Lecture

3
Guided Wave Ultrasonics

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

1
Materials with NDE
 (1) What are Guided Waves?
Physical Principles:
Guided waves can travel at large distances in structures with
only a liHle energy loss. The waves are guided by the finite
dimensions of real test object.
Rayleigh Waves: found in solids with a free surface and
travel closely to the free surface with one wavelength
penetra:on depth. Also known as surface waves.

Lamb waves: Classical plate waves, ver:cal polariza:on –
symmetric and an:symmetric waves

SH waves: Horizontal polarized waves

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

2
Materials with NDE
 (2) Lamb Waves

The deriva:ons on the board

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

3
Materials with NDE
section that for each propagation type there exist a number of modes corresponding to the
solutions of the Rayleigh–Lamb equation. The symmetric modes are designated S0 , S1 ,
S2 , % % % , whereas the antisymmetric are designated A0 , A1 , A2 , % % % . The symmetric Lamb

(2) Lamb Waves

waves resemble the axial waves (Fig. 6.7a), whereas the antisymmetric Lamb waves
resemble the flexural waves (Fig. 6.7b). In fact, it can be proven that, at low frequencies,
the symmetric Lamb waves approach the behavior of the axial plate waves, whereas the

(a)

(b)

figure 6.7 Simulation of Lamb waves: (a) symmetric S0 mode; (b) antisymmetric A0 mode.

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

4
Materials with NDE
 3
S1 S2 S3 S4
2.5

2
S0

c /c S
1.5

0.5

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
fd (Hzm)

figure 6.10 Wave speed dispersion curves for symmetric Lamb waves in an aluminum plate
"cS = shear wave speed$ d = half thickness of the plate#.
204 Guided Waves

y ux uy y ux y ux uy y
uy

ux

x x
x x

S0 at 250 kHz S0 at 1000 kHz S0 at 3000 kHz S1 at 3000 kHz

figure 6.11 Across-the-thickness displacement fields in a 1-mm thick aluminum plate for various
S0 Lamb modes at various frequencies.

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

5
Materials with NDE Substitution of the coefficients (A2 , B1 ) into Eq. (97) yields the symmetric Lamb modes
 3
A1 A2 A3 A4
2.5

c /c S
1.5

1 A0

0.5

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
fd (Hzm)

figure 6.12 Wave speed dispersion curves for antisymmetric Lamb waves "cS = shear wave
speed, d = half thickness of the plate).

206 Guided Waves

ux y uy ux y uy ux y ux y uy

x
x x x

A0 at 250 kHz A0 at 1000 kHz A0 at 3000 kHz A1 at 3000 kHz

figure 6.13 Displacement fields across the thickness for various A0 Lamb modes at various
frequencies in an aluminum plate (cS = shear wave speed! d = half thickness of the plate).

Substitution of the coefficients (A1 ! B2 ) into Eq. (105) yields the antisymmetric Lamb
CME 594 Characteriza:on of
modes 6
Materials with NDE 2 2 2
ux = −2" q sin qd sin py + q#" − q $ sin pd sin qy
 (3) How to Design Guided Wave
122 Identification of Damage Using Lamb Waves

can deform with the host composite structure without breakage. As an individual

Inspec:on for Materials Characteriza:on

functional unit, such a sensor network can be pre-fabricated, stored, transported
and finally integrated into a large composite structure, as in the case shown in
Figure 4.16(b) where the sensor network is embedded into a CF/EP panel.

124 Identification of Damage Using Lamb Waves

(iv) location and number of sensors should be not subject to the damage, i.e., they
should be application-independent; and
(v) the sensor network should possess a certain robustness, to maintain its stabil-
ity and reliability if some sensors malfunction.

Fig. 4.15. Sensing paths rendered by an active sensor network consisting of multiple PZT
elements (arrow lines in the magnified area standing for possible sensing paths)
Actuator or sensor
Damage

P5 P6 P7 P8

330mm
Actuator or sensor

P4 P9
Damage

500 mm

P3 P10
CME 594 Characteriza:on of PZT wafer
110mm

7
Materials with NDE Actuator or sensor
110mm
Circuit strip
How to Select Wave Modes:
Ø  So mode selec:on
§  Lower aHenua:on as the energy is confined within the plate;
§  Faster propaga:on velocity – complex wave reflec:ons from
boundaries can be avoided;
§  Lower dispersion in the low frequency range – benefi:ng for signal
interpreta:on.
Ø  Ao mode selec:on
§  Shorter wavelength at a given excita:on frequency;
§  Larger signal magnitude;
§  Easier means of ac:va:on – the out-of-plane mo:on of par:cles in a
plate can more easily be ac:vated.
Half wavelength of a selected wave mode must be shorter than or equal to
the damage size to allow the wave interact with the damage
CME 594 Characteriza:on of
8
Materials with NDE
How to Select Wave Modes:
Ø  Comparison
§  Both waves are sensi:ve to damage;
§  So mode is more sensi:ve to damage at thickness such as
delamina:on;
§  Ao mode is more sensi:ve to surface cracks, corrosion;
§  Higher order modes can be more sensi:ve to minute cracks but more
difficult to ac:vate.

Wave Mode Tuning

Ac:va:on of a pure and desired Lamb
wave mode using ultrasonic probe with
wedge or mul:-sensor tuning
CME 594 Characteriza:on of
9
Materials with NDE
 0 0
be activated simultaneously.
Accordingly, a desired Lamb wave mode can be selectively activated via one
of the above three approaches. This mode selection technique has been applied to
Example 1: activating pure Lamb wave modes in a quasi-isotropic composite laminate [128]
and an aluminium plate [129].

+
-
-
+

Amplified excitation signal

Fig. 3.5. A control circuit for selective activation of symmetric and anti-symmetric Lamb
modes [128]

Case B Switch closed: Dual wafers are energized in phase and

symmetric electric fields are applied on both wafers to ac:vate So
mode

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

10
Materials with NDE
 0 0
be activated simultaneously.
Accordingly, a desired Lamb wave mode can be selectively activated via one
of the above three approaches. This mode selection technique has been applied to
Example 1: activating pure Lamb wave modes in a quasi-isotropic composite laminate [128]
and an aluminium plate [129].

+
-
+
-

Amplified excitation signal

Fig. 3.5. A control circuit for selective activation of symmetric and anti-symmetric Lamb
modes [128]

Case C Switch closed: Dual wafers are energized out-of-phase

phase and an:-symmetric electric fields are applied to ac:vate Ao
mode

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

11
Materials with NDE
 mode dominantly [107]. In this approach, a theoretical relationship between the
distance of the two PZT elements (termed inter-element distance in what follows)
and the induced Lamb wave (described by the normal and tangential
Example 2: displacement) was established, in Figure 3.6. With in-phase excitation applied on
both PZT elements, the inter-element distance of 17 mm (twice the wavelength of
180 kHz) gives the PZT
the generated A0 mode atPZT maximum normal displacement of
the A0 mode but the minimum displacement of the S 0 mode, and the latter is
negligible because of its small magnitude. This approach offers a practical way to
produce a desired Lamb wave mode along the projection of connection between
two PZT elements on the same side of a plate, via the superposition of waves
generated by them with anInter-element distance
appropriately selected distance.

1.0 1.0

Tangential displacement [nm]

Normal displacement [nm]

A0
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 S0
A0
0.2 S0 0.2

0.0 0.0
10 20 30 40 10 20 30 40
Inter-element distance [mm] Inter-element distance [mm]

a b

Fig. 3.6. a. Normal; and b. tangential displacement of the S 0 and A0 modes activated by
two PZT elements on the same side of a plate versus inter-element distance [107]

The ‘piezoelectric wafer active sensors’ (PWASs) is an array of square PZT

wafers allocated in a straight line, surface-mounted on a host structure or inserted
between layers of composite laminates, to realise mode tuning [32, 66, 130]. From
a theoretical model developed to characterise the Lamb waves activated by
CME 594 Characteriza:on of
PWASs, it has been observed that a particular wave mode can be activated by 12
Materials with NDE
PWASs to dominate the signal energy, when the side length of the square PZT
Design of ExcitaFon Waveform
The bandwidth, cycle number, frequency and magnitude
of the mode are important factors that can enhance or
impair the capability of damage iden:fica:on
Ø  A narrow bandwidth signal with a certain number of cycles can
greatly prevent wave dispersion;
Ø  Windowed tone-bursts rather than a single pulse is preferred;
Ø  Window techniques are used to narrow the bandwidth of a
selected Lamb wave.

Hanning window:

Loading func:on:

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

13
Materials with NDE
 n=8 n=10
n=3
n=5

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

14
Materials with NDE
Inputs to ExcitaFon Waveform:

Frequency SelecFon: Since wavelength is inversely

propor:onal to frequency, a high frequency wave mode is
preferred. However, in high frequencies, wave modes are
more dispersive and complex. A balance between two
proper:es must be met.

Magnitude SelecFon: Higher magnitude signal can enhance

signal to noise ra:o. However, excessive voltage can
depolarize PZT element. Maximum voltage limit for PZT is
25-300 V/mm.

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

15
Materials with NDE
(4) How to Interpret Guided Wave Data
Captured guided wave signals carry comprehensive
informa:on. When damage exists in the path of transmiHer
and receiver, signal is modified.
The data processing helps to iden:fy

Ø  Damage presence
Ø  Loca:on
Ø  Size
Ø  Severity

Mul9ple wave reflec9ons, sca=ering, dispersion, mode conversion etc make
the data interpreta9on difficult.

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

16
Materials with NDE
(a) Time Domain Signals
A :me series signal records the proper:es of guided
waves; thereby, providing the informa:on about the
waves, wave modes, velocity, a6enua7on, dispersion,
sca6ering etc.
How does the magnitude, RMS
Let a :me series signal defined as f(t) or TOF indicate the state of
Absolute magnitude material?

Root mean square (RMS)

Time of flight (TOF)

Cross correla7on: This measures the similarity between two
signals (y1(t) and y2(t)). Good measure to compare pris:ne and
damage condi:ons N
Ry1y2 (τ ) = ∑ y1 (t)y2 (t + τ )
t=1

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

17
Materials with NDE
 Case Study: Numerical simula:on on aluminum plate
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES?
8E-12

6E-12

4E-12
Displacement (m)

2E-12

0 no damage
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
-2E-12 damage

-4E-12

-6E-12

-8E-12
Time (sec)

However, the processing of a Lamb wave signal solely in the frequency domain is effec:ve if
the signals contain pure Lamb mode and the inspected structure is simple.

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

18
Materials with NDE
(b) Frequency Domain Signals
Frequency transforma:on of a signal is obtained by

f(t)

f(w)

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

19
Materials with NDE
(b) Frequency Domain Signals
L=length(data); %data=f(t)
Matlab dt=:me(2,1)-:me(1,1); %find :me step
commands to Fs=1/dt; %find sampling frequency
calculate f(w) NFFT = 2^nextpow2(L); %next power of 2 from length of y
Y = n(data,NFFT)/L; %Y=f(w)
f = Fs/2*linspace(0,1,NFFT/2+1); %find frequency steps

% Plot single-sided amplitude spectrum.
figure(2)
subplot(2,1,1);plot(:me,data);
xlabel('Time (sec)')
ylabel('Amplitude')

subplot(2,1,2);plot(f,2*abs(Y(1:NFFT/2+1)))
:tle('Single-Sided Amplitude Spectrum of y(t)')
xlabel('Frequency (Hz)')
ylabel('|Y(f)|')


CME 594 Characteriza:on of
20
Materials with NDE
(c) Time-Frequency Domain Signals
Wavelet transform (WT) is a window technique featuring a
window of variable size.
The wavelet is a waveform with a
limited dura:on or window whose
average amplitude is zero. A dynamic
signal is represented using scale and
:me denoted by a and b.

Scale is inversely propor:onal to
frequency as

a: scale
Δ: sampling period
Fc: center frequency of wavelet
Fa: frequency corresponding to scale a

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

21
Materials with NDE
Wavelet Families ψ(t)
Morlet Daubechies

Mexican Hat

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

22
Materials with NDE
Wavelet Transform of Time Domain Signal f(t)

Chirp signal from 100 kHz to 250 kHz

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

23
Materials with NDE
Wavelet Transform of Time Domain Signal f(t)

Wavelet transform
Gabor Wavelet
Frequency (Hz)

Chirp signal from 100 kHz to 250 kHz

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

Fall 2013 24
Materials with NDE
How to select the correct wavelet?
Ø  The most common wavelets for signal processing are Gabor, Gaussian, Haar and
Morlet.
Ø  The waveform of a selected wavelet func:on should be as similar as possible to
the waveforms of the major components of the signal to be transformed.
Ø  The wavelet coefficients indicate the similarity between the wavelet func:on
and the signal processed. For instance, high value of coefficients mean high
similarity between wavelet and signal.

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

25
Materials with NDE
(d) Damage Indexing (DI)
Ø  The features of guided wave signal include :me of flight, magnitude,
aHenua:on, frequency, phase, spectrum etc. These parameters change to
different degrees in signals captured before and arer the presence of damage.
Ø  The basic principle is to extract those that are sensi:ve to varia:ons in damage
parameters
1.  Model based – determinis:c
2.  Signal based – comparing signals throughout monitoring

Example:
Signal magnitudes Time of flights at
at states 1 and 2 states 1 and 2

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

26
Materials with NDE
 References

(1)  V. Giurgiu:u, Structural Health Monitoring with Piezoelectric Wafer Ac:ve Sensors,
Academic Press.
(2)  Z. Su and L. Ye, Iden:fica:on of Damage Using Lamb Waves, Springer.
(3)  Meier, R. and Pander, M. (2017). “Methods for Material and Process Monitoring by
Characteriza:on of (Second and Third Order) Elas:c Proper:es with Lamb Waves,”
Interna:onal Journal of Mathema:cal, Computa:onal, Physical, Electrical and
Computer Engineering, 11(8).

CME 594 Characteriza:on of

27
Materials with NDE