Coordinate Transformation & Invariance in

Electromagnetism
Steven G. Johnson, notes for the course 18.369 at MIT
Created April 2007; updated March 10, 2010

It is a remarkable fact [1] that Maxwell’s equa- We will show that Maxwell’s equations take on
tions under any coordinate transformation can the same form (1–4) in the primed coordinate
be written in an identical “Cartesian” form, if system, with ∇ replaced by ∇0 , if we make the
simple transformations are applied to the ma- transformations:
terials (ε and µ), the fields (E and H), and the
sources (ρ and J). This result has numerous use- E0 = (J T )−1 E, (6)
ful and/or beautiful consequences, from designs
of “invisibility cloaks” [2], to a simple derivation
of PML absorbing boundaries [3], to enabling H0 = (J T )−1 H, (7)
analyses of bent and twisted waveguides in terms
analogous to a quantum Stark effect [4] , to pro-
viding a simple way of applying numerical meth- J εJ T
ε0 = , (8)
ods designed for Cartesian coordinates to other det J
coordinate systems [1].
Here, we review the proof in a compact form
J µJ T
(from [5]), generalized to arbitrary anisotropic µ0 = , (9)
det J
media. (Most previous derivations seem to have
been for isotropic media in at least one coordi-
nate frame [1], or for coordinate transformations JJ
J0 = , (10)
with purely diagonal Jacobians J where Jii de- det J
pends only on xi [3], or for constant affine coor-
dinate transforms [6].) ρ
ρ0 = , (11)
det J
Summary of the Result
where J T is the transpose.
Maxwell’s equations in Cartesian coordinates x Note that, even if we start out with isotropic
are written (in natural units ε0 = µ0 = 1): materials (scalar ε and µ), after a coordinate
∂E transformation we in general obtain anisotropic
∇×H = ε +J (1) materials (tensors ε0 and µ0 ).
∂t
∂H For example, if x0 = sx for some scale factor
∇ × E = −µ (2) s 6= 0, then ε0 = ε/s and µ0 = µ/s, which is pre-
∂t
∇ · (εE) = ρ (3) cisely the material scaling required to keep e.g.
∇ · (µH) = 0, (4) the eigenfrequencies fixed under a rescaling of a
structure. Note also that if s = −1, i.e. a coordi-
where J and ρ are the usual free current and nate inversion, then we set E0 = −E, H0 = −H,
charge densities, respectively, and ε(x) and µ(x) ε0 = −ε and µ0 = −µ, and the system switches
are the 3 × 3 relative permittivity and perme- “handed-ness” (flipping the sign of the refractive
ability tensors, respectively. Now, suppose that index). [A more common alternative choice in
we make some (differentiable) coordinate trans- that case would be to set H0 = H, transform-
formation x 7→ x0 (usually chosen to be non- ing H as a pseudovector [7], while keeping ε and
singular, with some exceptions [2]). Let J de- µ unchanged. This corresponds to sprinkling a
note the 3 × 3 Jacobian matrix: few factors of sign(det J ) in the above equations,
∂x0i which we are free to do as long as the sign is con-
Jij = . (5) stant.]
∂xj

1
Proof coordinates is also straightforward. Gauss’ Law,
eq. (3), becomes
We will proceed in index notation, employing
the Einstein convention whereby repeated in- ρ = ∂a εab Eb = Jia ∂i0 εab Jjb Ej0
dices are summed over. Eq. (1) is now expressed: −1 0
= Jia ∂i0 (det J )Jak εkj Ej0
−1
∂Ed = (det J )∂i0 ε0ij Ej0 + (∂a Jak det J )ε0kj Ej0
∂a Hb abc = εcd + Jc (12)
∂t = (det J )∂i0 ε0ij Ej0 , (21)
where abc is the usual Levi-Civita permutation 0 0 0 0 0
tensor and ∂a = ∂/∂xa . Under a coordinate which gives ∇ · (ε E ) = ρ for ρ = ρ/ det J ,
∂x 0 corresponding to eq. (11). Similarly for eq. (4).
change x 7→ x0 , if we let Jab = ∂xab be the
Here, we have used the fact that
(non-singular) Jacobian matrix associated with
the coordinate transform (which may be a func- −1
∂a Jak det J = ∂a anm kij Jin Jjm /2 = 0, (22)
tion of x), we have
from the cofactor formula for the matrix inverse,
∂a = Jba ∂b0 . (13) and recalling that ∂a Jjb abc = 0 from above. In
particular, note that ρ = 0 ⇐⇒ ρ0 = 0 and
Furthermore, as in eqs. (6–7), let
J = 0 ⇐⇒ J0 = 0, so a non-singular coordinate
Ea = Jba Eb0 , (14) transformation preserves the absence (or pres-
ence) of sources.d
Ha = Jba Hb0 . (15)

Hence, eq. (12) becomes References

∂El0
Jia ∂i0 Jjb Hj0 abc = εcd Jld (16) [1] A. J. Ward and J. B. Pendry, “Refraction and
+ Jc .
∂t geometry in Maxwell’s equations,” J. Modern
Here, the Jia ∂i0 = ∂a derivative falls on both Optics, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 773–793, 1996.
the Jjb and Hj0 terms, but we can eliminate the
[2] J. B. Pendry, D. Schurig, and D. R. Smith,
former thanks to the abc : ∂a Jjb abc = 0 because
“Controlling electromagnetic fields,” Science,
∂a Jjb = ∂b Jja . Then, again multiplying both
vol. 312, pp. 1780–1782, 2006.
sides by the Jacobian Jkc , we obtain
[3] F. L. Teixeira and W. C. Chew, “Gen-
∂E 0
Jkc Jjb Jia ∂i0 Hj0 abc = Jkc εcd Jld l + Jkc Jc eral closed-form PML constitutive tensors to
∂t match arbitrary bianisotropic and dispersive
(17)
Noting that Jia Jjb Jkc abc = ijk det J by defi- linear media,” IEEE Microwave and Guided
nition of the determinant, we finally have Wave Lett., vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 223–225, 1998.

1 ∂E 0 Jkc Jc [4] S. G. Johnson, M. Ibanescu, M. Skorobo-

∂i0 Hj0 ijk = Jkc εcd Jld l + (18) gatiy, O. Weisberg, T. D. Engeness, M. Sol-
det J ∂t det J
jačić, S. A. Jacobs, J. D. Joannopoulos,
or, back in vector notation, and Y. Fink, “Low-loss asymptotically single-
mode propagation in large-core OmniGu-
J εJ T ∂E0 ide fibers,” Optics Express, vol. 9, no. 13,
∇0 × H0 = + J0 , (19)
det J ∂t pp. 748–779, 2001.
where J0 = J J/ det J according to (10). Thus, [5] C. Kottke, A. Farjadpour, and S. G. Johnson,
we see that we can interpret Ampere’s Law in “Perturbation theory for anisotropic dielec-
arbitrary coordinates as the usual equation in tric interfaces, and application to sub-pixel
Euclidean coordinates, as long as we replace the smoothing of discretized numerical meth-
materials etc. by eqs. (6–8). By an identical ods,” Phys. Rev. E, vol. 77, p. 036611, 2008.
argument, we obtain
[6] I. V. Lindell, Methods for Electromagnetic
T 0
J µJ ∂H Fields Analysis. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford Univ.
∇0 × E0 = − , (20)
det J ∂t Press, 1992.
which yields the transformation (9) for µ. [7] J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics.
The transformation of the remaining diver- New York: Wiley, third ed., 1998.
gence equations into equivalent forms in the new