find helpful are listed on the following
• Fairbanks Fast Foto “AlaskaCamera” (alaskacamera.com) pages.
Aurora Information Websites

• UAF Geophysical Institute (gi.alaska.edu/auroraforecast)
• Alaska Aurora Cam (AlaskaAuroraCam.com)
• Solar Ham (solarham.net)
• Space Weather (spaceweather.com)
• Soft Serve News (softservenews.com/Aurora.htm)
• Aurora Alerts on Twitter (twitter.com/aurora_alerts)
• Space Weather Live (spaceweatherlive.com/en/)
• NASA Sun-Earth Days (http://sunearthday.nasa.gov/)
• NASA SOHO (sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov)
Free Free
AURORASAURUS AURORA SOLAR

FORECAST MONITOR

Free mobile app to put citizen science and Aurora Forecast provides POES satellite oval Solar Monitor gives current solar and
crowd-sourced (Twitter) ground truth images, GPS linking, ACE real-time solar wind geomagnetic activity. Updates of solar wind
observations of aurora on a real-time Google information, aurora alert sign up and more. speed, density, and sunspot number.
map.

Free Free
FOCALWARE NASA SPACE PLANETS

WEATHER

Focalware provides GPS-based moon and NASA Spaceweather gives tons of space Planets is a free app that provides GPS-based
sun rise and set times. Skip ahead to the next environment information including CMEs and reference for moon and planets.
day for planning. how they affect the near-Earth environment.

THE  PHOTOPILLS
PHOTOGRAPHER’S  DOF MASTER
EPHEMERIS

The Photographer's Ephemeris (TPE) is a PhotoPills is a map-centric, natural light DOFMaster calculates near-object focus
GPS, map-centric sun and moon calculator planner with sun and moon finder and distance based on camera type, lens and 
showing how the light falls day or night. many more landscape features. f/stop.

STARWALK
Figure 9.10
Starwalk provides GPS-based viewing
of constellations and solar objects.

10 min @ f/2.8, ISO 1600 (Canon 1Ds Mark II, 16-35mm f/2.8)
Image 9.1 Smartphone apps are helpful for knowing when and where the moon will rise. 320
Good Luck!
“The best way out is

always through.”
~ Robert Frost 321

9 ❖ 4 Good Luck!
May the aurora be with you

Now it’s time for you to venture out on your own quest of aurora borealis
photography. If there is anything I’ve learned over the years, it is that there is truth
to the saying of Benjamin Franklin, “Energy and persistence conquer all things.”
So I wish you clear skies, solar storms, warm hands, charged batteries and
persistence—the fundamental ingredients to capture beautiful pictures of the
aurora borealis.
If you find this book helpful, or care to make a comment or suggestion, please stop
HAVE FUN, BE SAFE by my blog and share your thoughts:
❖ Put in the time. Persistence pays off.

• (http://www.alaskaphotographics.com/blog/northern-lights-photography-
ebook).
Don’t give up early.
• You can also write a review and rate this eBook through the iTunes bookstore
❖
❖ Enjoy the wonders of the night sky. (https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/how-to-photograph-northern/id604657740?

❖ Make an effort to learn about sky objects mt=11).
and space science.
❖ When in the dark, wear something with
reflective material.
Share this eBook
❖ Stay alert and walk carefully in the dark. • Share this eBook on Facebook
Snow and ice can be slippery. • Share this eBook on Twitter
❖ Don’t drive when sleep-deprived.
❖ Be considerate of your fellow Patrick’s Network
photographers. Practice good light-
pollution-free etiquette.
• Photo Tours with Patrick
• Sign up for Patrick’s Newsletter

Diagram Quick
Reference
“I like this place and

could willingly waste
my time in it.”
~ William Shakespeare 323
20 sec @ f/2.8, ISO 2000 (Canon 5D Mark III, 14-24mm f/2.8)

9 ❖ 5 Diagram Quick Reference
Average Sky Conditions in Fairbanks, Alaska.

22% 26% 28% 20% 13% 9% 8% 9% 12% 13% 17% 17%
11% 10% 10%

11% 9% 9%
20% 10% 13%
12% 23% 19%
11% 17% 14%
23%
12%
% Days per month
12% 15%
16%
14% 20%
63% 64%
15% 62% 62%
15%
57% 58%
53% 53% 54%
47% 48%
45%
20
15
10
5
Diagram 9.1
March has the highest, and October the lowest percentage of clear or partly clear days in Fairbanks, Alaska. While both equinox periods show higher
geomagnetic activity, the spring equinox period usually has better skies for aurora photography, but it is also colder.

Exposure values for average aurora brightness (no moonlight) in ½ stop increments
f/1.4 f/1.8 f/2.0 f/2.5 f/2.8 f/3.5 f.4.0

ISO 200 30 sec 45 sec 60 sec 1.5 min 2 min 3 min 4 min
ISO 400 15 sec 20 sec 30 sec 45 sec 60 sec 1.5 min 2 min
ISO 6400 1 sec 1.5 sec 2 sec 3 sec 4 sec 6 sec 8 sec
Figure 9.11
Exposures for the aurora vary greatly depending on the brightness of the aurora and the amount of ambient light. Experiment and consult your histogram.
These values are only approximations and should be adjusted according to the real-time variables.

Underexposed by 3+ Underexposed by 1.5 Correctly Exposed for

Stops Stops Shadow Detail
Expect data here for Expect data here for Expect data here for
proper exposure proper exposure proper exposure

Greatly underexposed. Note that all of the values This is a little better but still most values are in the This exposure represents the brightness of the
are in the blacks and shadows. blacks and shadows. aurora more accurately and boosts the shadows.


8mm fisheye 10mm 12mm 13mm 16mm
16mm (16-35mm) 21mm 24mm 25mm 32mm
Figure 9.15
This is the actual 35mm equivalent focal range of a lens mounted on smaller sensor cameras.The red numbers indicate a focal length not optimal for capturing
wide and expansive aurora displays.

Closest in focus object using infinity focus

Blurry Sharp Closest focus point
f/2.8 22.3ft. / 6.7m
24mm
f/2.0
31.5ft. / 9.6m
f/1.8
35.3ft. / 10.8m
f/1.4
44.5ft. / 13.6m
0ft.
Infinity
f/2.8
20mm
15.5ft. / 4.7m
f/2.0
21.9ft. / 6.7m
f/1.8
25.5ft. / 7.8m
14mm 16mm
0ft.
f/2.8
10ft. / 3m
0ft.
f/2.8
8ft. / 2.4m
10 ft 20 ft 30 ft 40 ft 50 ft
Diagram 9.2
Focused on infinity, the lens focal length and f/stop dictate the nearest in-focus distance.

500 Rule guide for shutter speeds to avoid star trails.
Shutter time in seconds: 500 / focal length = sec
Focal Length FX 1.5x Crop 1.6x Crop 2x Crop
10mm 50 33 31 25
14mm 36 24 22 18
16mm 31 21 20 15
20mm 25 17 16 12
24mm 21 14 13 11
28mm 18 12 11 9
35mm 14 10 9 7
Figure 9.16
Approximate time in seconds to create a picture without star trails. Based on lens focal length and camera sensor size.

Planetary Kp-Index Chart
Kp-index activity levels per geomagnetic latitude

Lat. Kp Cities by approximate geomagnetic latitude
66.5 0 Churchill, MB, Canada / Tromso, Norway
64.5 1 Reykjavik, Iceland / Fairbanks, Alaska, USA
62.4 2 Kemi, Finland / Kiruna, Sweden
60.4 3 Anchorage, Alaska, USA / Providenya, Russia
58.3 4 Trondheim, Norway / Edmonton, AB, Canada
56.3 5 Helsinki, Finland / Quebec City, Canada
54.2 6 Minneapolis, MN, USA / Toronto, Canada
52.2 7 Moscow, Russia / Copenhagen, Denmark
50.1 8 Newcastle, England / Christchurch, NZ
48.1 9 Denver, CO, USA / Berlin, DE / Melbourne, AU
Figure 9.17
Once you know your magnetic latitude, reference aurora forecasts to see
what the current Kp-index is. If the level corresponds to your latitude there is
good probability for aurora.

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HOW TO

Table of Contents ✤ Kp-Index Map for North America (Map)

How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres ii

• Bettles and Nome • Clear Skies and Weather

• Choosing a Season to Photograph the Aurora • Be Persistent

How to Photograph the Northern Lights | Patrick J. Endres iii

• Is a Full Moon Bad? Section 5:1 | Understanding Exposure

• Outer Layers • ISO

Chapter 5 - Aurora Exposure Chapter 6 - Choosing Cameras and Photo Gear

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Section 6:1 | Digital Cameras • Lenses for APS Sensor Cameras

• The Minimalist (Diagram)

• Compact Cameras • Tall and Sturdy

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• Leg Sections • Benefits of Exposures under 30 Seconds

• LCD Display Brightness • Preserving Night Vision

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• Mark Remote Shutter Release Button • Long Exposure Noise Reduction

• Selecting the Correct Focal Length Section 9:1 | Aurora Pre-flight

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✤ Planetary Kp-Index chart

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Patrick J. Endres: Photographer Neal Brown: Scientist

Photo by Amy Johnson xii

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“I think I'll just

let the mystery be.”

Understanding the Aurora

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Space Weather and the Aurora

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The Sun and Aurora Science

❖ The term “aurora borealis” is derived from

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after by space enthusiasts, aurora viewers and photographers alike. A complicated

NASA Marshal SpaceFlight Center

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SOTERIA Flare Predictor Tool

FACTS ABOUT THE SUN

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SUN-EARTH OBSERVING SPACECRAFT

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World Space Weather Science

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Understanding Aurora Forecasts

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27-Day Solar Cycle

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Space Weather Canada Space Weather Canada

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Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) and Bz 15-minute average

Solar Wind Speed and Density

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a density around 5 ions (protons)/cm3. It tends to be highest in

Kp-index activity levels per geomagnetic latitude

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AURORA INFORMATION RESOURCES

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Kp-Index Map for North America

Figure 1.17 Kp-index web map for North America

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Kp-Index Map for Eurasia

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