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Architectural Acoustic
Architectural acoustics (also known as room
acoustics and building acoustics) is the science
and engineering of achieving a good sound within
a building and is a branch of acoustical
engineering.
In human physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves and
their perception by the brain. Humans can only hear sound waves as distinct
pitches when the frequency lies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound above
20 kHz is ultrasound and is not perceptible by humans. Sound waves below 20 Hz
are known as infrasound. Different animal species have varying hearing ranges.
Measuring sound is done with a sound level meter and can be presented by
both sound pressure, measured in Pascal (Pa), and sound intensity, measured in
Watt/m2.
1. A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This
relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the
medium.
2. Motion of the medium itself. If the medium is moving, this movement may increase or
decrease the absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the
movement. For example, sound moving through wind will have its speed of propagation
increased by the speed of the wind if the sound and wind are moving in the same
direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the speed of the
sound wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind.
3. The viscosity of the medium. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is
attenuated. For many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is
negligible.
When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical
properties, it may be refracted (either dispersed or focused).
The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through
all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports
the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vaccum
1) MUSICAL SOUND
2) NOISE
Musical Noise
•Regular in Shape.
•Have definite Periodicity.
•They do not undergo a sudden
change in amplitude.
Properties Of Noise
• Irregular in Shape.
• Do not have Definite Periodicity.
• They Undergo a Sudden Change In Amplitude.
• Wavelength of sound – This the distance between two pressure peaks or valleys,
measured in metres (m) and represented with the Greek alphabet ‘l’ (lambda). •
Period – This is the time taken for on complete oscillation. This is measured in
seconds(s) and represented with the letter ‘T’.
• Frequency – This is the number of oscillations per second. This is represented with ‘f’
and measured in Hertz
• Velocity of sound – This is the rate at which a sound wave travels from a source
through a medium to the receiver. The unit is m/s.
• Amplitude – This is the distance between a crest (the highest point) and a valley
(the lowest point)
Sound intensity level also known as acoustic intensity is defined as the power
carried by sound waves per unit area in a direction perpendicular to that
area. The SI unit of intensity, which includes sound intensity, is the watt per
square meter (W/m2). One application is the noise measurement of sound
intensity in the air at a listener's location as a sound energy quantity.
Sound intensity is not the same physical quantity as sound pressure. Hearing is
directly sensitive to sound pressure which is related to sound intensity. In
consumer audio electronics, the level differences are called "intensity"
differences, but sound intensity is a specifically defined quantity and cannot
be sensed by a simple microphone. The rate at which sound energy passes
through a unit area held perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
sound waves is called intensity of sound.
𝟏 𝑻
I= 𝒑 𝒕 𝒗 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝟎
• If the distance is
measured in feet,
4πr2 has to be multiplied
by 930 (because 1
square foot equals 930
square centimeter).
The decibel ( dB) is used to measure sound level, but it is also widely used in
electronics, signals and communication. The dB is a logarithmic way of
describing a ratio. The ratio may be power, sound pressure, voltage or
intensity or several other things.
For instance, suppose we have two loudspeakers, the first playing a sound
with power P1, and another playing a louder version of the same sound with
power P2, but everything else (how far away, frequency) kept the same
If the second produces twice as much power than the first, the difference in
dB is
10 log (P2/P1) = 10 log 2 = 3 dB.
• The phon is a unit of loudness level for pure tones. Its purpose is to compensate
for the effect of frequency on the perceived loudness of tones. The phon was
proposed in DIN 45631 and ISO 532 B by S. S. Stevens.
• The equal-loudness contours are a way of mapping the dB SPL of a pure tone
to the perceived loudness level (LN) in phons. These are now defined in the
international standard ISO 226:2003, and the research on which this document
is based concluded that earlier Fletcher–Munson curves and Robinson–
Dadson curves were in error.
The sone ( /ˈsoʊn/) is a unit of loudness, how loud a sound is perceived. The sone
scale is linear. Doubling the perceived loudness doubles the sone value.
Proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens in 1936, it is a non-SI unit.
Conversion
According to Stevens' definition, a loudness of 1 sone is equivalent to the
loudness of a signal at 40 phons, the loudness level of a 1 kHz tone at 40 dB
SPL. But phons scale with level in dB, not with loudness, so the sone and phon
scales are not proportional. Rather, the loudness in sones is, at least very
nearly, a power law function of the signal intensity, with an exponent of 0.3.
With this exponent, each 10 phon increase (or 10 dB at 1 kHz) produces almost
exactly a doubling of the loudness in sones.
The deviation of sound above and below the atmospheric pressure levels is
called Sound Pressure. The energy expanded in the process of sound
propagation is labeled intensity (loudness) and is measured in energy units. At
this point the science of sound can be a little more complex and intimidating
since placing a numerical value on sound is very difficult due to the
extraordinary sensitivity of the human ear. Our ears can detect deviations in
atmospheric pressure in the order of 1,000,000 to 1 and sound intensities of over
a trillion to one.
• Physiolocial
• Psycholocial
• Cognitive
• Behavioural
Pitch
Pitch refers to the
highness or lowness of a
sound.
A man’s vocal chords are normally longer and more massive than a
female’s voice. Hence, a male’s voice is low pitched compared to
the female’s voice.
• Close to the sound source, the sound waves cover a small area
• As waves travel away from the sound source, it covers more area
• The total energy of the wave stays the same whether it’s close to the
source or far away from it
• The closer the sound wave is to its source, the more energy it has in a
given area.
• When you move away from the sound source, loudness decreases,
because the intensity decreases.
1B = 10dB
Intensity Levels of Common Sounds
figure 2: In music, there is a doubling of frequency between notes of the same name
To more closely
match how humans
distinguish
frequencies, each
1/1 octave band
can be split into
three bands. These
are called the 1/ 3
octave bands.
These smaller bands
more closely
Figure 3: The lower, upper, and center frequencies of the
1/1 octave bands over the human hearing range.
represent how
humans distinguish
between
Figure 4: The upper, lower, and center
frequencies. frequencies for the 1/3 octave bands.
Areas bounded with materials that allow sound rays to pass through tend to enjoy good
acoustic as the effect of indirect sound from reflection is reduced within the space. In this
space, sound from external source can pass through the material into the enclosure as
background noise. The vibration of some of the materials can be a source of noise within the
space and this can be a bane to the achievement of clear and audible speech and music.
The effect of indirect sound may be pronounced in spaces enclosed with materials that do
not allow the passage of sound rays through them. Adjustments to the material to aid
diffusion will improve the acoustic of the space. Some of these materials can absorb sound,
reducing the effect of indirect sound
On encountering barriers posed by the enclosure, sound waves are likely to behave in the
following ways:
• Reflection
• Absorption
• Refraction
• Diffusion
• Diffraction
• Transmission
This occurs when the wavelength of a sound wave is smaller than the surface of an
obstacle. In the case of an enclosed space, the sound waves hit every side of the
enclosure continuously until the sound energy reduces to zero. The amount of waves
reflected depends on the smoothness, size, and softness of the materials of enclosure.
The angle of incidence of sound rays is equal to that of the reflected rays only if the
surface of the reflector is flat. But when it is curved, the angles are different.
When the
wavelength of a
sound wave is smaller
or equal to the size of
the obstacle, the
sound rays tend to
bend round the edge
of the obstacle
thereby turning the
edge to a sound
source.
An open window is an
excellent absorber since the
sounds passing through the
open window are not
reflected back but makes a
poor sound barrier. Painted
concrete block is a good
sound barrier but will reflect
about 97% of the incident
sound striking it.
Figure 1: Sound at a barrier can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected.
α=Iα/Ii
α = absorption coefficient
Iα = sound power intensity absorbed (w/cm2)
Ii = sound power impinging on material (w/cm2)
The value of the sound absorption coefficient α will vary with the
frequency of the incident ray and the angle of incidence. Materials
comprising room surfaces are subject to sound waves that impinge
upon them from many different angles as a result of multiple
reflections.
where A represents the total absorptive area ∑ αiSi , and S the total
spatial area.
Round: Reflections
Rectangle: Lateral Fan-shape: Reflections
from concave
reflections occur scatter and are directed
surfaces cause sound
in the entire space mainly to the rear part of
to strongly focus on
the space (not in the
some parts of the
middle)
space
The sabin unit has the same dimension as area (e.g. m2). A one square meter
surface with an absorption coefficient of 0.75 would be considered 0.75 sabins.
The absorption coefficient has a range of 0 to 1, where a coefficient of 0
indicates none of the sound is absorbed, and a coefficient of 1 indicates that
100% of it is absorbed.
Since we know the speed of sound at 20°C is 343 m/s, we can do a little math
and reduce the formula to:
(Note that the factor 0.161 has the units seconds per
meter; dimensional analysis on the equation will yield a
time in seconds as the volume is measured in cubic meters
and sabins in square meters).
The total absorption, in sabins, is the total area times the absorption coefficient. The total
area in includes 4 walls, a ceiling, and a floor, which when multiplied by the absorption
coefficient gives us the total absorption in sabins:
Problem 2: Let us use the dimensions of the room above, but specify different absorption
coefficients for the different surfaces. Let us say the tile floor has a coefficient of 0.01,
the ceiling a coefficient of 0.5, and the 4 walls a coefficient of 0.2.
This is very close to one second, which is ideal for a lecture hall.
(Note now the coefficient has the units s/ft. Here the sabin has the units of ft2and can be called the imperial
sabin, as opposed the metric sabin used in the previous examples).
Conclusion
The sabin, named in honor of Wallace Sabine, is a unit of measure; one imperial sabin equals
one square foot of 100% absorbing material, and one metric sabin equals one square meter
of 100% absorbing material. Stemming from Sabine’s 19th century work a new field of study
was born. Today, computer programs incorporate Sabine’s formula to help engineers and
architects model and design future concert and lecture halls around the globe.
Source: https://www.thermaxxjackets.com/sabine-modern-architectural/
Porous absorbents
e.g. : fiber boards, rock wood, wool, soft plasters, mineral wools, glass silk,
asbestos fiber, spray, etc.
Resonant Panel: e.g. : window doors, rigid plastic boards, wood and hard-
board, panels, suspended plaster ceilings, gypsum boards etc.
Composites type absorbents: e.g. : bottle or an empty jars, glass, wood, quilt or
slab, perforated hard board backed by perforated fiber board etc.
Porous absorbents
Porous absorbents
• When sound waves strike the surface of porous material, a part of the
waves get reflected while a part enters the pores of the material and
dissipated into heat energy
• The efficiency of this type of absorbent increases with the increase in the
resistance offered by the material.
Resonant absorbents:
Cavity Resonators:
• It essentially consists of a
chamber with a narrow opening
(entrance) in which absorption
takes place by resonance of the
air in the chamber which gives
loss of sound energy
WHY MEASURE?
WHAT TO MEASURE?
For getting good listening conditions, basic
tests are to be done. There are four basic
conditions that need to be measured and
subjected to control. These are:
1) Quietness
2) Proper reverberation
3) Useful and adequate loudness
4) Proper distribution
A sound system is planned in the first place because either the program
material needs help in overcoming the noise present, or the distances
involved make acoustical gain necessary. Usually system planning must
take both these into consideration. We need to know two things about the
noise present: its total sound pressure level (SPL) 7 its distribution by
frequency.
PROPER REVEBERATION:
Sound must "hang on" long enough to allow to sound natural, and yet not
long enough to allow one word to blur the next word during the normal
speech. It is often desirable to have low frequencies to reverberate longer
than higher frequencies in the same space. Here also two factors should
be considered: How long it takes sound to decay it the room & how the
decay time varies with frequencies.
PROPER DISTRIBUTION:
A list of equipment comprising a typical acoustical measuring chain can be compiled as:
Where, SPL is the sound pressure level in dB, p is measured pressure in dynes per
sq.cm. Although it gives an accurate reading in decibels, it does not give pressure
distribution.
W = V/F
5) A calibrated x-y oscilloscope: Amplitude, frequency, and time can be measured with
more than adequate accuracy using a combination of sound level meter, a wave
analyzer, and a graphic level recorder. With the addition of a calibrated oscilloscope and
an oscilloscope camera, signal waveforms can be seen and phenomena recorded that
are of too short a duration to be written down accurately by a graphic level recorder.
7) A sound level calibrator: It is to calibrate the entire chain of instruments this is used.
Once the chain of appliances is set, a known acoustical signal must be applied to bring
all readings into agreement. Sound level calibrator does this.
10) Power amplifiers & speakers: All signal sources require electronic amplification
and conversion to acoustical energy. This is done by the amplifiers & speakers.
11) A barometer.
A building or the hall designed for the large audience should take care of
certain features so the audible sound is exact replica of the source. Any hall
having the good acoustics should have following features:
1. The quality of the speech and the music remains unchanged in each and
every portion of the Hall.
5. There should not be any focusing of sound in any part of the hall.
6. The walls should be sound proof to avoid the external noise in the hall.
The auditorium, as a place for listening, developed from the classical open-air theaters, but
there is little evidence that the Greeks and Romans gave particular consideration to
acoustical principles when they selected natural sites and built open-air theaters.
The first reference to architectural acoustics in recorded history is made by Vitruvius (first
century B.C.). In his book, he describes sounding waves as being used in certain open air
theaters, but no evidence exists that the few vases found near the theaters were used for
acoustical purposes. After the fall of Romans, the only type of auditorium built during the
Middle Ages was church hall. Middle of sixteenth century, strolling professional actors in
England used the round, square, or octagonal courtyards of inns as playhouses. In
subsequent centuries, a remarkable number of theaters were built. In seventeenth century,
the horseshoe shaped opera house with a large stage area and stage house, and with ring
of boxes, or tiers, on top of each other, stacked to the ceiling. But in all these no specific
steps were taken. The first scientific work was in Athanasius Kircher's, appeared in
seventeenth century. Before the twentieth century, only one auditorium was acoustically
treated.
It was not till twentieth century, that Professor W.C. Sabin, did his pioneer work on room
acoustical design. He first designed the coefficient of sound absorption and arrived at a
simple relation between the volume of a room, the amount of sound absorbing material in
it, and its reverberation time.
c) The audience and the most efficient presentation of the program by the
performers should provide optimum reverberation characteristics in the
auditorium to allow the most favorable reception of the program material.
c. The floor where audience is seated should be properly racked. It should not
be more than 1in 8.
d. The sound source should be closely and abundantly surrounded with large
sound reflective surfaces. Initial time delay gap between direct and first
reflective sound should be relatively short, possibly not more than 30
milliseconds.
CONTROL OF REVERBERATION:
1. SITE: Select a quiet exposure far away from highway, flight paths or
noisy industries.
a. PLAN: The diagrams indicate some of the geometrical implications of the source
spread focus balance. Because the widely diverging walls of a fan plan auditorium send
the reflected sound energy towards the rear corners of the space, the apparent source
is virtually limited to the actual width of the performing group. Typical rear wall
geometries in the fan plan further prevent the development of the strong discrete
reflections that are necessary in the 50 to 150 millisecond time period if proper running
reverberance as well as a desirable sense of envelopment is to be provided.
In the multiple use auditorium, where one would desire both focus for individual
performers and breadth of source for large musical group, the provisions of adjustable
reflective, absorptive elements is necessary to modify the sound distribution. This
adjustability is fully compatible with and closely related to that which would provide to
alter the clarity running reverberance balance. Basically the adjustments required to
add focus consists of narrowing the width (and height) of the performance area by
means of carefully oriented reflective surfaces. These surfaces should either replace or
shield the reflective surfaces which produce the source broadening reflection. Where
reflection control cannot be provided, deleterious reflections may be controlled by
adjustable sound absorbing devices (draperies, banners reversible, panels, etc.)
Acceptable modifications of the classical rectangular plan are possible if the designer
bears in mind the need for detail consideration of the relation between performance
area and the front wall and ceiling.
c. Side walls: Use sound reflecting and diffusing surface with as many
irregularities as possible (e.g. sunken panels, splays, and undulations)
for variable sound absorption, hang large amount of fabric curtain or
banners along the rear portion of side walls or in cubic volume above
suspended sound reflecting panels.
99
d. Rear wall: Use diffusing surface with large-scale irregularities or, if this is
not possible, treat with carefully placed deep sound absorbing finish
to control echoes.
e. Floor: Carpet all aisles, except in front of the stage, to aid in football
impact noise control. Do not use carpet in seating areas.
• Since open windows allow the sound energy to flow out of the hall , there should be a
limited number of windows . They may be opened or closed to obtain optimum
reverberation time.
• Cardboard sheets, perforated sheets, felt , heavy curtains , thick carpets, etc. are used to
increase wall and floor surface absorption . Therefore, the walls are to be provided with
absorptive materials to the required extent and at suitable places.
REMEDIES
• A hard reflecting surface positioned near the sound source improve the
loudness.
• Low ceilings are also of help in reflecting the sound energy towards the
audience.
• Adjusting the absorptive material in the hall will improve the situation.
• When the hall is large and audience are more , loud speakers are to be
installed to obtain the desired level
• of loudness.
• A paraboloidal reflecting
surface arranged with the
speaker at its focus is helpful in
directing a uniform reflected
beam of sound in the hall.
Acoustic phenomenon
•Echoes may be
avoided by covering
the opposite walls
and high ceiling with
absorptive material.
TEXTURE
CALCULATIONS:
The basic layout of the auditorium is rectangular. It’s mainly used for
cultural performances. The capacity of the auditorium is about 180
people. The green rooms are located in the basement which can
be accessed from the back stage. The access to the auditorium is
through 2 doors at the rear. The stage height is about 1150 mm and
the distance between the stage and first row is about 2400mm.
Each step is 900 mm wide.
Floor Area of Auditorium: 208 sq.m. 1. For wall (painted): 305 x 0.017= 5.185
Area= 315- (2 x 2 x 2.5)= 305 sq. m.
Height of auditorium = 7 m S1= 0.017
Volume of auditorium = 1456 cu.m. 2. For floor (concrete): 208 x 0.01= 2.08
Area= 208 sq. m.
Reverberation time without S2= 0.01
acoustical materials:
T= 0.16V/A 3. For ceiling (concrete): 208 x 0.01= 2.08
Area= 208 sq. m.
Where, V= volume S3= 0.01
A= total absorbing power T= 0.16 x 1456/ 9.34= 24.94 sec
PLAN
As indicated by the case studies above, the acoustics plays a crucial role in an
auditorium and it is imperative to make a space acoustically efficient so that the
spectators or participants enjoy the sound and it is not irksome to them. The
acoustic efficiency of a space must be considered while designing a space itself
and such spaces like coupled spaces, etc which add to acoustical defects
should be avoided as far as possible. Thereafter suitable material application
and treatments should be done to obtain optimum level of reverberation. While
doing so, one must consider the following aspects:
• To avoid echoes, the reflective surfaces like especially the rear wall should be
acoustically treated.
• Sound amplification system should be used if the volume is greater than 425
cu.m. and the distance between the source and the listener is greater than 12 m.
The attenuation of sound in an auditorium varies with the absorption, volume,
directivity and reinforcement of sound provided. Therefore the distances over
which the speech can be heard will depend on the design of the hall or auditorium
and the extent to which the sounds are reinforced and masked.
• At 90° to the side of the speaker, sound power reduces by 1-2 dB at mid
frequencies and by 6 dB at higher ones. At 180° when the speaker faces away from
the audience, sound shadowing effect becomes prominent and these losses
increase up to three times.
• The ceiling is the main reflecting surface in such a space and sound absorbing
material should not be used on it. Generally the central area of the ceiling plays a
vital role in sound projection over a major portion of the audience so it may be
deliberately profiled to improve projection. For this purpose if needed angle
reflectors may be provided and the soffit of the balcony should also be designed
accordingly to give local reinforcement in these distant parts.
• The side walls adjacent to the source should preferably be angled to reflect
sound towards the audience. The angles subtended by the sound rays at the side
wall surfaces should be reduced to avoid sound concentration, etc. by using
serrated walls or reverse splayed panels, for example.
• Concave wall surfaces or domes result in sound focusing so such surfaces should
preferably be made absorbent.
_ For low frequency sound absorption materials like wood paneling, gypsum
boards, etc. can be used.
_ For medium frequency absorption, porous materials or thin materials with air
gaps are useful.
_ For high frequency absorption, heavy cotton panels with air gaps, glass wool, etc,
and thick carpet on floor can be used.
• Use irregular sound reflecting surfaces like sunken panels, splays and undulations
to enhance useful reflections.
• Carpet all aisles except the front of the stage. Do not carpet the seating areas.
• Use balconies to reduce the distance to the farthest row of seats and /or to
increase seating capacity. Keep the overhang shallow (i.e.; depth less than twice
the opening height), slope the soffit, and treat the face with sound diffusing
elements (or sound –absorbing material) to prevent echo.
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