Copernican heliocentrism is the name given to the astronomical model developed by

Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. It positioned the Sun near the center of the
Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting around it in circular paths
modified by epicycles and at uniform speeds

The Copernican Revolution

3 incorrect ideas held back the development of modern astronomy from the time
of Aristotle until the 16th and 17th centuries:
(1) the assumption that the Earth was the center of the Universe,
(2) the assumption of uniform circular motion in the heavens, and
(3) the assumption that objects in the heavens were made from a perfect,
unchanging substance not found on the Earth.

Copernicus challenged assumption 1, but not assumption 2. We may also note

that the Copernican model implicitly questions the third tenet that the objects in
the sky were made of special unchanging stuff. Since the Earth is just another
planet, there will eventually be a natural progression to the idea that the planets
are made from the same stuff that we find on the Earth.

Copernicus challenged assumption 1, but not assumption 2. We may also note

that the Copernican model implicitly questions the third tenet that the objects in
the sky were made of special unchanging stuff. Since the Earth is just another
planet, there will eventually be a natural progression to the idea that the planets
are made from the same stuff that we find on the Earth.

Copernicus was an unlikely revolutionary. It is believed by many that his book

was only published at the end of his life because he feared ridicule and disfavor
by his peers and by the Church, which had elevated the ideas of Aristotle to the
level of religious dogma. However, this reluctant revolutionary set in motion a
chain of events that would eventually (long after his lifetime) produce the
greatest revolution in thinking that Western civilization has seen. His ideas
remained rather obscure for about 100 years after his death. But, in the 17th
century the work of Kepler, Galileo, and Newton would build on the heliocentric
Universe of Copernicus and produce the revolution that would sweep away
completely the ideas of Aristotle and replace them with the modern view of
astronomy and natural science. This sequence is commonly called the Copernican
Revolution.

Been There, Done That: Aristarchus of Samos

There are many examples throughout history, including in modern times, where
a theory, or a part of a theory, is proposed and doesn't catch on initially but only
later bears fruit--and possibly with later proponent gaining credit that is really
deserved by the originator. I think the example of Aristarchus is a poignant one.

This applies here because the idea of Copernicus was not really new! A sun-
centered Solar System had been proposed as early as about 200 B.C.
by Aristarchus of Samos (Samos is an island off the coast of what is now
Turkey). Aristarchus actually proposed that the Earth rotated on in addition to
its orbiting around the sun. Many of Aristarchus' writings were unfortunately
lost. More importantly however, they did not survive long under the weight of
Aristotle's influence and the "common sense" of the time:

1. If the Earth actually spun on an axis

(as required in a heliocentric system to
explain the diurnal motion of the sky),
why didn't objects fly off the spinning
Earth?
2. If the Earth was in motion around the
sun, why didn't it leave behind the
birds flying in the air?
3. If the Earth were actually on an orbit
around the sun, why wasn't a parallax
effect observed? That is, as illustrated
in the adjacent figure, where stars
would appear to change their position
with the respect to the other background stars as the Earth moved about
its orbit, because of viewing them from a different perspective (just as
viewing an object first with one eye, and then the other, causes the
apparent position of the object to change with respect to the background).

The first two objections were not valid because they represent an inadequate
understanding of the physics of motion that would only be corrected in the 17th
century. The third objection is valid, but failed to account for what we now know
to be the enormous distances to the stars. As illustrated in the following figure,
the amount of parallax decreases with distance.

Parallax is larger for closer objects

The parallax effect is there, but it is very small because the stars are so far away
that their parallax can only be observed with very precise instruments. Indeed,
the parallax of stars was not measured conclusively until the year 1838. Thus, the
heliocentric idea of Aristarchus was quickly forgotten and Western thought
stagnated for almost 2000 years as it waited for Copernicus to revive the
heliocentric theory.

Note that Copernicus himself originally gave credit to Aristarchus in his

heliocentric treatise, De revolutionibus caelestibus, where he had written,
"Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that
Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." Interestingly, this passage was
crossed out shortly before publication, maybe because Copernicus decided his
treatise would stand on its own merit.

DARWINIAN THEORY

Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and
develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the
individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
Evolution by natural selection is one of the best substantiated theories in the history of
science, supported by evidence from a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including
paleontology, geology, genetics and developmental biology.

The theory has two main points, said Brian Richmond, curator of human origins at the
American Museum of Natural History in New York City. "All life on Earth is connected
and related to each other," and this diversity of life is a product of "modifications of
populations by natural selection, where some traits were favored in and environment
over others," he said.

More simply put, the theory can be described as "descent with modification," said
Briana Pobiner, an anthropologist and educator at the Smithsonian Institution National
Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., who specializes in the study of human
origins.

The theory is sometimes described as "survival of the fittest," but that can be
misleading, Pobiner said. Here, "fitness" refers not to an organism's strength or athletic
ability, but rather the ability to survive and reproduce.
For example, a study on human evolution on 1,900 students, published online in the
journal Personality and Individual Differences in October 2017, found that many people
may have trouble finding a mate because of rapidly changing social technological
advances that are evolving faster than humans. "Nearly 1 in 2 individuals faces
considerable difficulties in the domain of mating," said lead study author Menelaos
Apostolou, an associate professor of social sciences at the University of Nicosia in
Cyprus. "In most cases, these difficulties are not due to something wrong or broken, but
due to people living in an environment which is very different from the environment they
evolved to function in." [If You Suck at Dating, It's Not You — It's Evolution]

Modern understanding
Darwin didn't know anything about genetics, Pobiner said. "He observed the pattern of
evolution, but he didn't really know about the mechanism." That came later, with the
discovery of how genes encode different biological or behavioral traits, and how genes
are passed down from parents to offspring. The incorporation of genetics and Darwin's
theory is known as "modern evolutionary synthesis."
The physical and behavioral changes that make natural selection possible happen at
the level of DNA and genes. Such changes are called mutations. "Mutations are
basically the raw material on which evolution acts," Pobiner said.

Mutations can be caused by random errors in DNA replication or repair, or by chemical

or radiation damage. Most times, mutations are either harmful or neutral, but in rare
instances, a mutation might prove beneficial to the organism. If so, it will become more
prevalent in the next generation and spread throughout the population.

In this way, natural selection guides the evolutionary process, preserving and adding up
the beneficial mutations and rejecting the bad ones. "Mutations are random, but
selection for them is not random," Pobiner said.

But natural selection isn't the only mechanism by which organisms evolve, she said. For
example, genes can be transferred from one population to another when organisms
migrate or immigrate, a process known as gene flow. And the frequency of certain
genes can also change at random, which is called genetic drift.

Controversy
Despite the wealth of evidence from the fossil record, genetics and other fields of
science, some people still question its validity. Some politicians and religious leaders
denounce the theory of evolution, invoking a higher being as a designer to explain the
complex world of living things, especially humans.
School boards debate whether the theory of evolution should be taught alongside other
ideas, such as intelligent design or creationism.

Mainstream scientists see no controversy. "A lot of people have deep religious beliefs
and also accept evolution," Pobiner said, adding, "there can be real reconciliation."

Evolution is well supported by many examples of changes in various species leading to

the diversity of life seen today. "If someone could really demonstrate a better
explanation than evolution and natural selection, [that person] would be the new
Darwin," Richmond said.

Additional reporting by Contributor Alina Bradford and Staff Writer Tanya Lewis, Follow
Tanya on Twitter. Follow us @livescience, Facebook & Google+.

FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

 The theories of Sigmund Freud had a revolutionary effect on the beliefs and
morals of modern society as well as on the arts.
o In literature authors were preoccupied with
 the subconscious
 the role of memory
 methods of Freudian psychoanalysis
 stream-of-consciousness
 free association
 Proust
 Kafka
 Joyce
o Visual artists explored the realms of fantasy and dreams
  Dada - irrationality
 Surrealism - liberate the subconscious from the bonds of
consciousness
o Music
 Schoenberg - expressionistic monodramas
 Strauss, Bartók, Berg - sexually charged operas

Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary
assumption of Freudiantheory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a greater
degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal ofpsychoanalysis is to make the unconscious
conscious.

What are the most interesting ideas of

Sigmund Freud?
by Saul McLeod, updated 2018

Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a

method for treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human
behavior.
Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult
lives, shaping our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic
experiences in a person's past is hidden from consciousness, and may cause
problems during adulthood (in the form of neuroses).
The Case of Anna O
The case of Anna O (real name Bertha Pappenheim) marked a turning point in
the career of a young Viennese neuropathologist by the name of Sigmund Freud.
It even went on to influence the future direction of psychology as a whole.
Anna O. suffered from hysteria, a condition in which the patient exhibits physical
symptoms (e.g., paralysis, convulsions, hallucinations, loss of speech) without an
apparent physical cause. Her doctor (and Freud's teacher) Josef Breuer
succeeded in treating Anna by helping her to recall forgotten memories of
traumatic events.
During discussions with her, it became apparent that she had developed a fear of
drinking when a dog she hated drank from her glass. Her other symptoms
originated when caring for her sick father.
She would not express her anxiety for her his illness but did express it later,
during psychoanalysis. As soon as she had the opportunity to make these
unconscious thoughts conscious her paralysis disappeared.
Breuer discussed the case with his friend Freud. Out of these discussions came
the germ of an idea that Freud was to pursue for the rest of his life. In Studies in
Hysteria (1895) Freud proposed that physical symptoms are often the surface
manifestations of deeply repressed conflicts.
However, Freud was not just advancing an explanation of a particular illness.
Implicitly he was proposing a revolutionary new theory of the human psyche
itself.
This theory emerged “bit by bit” as a result of Freud’s clinical investigations, and
it led him to propose that there were at least three levels of the mind.

The Unconscious Mind

Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he
described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the
analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.

On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the
focus of our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The
preconscious consists of all which can be retrieved from memory.
The third and most significant region is the unconscious. Here lie the processes
that are the real cause of most behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part
of the mind is the part you cannot see.
The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and
impulse kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area.
For example, Freud (1915) found that some events and desires were often too
frightening or painful for his patients to acknowledge, and believed such
information was locked away in the unconscious mind. This can happen through
the process of repression.
Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a
primary assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs
behavior to a greater degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal
of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious.
Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the
entities id, ego, and superego (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”). These
are not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical
conceptualizations of important mental functions.
The id, ego, and superego have most commonly been conceptualized as three
essential parts of the human personality.
Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure
principle (gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two
kinds of biological instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos.
Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining
activities such as respiration, eating, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created
by the life instincts is known as libido.
In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive forces
present in all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward
onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is
stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people to survive rather than self-destruct.
The ego develops from the id during infancy. The ego's goal is to satisfy the
demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id, the ego
follows the reality principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious
mind.
The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the
same sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed.
The superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a
socially responsible and acceptable manner.
The basic dilemma of all human existence is that each element of the psychic
apparatus makes demands upon us that are incompatible with the other two.
Inner conflict is inevitable.
For example, the superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed.
When there is a conflict between the goals of the id and superego, the ego must
act as a referee and mediate this conflict. The ego can deploy various defense
mechanisms (Freud, 1894, 1896) to prevent it from becoming overwhelmed by
anxiety.
To be psychologically healthy, we must successfully complete each stage. Mental
abnormality can occur if a stage is not completed successfully and the person
becomes ‘fixated’ in a particular stage. This particular theory shows how
adult personality is determined by childhood experiences.
References
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of
being. American psychologist, 54(7), 462.
Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895). Studies on hysteria. Standard Edition 2: London.
Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing
the theories and therapy. John Wiley & Sons.
Freud, S. (1894). The neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 41-61.
Freud, S. (1896). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence. SE, 3: 157-
185.
Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. S.E., 4-5.
Freud, S. (1915). The unconscious. SE, 14: 159-204.
Freud, S. (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle. SE, 18: 1-64.
Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. SE, 19: 1-66.
Freud, S. (1925). Negation. Standard edition, 19, 235-239.
Freud, S. (1961). The resistances to psycho-analysis. In The Standard Edition of
the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XIX (1923-1925):
The Ego and the Id and other works (pp. 211-224).
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-
esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological review, 102(1), 4.
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of
experimental psychology, 18(6), 643.
Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson
(Eds.), Organization of Memory, (pp. 381–403). New York: Academic Press.