See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/323860958

Decay-like fracture mechanism of silicone rubber composite insulator

Article  in  IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation · February 2018

DOI: 10.1109/TDEI.2018.006773

CITATIONS READS

0 50

3 authors, including:

Yanfeng Gao
Tsinghua University
32 PUBLICATIONS   84 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Yanfeng Gao on 21 March 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 :.KCPIGVCN&GEC[NKMG(TCEVWTG/GEJCPKUOQH5KNKEQPG4WDDGT%QORQUKVG+PUWNCVQT

Decay-like Fracture Mechanism of Silicone Rubber

Composite Insulator
Xidong Liang, Weining Bao
State Key Laboratory of Control and Simulation of Power System and Generation Equipment,
Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University
Beijing, 100084, China

and Yanfeng Gao

State Grid Jibei Electric Power Co. Ltd. Research Institute, North China Electric Power Research Institute Co. Ltd.,
Beijing, 100045, China.

ABSTRACT
In recent years, a new kind of abnormal fracture phenomena of composite insulator
occurred in high voltage transmission lines in several countries, which was totally
different from brittle fracture and normal fracture. According to the general
characteristic features of the fracture, this type of failure was named decay-like
fracture of composite insulator by the author. In this paper, a decay-like fractured
composite insulator was investigated and microscopic physic-chemical properties of
decay-like fractured Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) core rod were analyzed. Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM), Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Fourier
Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy methods were employed to explain the
microscopic morphology characteristics and chemical component changes of decay-like
fractured composite insulator, and to further explain the reasons for the name of
decay-like fracture in terms of “crisp” and “decay-like”. The main microscopic feature
of decay-like fracture is the degradation and deterioration of the epoxy resin matrix in
FRP rod. The mechanism of decay-like fracture of composite insulator could be
summarized as follows. Due to the liquids penetration into the sheath-core interface,
hydrolysis of silane coupling agent with bad quality leads to poor adhesion strength
and interface voids, which results in distortion of electric field at the sheath-core
interface. Under the combined action of damp condition and high electric field,
discharge and current appear along the FRP rod surface. Epoxy resin matrix is eroded
in the presence of discharge and current, and then is soften, melt, evaporated.
Meanwhile, ion-exchange and hydrolysis process happen between glass fibers under the
combined action of mechanical stress and nitric acid produced by discharge in the
presence of moisture. Fiber-resin interface in FRP rod is separated owing to the
erosion of epoxy resin. The degradation direction of the decay-like fracture is from
outside to inside of FRP rod, and the interface between silicone rubber sheath and FRP
rod is confirmed to be the initial deterioration area of the decay-like fracture. The
criterion to distinguish the differences between the decay-like fracture, brittle fracture
and normal fracture depends on whether the epoxy resin matrix is degraded and
deteriorated or not.
Index Terms — Composite insulation, silicone rubber, decay-like fracture
mechanism, epoxy resins.

1 INTRODUCTION installation convenience in maintenance [1]. According to the

COMPOSITE insulators are widely used in electrical
engineering because they have the advantages of excellent
pollution resistance, light weight, high mechanical strength and
Manuscript received on 24 April 2017, in final form 22 November 2017,
accepted 25 November 2017. Corresponding author: X. Liang.
latest statistics, there are more than 7.1 million composite
insulators used in transmission lines whose rated voltage are 110
kV and above in China by 2014 [2].
Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) core rod, which consists of
glass fiber, epoxy resin matrix and the interface between them
(fiber–resin interface), is the structural component to bear the

DOI: 10.1109/TDEI.2018.006773
+'''6TCPUCEVKQPUQP&KGNGEVTKEUCPF'NGEVTKECN+PUWNCVKQP8QN0Q(GDTWCT[ 

mechanical loads and to provide internal insulation of composite (3) Horizontal electro-erosion puncture holes, initiated from
insulators. The properties of FRP rod, such as mechanical, sheath-core interface, appeared in sheath of fractured insulators.
electrical, chemical resistant and optical properties, can be (4) Abnormal overheating was noticed before the composite
divided into the following three components, the properties of insulator fracture happened.
glass fiber, the properties of epoxy resin matrix, and the
Until now, the research on decay-like fracture was only in the
properties of fiber-resin interface [3]. Thus, any of these three
beginning stage, so there were few conclusions on the key issues
components, could become a weak point that limited the
of the fracture, such as characteristic features, mechanism,
application of FRP rod. For example, brittle fracture of
influencing factors and preventive measurements.
composite insulators is caused by the stress corrosion crack of
glass fiber [4, 5]. In this paper, a decay-like fractured composite insulator was
investigated by several microscopic physic-chemical analysis
When composite insulators are subjected to higher mechanical
methods. In view of the physic-chemical analysis results of the
load than design value in the mechanical test, glass fibers and
fractured composite insulator, the main microscopic
epoxy resin matrix separate into pieces, as shown in Figure 1a,
characteristic features of decay-like fracture were summarized
which is called normal fracture. Sometimes, composite insulators
and the reasons for the name of decay-like fracture was explained
may fracture at a relatively low mechanical load in actual service
in terms of “crisp” and “decay-like” in depth. Then, on this basis,
and some planar surfaces covered most of the fracture spot, as
the mechanism of occurrence and the criterion of decay-like
shown in Figure 1b, which is called brittle fracture. Because that
fracture were proposed.
the fracture of composite insulators could result in serious
electrical accidents, it is of great scientific significance and
2 EXPERIMENT
engineering value to investigate the fracture characteristic
features and mechanism of composite insulators. Until now, 2.1 VISUAL OBSERVATION
normal fracture and brittle fracture, have been investigated The general macroscopic observations of decay-like fractured
thoroughly by researchers [4-6]. composite insulators, such as fracture spot, puncture holes and
flocculent glass fiber fragments, are shown in Figure 2. The
fracture spot was sited between the 7th and 8th sheds close to the
high voltage end. The fracture surface was not orderly and the
FRP rod became crisp and looked like decayed wood, as shown
in Figure 2a. There were 12 horizontal electro-erosion puncture
holes on the sheath of the composite insulator, the specific spot
of which was shown in Figure 2b. The puncture holes penetrated
 
through the sheath and the diameter of the holes increased when
(a) Normal fracture (b) Brittle fracture
they were close to the FRP rod. This phenomena meant that the
Figure 1. Morphology of normal fracture and brittle fracture of composite
insulators puncture holes were initiated from the sheath-core interface and
developed outward. From the high voltage end to the 19th shed,
In recent years, a new kind of abnormal fracture phenomena of flocculent glass fiber fragments were adhered to the FRP rod, as
composite insulators, which was totally different from brittle in Figure 2c. The interface adhesion strength kept high enough
fracture and normal fracture, occurred in several countries [7-11]. from 19th shed to the ground end, whereas it got worse near the
From macroscopic characteristic feature, this kind of abnormal fracture spot (from 8th to 19th sheds). The deterioration degree
fracture was named as decay-like fracture of composite insulator decreased from the fracture spot to the ground end, as well.
by the researchers. “Crisp” and “decay-like”, was put forward as
two main characteristic features of decay-like fracture. Until
now, at least 18 decay-like fractured composite insulators were
reported in China, Korea and Mexico. The time of the fracture
occurrence lasted from February 1998 to June 2016 and the
fractured composite insulators were manufactured by at least
three different Producers from different countries, respectively.
The macroscopic characteristics of this new abnormal fracture
type of composite insulators were described as follows.
(1) The FRP rod degraded severely (the macroscopic fracture
surface was not orderly; fracture spot became crisp and looked
like decayed wood; chalking and separation between glass fiber
and epoxy resin matrix appeared on the surface, and so on).
(2) The interface between silicone rubber sheath and FRP core
rod (sheath-core interface) degraded obviously near the fracture
spot and most of the fracture spots were connected with high
Figure 2. General and detailed morphology of decay-like fractured composite
voltage end via the carbonized channel.
insulator in 500kV transmission line
 :.KCPIGVCN&GEC[NKMG(TCEVWTG/GEJCPKUOQH5KNKEQPG4WDDGT%QORQUKVG+PUWNCVQT

As one of the main characteristic features, “crisp” described section The data of three cases were analyzed by the
the phenomena of chalking, loose texture and easy peeling, flowchart of FRP rod and cross-section of FRP fragments in
focusing on the mechanical properties of fractured FRP rod, decay-like fractured composite insulator. The FRP fragments
which was summarized by visual observation in Figure 2. For adhered to the FRP rod surface between the 10th and 11th
comparison, “decay-like” described the degradation and sheds, less than 10cm away from fracture spot.
deterioration of the FRP rod, including the process of erosion
and aging, focusing on the material properties of fractured
FRP rod, which was the essential internal causes for the
outward performance of decay-like fractured composite
insulators. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), Thermal
Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Fourier Transform Infrared
(FTIR) Spectroscopy methods were used to analyze the
microscopic physic-chemical features of the decay-like
fractured composite insulator.

2.2 SAMPLING REGION

In order to distinguish the deterioration regional differences
in FRP rod, sampling regions were chosen along the radial
direction of FRP rod. Interior region of the FRP rod, as well
as external region, which was next to the sheath-core interface,
were separated and comparatively investigated, as shown in
Figure 3.
Furthermore, an intact composite insulator, which was
produced, installed and operated simultaneously with the
fractured one, was used as the comparative results.
3 RESULTS
3.1 SEM
FEI Quanta 2000 FEG SEM instrument was used to
analyze the microscopic morphology of the fracture spot side-
Figure 3. Sampling region of decay-like fractured composite insulator in
500kV transmission line
Side-section morphology of the FRP rod in the decay-like
fractured composite insulator, view direction perpendicular to
the glass fiber axis, was shown in Figure 4 and 5. It should be
explained in advance that Figure 4b was magnified by the
image in red box in Figure 4a, so are Figure 4c and 4d. Some
broken glass fibers were separated from eroded epoxy resin
matrix and exposed outwards. Many bubbles and air holes
appeared on the residual epoxy resin matrix, which still
remained on the broken glass fibers.

1 - bubbles 2 – air holes

Figure 4. Fracture spot side-section morphology of FRP rod in decay-like fractured composite insulator-I.
+'''6TCPUCEVKQPUQP&KGNGEVTKEUCPF'NGEVTKECN+PUWNCVKQP8QN0Q(GDTWCT[ 

1 - bubbles 2 – air holes

Figure 5. Fracture spot side-section morphology of FRP rod in decay-like fractured composite insulator-II.

The separation of broken glass fibers and residual epoxy
resin matrix in the fracture spot by SEM microscopic
morphology was similar to the results in [8]. Especially, it was
observed that many bubbles and air holes appeared on the
residual epoxy resin matrix, which could be speculated as the
evidence of the degradation process of decay-like fractured
FRP rod. It was speculated that epoxy resin matrix was
softened, melt and evaporated in the first step, mainly causing
many bubbles on the residual of epoxy resin matrix. After
that, the bubbles burst open and air holes were retained.
Cross-section morphology of the FRP fragments adhered to
the FRP rod in the decay-like fractured composite insulator,
view direction parallel to the glass fiber axis, was shown in
Figure 6. As shown in Figure 6a, the mesoscopic fracture spot
of tens of glass fibers was not orderly, whereas the surface of
a single glass fiber was orderly, as shown in Figure 6c, which
was similar to the features of smooth and planar surfaces in
brittle fracture. It was speculated that stress corrosion also
occurred in this decay-like fracture.
In addition, the cross-section morphology of a single glass
fiber was not a complete circle in Figure 6b. The separation
between epoxy resin matrix and glass fiber and failure of
fiber-resin interface could be observed obviously near the
cross-section morphology of a single broken glass fiber in
Figure 6d.

Figure 6. Fracture spot cross-section morphology of FRP fragments in decay-like fractured composite insulator
 :.KCPIGVCN&GEC[NKMG(TCEVWTG/GEJCPKUOQH5KNKEQPG4WDDGT%QORQUKVG+PUWNCVQT

As is known, the microscopic morphology characteristics of was less than that in intact FRP rod. Thus, epoxy resin matrix
brittle fracture and normal fracture were distinguished by was supposed to be eroded in decay-like fractured FRP rod
glass fiber of the fracture FRP rods [4, 5]. The fracture surface and the degradation in the external region was more serious
of brittle fracture was smooth, whereas normal fracture was than that in the interior region.
not. Then, once the glass fiber was failed, epoxy resin matrix
was damaged by mechanical tensile or shear stress in brittle
fracture or normal fracture, in similar. However, the
degradation of epoxy resin matrix in the decay-like fracture,
such as the phenomena of the appearance of bubbles and air
holes on epoxy resin, as well as the separation between the
broken glass fiber and eroded epoxy resin, was totally
different from the characteristic features of the normal fracture
and brittle fracture.

3.2 TGA
As a kind of inorganic fiber, glass fiber has the
characteristics of non-combustion, non-oxidation and
excellent heat resistance, with the softening point of 550-
750°C and melting temperature up to 1600 °C. Thus, the
weight loss process of FRP rod is caused by the
decomposition of the epoxy resin matrix at the temperature in
the range between room temperature to 800°C. Therefore,
TGA method could be used to measure the glass fiber and
epoxy resin contents in FRP material [12], because that the
remaining weight up to 800°C reflected the content of glass
fiber and the loss weight reflected the content of epoxy resin.
In this paper, Mettler Toledo TGA/DSCI instrument was used
to analyze the thermal gravity curve of FRP rod samples
within the temperature range of 50-800 °C. The measurements
were conducted in a nitrogen atmosphere with the temperature
rising at a rate of 10°C/min.
TGA curves of the decay-like fractured and intact FRP core
rod were shown in Figure 7. Within the temperature of 50-
150 °C, the weight loss of intact FRP rod was mainly caused
by the evaporation of residual moisture, which was a small
amount less than 0.5%. For comparison, the weight loss of
decay-like fractured FRP rod was more than 2%, which was
due to the evaporation of the penetrated moisture in actual
service through silicone rubber sheath and the electro-erosion
holes. As shown in the illustration in Figure 7, within the
temperature of 50-150°C, the weight loss of the external
region of FRP rod was larger than that of the interior region,
which indicated that moisture penetrated in the external region
was more than that in the interior region.
Contents of epoxy resin matrix and glass fibers in intact and
fractured FRP were shown in Table 1. As for intact FRP rod,
weight loss of epoxy resin matrix started at 370 °C and ended
at 480 °C. After that, the weight remained unchanged, which
indicated that the epoxy resin matrix had been decomposed
completely at 480 °C. Glass fiber content accounted for
80.84% in intact FRP rod, while epoxy resin matrix content
accounted for 19.16%. As a contrast, weight loss of decay-like
fractured FRP rod was less than that of intact FRP rod within
the temperature of 370-480 °C. Glass fiber content of external
and interior region of decay-like fractured FRP rod accounted
for 85.38% and 83.60%, respectively, which indicated that
epoxy resin matrix content in decay-like fractured FRP rod

Figure 7. TGA curve of decay-like fractured and intact FRP rod.
Table 1. Contents of epoxy resin matrix and glass fiber in intact FRP and the
external and interior region of fractured FRP.
Content of epoxy Content of glass
 resin matrix (%) fiber (%)
Intact FRP 19.16 80.84
External region of fractured FRP 14.62 85.38
Interior region of fractured FRP 16.40 83.60
3.3 FTIR
FRP rod in composite insulators was composed of 80-85%
glass fiber and 15-20% epoxy resin matrix. The major
ingredients of glass fiber were SiO2, Al2O3 and CaO. The
skeleton structure of glass fiber was constituted by three-
dimensional network structure, made up by SiO2 tetrahedron
and Al2O3 trihedron [13]. Epoxy resin is applied to both the
prepolymers and to the cured resins; the former contain the
reactive epoxy group. [14]. Bisphenol A type epoxy resin was
widely used in FRP rod in composite insulators and the
chemical structure was shown in Figure 8. Some curing agent
and coupling agent were added to the epoxy resin in the
manufacturing process of FRP rod, and the chemical structures
of such kinds of curing agent and coupling agent were shown in
Figure 9. Epoxy resin, along with curing agent and coupling
agent, contained a variety of organic functional bands, which
made the FRP rod with rich infrared spectrum features. Table 2
summarized some possibly observed characteristic absorption
peaks and their corresponding functional bands by FTIR in the
composite insulator FRP rod [15-22].
Figure 8. Chemical structure of Bisphenol A type epoxy resin
+'''6TCPUCEVKQPUQP&KGNGEVTKEUCPF'NGEVTKECN+PUWNCVKQP8QN0Q(GDTWCT[ 

(a) Acid-anhydride curing agent (b) ester group-containing silane

coupling agent
Figure 9. Chemical structure of Acid-anhydride curing agent and ester group-
containing silane coupling agent

Table 2. Characteristic FTIR absorption peaks and corresponding

functional bands for FRP
Wavenumber(cm-1) Functional Bands Reference

3700-3200 Hydroxyl
Y. Gao [15]
2920-2970 C-H in methyl
1736 C=O in ester Y. Lin [16]
1630 C=O in amide M. Saxena [17] (a) Full spectrums
1608 Aromatic structure
J. Andersson [18]
1508 Aromatic structure
1451 C-H in aliphatic Y. Lin [16]
Y. Lin [16]
1182 C-C in aliphatic
V. Ollier-Dureault [19]
1038 C-O-C in aliphatic
V. Ollier-Dureault [19]
831 Aromatic structure
E. Lippincott [20]
480 Si-O P. Innocenzi [21]
H. Mansur [22]

(b) Magnified information in wavenumber of 1800-1300 cm-1

Figure 11. FTIR spectrums of interior region of FRP rod, the black line
represent the FTIR spectrum of original FRP and the red line represent the
FTIR spectrum of fractured FRP.

In this paper, Nicolet 6700 FTIR instrument and KBr disc

(a) Full spectrums
(b) Magnified spectrums in wavenumber of 1800-1300 cm-1
Figure 10. FTIR spectrums of external region of FRP rod, the black line
represent the FTIR spectrum of original FRP and the red line represent the
FTIR spectrum of fractured FRP.
technique were used to analyze the infrared spectrum of FRP
rod in the decay-like fractured composite insulator. The FTIR
spectrums of external region and interior region of decay-like
fractured FRP, compared with intact FRP, were shown,
respectively, in Figure 10a and Figure 11a. Magnified
information of the FTIR spectrum in wavenumber of 1800-
1300 cm-1 was shown in Figure 10b and 11b, in detail.
Compared with the FTIR spectrum of intact FRP, the
decay-like fractured FRP showed some special differences.
(1) New absorption peak at 1384 cm-1 appeared in the FTIR
spectrum of decay-like fractured FRP rod, which indicated the
presence of nitrate ion [23]. The results meant that nitric acid
was generated under the combined action of damp condition
and partial discharge due to distortion of the electric field
along the sheath-core interface. The reaction could be
separated into two steps. First, NO2 was generated from N2
and O2 in the air under the action of surface discharge in high
field strength area along the sheath-core interface, as in
equation (1). Then, NO2 dissolved in water, which might be
penetrated through the silicone rubber sheath, seal failure in
 :.KCPIGVCN&GEC[NKMG(TCEVWTG/GEJCPKUOQH5KNKEQPG4WDDGT%QORQUKVG+PUWNCVQT
metal end-fitting [4, 5] or electro-erosion holes, and produced
HNO3, in the presence of O2, as in equation (2).
(1)
(2)
(2) New absorption peak at 1630cm-1 appeared in the FTIR
spectrum of decay-like fractured FRP rod, which indicated the
presence of amide on the surface of decay-like fractured FRP
rod [18]. In the presence of O2 and N2, amide was generated
from epoxy resin matrix under the action of surface discharge,
as in equation (3).
(3)
where R1, R2, R3, R4 and R5 represented carbon chains in
epoxy resin polymer.
(3) The abundance of the absorption peak at 3700 - 3200
cm-1 in the FTIR spectrum in decay-like fractured FRP rod
was obviously larger than that in intact one, which indicated
the increase of hydroxyl after decay-like fracture. In addition,
the abundance of the absorption peak at 1736 cm-1 in the FTIR
spectrum in decay-like fractured FRP rod was less than that in
intact one, which indicated the decrease of ester, the
functional group added by curing agent and coupling agent, as
shown in Figures 8 and 9. Hydrolysis of ester linkage was
proposed by the increase of hydroxyl and decrease of ester, as
in equation (4).
(4)
where R1 and R2 represented carbon chains in curing agent
and coupling agent.
(4) The abundance of the absorption peak at 2970 - 2920
cm-1, 1608 cm-1, 1508 cm-1, 1451 cm-1, 1182 cm-1, 1038 cm-1
in the FTIR spectrum in decay-like fractured FRP rod was
obviously less than that in intact one, which indicated the
decrease of methyl, aromatic structure and aliphatic groups,
the functional bands in epoxy resin matrix, in decay-like
fractured FRP rod. These results indicated that the epoxy resin
matrix degradation appeared on the decay-like fractured FRP
rod. The combination with the SEM analysis results in section
3.1 that epoxy resin matrix would be softened, melt and
evaporated by erosion, it was assumed that the degradation of
epoxy resin matrix under the action of discharge was shown in
equation (5) and the eroded epoxy resin turned to carbon
dioxide and water, eventually.
(5)
where CxH2yOz represented epoxy resin matrix.
(5) The abundance of the absorption peak at 480 cm-1 in the
FTIR spectrum in decay-like fractured FRP rod was obviously
less than that in intact one, which indicated the decrease of Si-
O-X (X means Si or metallic element) bonds in decay-like
fracture [21, 22]. These results indicated that ion-exchange
and hydrolysis of glass fiber happened during the degradation
of decay-like fractured FRP rod.
Calcium, Aluminum and alkalis ions in the glass fiber
three-dimensional network structure were replaced by
hydrogen ion [24, 25], causing the fracture of network
structure of glass fiber. The reaction equations of Ca2+ and
Na+ replaced by H+ were shown in equation (6) – (7).
(6)
(7)
As shown in (8), the hydrolysis of Si-O-Si groups in glass
fiber under the action of water molecule included the
following three steps, water molecules adsorbed on Si-O-Si
groups by hydrogen bonding, Si-O-Si groups broken and Si-
OH groups formed. Ion-exchange and hydrolysis of glass fiber
increased hydroxyl in decay-like fracture as well.
(8)
(6) In contrast to the FTIR spectrums of the external and
interior region of the decay-like fractured FRP rod in Figures
10 and 11, it was found that the concentrations of nitrate ions
and amide, the hydrolysis of ester and glass fiber, and the
degradation of epoxy resin matrix in the external region was
more serious than that in the interior region. It could be
proved that the sheath-core interface was the most seriously
degraded region for decay-like fractured composite insulator.
The sheath-core interface was deduced to be the initial point
of the degradation.
4 DISCUSSION
In this paper, a new kind of abnormal fracture of composite
insulators named decay-like fracture was investigated in depth.
Two main characteristic features, “crisp” and “decay-like”,
was summarized from macroscopic and microscopic
properties of decay-like fracture, respectively. “Crisp”
described the phenomena of chalking, loose texture and easy
peeling, focusing on the mechanical properties of fractured
+'''6TCPUCEVKQPUQP&KGNGEVTKEUCPF'NGEVTKECN+PUWNCVKQP8QN0Q(GDTWCT[ 

FRP rod, which was visually observed. “decay-like” described distortion of electric field at the sheath-core interface. Under
the degradation and deterioration of the FRP rod, including the combined action of damp condition and high electric field,
the process of erosion and aging, focusing on the material discharge and current appear along the FRP rod surface,
properties of fractured FRP rod, which was mainly which further decrease the interface adhesion strength. Epoxy
investigated by SEM, TGA and FTIR analysis methods in this resin matrix in FRP rod is eroded by the heat generated from
paper. The microscopic morphology and degradation behavior discharge and current, then soften, melt, evaporated and
of decay-like fractured composite insulator could be divided formed bubbles and air holes, which caused the decrease of
into four parts in this paper, as follows. the content of epoxy resin matrix. Meanwhile, ion-exchange
Microscopic morphology: When observed from the fracture and hydrolysis process happen between glass fibers under the
spot side-section morphology, some broken glass fibers were combined action of mechanical stress and nitric acid produced
separated from eroded epoxy resin matrix and exposed to the by discharge in the presence of moisture, which contribute to
outside and many bubbles and air holes still remained on the the orderly surface of a single glass fiber. Fiber-resin interface
eroded epoxy resin matrix. When observed from the fracture in FRP rod is separated owing to the erosion of epoxy resin
spot cross-section morphology, the surface of a single glass matrix. Degradation in the external region is more serious than
fiber was orderly whereas the mesoscopic fracture surface of that in the interior region.
tens of glass fiber was not orderly, a single glass fiber was not
a complete circle and interface failure between glass fiber and
epoxy resin was found.
Epoxy resin matrix content: Compared with intact FRP rod,
epoxy resin matrix content in decay-like fractured FRP rod
decreased and the remained epoxy resin matrix content in
external region was less than that in interior region.
Chemical component: The content increase of hydroxyl and
decrease of methyl, ester, aromatic structure and aliphatic
groups in epoxy resin matrix in the decay-like fractured FRP
rod indicated that epoxy resin matrix was eroded by discharge
and current due to distortion of electric field along the FRP
rod surface. The reduced content of Si-O bonds in glass fiber
indicated ion-exchange and hydrolysis reaction of glass fiber.
Discharge and current along the FRP rod surface were
confirmed by the appearance of nitrate ion and amide in FTIR
spectrum.
Deterioration regional difference: Degradation in the
external region of decay-like fractured FRP rod was more
serious than that in the interior region. The sheath-core
interface was deduced to be the initial point of the degradation
and the degradation direction was from outside to inside, as
shown in Figure 12. The external region of FRP rod, that is
the sheath-core interface, was the most seriously degraded
region for decay-like fractured composite insulator and the
failure of the sheath-core interface was the main cause of the
decay-like fracture.

Figure 13. Microscopic fracture process in FRP core rod and interface of
decay-like fractured composite insulator.

It is noted that the degradation and deterioration of epoxy

Figure 12. Schematic of degradation development direction of FRP rod in
decay-like fractured composite insulator
According to the microscopic morphology and degradation
behavior in decay-like fracture, microscopic fracture process
in FRP core rod and interface was concluded in Figure 13.
Due to the liquids (such as water and acid) penetration into
sheath-core interface through the silicone rubber sheath,
hydrolysis of silane coupling agent with bad quality leads to
poor adhesion strength and interface voids, which results in
resin matrix in FRP rod is the main microscopic feature of
decay-like fracture, compared with brittle fracture and normal
fracture. The role of epoxy resin matrix in FRP material is to
bind the fiber, balance the load and protect glass fiber from
the external liquids penetration. Once epoxy resin matrix is
eroded and degraded, it lost the effects on transferring the load
and protecting the glass fiber. Thus, the degradation and
deterioration of epoxy resin is the main cause of two main
characteristic features, “crisp” and “decay-like”, in decay-like
fractured composite insulator.
 :.KCPIGVCN&GEC[NKMG(TCEVWTG/GEJCPKUOQH5KNKEQPG4WDDGT%QORQUKVG+PUWNCVQT
In actual service, decay-like fracture is not a widespread
failure of composite insulators, that is to say it is a quite small
probability event and only a dozen examples have been
reported until now. Firstly, owing to the improvement of seal
technology in end-fitting and better quality of silane coupling
agent and FRP rod, hydrolysis and destruction at the sheath-
core interface will last for quite a long time (maybe a few
years), on condition that loss of adhesion properties is just
caused by penetrated liquids through silicone rubber sheath. In
addition, thanks to broad use of the infrared temperature
detection, quite a few risky composite insulators with interface
discharge and heating phenomena have been replaced before
fracture happens [26, 27]. Thus, decay-like fracture is not a
widespread failure type of composite insulators, but more
research attention should be paid on decay-like fracture due to
the harmful electrical accidents once it occurs in actual
service.
5 CONCLUSION
In this paper, based on the microscopic physic-chemical
analysis of the decay-like fractured composite insulator, the
reasons for the name of decay-like fracture, in terms of two
main features “crisp” and “decay-like”, were adequately
explained to describe the mechanical and material properties
of decay-like fracture, respectively. “Crisp” described the
phenomena of chalking, loose texture and easy peeling,
whereas “decay-like” described the degradation and
deterioration of the FRP rod, including the process of erosion
and aging. The degradation and deterioration of epoxy resin
matrix in FRP rod is the main microscopic feature of decay-
like fracture, compared with brittle fracture and normal
fracture. The criterion to distinguish the differences between
the decay-like fracture, brittle fracture and normal fracture
depends on whether epoxy resin matrix is degraded and
deteriorated or not.
From microscopic physic-chemical results, some broken
glass fibers were separated from eroded epoxy resin matrix,
causing the interface failure between glass fiber and epoxy
resin matrix. Content changes in hydroxyl, methyl, ester,
aromatic structure and aliphatic groups in epoxy resin matrix
indicated that epoxy resin matrix was eroded by discharge and
current, which resulted in many bubbles and air holes
remained on the eroded epoxy resin matrix in SEM figures.
The reduced content of Si-O bonds in glass fiber indicated
ion-exchange and hydrolysis reaction of glass fiber.
Degradation in the external region of decay-like fractured FRP
rod was more serious than that in the interior region, thus the
sheath-core interface was deduced to be the initial area of the
degradation.
The mechanism of decay-like fracture is summarized as
follows. Due to the liquids penetration into sheath-core
interface, hydrolysis of silane coupling agent with bad quality
leads to poor adhesion strength and interface voids, which
results in distortion of electric field at the sheath-core interface.
Under the combined action of damp condition and high
electric field, discharge and current appear along the FRP rod
surface. Epoxy resin matrix is eroded by discharge and current,
and then is soften, melt, evaporated. Meanwhile, ion-exchange
and hydrolysis process happen between glass fibers under the
combined action of mechanical stress and nitric acid produced
by discharge in the presence of moisture. Fiber-resin interface
in FRP rod is separated owing to the erosion of epoxy resin.
The degradation direction of the decay-like fracture is from
outside to inside of FRP rod, and the interface between
silicone rubber sheath and FRP rod is confirmed to be the
initial deterioration area of decay-like fracture.
REFERENCES
[1] X. Liang, S. Wang, J. Fan, and G. Zhicheng, “Development of
composite insulators in China”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol.
6, No. 5, pp. 586-594, 1999.
[2] X. Liang and S. Li, “Looking to the future of composite insulators”,
INMR World Congress, Munich, Germany, 2015.
[3] R. M. Jones, Mechanics of composite material. New York, McGraw-Hill,
pp. 61-151, 1974.
[4] M. Kumosa, L. Kumosa and D. Armentrout, “Failure analyses of
nonceramic insulators, Part I: Brittle fracture characteristics”, IEEE
Electr. Insul. Mag., Vol. 21, pp. 14-27, 2005.
[5] M. Kumosa, L. Kumosa and D. Armentrout, “Failure analyses of
nonceramic insulators: Part II-The brittle fracture model and failure
prevention”, IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag., Vol. 21, pp. 28-41, 2005.
[6] J. T. Burnham, T. Baker, A. Bernstorf, C. de Tourreil, J.-M. George, R.
Gorur et al, “IEEE Task Force Report: brittle fracture in nonceramic
insulators”, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 848-856,
2002.
[7] B. Lutz, L. Cheng, Z. Guan, L. Wang and F. Zhang, “Analysis of a
fractured 500 kV composite insulator-identification of aging
mechanisms and their causes”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul.,
Vol.19, No. 5, pp. 1723-1731, 2012.
[8] J. Wang, X. Liang and Y. Gao, “Failure analysis of decay-like fracture
of composite insulator”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 21, No.
6, pp. 2503-2511, 2014.
[9] H. Park, H. Lim, G. Won, J. Lee and B. Koo, “Analysis of Polymer
Insulator Failures on UHV Lines in Korea”, INMR World Congress,
Vancouver, Canada, 2013.
[10] I. Ramirez-Vazquez and R. Hernandez-Corona, “Tracking and Erosion
Requirements for High Voltage Silicone Rubber Insulators”, Int’l. Conf.
Dielectr., Montpellier, France, pp. 740-743, 2016.
[11] X. Liang, W. Bao, Y. Gao, J. Wang, Z. He and B. Luo, “Field failed
analysis of decay-like fracture of composite insulators”, Int’l. Sympos.
High Voltage Engineering, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2017.
[12] C. Moon, B. Bang, W. Choi, G. Kang and S. Park, “A technique for
determining fiber content in FRP by thermogravimetric analyzer”,
Polymer Testing, Vol. 24, No.3, pp. 376-380, 2005.
[13] K. L. Loewenstein, The Mufacturing Technology of Continuous Glass
Fibers, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 5-12, 1973.
[14] B. Ellis, Chemistry and Technology of Epoxy Resins, Springer
Science+Business Media, Dordrecht, pp. 1, 1993.
[15] Y. Gao, J. Wang, X. Liang, Z. Yan, Y. Liu and Y. Cai, “Investiagtion of
Permeation Properties of Liquids into HTV Silicone Rubber Materials”,
IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 21, No. 6, pp. 2428-2437,
2014.
[16] Y. Lin, X. Chen, H. Zhang and Z. Wang, “Effects of hygrothermal aging
on epoxy-based anisotropic conductive film”, Materials Letters, Vol. 60,
No. 24, pp. 2958-2963, 2006.
[17] M. Saxena and V. S. Gowri, “Studies on bamboo polymer composites
with polyester amide polyol as interfacial agent”, Polymer Composites,
Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 428-436, 2003.
[18] J. Andersson, S. M. Gubanski and H. Hillborg, “Properties of interfaces
between silicone rubber and epoxy IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul.,
Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 1360-1367, 2008.
[19] V. Ollier-Durbault and B. Gosse, “Photo-oxidation and electrical aging
of anhydride-cured epoxy resins”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul.,
Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 935-943, 1998.
[20] E. R. Lippincott, A. V. Valkenburg, C. E. Weir and E. N. Bunting,
“Infrared studies on polymorphs of silicon dioxide and germanium
+'''6TCPUCEVKQPUQP&KGNGEVTKEUCPF'NGEVTKECN+PUWNCVKQP8QN0Q(GDTWCT[ 

dioxide”, J. Research of the National Bureau of Standards᧨ vol. 61, No. Xidong Liang (M’00) was born in China, on 17
December 1962. He received the B.E., M.E., and Ph.D.
1, pp. 61-70, 1958.
degrees in high voltage engineering from Tsinghua
[21] P. Innocenzi, “Infrared spectroscopy of sol-gel derived silica-based
University, Beijing, China in 1984, 1987 and 1991,
films: a spectra-microstructure overview”, Journal of Non-Crystalline
respectively. He did his research in UMIST, England as
Solids, Vol. 316, No. 2-3, pp. 309-319, 2003.
a visiting scholar from 1991 to 1992. Then he was
[22] H. S. Mansur, R. L. Orefice and A. A. P. Mansur, “Characterization of
employed in Tsinghua University as an associate
poly(vinyl alcohol)/poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels and PVA-derived
professor from 1993 and as a full professor from 1997.
hybrids by small-angle X-ray scattering and FTIR spectroscopy”,
He is a member of working groups of IEC and CIGRÉ
Polymer, Vol. 45, No.21, pp. 7193-7202, 2004.
dealing with composite insulators. His special fields of
[23] X. Liang and J. Dai, “Analysis of the acid sources of a field brittle
interest include outdoor insulation, composite insulator
fractured composite insulator IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol.
and its materials.
13, No. 4, pp. 870-876, 2006.
[24] J. Montesinos, R.S. Gorur, B. Mobasher and D. Kingsbury, “Mechanism
of brittle fracture in nonceramic insulators”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr.
Weining Bao was born in China, on 25 May 1991. He
Electr. Insul., Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 236-243, 2002.
received the B.S. degree in 2014 from the Dept. of
[25] J. Montesinos, R.S. Gorur, B. Mobasher and D. Kingsbury, “Brittle
Electrical Engineering at Tsinghua University in
fracture in nonceramic insulators: electrical aspects of microscopic flaws
Beijing and is currently working toward the Ph.D.
in glass reinforced plastic (GRP) rods”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr.
degree in high voltage engineering and insulation at
Insul., Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 244-252, 2002.
Tsinghua University. His major research directions are
[26] Y. Tu, B. Gong, C. Wang, K. Xu, Z. Xu, S. Wang, etc., “Effect of
interfaces in composite insulators and abnormal
moisture on temperature rise of composite insulators operating in power
fracture.
system”, IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul., Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 2207-
2213, 2015.
[27] H. Liu, Q. Shen, J. Yong and H. Meng, “Detection and processing for
±660 composite insulator abnormal discharge”, Int’l. Conf. Power
System Technology, Chengdu, China, pp. 1404-1409, 2014. Yanfeng Gao was born in China, on 21 September
1989. He received the B.S. and Ph.D. degrees from
the Department of Electrical Engineering at Tsinghua
University, Beijing, China in 2010 and 2016
respectively. He was a Ph.D visiting student in the
University of Leicester, Leicester, UK from 2014 to
2015 under the support of Tsinghua University
doctoral visiting abroad funding. His major research
directions are dielectric response and aging properties
of silicone rubber composite insulator.

View publication stats