The Draco,

the Late Roman military standard

By Robert Vermaat

Origins: Sarmatians, Alans, Parthians and Persians:

The draco Standard was originally developed by the cavalry peoples of the
steppes, such as the Sarmatians and the Alans, but also by the Parthians and the
Sassanid Persians. It may have been used primarily to determine the wind-
direction for the horse archers. Arrian described it as a long sleeve, 'made by
sewing pieces of dyed material together'. This sleeve/tube hung limp when the Fectio's reconstruction of
rider was at rest, but on the move it flew like a serpent and whistled in the wind. what such a fabric draco
may have looked like.
The hollow head, in the form of a toothed dragon, was formed from metal and the
wind passing through it would extend the cloth tube tail attached to the neck of
the head. The draco was also used by the Dacians (or their allies) and no less
than 20 of these are shown on Trajan's Column. Other sources mention Parthian
and Sassanid Persian dracos.
Not all such standards had dragon heads. The one below on the left from Trajan's
Column shows the tubular tail with streamers attached. The head looks more like
a dog (with ears) than a dragon. The one beside it has a much more serpentine
The reconstruction from
head, and has scalloped rings attached to the tail. Other standards had no heads Marcus Junkelmann.
at all, just the fabric tube, while some had heads looking like wolves or even
fishes. These had protruding ears and fins. The images below show part of the
Arch of Galerius with several dracos.

A draco for the Carnuntum

Archaeological Park.

Several dracos on the Arch 4-5th-c. Coptic wall painting

of Galerius (311AD), carried from Kharga Oasis, Egypt,
by infantry as well as showing Sassanid dracos.
cavalry.
A draco from Trajan's Another draco from
Column. Trajan's Column.

Sassanid Persian dracos main have been made of fabric only. From the Historia
Augusta we learn that when Aurelianus had reconquered Palmyra (272 AD),
amongst the treasure were 'Persian dragon-flags' (Persici dracones)[1], which to
Another shot of the
me sounds like the standards we're discussing here. What these draco may have Carnuntum draco.
looked like we can see below; on the extreme right is a 5th c. AD Coptic wall
painting, showing the occupying Sassanid Persian forces carrying two dracos.

The Roman draco

The Draco was adopted first into the Roman cavalry during the 2nd century AD,
possibly with the introduction of Sarmatian cavalry into the Roman army. Arrian,
who was writing c. 137 AD, described it as a Scythian (he most probably meant A draco from Joe Piela.
Sarmatian) invention which was adopted by Roman cavalry[2]. The Romans first
began to use the draco in cavalry games, the so-called 'Hippica Gymnasia'. These
were described by Arrian as glamorised versions of training exercises, performed
in decorated armour. It is possible that the draco was introduced just because it
was 'outlandish', foreign and glamourous. Points in the game were scored for
strikes on the tail piece of the dracos carried by a team acting as 'targets', from
dummy javelins thrown by another team of riders. Arrian recommended that the
standard be colorful, adding to to the spectacle of cavalry parades. One should be The reconstruction by
given to each unit to maintain order in both displays and battle. The Roman Michael Simkins.
cavalry adopted the draco probably during or after the Dacian wars, in which the
equipment of the Roman cavalry was altere to withstand the charged of the
lance-armed cavalry. These equipment changes included the adoption of the fully-
armed cavalry (alae cataphractiorum) and the long lance. It would be logical to
assume that this was the time when also the draco standard was introduced.

The choice for the dragon/serpent as model is not so easy to explain, because the
steppe cultures used other animal's heads and continued to do so. However, it Another shot of the
has been assumed that it was because of the Thracian dominance in Roman reconstruction by Michael
cavalry that the latter adopted the serpent shape. These Thracian horsemen had Simkins.

a deity which resembled a 'flying' serpent with scales, teeth and an upstanding
crest, which may well have been a draco or something similar.

It is not documented when exactly the draco was adopted as a normal standard
for all troop types. However, sources mention the draco being used with the
infantry. The Historia Augusta mentions that the mother of Severus (193-211 AD)
dreamt of a puple snake before his birth, something very alike what we later hear
of the Imperial standard[3]. But since this source was probably compiled later, we A reconstruction by Cezary
Wysczinski.
can't be sure this has any bearing on a dating. We are on more solid ground with
the entry of the reign of Gallienus (253-268 AD), when legionary troops are said
to have paraded with a dracon amongst the standards of the legions[4] and the
troops of Aurelianus (270-5 AD) also had draconarii amongst the standard-
bearers[5]. This may lead us to conclude that the infantry began using dracos
during the late 3rd c. On the Arch of Galerius, which was built before 311 AD to
commemorate Galerius' war against Persia in 290 AD, several dracos can be seen
to his left and right, carried by infantry as well as cavalry (see the image above,
2nd from right).
The Britannia draco.
We have no good idea about the general appearance of the draco. Some draco
heads may have looked like a draco, but some seem to look more like wolves or
dogs, or even of an ass (..).

Also, we can't be
sure of the lenght of
the windsock, or the
actual length of the
pole on which it was
carried. Close-up of
the Votadinidraco.

However, the coins

of the Emperor
Trajan Decius (AD
249-251) give us
some idea as to tall
the latter was. If not
a representation of a
boar-headed trumpet
(carnycus), it does
not seem to have
been taller than a
man. In my opinion
though, the Emperor
would rather be
shown with an
standard.
The Foederati draco,
reconstructed by Toni
The draco head was most probably constructed by first carving a wooden original, Feldon.
then beating a copper alloy sheet around it. This draco head was made of two
halves, the bottom jaw being riveted against the top half. Adding a windsock may
be a problem, because we have no clear idea how long it would be. However, trial
and error will get you there, with of course different lengths and materials
possible. I'd go for silk, which may be expensive, but it is light and gets the best
result. Possibly, added hoops might keep the tail 'inflated', which can also be used
to attach strips of cloth to create the 'streaming' effect of the flying beast
described by Arrian (Ars. Tact. 35.3-4). The images below show a 2nd-3rd C.
funeral stele from Chester, probably showing a Sarmatian draconarius.

The Timetrotter draco, also

by Toni Feldon.

Reconstruction drawing by Anoter view of

Gerry Embleton, showing a the Niederbieberoriginal.
Sarmatian in Roman service,
based on the Chester stele
The funeral stele from Reconstruction of the
as well as the 'dog' draco
Chester. stele from Chester.
from Trajans Column.

The Niederbieber draco

The Time Team draco,
The Roman draco developed into a real dragon, without ears but with scales and
made by Tim Blades.
a crest. The only fully preserved draco was found in the Limes fortress of
Niederbieber in Germany, which dates to the 3rd century. This copper alloy object
was discovered near the SW edge of the vicus (civilian settlement) outside the
fort. It can best be described as a scaled monster's head, measuring 30x12x12
cm, and with some probability is the head of a cohort's draco.
It is formed by the joining of two embossed sheets, the gilded upper one
overlapping the lower tinned one, both attached by 5 rivets on each side. At the
base of the neck the sheets form a circular flange, riveted together by 2 more
rivets. Overlapping scales cover the head and neck, while a series of ridges
covers the upper jaw from the nostrils to the eyes, which face sideways. The open
The Comitatus draco, also
mouth shows triangular teeth, but no fangs or canines. A crenellated crest is by Stefan Jaroschinski.
attached to the top of the head.
Two holes of similar size are pierced through both the throat and the skull behind
the crest. No doubt a staff or the shaft of a spear would pass through here. Two
axial slits, 2 cm long, pierce the botom of the lower jaw, probably to attach a lost
mechanism that would have produced the hissing effect.

The Fectio draco.

The Draco found Reconstruction drawing by Another shot of these

inNiederbieber, Germany. Eiden. The head is about reconstructions in the
30 cm long, 12cm high Mainz museum.
The Niederbieber draco
(with comb 17 cm), and 12
.
cm wide.

The Fectio draco, made by

The draco in the Late Roman army Stefan Jaroschinski.

The late 4th c. author Vegetius also mentions the draco as a common standard.
He seems to have been confused about the difference between the old standards
and the new dragons though, as he wrote that apparently standard- and draco-
bearers differ[6], but also that the standardbearers 'are now named
dragonbearers[7], that both are present in a camp[8], but also that each cohort
has a draco[9]. if correct it would mean the first overall standard for the cohort
(where before none had existed between the legionary aquila and the signa of the Fectio's draco.
centuries). the draco may have foreshadowed the later common practise in the
3rd century to permanently detach cohortes from their parent legions.

By 357 AD, the Emperors Constantius and Julian (who was crowned by
a draconarius[10]) had personal dracos sewn from a purple material. Ammianus
Marcellinus writes of flags as well as draco being purple[11]and mentions them
making a hissing sound in the wind[12]. The Emperor's personal draco standards
made them identifyable in the heat of battle and may therefore have been mainly
a tactital instrument rather than a personal adornment. Julian's draco at the
battle of Argentorate (357) was important in his attempt to regain control of the
battle[13]. The early 5th/c. author Zosimus also mentions Julian being extremely Jeroen with
cross when one was lost to the enemy during the Persian campaign[14] . the Fectiodraco.
By the fifth century, as may be deduced from inscriptions from Perge
and Prusias/Üskübü, Turkey, as well as a poem by Prudentius, there was a rank
called magister draconum. This officer was the superior of thedraconarii in a unit,
ranking immediately below the tribune. However, we don't know if he directed
thedraconarii in battle, or may just have been the head of the standard bearers'
club or scholae. Themagister draconum probably replaced the optio signiferorum,
whose function unfortunately is equally vague. Other ranks are less clear: from
Cagliari/Sardinia we know an optio draconarius, while the bearcus Another draco by Stefan
draconarius seems to have been an unusually high-ranking draconarius. Jaroschinski.
Prudentius also tells us that Late Roman draconarii wore golden torcs as reward
for their valor in battle. However, we learn from Ammianus that the torc may
have been a badge of office, so possibly standard bearers were selected from
those who had earlier received such torcs, marking them for an elite.

The East Roman or 'Byzantine' draconarius

Around the mid-6th century, the historian Johannes Lydos mentioned the
draconarius (drakonarioi-drakontophoroi) in a list of ranks and functions[15].
Justinian also mentioned a corps of 10 draconarii in his edict of 534, issued to
Belisarius in North Africa[16]. The military manual called the Strategikon of the
emperor Maurikios (582-602 AD) shows that draconarii were probably still around
in the early 7th. century. However, it is not clear whether
the draconarius mentioned there [17] was already anachronistic or if he still had a
proper military function - there was a scholae draconariorum, a non-military office
staff of 10 clercs attached to a civilian praefectus praetorio. After the 6th century,
the draconarius disappeared from the Byzantine army.

Reconstruction drawing by Reconstruction drawing by

Peter Conolly, showing Richard Hook, with windsock.
theHippica
Gymnasia described
Reconstruction drawing Reconstruction drawing
byArrian.
by Angus McBride, by Angus McBride,
showing a Parthian after the Villa Maria
'fish'. catacomb fresco.

After the Romans

Dracos continued in use in the Caucasus and Georgia, while in the West the
Franks under Charlemagne may have adopted them again. This may show
continuity, or else Charlemagne's attempts to eminate the Roman Army. We have
a miniature from the late 9th-c. Psalterium Aureum (MS St. Gall. Stift-Bib. 22, fol.
140, illustrating Psalm 59), which shows a draco in a formation of heavy cavalry.
We also see it used at the battle of Hastings in 1066 AD, where it is carried by
Harold Godwinson's retainer at the moment of his death.
The next image is from a 14th-century manuscript of L'Histoire de Merlin by
Robert de Boron, now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. It shows King Arthur
in combat, brandishing what can only be a Medieval representation of a Late
Roman draco. This is not supposed to reflect 14th-c. battle standards, but rather
a fanciful idea of ancient use.
The last image shows the flag of modern Wales, in Welsh called Y Draig
Goch (The Red Dragon). This red dragon, as the tale goes, would go back to the
myth of the red and white dragons fighting on Vortigern's fort at Dinas Emrys in
Gwynedd, Wales. These dragons, though, are thought by some to represent the
draco of the Late Roman army.
The Dragon of Wessex, like the Red Dragon of Wales, may indeed represent some
form of continuity. However, it could also show Francish influence in England and
Wales during the early Middle Ages, as well as an antiquity-related Romanticism
which has nothing to do with reality any more.

King Arthur in combat, The Welsh flag, still seen by

The Psalterium Aureum, showing
a draco in the Francish army, c.
883.
brandishing a draco. many as going right back to King
FromL'Histoire de Merlin by Arthur and possibly even Roman
Robert de Boron (14th C.). times.
The Bayeux Tapestry, showing
the 'Dragon of Wessex' at the
battle of Hastings, 1066.

See also:

 How to make a draco by Ros Ereira

 How to make a draco's head by Tim Blades
 How to make a draco's noise by Peter Taylor

Special thanks to Sander van Dorst for providing the Greek quotes below:

Notes

[1] Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Aurelianus 28.4:

tunc illatae illae vestes, quas in Templo Solis videmus,
consertae gemmis, tunc Persici draconeset tiarae, tunc
genus purpurae, quod postea nec ulla genus detulit nec
Romanus orbis vidit.
Then were brought in those garments, encrusted with
jewels, which we now see in the Temple of the Sun,
then, too, the Persian dragon-flags and head-dresses,
and a species of purple such as of nation ever afterward
offered or the Roman world beheld.

[2] Arrianus, Tactica 35:

... Sèmeios de diakerimenoi epelaunousin, ou tois
Rhoomaikos monon alla kai tois Skythikois, tou
poikilooteran te kai hama phoberooteran gignesthai tèn
elasi. Ta Skythika de sèmeia estin epi kontoon en mèkei
xymmetrooi drakontes apaiooroumenoi. Poiountai de
xyrraptoi ek rhakoon bebammenoon, tas te kephalas kai
to sooma pan este epi tas ouras eikasmenoi ophesin,
hoos phoberootata hoion te eikasthènai. Kai ta
sophismata tauta atremountoon men toon hippoon
ouden pleon è rhakè an idois pepoikilmena es to katoo
apokremamena, elaunomenoon de empneomena
exonkountai, hooste hoos malista tois thèriois
epeoikenai, kai ti kai episyrizein pros tèn agan kinèsin
hypo tèi pnoèi biaiai dierchomenèi.
'... They attack separated by standards, not only the
Roman but the Scythian ones as well, so the charge
becomes more colourful and fearsome at the same time.
The Scythian standards are snakes of equal length held
up on top of spearshafts. They are made of coloured
pieces of cloth sewn together, the heads and their entire
body up to the tail resembling serpents, so in order that
they appear thus more frightening. And when the horses
are not trembling from them the multicoloured bodies
can be seen hanging down, however when charging they
fill with air through the wind so they are most like the
beasts and even hiss when a strong wind flows through
much movement.'

[3] Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Severus 4.1:

..mater eius pridie quam pareret somniavit se The night before he was born his mother dreamed that
purpureum dracunculum parere, .. she brought forth a purple snake, ..

[4] Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Gallieni ii 8.6:

 Hastae auratae altrinsecus quingenae, vexilla centena
praeter ea, quae collegiorum erant, dracones et signa
templorum omniumque legionum ibant.
[5]
Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Aurelianus 31.7:
Templum sane Solis, quod apud Palmyram aquiliferi
legionis tertiae cum vexilliferis et draconario et
cornicinibus atque liticinibus diripuerunt, ad eam
formam volo, quae fuit, reddi.
[6] Vegetius, Epitoma rei militaris 1.20:
... Quid ipsi draconarii atque signiferi, qui sinistra
manu hastas gubernant, in proelio facient, quorum et
capita nuda constant et pectora? ...
[7] ibidem 2.7:
... Signiferi qui signa portant, quos
nunc draconariosvocant. ...
[8] ibidem 1.23:
... Porta autem, quae appelatur praetoria, aut orientem
spectare debet aut illum locum, qui ad hostes respicit,
aut, si iter agitur, illam partem debet adtendere, ad
quam est profecturus exercitus, intra quam primae
centuriae, hoc est cohortes, papiliones tendunt
etdracones et signa constitutum. ...
[9] ibidem, 2.13:
...Dracones etiam per singulas cohortes a draconariis
feruntur ad proelium ...
[10]
Ammianus Marcellinus, 20.4.18:
Eoque adfirmante primis auspiciis non congruere aptari
muliebri mundo, equi phalerae quaerebantur, uti
coronatus speciem saltem obscuram superioris
praetenderet potestatis sed cum id quoque turpe esse
adseveraret, Maurus nomine quidam, postea comes, qui
rem male gessit apud Succorum angustias, Petulantium
tunc hastatus, abstractum sibi torquem, quo
utdraconarius utebatur, capiti Iuliani inposuit
confidenter, qui trusus ad necessitatem extremam
iamque periculum praesens vitare non posse advertens,
si reniti perseverasset, quinos omnibus aureos
argentique singula pondo, promisit.
[11] ibidem, 15.5.16:
... nihil tutum ex praesentibus ratus in consilia
cogebatur extrema et sensim cum principiorum
verticibus secretius conlocutus isdemque magnitudine
promissae mercedis accensis, cultu purpureo
adraconum et vexillorum insignibus ad tempus
abstracto ad culmen imperiale surrexit.
[12]
ibidem, 16.10.7:
On each side of him were borne five hundred gilded
spears and one hundred banners, besides those which
belonged to the corporations, and the flags of auxiliaries
and the statues from the sanctuaries and
the standards of all the legions.
Now as to the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra, which has
been pillaged by the eagle-bearers of the Third Legion,
along with the standard-bearers, thedragonbearer, and
the buglers and trumpeters, I wish there is restored to
the condition in which it formerly was.
... What are the dragonbearers and standardbearers,
which hold spears in their left hand, to do in battle,
whose heads and breasts are naked ? ...'
'... Standardbearers who carry the standards, whom
they now call dragonbearers. ...'
'... The gate though, which is called the commander's,
must either face east or to that spot, which faces
towards the enemies, or, if a march is conducted, must
be directed to that part, towards which the army is to
march out, at the inside of which the first centuries, that
is cohorts, set up tents and dragons and standards are
pitched. ...'
'Dragons, one each for the individual cohorts, are carried
into battle by dragonbearers.'
'But since he insisted that at the time of his first
auspices it was not fitting for him to wear a woman's
adornment, they looked about for a horse's trapping, so
that being crowned with it he might display at least
some obscure token of a loftier station. But when he
declared that this also was shameful, a man called
Maurus, afterwards a count and defeated at the pass of
Succi, but then a standard-bearer of the Petulantes,
took off the neck-chain which he wore as carrier of the
dragonand boldly placed it on Julian's head. He, driven
to the extremity of compulsion, and perceiving that he
could not avoid imminent danger if he persisted in his
resistance, promised each man five gold pieces and a
pound of silver.'
'... So Silvanus, seeing no safety under present
conditions, was driven to extreme measures, and having
gradually spoken more boldly with the chief officers, he
aroused them by the greatness of the reward he
promised; then as a temporary expedient he tore the
purple decorations from thedragon standards and
vexilla of the cohorts and the companies, and so
mounted to the imperial dignity'
 ... purpureis subtegminibus texti
circumdederedracones hastarum aureis gemmatisque
summitatibus inligati, hiatu vasto perflabiles et ideo
velut ira perciti sibilantes caudarumque volumina
relinquentes in ventum.
'... the dragons, sewn from purple covers and placed on
the gilded and jewel-studded tips of spears, letting wind
through an enormous opening and in that way hissing as
if they had been aroused in anger and the bodies of
their tails flowing in the wind.'

[13] bidem, 16.12.39:

Quo agnito per purpureum signum draconis,
summitati hastae longioris aptatum velut senectutis
pendentis exuvias, stetit unius turmae tribunus et
pallore timoreque perculsus ad aciem integrandam
recurrit.
'On recognising him by the purple ensign of a dragon,
fitted to the top of a very long lance and spreading out
like the slough of a serpent, the tribune of one of the
squadrons stopped, and pale and struck with fear rode
back to renew the battle.'

[14] Zosimus, Historia Nova 3.19:

Meanwhile Surenas, advancing with a large army from a

town in Assyria, surprised the reconnoitring party in
advance of the army, killed one of the three tribunes
and some of his men, and put the remainder to flight,
carrying off a military ensign which was in the form of a
dragon, such as the Romans usually carry in war. The
emperor on learning this was much displeased, and in
his anger attacked the forces of Surenas, compelled all
to fly that could escape, retook the ensign which the
enemy had carried off, and coming immediately to the
city where Surenas had surprised the party, stormed,
took, and burnt it. As the commander of the party,
preferring his own safety to the valour and honour of a
Roman, had left his standard in the enemy's hands, he
deprived him of his girdle, regarding him as a mean and
worthless person, together with all who had
accompanied him in his flight

[15] Johannes Lydos, De Magistratibus, 1.46:

[16] Codex Justinianus I.27.1:35)

In schola draconariorum hominibus decem annonae xi
capita xs solidi xcvii. ita: primo annonae ii pro annona
solidos v, capitus is pro capitu solidos iiii, fiunt solidi xvi.
reliquis hominibus novem ad annonam i pro annona
solidos v et ad capitum i pro capitu solidos iiii, fiunt
solidi lxxxi.
'To the ten men in the corps of standard bearers
(draconariorum): to the first, five solidi for an annona,
and 1 1/2 capitus, 4 solidi for an annona, making 16
solidi; to the remaining nine men, 1 annona each, 5
solidi for an annona, and 1 capitus each, 4 solidi for
each capitus, making 81 solidi.'

[17] Maurikios, Strategikon, 12.7:

'There should be drill masters, standard bearers or

draconarii, trumpeters, armorers, weapon makers,
bowmakers, arrow makers, and the rest according to
regulations.'

Bibliography

Sources

 Ammianus Marcellinus: the Later Roman Empire (AD 345-378), trans. Walter Hamilton, notes by Andrew Wallace-
Hadrill, (Penguin Classics, London, 1986).
 Ammianus Marcellinus on the internet: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Ammian/home.html.
 Arrian: Tactica. Flavii Arriani Quae Exstant Omnia, edited by A. G Ross. 2 vols., (Leipzig. B. G. Teubner, 1968).
 Historia Augusta, at: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/home.html.
  Mauricos: Strategikon, Handbook of Byzantine Military Strategy, trans. by George T. Dennis, (Philadelphia 1984).
 Vegetius: Epitome of Military Science, trans. N.P. Milner, translated texts for historians vol. 16. (Liverpool 2001).
 Zosimus: Historia Nova, ed. and trans by Buchanan, James J., and Davis, Harold T., (Trinity University press, San Antonio,
Texas, 1967), pp. 249-58.

Secondary literature

 Bishop, M.C. and J.C.N. Coulston (1993): Roman Military Equipment, from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome
(Batsford).
 Brzezinski, R. and M. Mielczarek (2002): The Sarmatians, 600 BC-AD 450, Osprey Men-at-Arms 373,
(Wellingsborough).
 Coulston, J.C.N. (1991): The 'draco' standard, in: Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 2, pp. 101-14.
 Fischer, Thomas (1999): Die Römer in Deutschland, Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart.
 Junkelmann, Marcus (1990-2): Die Reiter Roms, 3 vols., (Mainz).
 Macdowall, Simon and Howard Gerrard (ill.) (2001): Adrianople 378 AD, Campaign 84, (Osprey, London).
 Nicolle, David and Angus McBride (ill.) (1996): Sassanian armies, The Iranian Empire, early 3rd to mid-7th centuries
AD, (Montvert, Stockport).
 Oelwein, Cornelia (1998): Römer in Deutschland, (HB Bildatlas 20).
 Shadrake, Dan, Susanna and Richard Hook (ill.) (1997): Barbarian Warriors, Saxons, Vikings,
Normans, Brassey's History of Uniforms 7, (Brassey's, London).
 Speidel, M.P. (1985): The Master of the Dragon Standards and the Golden Torc: an Inscription from Prusias and
Prudentius' Peristephanon, in:Transactions of the American Philological Association 115, pp 290-5.
 Sumner, Graham and Graham Turner (ill.) (1997): Roman Army, Wars of the Empire, Brassey's History of Uniforms
8, (Brassey's, London).
 Notes
 [1] Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Aurelianus 28.4:

tunc illatae illae vestes, quas in Templo Solis videmus,
consertae gemmis, tunc Persici draconeset tiarae, tunc
genus purpurae, quod postea nec ulla genus detulit nec
Romanus orbis vidit.
Then were brought in those garments, encrusted with
jewels, which we now see in the Temple of the Sun,
then, too, the Persian dragon-flags and head-dresses,
and a species of purple such as of nation ever afterward
offered or the Roman world beheld.

 [2] Arrianus, Tactica 35:

... Sèmeios de diakerimenoi epelaunousin, ou tois
Rhoomaikos monon alla kai tois Skythikois, tou
poikilooteran te kai hama phoberooteran gignesthai tèn
elasi. Ta Skythika de sèmeia estin epi kontoon en mèkei
xymmetrooi drakontes apaiooroumenoi. Poiountai de
xyrraptoi ek rhakoon bebammenoon, tas te kephalas kai
to sooma pan este epi tas ouras eikasmenoi ophesin,
hoos phoberootata hoion te eikasthènai. Kai ta
sophismata tauta atremountoon men toon hippoon
ouden pleon è rhakè an idois pepoikilmena es to katoo
apokremamena, elaunomenoon de empneomena
exonkountai, hooste hoos malista tois thèriois
epeoikenai, kai ti kai episyrizein pros tèn agan kinèsin
hypo tèi pnoèi biaiai dierchomenèi.
'... They attack separated by standards, not only the
Roman but the Scythian ones as well, so the charge
becomes more colourful and fearsome at the same time.
The Scythian standards are snakes of equal length held
up on top of spearshafts. They are made of coloured
pieces of cloth sewn together, the heads and their entire
body up to the tail resembling serpents, so in order that
they appear thus more frightening. And when the horses
are not trembling from them the multicoloured bodies
can be seen hanging down, however when charging they
fill with air through the wind so they are most like the
beasts and even hiss when a strong wind flows through
much movement.'

 [3] Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Severus 4.1:

..mater eius pridie quam pareret somniavit se The night before he was born his mother dreamed that
purpureum dracunculum parere, .. she brought forth a purple snake, ..

 [4]
Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Gallieni ii 8.6:

Hastae auratae altrinsecus quingenae, vexilla centena
praeter ea, quae collegiorum erant, dracones et signa
templorum omniumque legionum ibant.
On each side of him were borne five hundred gilded
spears and one hundred banners, besides those which
belonged to the corporations, and the flags of auxiliaries
and the statues from the sanctuaries and
the standards of all the legions.

 [5]
Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Aurelianus 31.7:

Templum sane Solis, quod apud Palmyram aquiliferi Now as to the Temple of the Sun at Palmyra, which has
legionis tertiae cum vexilliferis et draconario et been pillaged by the eagle-bearers of the Third Legion,
cornicinibus atque liticinibus diripuerunt, ad eam along with the standard-bearers, thedragonbearer, and
 formam volo, quae fuit, reddi.
 [6] Vegetius, Epitoma rei militaris 1.20:
... Quid ipsi draconarii atque signiferi, qui sinistra
manu hastas gubernant, in proelio facient, quorum et
capita nuda constant et pectora? ...
 [7] ibidem 2.7:
... Signiferi qui signa portant, quos
nunc draconariosvocant. ...
 [8] ibidem 1.23:
... Porta autem, quae appelatur praetoria, aut orientem
spectare debet aut illum locum, qui ad hostes respicit,
aut, si iter agitur, illam partem debet adtendere, ad
quam est profecturus exercitus, intra quam primae
centuriae, hoc est cohortes, papiliones tendunt
etdracones et signa constitutum. ...
 [9] ibidem, 2.13:
...Dracones etiam per singulas cohortes a draconariis
feruntur ad proelium ...
 [10] Ammianus Marcellinus, 20.4.18:
Eoque adfirmante primis auspiciis non congruere aptari
muliebri mundo, equi phalerae quaerebantur, uti
coronatus speciem saltem obscuram superioris
praetenderet potestatis sed cum id quoque turpe esse
adseveraret, Maurus nomine quidam, postea comes, qui
rem male gessit apud Succorum angustias, Petulantium
tunc hastatus, abstractum sibi torquem, quo
utdraconarius utebatur, capiti Iuliani inposuit
confidenter, qui trusus ad necessitatem extremam
iamque periculum praesens vitare non posse advertens,
si reniti perseverasset, quinos omnibus aureos
argentique singula pondo, promisit.
 [11] ibidem, 15.5.16:
... nihil tutum ex praesentibus ratus in consilia
cogebatur extrema et sensim cum principiorum
verticibus secretius conlocutus isdemque magnitudine
promissae mercedis accensis, cultu purpureo
adraconum et vexillorum insignibus ad tempus
abstracto ad culmen imperiale surrexit.
 [12] ibidem, 16.10.7:
... purpureis subtegminibus texti
circumdederedracones hastarum aureis gemmatisque
summitatibus inligati, hiatu vasto perflabiles et ideo
velut ira perciti sibilantes caudarumque volumina
relinquentes in ventum.
 [13] bidem, 16.12.39:
Quo agnito per purpureum signum draconis,
the buglers and trumpeters, I wish there is restored to
the condition in which it formerly was.
... What are the dragonbearers and standardbearers,
which hold spears in their left hand, to do in battle,
whose heads and breasts are naked ? ...'
'... Standardbearers who carry the standards, whom
they now call dragonbearers. ...'
'... The gate though, which is called the commander's,
must either face east or to that spot, which faces
towards the enemies, or, if a march is conducted, must
be directed to that part, towards which the army is to
march out, at the inside of which the first centuries, that
is cohorts, set up tents and dragons and standards are
pitched. ...'
'Dragons, one each for the individual cohorts, are carried
into battle by dragonbearers.'
'But since he insisted that at the time of his first
auspices it was not fitting for him to wear a woman's
adornment, they looked about for a horse's trapping, so
that being crowned with it he might display at least
some obscure token of a loftier station. But when he
declared that this also was shameful, a man called
Maurus, afterwards a count and defeated at the pass of
Succi, but then a standard-bearer of the Petulantes,
took off the neck-chain which he wore as carrier of the
dragonand boldly placed it on Julian's head. He, driven
to the extremity of compulsion, and perceiving that he
could not avoid imminent danger if he persisted in his
resistance, promised each man five gold pieces and a
pound of silver.'
'... So Silvanus, seeing no safety under present
conditions, was driven to extreme measures, and having
gradually spoken more boldly with the chief officers, he
aroused them by the greatness of the reward he
promised; then as a temporary expedient he tore the
purple decorations from thedragon standards and
vexilla of the cohorts and the companies, and so
mounted to the imperial dignity'
'... the dragons, sewn from purple covers and placed on
the gilded and jewel-studded tips of spears, letting wind
through an enormous opening and in that way hissing as
if they had been aroused in anger and the bodies of
their tails flowing in the wind.'
'On recognising him by the purple ensign of a dragon,
 summitati hastae longioris aptatum velut senectutis fitted to the top of a very long lance and spreading out
pendentis exuvias, stetit unius turmae tribunus et like the slough of a serpent, the tribune of one of the
pallore timoreque perculsus ad aciem integrandam squadrons stopped, and pale and struck with fear rode
recurrit. back to renew the battle.'

 [14] Zosimus, Historia Nova 3.19:

Meanwhile Surenas, advancing with a large army from a

town in Assyria, surprised the reconnoitring party in
advance of the army, killed one of the three tribunes
and some of his men, and put the remainder to flight,
carrying off a military ensign which was in the form of a
dragon, such as the Romans usually carry in war. The
emperor on learning this was much displeased, and in
his anger attacked the forces of Surenas, compelled all
to fly that could escape, retook the ensign which the
enemy had carried off, and coming immediately to the
city where Surenas had surprised the party, stormed,
took, and burnt it. As the commander of the party,
preferring his own safety to the valour and honour of a
Roman, had left his standard in the enemy's hands, he
deprived him of his girdle, regarding him as a mean and
worthless person, together with all who had
accompanied him in his flight

 [15] Johannes Lydos, De Magistratibus, 1.46:

 [16] Codex Justinianus I.27.1:35)

In schola draconariorum hominibus decem annonae xi
capita xs solidi xcvii. ita: primo annonae ii pro annona
solidos v, capitus is pro capitu solidos iiii, fiunt solidi xvi.
reliquis hominibus novem ad annonam i pro annona
solidos v et ad capitum i pro capitu solidos iiii, fiunt
solidi lxxxi.
'To the ten men in the corps of standard bearers
(draconariorum): to the first, five solidi for an annona,
and 1 1/2 capitus, 4 solidi for an annona, making 16
solidi; to the remaining nine men, 1 annona each, 5
solidi for an annona, and 1 capitus each, 4 solidi for
each capitus, making 81 solidi.'


 [17] Maurikios, Strategikon, 12.7:

'There should be drill masters, standard bearers or

draconarii, trumpeters, armorers, weapon makers,
bowmakers, arrow makers, and the rest according to
regulations.'