1

Sensation, Attention, and Perception

Sensation
Sensation is the primary experience of knowing the world
around us. To know, recognize and evaluate the objects of the
world, we need to obtain information about them. This
information is gathered through information gathering system
that includes receiving of information through receptor
mechanisms in the sense organs. These mechanisms convert
the physical energy of the stimulus into neural energy which is
conveyed through sensory peripheral nervous system to the
sensory areas in the brain and thus we have the first-hand
knowledge about the stimulus present in the environment.
This entire channel of process stretching from reception
leading to transmission of impulses to the sensory area of the
brain is what we call sensory process and sensing of object is
sensation.
We may also define sensation as the lower cognitive process
which provides mere awareness of stimulus present in the
environment.
The process of sensation is very simple: Any object present in
the environment impinges on the sense organs that respond to
it by producing nerve impulses followed by communicating
the same to the corresponding sensory areas in the brain.
 2

Attributes of Sensation
Sensory experiences have certain general attributes or
properties which are common in all kinds of sensations or all
sensory modalities. These properties are
1. Quality
2. Intensity
3. Duration
4. Extensity
5. Local sign

Quality: It is the attribute which distinguishes every

sensation from one another. It is the attribute which gives
a sensation its special and distinctive name: salty, blue,
pleasing sound, smoky smell. The sensation of audition
differs from sensation of smell. Even in sensation of
smell there are vinegar smell, fruity smell, pungent
smell, smoky smell. In the same way, in the sensation of
audition there are pleasing smooth sound, harsh sound.

Intensity: Intensity is the attribute to which we refer

when we say that a given sensation is brighter or duller,
louder or fainter, heavier or lighter, stronger or weaker,
than another sensation. In making such comparison, we
think of the sensations as possessing the same quality:
both are blue, both are cold or hot, both are salty or bitter
but these sensations, of the same quality lie at two
different points upon a finite scale of sensation degrees
which begin at a lower limiting value and rises to a
maximum.
 3

Duration: It is the attribute which makes the course of a

sensation in time. It may be for a long time or for short
time. The continuity of sensation for a long time gives a
strong sensation than the sensation for a short time.

Extensity: Extensity is the area that the sensation covers.

Sensations produced by a stimulus on a larger part or
area of sense organ are distinguishable from sensation
produced by stimuli on a relatively smaller part or area.

Local sign: Local sign is the sensation that is

distinguished on the basis of the spot stimulation.

Sensory Processes
1. Vision
2. Audition
3. Olfactory sense
4. Gustatory sense
5. Cutaneous sense
6. Kinesthetic sense
7. Vestibular sense

1. Vision
Light, the stimulus for visual experience, is considered
to be waves of radiant energy emanating from a
source.
After light waves strike an object such as table, they
get reflected back in a broad beam. We cannot see the
table unless our eyes change this broad beam of light
into a narrow focused one. Our eyes have two
 4

structures, the Cornea and the Lens, that bring the light
into focus.
Cornea: The broad beam of light reflected from table
first falls on cornea. Cornea is the rounded, transparent
covering over the front of our eyes. As light passes
through the cornea, its curved surface bends the light
into a narrow beam.
Pupil: After passing through the cornea, light next
goes through the pupil. Pupil is the round opening at
the front of our eyes that allows light to pass into the
eye’s interior. The opening of pupil is surrounded by
iris. Iris is a circular muscle that surrounds the pupil
and controls amount of light entering eye. In dim light
iris relaxes allowing more light to enter; in bright light
iris constricts allowing less light to enter.

Lens: After passing through pupil the light reaches

Lens. Lens is transparent, oval structure whose curved
surface bends light further into an even narrower
beam. For the eye to see distant objects light waves
need less bending so muscles automatically stretch
lens so that its surface is less curved. To see near
objects, light waves need more focusing so muscles
relax and allow the surface of the lens to become much
curved. Making the lens more or less curved causes
light waves to be focused into a narrow beam that
must be projected precisely onto an area at the very
back of the eye called Retina.
 5

Retina: Finally light reaches retina. Retina, located at

the very back of eyeball, is a thin film that contains
photoreceptors, cells that are very sensitive to light. It
has three layers of cells. The back layer contains two
kings of photoreceptors that begin the process of
TRANSDUCTION, changing light waves into electric
signals. One kind of photoreceptors with a rod like
shape is called Rods and is located primarily in the
periphery of Retina. Because Rods are extremely light
sensitive, they allow us to see in dim light. The other
photoreceptor with a cone like shape is called Cone.
They are located in the centre of Retina and an area
called Fovea. They allow us to see color.
Rods contain chemical called Rhodopsin and Cones
contain chemical called Opsins.
The process of TRANSDUCTION, begins when
chemicals in Rods and Cones break down after
absorbing light waves. This chemical breakdown
generates a tiny electrical force that if large enough
triggers nerve impulses.
Nerve impulses that are generated exit the back of the
eye through optic nerve which carries impulses
towards brain. For us to see anything, nerve impulses
must reach the visual areas in the brain.

2. Audition
Whether it is a piece of music of barking of a dog or a
voice of a lady, they just produce sound waves which
are just the stimulus for hearing (audition). Sound
waves, the physical stimulus for hearing, are set up by
 6

vibrating bodies in our environment and transmitted

through air to our ears. In the ear, they arouse
mechanical activities which stimulate nerve fibres.
When the nerve impulses thus generated reach the
brain, auditory experiences occur.
The human ear is divided into three parts: the outer
ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.
Outer ear consists of three structures- external ear,
auditory canal, and the eardrum.
The external ear is an oval shaped structure that
protrudes from the side of the head. Function of
external ear is to pick up sound waves and send them
through long, narrow tunnel called auditory canal.
Auditory canal is a long tube that funnels sound waves
down its length so that the waves strike a thin, taut
membrane called the eardrum. When sound waves
strike eardrum, it vibrates. The eardrum then passes
the vibrations on to the first of three small bones of the
middle ear, which are called ossicles.

Function of the middle ear is to amplify these

vibrations and pass them on to the oval window which
marks the end of middle ear and beginning of the inner
ear.
Inner ear: Vibration of oval window causes fluid of
cochlea to vibrate. Cochlea is a body coiled structure
of the inner ear that resembles a snail’s shell. On the
bottom membrane there are miniature hair shaped cells
which are the auditory receptors.
 7

Vibration of fluid in the cochlear tube causes

movement of the basilar membrane which literally
bends hair cells. Mechanical bending of hair cell
generates miniature electrical forces that if large
enough triggers nerve impulses. Auditory nerve, a
band of fibers carries nerve impulses to the auditory
cortex of the brain for processing.

3. Olfactory sense (sense of smell)

Stimuli for olfaction are various chemicals that are
carried by air. Olfaction aids in the survival of our
species; it is needed for the detection of spoilt foods or
escaping gas, and loss of sense of smell can lead to a
dulled appetite. Smell is even more essential for the
survival of many other animals. Not surprisingly then
a large area of cortex is devoted to smell in other
species than in our own. In fish, the olfactory cortex
makes up almost all of the cerebral hemisphere; in
dogs about one-third; and in humans only about one-
twentieth. These variations are related to differences in
sensitivity to smell.
The volatile molecules given off by a substance are
stimuli for smell. The molecules leave the substance,
travel through air, and enter the nasal passage.
The olfactory receptors are long thread like structures
extending from the olfactory bulbs down into the nasal
cavities. The ends, containing small hairs or cilia, lie
in the epithelium, a thin layer of tissue at the extreme
top of the cavity.
 8

When cilia of these receptors come in contact with

volatile molecules, an electric impulse generates. This
nerve impulse travels along nerve fibers to olfactory
bulb which in turn is connected to the olfactory cortex
of the brain.

4. Gustation (Sense of taste)

Stimulus for taste is substance soluble in saliva. The
gustatory system includes receptors that are located on
tongue, throat, roof of mouth; the system also includes
parts of brain and interconnecting neural pathways. We
will mainly focus on receptors on tongue. These taste
receptors occur in clusters called taste buds.
At the end of taste buds are short hair like structures
that extend outward and make contact with solutions
in mouth. The contact results in an electrical impulse.
The electrical impulse then travels to brain.
Sensitivity to different taste stimuli varies from place
to place on tongue. While any substance can be
detected at almost any place on the tongue except at
the center. Located at the back of the tongue are the
taste buds that are particularly sensitive to bitter
substances. Taste buds at the sides of tongue are
particularly sensitive to sour while those at tip of the
tongue are especially sensitive to sweet.

5. Cutaneous sense (sense of pressure, pain, warmth, and

cold)
Stimulus for pain- any object that causes injury to
skin.
 9

Stimulus for pressure- any object that depresses skin.

Stimulus for warmth- any object that is warmer than
skin itself
Stimulus for cold- any object that is colder than skin
itself.

There are many receptors for the cutaneous sense and

they lie throughout our body.
a. Two types of nerve fibres carry sensations of pain
1. A-delta fibers carry sharp, pricking pain sensations.
2. C-fibers carry dull, continuous aches and burning
sensations.

b. Free nerve endings carry sensations of warmth and

cold.

c. Meissner’s corpuscles are found in the hairless

regions of our body (like finger tips, lips, palms)
and they are concerned with sensitivity of light
pressure.

d. Basket nerve endings are found in parts with hair

and are sensitive to pressure in these areas.

e. Pacinian corpuscles are found everywhere and are

considered receptors for heavy pressure.

6. Kinesthetic sense( sense of movement of part of body

and its relative position to other parts)
 10

Any person with their eyes closed can touch his/her

nose, ears etc with their hand. This is because of
kinaesthetic sense. Receptors for kinaesthetic sense
are in muscles, tendons, and joints.
When we move our arm, position of bones change,
receptors in the joints transduce this mechanical
energy into neural impulse which carries
information about rate of change, and angle of
bones to the concerned part of central nervous
system which thereby work in bringing about
smooth coordination of movement of our arms.

7. Vestibular sense
If all the other senses are eliminated, it would still
be possible for us to know whether a person is right
side up or upside down; spinning or standing still;
moving suddenly forward or backward merely
through his/her vestibular sense. These senses make
us aware of our body rotation and changes in
acceleration. The receptors are in semicircular
canals, Saccule, and utricle.
i. Awareness of Rotary motion:
There are three semicircular canals and they
are liquid-filled and are concerned with
sensitivity to rotary motion. These three canals
are positioned in such a way that the human
organism is sensitive to all varieties of rotation.
Each canal is at right angles to the other. The
semicircular canals contain hair cells, which
are receptors for rotary motion. Rotary
 11

movements cause hair in the liquid to bend and

their bending stimulates nerve fibers.

ii. Sense of Rectilinear motion and Postion

Two small chambers, Saccule and Utricle are
combinely called Vestibule. Vestibule is activated by
changes in rectilinear motion, movement in a
straight line. This motion is sensed whenever one’s
rate of movement changes as when a person stops or
starts in an elevator or when the train in which
he/she is riding slows down abruptly.
The vestibules are filled with a thick oily fluid and
contain hair on which are small crystals called
otoliths. Change in movement of body in any
direction is associated with a lag in adjustment of
otoliths. This adjustment bends hair in opposite
direction which generates nerve impulse.
Attention

We are surrounded by many stimuli but it is just not

possible to react to all stimuli of environment at any
given moment. Attention is defined as concentration
of consciousness upon one object rather than upon
another.
 12

The process of attention divides our field of

consciousness into focus (centre) and margin. The
events that are attended are at the focus of our
consciousness while those that are ignored or not
taken into mental awareness are in the margin of our
consciousness.
Attention is a selective process in that we respond
selectively in terms of our need, states, interests,
attitudes.

Determinants/ Factors influencing Attention

There are mainly two determinants of Attention
1. Objective factors- factors related to stimulus
2. Subjective factors- factors related to individual.

Objective factors are as follows

1. Nature of stimulus- Nature of stimulus means its type,
whether it is visual, auditory, gustatory, auditory, tactual,
or olfactory. From experiment it is found that in
comparison to other sensations, form, color and sound
attract more attention. Among pictures, pictures of
human beings attract more attention than pictures of
objects. Among pictures of human beings, those of
beautiful woman attract more attention. Besides these,
colored pictures attract more attention than black ones. In
 13

auditory stimulus, melodious voice attracts more

attention than other voices.

2. Intensity of stimulus: In comparison to weak stimuli,

intense stimuli attract more attention of organism like
high sound, excessive pressure, acute pain attract more
attention.

3. Size of stimulus- In visual stimuli, size of stimulus is

also a determinant of attention. Bigger the size more will
be the attention. But small advertisement in a very wide
background also attracts attention. Not only size but
background also is an important factor. Black spot on a
black face will not attract more attention but a small
black spot on a white face will.

4. Location of stimulus: In visual stimulus, the most

effective location is just in front of eyes. It has been
found from experiences that advertisements given on
front page or on upper half of any page attracts more
attention.

5. Contrast of stimulus: Contrast of stimulus is also an

important determinant of attention.

6. Change of stimulus: Attention is sustained by change of

stimulus.
 14

7. Repetition: More repetition attracts more attention.

8. Movement of stimulus: In comparison with static

stimulus, moving stimulus attracts more attention.
Shopkeepers, restaurant owners advertise through
moving electric lights.

Following are internal determinants of attention

1. Interest
2. Aim
3. Past experience
4. Need
5. Habit
6. Emotion- we pay attention to smallest mistake done by
people we hate whereas we do not pay attention to
even bigger mistakes made by people we love.
7. Meaning- in comparison with meaningless things,
meaningful things and meaningful talks attract more
attention.

Span of Attention
Span of attention refers to amount of information an
observer can take into his/her focus of attention from
among a complex array of stimuli at a single
momentary exposure.
Sir William Hamilton first performed experiment on
span of attention in the year 1859. In his experiment
he spread out marbles in front of his subjects. It was
found that in average span of attention is limited to 6-7
marbles. However, if the same marbles are arranged in
 15

groups of units, we can attend to greater number of

marbles.
We use Tachistoscope to study span of visual attention.
Tachistoscope is a device that displays an image of
series of images for a specific amount of time. When
we expose pictures of objects upon a screen for a short
period of time like 1/20 to 1/100 of a second, it is
usually just 5/6 separate objects or letters that observer
can bring in his/her span of attention. However, if
these letters are arranged in meaningful words and
sentences, number of objects get increased to 25 and
even more.

Fluctuation of attention
Fluctuation of attention is defined as length of time an
individual can continuously focus his/her attention to a
single object.
Attention is not steady or concentrated throughout. At
one time an object comes into focus while at other
time it goes out in the fringe. For example, if we give
attention to a very mild stimulus say a tickling of
timepiece heard from a distance or a very dim light
from a distant point, the tickling sound or the light
may appear for moment into our attention and at the
next moment, it may pass out of our attention.
Closely related to fluctuation of attention is Shift of
attention. In shift of attention, our attention passes
 16

from one stimulus to another stimulus or from one

aspect of stimulus to another aspect of stimulus.

Division of attention
In order to cook, read a book, paint the walls, we have
to pay attention. These tasks cannot be carried out
simultaneously because
We have limited capacity to process the incoming
information. However, if the task is highly learned or
routinized, it is possible to attend to two different tasks
simultaneously. This condition is called automacity.
Studies have shown that if one of the two tasks is of
automatic nature, it is possible to attend to both tasks
simultaneously with approximately equal efficiency.
Automatic tasks require no conscious effort of
attending. Only one of the tasks requires greater
degree of conscious attentive effort.
But when both of the tasks require conscious efforts to
attend and think, attention is divided between them
and the tasks cannot be performed so efficiently as
when attention is given separately. Thus, attention has
the attribute of being divided when two stimuli require
simultaneous focus.

Distraction of attention
Distraction of attention may be defined as any
stimulus whose presence interferes with the process of
attention or draws away attention (H.R. Bhatia, 1968).
Stimulus may be external or within ourselves.
 17

External stimulus may be noise, sight of any object or

person, smell of some food etc.
Likewise, illness, lack of motivation, lack of interest,
fatigue, boredom, and emotional disturbance may be
stimulus within us.
Distraction may be
1. Continuous
2. Discontinuous

Kinds of Attention
1. Voluntary attention: When we willingly direct our
attention to something, this is called voluntary
attention. When someone pays voluntary
attention there will be interest, aim, and desire
behind it.
2. Involuntary attention: Sometimes certain stimulus
force becomes so powerful that our attention is
drawn to that stimulus without any conscious
effort to attend, this we call involuntary attention.
In other words, we direct our attention without
our will.
3. Habitual attention: we attend to objects, different
stimuli because of our habit, day to day practice,
this we call habitual attention. Eg: attention paid
by a nurse to her patients is habitual attention.

Perception
 18

We need to know what sensation is in order to understand

perception
Sensation is our first awareness of some outside stimulus. An
outside stimulus activates sensory receptors which in turn
produces electrical signals that are transformed by the brain
into meaningless bits of information.
While perception is the experience we have after our brain
assembles and combines thousands of individual meaningless
sensations into meaningful pattern or image. However, our
perceptions are rarely exact replicas of the original stimuli;
rather it is usually changed, biased, colored or distorted by our
unique set of experiences. Thus, perceptions are our personal
interpretations of the real world.
Simply perception may be defined as the process by which
sensory input is so interpreted as to make it meaningful.
Charles G Morris, 1979 define perception as all the processes
involved in creating meaningful patterns out of a jumble of
sensory impressions fall under the general category of
perception.
Edmund Fastino and G.S. Renolds, 1975 explain that
perception is the organizing process by which we interpret our
sensory input.

Factors influencing perception

Following are the factors that influence perception. These
factors can reside in the perceiver, in the object or target being
 19

perceived or in the context of the situation in which

perception is made.
1. Factors related to perceiver
a. Motives tend to influence perception in the direction of
stimuli related to the motive involved like if we drive
down a road while feeling hungry, we probably notice
almost every sign of food advertisement. Sanford, 1936
deprived research participants of food for various length
of time up to four hours and then showed them
ambiguous pictures. He found out that the longer the
participants had been deprived of food, more likely they
were to interpret the pictures as being something to do
with food.
Gilchrist and Nesberb, 1952, asked people to rate
pictures for brightness, and found that longer they had
gone without food, brighter the food pictures were rated.

b. Emotion
Following study shows effects of emotion on perception.
Soltey and High, 1958, asked children to draw pictures
of Santa Claus in the month leading up the Christmas and
month afterwards. The children’s representation became
larger and included more presents as Christmas
approached but shrank and included less detail after the
season. This study implied that emotional states such as
anticipation and excitement could also influence
perceptual processes.

c. Expectation
 20

In 1955, Bruner and Minturn showed how expectation

could influence perception. They began by showing
people either letters or alphabets one at a time. Then they
showed them as ambiguous figure which could be read
either as B or 13. The research participants who had seen
numbers unequivocally judged the figure to be as 13
while those who had seen letter previously saw it as B.
the gap in the figure was enlarged by those who believed
it to be a 13 but those who believed it to be B did not
include any gap.
A similar study was done by Bugelski and Alampey in
1961 in which the participants in research were shown
either a series of animal pictures or a set of unrelated
images like furniture, vehicles, and so on. When they
were shown an ambiguous batman figure, people were
significantly more like a bat than a man if they had
experienced the prior exposure to animal pictures.

d. Culture
Burnes and Goodman have pointed out that cultural
groups may differ from one another in their perceptual
behavior because of the fundamental differences in their
way of perceiving social situations

e. Attitude
Attitudes do effect perception. In an experiment done by
Sheriff and Sheriff in 1956, the perception was greatly
influenced by both inter and intra group attitudes.

2. Factors related to target

 21

a. Size
b. Contrast
c. Repetition
d. Intensity
e. Motion
f. Novelty or familiarity
3. Factors related to situation
a. Time
b. Location
c. Climate
d. State of mind

Perceptual organization
Perceptual organization is the task performed by the
perceptual system to determine what edges and other stimuli
go through to form an object (Peterson and Rhodes, 2003)
In early 1990s, there was a debate between structuralist and
Gestalt psychologists. Structuralist believed that we add
together hundreds of basic elements to form complex
perceptions. But gestalt psychologists believed that our brain
follows a set of rules that specify how individual elements are
to be organized into a meaningful pattern or perception. They
believed perceptions do not result from adding sensations.
Rather it results from our brain’s ability to organize sensations
according to a set of rules as much as our brain follows a set
of ruled for arranging words into sentences.
1. Figure-ground perception
 22

One of the basic rules in organization is picking out the

object from its background. When we look at a complex
scene or listen to a noisy environment, our perceptual
apparatus automatically emphasizes certain features,
objects or sounds; all other stimuli in that environment
become background. We tend to divide the world around us
into two parts; figure which has a definite shape and
location in space and ground which has no space seems to
be continuing behind the figure and has no definite
location. In reversible pictures like the one with an old
woman and a young lady, the figure and ground interchange
with each other. When we see young lady, it becomes the
figure and the old woman becomes the ground; and when
we see the old woman, it becomes the figure and the young
lady becomes the ground.

Considering the reversible figure like Rubin’s face-vase

figure, psychologists have studied properties of figure-
ground and they are:

i. Figure is more thing like and more memorable

than the ground.
ii. Figure is seen as being in front of the ground
iii. Ground seems to extend behind the figure.
iv. Outline separating the figure from the ground
appears to belong to the figure.
 23

Following are some of the factors that

determine what becomes figure or ground in a
picture:
I. Lower region of a display tends to be seen as
figure.
II. Smaller area is more likely to be seen as figure.
III. Part of display with meaning is likely to be
seen as figure.

2. Principles of grouping
We organize our perception by grouping elements like
a. Law of similarity
Similar things appear to be grouped together

In the first pattern of circles, either we perceive them as

the horizontal or vertical rows of circles. But in the
second pattern, we perceive it as the vertical column of
black circles and white circles. The law of similarity
causes circles of same color to be grouped together.
Similarly, similarity can also occur because of similarity
of shape, size, or orientation.

b. Law of proximity
 24

Things that are near to each other appears to be grouped

together

Instead of perceiving as 6 lines, we perceive it as 3 pairs

of lines
c. Law of closure
In organizing stimuli we tend to fill in any missing parts
of a figure and see the figure as complete

d. Law of continuity
In organizing stimuli, we tend to favour smooth or
continuous paths when interpreting a series of points or
lines

e. Law of simplicity
Stimuli are grouped in the simplest way possible

f. Law of common fate

Elements seen moving together at a same speed at the
same direction are perceived as belonging together
 25

Errors in perception
Following are errors in perception
1. Illusions
2. Delusions
3. Hallucinations

Illusion
An illusion is a false perception in that it differs from actual
physical state of the perceived object (Crooks and Stein,
1991).
An illusion is a perceptual experience in which we perceive an
image or being so strangely distorted that in reality, it cannot
and does not exist. Illusions may be individual or universal.
When illusions are limited to specific person, then it is termed
as individual illusion like everyone does not perceive rope as
snake in the dark. On the other hand, there are illusions which
are experienced by most of the individuals and such illusions
are called universal illusions.
There are mainly two types of universal illusion
1. Physical illusion
These illusions are caused by the behavior of light before it
reaches eyes causing us to see something that is not
physically there e.g. mirage
2. Perceptual illusion
 26

Illusions that occur because the stimulus contains

misleading cues that give rise to inaccurate or impossible
perceptions are called perceptual illusions. Some of the
types of illusions are:
a. Muller-lyer illusion

Though both the lines are equal in length, the first line
with arrow head appears shorter than the second line
with feather head.

Ponzo illusion

Upper and lower of horizontal lines are of same length

but upper one appears longer. Converging lines convey
linear perspective, a key to depth cue that makes us
perceive the upper line farther in distance from us. If two
lines cast equally long retinal image but one seems
farther, the farther one is assumed to be longer.
 27

b. Moon illusion
When full moon is near the horizon, it appears as much
as 50% larger than when it is high in the sky. Another
theory of moon illusion states that the moon appears
smaller when it is surrounded by larger objects. Thus,
when the moon is elevated, the large expanse of sky
surroundings makes it appear smaller. However, when
the moon is on the horizon, less sky surrounds it so it
appears larger (Braid et. al., 1990).

c. The Ames room

The Ames room causes two people of equal size to
appear very different in size (Ittleson, 1952). The reason
for this is that the room has a peculiar shape and we look
from a fixed peep hole. If we view the Ames room, from
a fixed hole, the room appears rectangular and matches
our previous experience with rooms. However, the Ames
room is usually shaped in an odd way that causes the left
corner twice as far away than the right corner.

d. Ebbinghaus elusion
 28

Two centre circles are of same size but right circle

appears to be smaller in comparison to the left circle.

e. Delbocuf illusion

The center circles of equal size seem to be smaller in the

right picture while the one on left seems larger.
 29

f. Wundt illusion

Two horizontal lines are both straight but they look as if

they are bowed inwards. It is because of crooked lines on
the background.
 30

g. Eherenstein illusion

In this illusion, the sides of a square placed inside a

pattern of concentric circles take an apparent curve shape
however the shape is perfect with perfectly straight sides.
 31

Angles at which circular lines interact, the square distort

it.

Delusions:
Delusions are irrational beliefs, held with a high level of
conviction that are highly resistant to change even when
the delusional person is exposed to forms of proof that
contradict the belief.
Following are most common types of delusions
1. Bizzare delusions: Delusions that is very
strange and completely implausible.
2. Jealous delusions: Unsupported beliefs
that one’s sexual partner is being
unfaithful.
3. Erotomanic delusions: Unsupported
beliefs of being secretly loved by another
person, usually a wealthy, prominent
person.
4. Grandiose delusions: Unsupported beliefs
that one is famous, rich, or powerful.
5. Persecutory delusions: Unsupported
convictions that someone has been
targeted for harm by others.
6. Delusion of reference: Unsupported
beliefs that everyone is talking about
them.
7. Thought insertion: Unsupported beliefs
that certain of one’s thoughts are not one’s
own thought but rather are inserted into
one’s mind.
 32

8. Thought broadcasting: Unsupported

beliefs that one’s thoughts are visible to
outside world.

Following are causes of delusions

1. Drug intoxication
2. Dementia
3. Tumor
4. Excess of cortisol
5. Psychotic disorder
6. Injury to brain

Hallucination
Hallucinations are perceptions that occur in a wakeful state
and seem real but are created by brain. These perceptions
occur without external stimulation of the relevant sensory
organ.
Hallucination may be visual
Hallucination may be of sound
Hallucination may be of voice- in this we may hear a single
voice or multiple voices. We may hear voices giving us
command or order.
Hallucinations may be related to sense of skin
Hallucination may be related to sense of smell
Out of all these, auditory hallucination is most common.
 33

Causes of Hallucination
4. Brain tumor
5. Dementia
6. High fever
7. Sleep deprivation
8. Severe fatigue
9. Consumption of large quantity of alcohol
or during withdrawal.